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Schools of Empires: the Role of Higher Education

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Schools of Empires: the Role of Higher Education SCHOOLS OF EMPIRES: THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND COLONIZATION IN THE AMERICAN WEST AND JAPAN by Clinton Allen Colgrove A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana April 2020 ©COPYRIGHT by Clinton Allen Colgrove 2020 All Rights Reserved ii DEDICATION For Bessie, Lincoln, Eowyn, and Theophilus, with love. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The dissertation process is long and requires many minds to complete it. The list that follows is brief and by no means comprehensive. Advisor: Michael Reidy. Committee members: Tim LeCain, Brett Walker, Robert Rydell, and Amanda Hendrix- Komoto (and all the amazing faculty members of our department). Graduate Colleagues: Dr. Dan Zizzamia, Dr. Cheryl Hendry, Dr. Gary Sims, Dr. Jeffrey Bartos, Jen Dunn, Laurel Angell, Kelsey Matson, Reed Knappe, Anthony Wood, Adam Negri, Jill Falcon Mackin, Will Wright, and many others for the hours of chats and discussions about history and this project. The archival staff at Columbia University, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Montana State University, the National Archives at College Park, MD and Washington D.C., and the Library of Congress who helped me wade through the centuries of material. I want to thank the men and women of ERL for allowing me into their world and for trusting me with their history. A special thanks to Misty Colgrove, Nikki Bartlett, Maggie Fleming, and Nancy Johnson-Highfill for proofreading the following pages and to my parents, siblings, in-laws, and extended family for their encouragement. Finally, to my family: Bessie, Lincoln, Eowyn, and Theophilus. It is to them that I owe all that I have accomplished. Thank you for all your love and understanding. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION— “WHAT’S IN A NAME?”: SCIENTIZING THE MASSES FOR SETTLEMENT ..................................................................................1 New Ideas and Networks of Knowledge .........................................................................5 Science, Technology, and the State ...............................................................................12 Environment, Extraction, and the State .........................................................................19 American West and Japan ..............................................................................................24 Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................................28 2. EUROPEAN IDEAS: MINING A MODEL EDUCATION .........................................34 Humboldtian Education .................................................................................................37 The Humboldts.......................................................................................................43 Wilhelm and Education..........................................................................................45 Humboldt and the Founding of Berlin University .................................................50 Science, Technology, and European Society .................................................................52 Justus von Liebig and Higher Education ...............................................................59 Friedrich Wöhler and Higher Education ................................................................65 Student Organizations and the American Colonies .......................................................71 The Research University and the Nineteenth Century ..................................................75 3. AMERICAN INTERPRETATIONS: EDUCATION, PRACTICES, AND INSTITUTIONS.......................................................................................................79 Frederick A. P. Barnard: Regionality, Access, and Science in the South ......................83 Barnard and American Science Organizations and Education ......................................94 Schools of Mines, Land Grants, and the University ......................................................99 Barnard, Columbia College, and its School of Mines .................................................103 Barnard, the State, and Coeducation ............................................................................115 American Higher Education into the Twentieth Century ............................................124 Conclusion: Barnard and Beyond ................................................................................127 4. MONTANA’S “FOURTH DIVISION OF GOVERNMENT”: EVOLUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE AMERICAN WEST’S BIG SKY COUNTRY, 1868-1948 ..................................................................131 Higher Education and the American West...................................................................139 William A. Clark and the American West ...................................................................143 Montana State University, The Early Years ................................................................151 Higher Education in Montana ......................................................................................162 Montana’s Higher Education in the Interwar Years ....................................................174 v TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED Conquest and Colonization through Higher Education ...............................................183 5. “BOYS, BE AMBITIOUS”: JAPANESE HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE UNITED STATES.........................................................................................188 Meiji Restoration, Colonization, and the Iwakura Mission .........................................191 American Influences ....................................................................................................198 American Experts in Japan ..........................................................................................205 Colonization through Education ..................................................................................211 Massachusetts Agricultural College and William Smith Clark ...........................213 Clark in Hokkaido ................................................................................................216 Sapporo Agricultural College after Clark ....................................................................226 Hokkaido University and Empire ................................................................................234 6. “NEW FRONTIERS OF THE MIND ARE BEFORE US”: HIGHER EDUCATION AFTER WORLD WAR II .......................................................239 Eisenhower and the Academic-Military-Industrial Complex ......................................242 Stanford, the Stanford Research Institute, and Montana .............................................246 Electronics Research Laboratory .................................................................................249 ERL and Research........................................................................................................256 ERL and its Spinoffs ....................................................................................................258 The End of ERL ...........................................................................................................260 Future Relationships and the Role of the University ...................................................264 7. EPILOGUE—A NINETEENTH CENTURY MODEL IN A TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY WORLD .........................................................................267 Reforms and Funding ...................................................................................................271 Funding and Research ..................................................................................................275 Higher Education and Nostalgia ..................................................................................277 Twenty-first Century Higher Education ......................................................................279 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................285 Archives Consulted ......................................................................................................286 Published Sources ........................................................................................................287 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Institutions for Higher Education in Applied Science .....................................102 2. Sponsors of ERL reported in 1966...................................................................254 3. Selected Spinoff Companies Affiliated with Montana State University .........259 vii ABSTRACT The historical relevance of the role of the university is related to research in both local and global exchanges, the accessibility to forms of higher education, and the decentralization and use of scientific knowledge. Using institutions at Göttingen, Amherst, New York, Bozeman, and Sapporo, this dissertation interrogates how geographical space, settler colonialism, and socio-cultural contexts inform scientific, agricultural, and engineering practices, research, and education from the nineteenth into the twenty-first century. Beginning with Wilhelm von Humboldt’s twin pillars of academic freedom and the combination of research and teaching, this dissertation traces the migration of approaches to higher education from German schools to the American East. American conceptions of higher education evolved as educators like Frederick A. P.
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