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for creativity. with local building materials providing unique possibilities urban contexts, several of these design attributes were at play, permanent ritual sites, such as cemeteries. In some African andas raffia , but were also associated with more peripatetic were built of more ephemeral materials, such the death of aruler or asequence of traumatic events. Many Related cities were reestablished often on anew site following central , these cities sharing arelatively nomadic identity. or peripatetic urban settlements characteristically prevailed in from to northern and southern areas of . Migratory with earthen structures, is found especially in , structure. This of settlement, type which is normally identified community clusters that together create an urban settlement early and later contexts, by collaboration between interlinked to Zimbabwe. Satellite urbanism is characterized, in both in north, eastern and , from and Eritrea permanent structures in stone, and was especially prominent Africa. Monumental urbanism is characterized by substantial Threehistoric urban of patterns settlement arefound in PATTERNS OFURBAN DEVELO and attendant administrative and organizational developments. requisite surpluses, trade goods, new forms of specialization, allowingnotonly greaterforpopulation density, butalso are assumed to have been vital to early urban development, sociopolitical factors. (soils, water sources, minerals, trade potential) and various centres elsewhere, developed in relationship to local conditions prominently.early African Most cities, like historic urban lack.to wasseen once In Africa, urbanism has long figured civilization, of an attribute that, falsely, precolonial Africa In the West, urbanism has historically been viewed as amark institutions and distinctive forms of planning and . heterogeneous population, marked by complex sociopolitical label refers to awell-populated centre inhabited by arelatively many definitions of what constitutes acity, but normally the all centres of the long-established . There are African cities: Savé in , and Ile- and in Nigeria, my seminal urban experiences, however, were in three West US, with apopulation of 2,741 in the 2000 census. Some of grew up near Vergennes, in Vermont, the smallest in the settlements, and size and scale have little to do with this. I Cities, as sites of human aggregation, are different from rural H T S UZANNE PRESTON PRESTON UZANNE HE HE ISTORICAL PERS ISTORICAL A FRICAN FRICAN 2 Agriculture and the neolithic revolution B LIER P MENT U RBAN PAST: PAST: RBAN P ECTIVES ON THE THE ON ECTIVES

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Kingdom capital from 2134Kingdom capitalfrom 1191 to BCE making it possibly the largest world around 2250 diverse population range from 6,000 to 30,000 occupants, conquered the Nile Delta. Estimates of the size of Memphis’ was founded around 3100 the administrative, religious and trade centre of lower Egypt, destination. Memphis, near modern , which became asserved aroyal burial ground, Osiris cult site and pilgrimage period. dating some backthe predynasticto and early dynastic array of monumental building forms serving multiple functions, most durable in urban global history. These cities featured an Metropolitan centres in were Egypt among the largest and M Kilwa and , also benefited from the Indian Ocean stone-like, coral edifices. These Swahili coastal sites, such as the 8th to the 19th centuries . Other cities rose along the East African coast from draws, the latter dealing with goods from as far away as site and trading depot were among this centre’s possible found at distances several hundred kilometres away. An oracle 18,000 people may have lived here. Similar stone walls are centuries capital of , which flourished in the 11th–14th and it was eventually taken over by Ethiopian rulers. conversion to was among the earliest in Africa, circulated goods from India to the Mediterranean. Aksum’s was diverse, in keeping with itsrole in atrading that as wellports, as nearby lands in Yemen, and itspopulation the centre’s outskirts. Its rulers also controlled several Red Sea city inhabited by political and trade elites, with producers at found in this area. Aksum is thought to have been acompact images of windows and portals, as if to suggest the portals weighing tons. 500 grouping of seven large-scale stone menhirs, abroken one now wasalso an important early urban centre, known its for goods. prestige manufacturing hubfor a burial and site Kushite capital of Meroë from 800 Canaan and Kush (the latter in modern ). Abydos, the populationcoming faras away from Syria,as , political, a as religious, learning diversecentre, andits art ONUMENTAL URBANISM:NORTH, EASTERN, ANDSOUTHERN and again from 1557 to 1400 To the south, the stone remains of the elaborate Shona Aksum (400 M 3 Abydos in southern (4000 Egypt CE ETRO , covered some 722 hectares and as many as BCE 5 to Similar in , these monuments include P CE OLIS

619), situated in modern Eritrea, BCE CE , purportedly after King Menes , some with richly decorated, BCE BCE BCE . 4 to Luxor, New Egypt’s , served atonce served , CE BCE

350, was aroyal to CE

641) long A FRICA

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trade in gold, ivory, slaves and other goods. Like the new trade Igbo area was in trade contact with regions as far away as language, ki-Swahili, that became the lingua franca along this southwest Asia, creating works of extraordinary complexity 1,500 km coastal region, Swahili cities are noted for their in and elaborate burial forms at Igbo Ukwu sites. ethnic diversity – local African, Arabic, and Persian attributes While little is known about early settlement plans or domestic being among those found. architecture at Igbo Ukwu, more recent Igbo plans suggest a system of clustering defined by relative egalitarianism, SATELLITE URBANISM: WEST AFRICA and an economy based on agriculture and trade. Numerous metropolitan centres emerged in West Africa In Yoruba oral traditions, a complementary satellite-style in regions south of the . One of the most important urbanism is said to have characterized the city-state of Ife of these was Jenne-Jeno, a grouping of urban settlements (Ile-Ife), a polity rising to power in southwest Nigeria by the established along the inner floodplain of Mali, end of the first millennium.10 Strategically located near the within a few kilometres of Jenne (Djenne). Roderick McIntosh headwaters of the Oni River, which flows into the Atlantic, describes Jenne-Jeno as a composite or clustered city marked and at the juncture of forest and savanna, Ife sits on high by the aggregation of semi-specialized settlements with ground that is surrounded by wetlands, a fertile savanna coordinated activities.6 The excellent rice-farming conditions, plain and hills. The settlements in the hills collaborated in good pasturage and adjacent Niger River communication trade and other areas, and they eventually came together to were central to Jenne-Jeno’s development in the 3rd century form a single urban centre.11 Economic activities, such as the BCE, after herding populations moved there during the Sahara hunting of elephants for their ivory, may have been part of desiccation that began around 1000 BCE. In 450 BCE Jenne- this satellite urbanism, as the larger Ife area functioned as a Jeno covered some 25 hectares; by CE 450, 33 hectares; natural elephant-trapping area where local groups could block by CE 850, 41 hectares. Between CE 450 and 850 Jenne-Jeno escape routes from the Ife valley wetlands. This communal functioned as a single urban complex. The city had walls hunting appears to have been a key factor in West African that were 3.7 m wide at the base and employed cylindrical state development.12 brick building forms. There were common urn burials, and During Ife’s florescence in the 12th–15th centuries this Roman or Greek beads, as well as those made of , were may have covered 30 square kilometres, found at the earliest levels, evidence of regional and trans- with a population of about 130,000. Iron that had been Sahara trade. mined, smelted and smithed locally and various agricultural Jenne, I have argued, may also have been the site of the goods (yam, sorghum, , kola nuts) formed part of Empire of Mali’s famous 14th-century royal capital.7 Al-‘Umari a local exchange system, along with ivory, slaves and locally (born 1349) notes that Mali’s capital was called Bny or Bani, manufactured beads and cloth. Ife’s proximity to the suggesting its early identity with the Bani River. This tributary Niger–Benue River confluence provided access to distant merges with Niger River at Jenne. Al-‘Umari’s description of trade centres in all directions. Oral traditions suggest that by Mali’s capital as having an island-like setting is also consistent the early , under the patronage of King Obalufon with modern Jenne, its watery surround serving as a natural II, the city of Ile-Ife was reconfigured around a central plan protective moat for this wealthy trading city.8 defined by a circumscribing moat-wall, broad avenues leading The (11th–16th century CE), and the Dogon to a central and adjacent market, as well as wards populations that merged with and replaced them (14th extending radially from the centre. Ife ward chiefs fulfilled century onwards) in Mali’s Escarpment, created a key political and juridical functions. Obalufon also appears number of urban settlements as well. These densely populated to have had diplomatic and trade treaties with several other centres were ethnically diverse: the Dogon arrived in waves Yoruba cities, along with military and tribute agreements as they escaped from the reach of Islam, dynastic expansion with affiliated crown cities, to provide certain goods based and slavery. They created a new culture here based on on their location and history. These affiliated polities were agricultural innovation (irrigated onion farming), technological legitimated by oral tradition that identified their founders and ritual specialization (iron working and so on), and various as offspring of the mythic founder, Odudua. Other, later- forms of external trade. Related architecture suggests not established, Yoruba cities, such as Ibadan and Lagos, began only Mande architectural sources, but forms of symbolic as military camps. Whatever the origins, Yoruba metropolitan organization consistent with utopian idioms, defined by flexible centres grew to enormous scale and featured unique craft anthropomorphic design referents, which is a feature of other specialization (from metal- and glassworking to weaving populations in the West African savanna area.9 and dyeing), marked population diversity (though trade Clustered or satellite cities also appear to have and war) and major population shifts throughout the year distinguished the densely populated Igbo communities in (many inhabitants moving to distant agricultural fields southeast Nigeria. By the end of the first millennium CE the for part of the rainy season). along the outward spiral, appropriating adjacent lands from Each crown prince built his own palace in an area of the city provided abasis for urban growth and renewal over time. pattern that extended outwards from the central palace, they positioning of for the crown princes. Placed in aspiral The city was also defined, in important ways, by the strategic Agaja (1708–40), the son of Abomey’s first king, Hwegbaja. said in local oral traditions to have been established by King to Yoruba examples. The plan for Abomey, the Fon capital, is temple complex, and circumscribing moat-wall system, similar urban centres were planned with acentralized palace, market, court-affiliated families. honeycombedthelarger urban markto area thelands of theearlyto 14th century. complexearthworks A of system mosaicpavements andnew palacea and plan that date thecity. atIfe, Benin As was notable historic its for potsherd bronze birds cast visibleand serpents, of many from parts with structures large massive withportico decorated turrets walledmetropolis, in waslater graced centuries byseveral massiveTheresidences. palace, in located the middle this of centredistinguished avenuesbybroad and well-constructed middlethe15th of describean century impressive urban Europeantravellers whoreaching began this inarea the deities. and families competing between centre the dividing byceremonial paths (and thatthe city crisscross theyear), is also divided ritually into quadrants, which are traversedObatala, the head of the opposing yearly deity’s pantheon. The city to create earth, and the image of atortoise in reference to the culture hero Odudua is said to have first sprinkled sand the mother goddess Yemoja, the watery surround where Ife complements at once the mounded pregnant body of themes. to underscore broader calendrical, political and historic ways in which religious and other structures were sited information system (GIS) analysis of Ife reveals the strategic and similarly orientated potsherd pavements. Geographic key formal features, such as acourtyards with impluvium were exceptionally high. Yoruba Core urban structures share most ornate structure in city, with surrounding walls that manner. Characteristically, the palace was the largest, tallest, style radial form, in keeping with in the grand incorporated striking axes and sightlines, along with agrid- are the most prominent architectural feature, Yoruba cities and change. Frequently sited on hills, where the palaces allowing even densely populated communities to grow easily and walls provided urban planning flexibility through time, political events took place. The earthen fabric of residences widening into large squares at the centre, where festivals and and paths led ultimately to the palace and nearby market, In Ife, as in most other Yoruba cities, roads, tracks To the west, in the Fon Republic, early IntheEdo royal capital, , Ife,southwest of 13 In both mythic and spatial terms the city of Ile-

changes, along with an array of Coptic sherds, pottery suggest for central edifices and unbaked Bornu state were creating centres featuring baked earth bricks Bornu. At this time, Kanuri agriculturalists in the new Kanem- in the 14th century, the capital was moved westward into 11th or 12th century, Kanem’s ruler converted to Islam and, figured prominently in short- and long-distance trade. In the Jenne-Jeno and Igbo Ukwu. Like these other polities, Kanem that developed in the area around the time of Kanem (Bornu) urban centres of the late 8th to 10th centuries Niger and Cameroon, have their precursors in the pre-Islamic, century. 16th cities to the northwest, centres that were Islamicized in the circumscribing wall complements suggests with early Hausa reign. The square, rather than circular, shape of Abomey’s mosque also is said to have been built in the city during Agaja’s god, identified with life, wealth and well-being. idiom is said to reference the powerful local rainbow python political strategy. The spiralling design of this urban renewal new building needs as of part both spatial planning and retainers. In this way, early planners seem to have anticipated earlier residents to create structures for family members and developments, such as the use of domes, distinguished Hausa Zaria, the most southern Hausa city. While certain technical in and Daura, militias from Gobir, and slaves from withinservices the larger network: textiles from , markets settlements, the six main Hausa cities furnishing key goods or taxes, tolls and the reduction of smuggling. a role in the control of merchants and goods for purposes of Yoruba, Fon and other African city wall systems, it also played needs of refugees from neighbouring communities. with As like other walled cities in this area, also the served protective forms of pomp and a state council. The Hausa walled city, a centralized palace and anew market, and introduced new Rumfa constructed, or extended, the Kano city walls and built institution. Later that century, the Hausa ruler Muhammad Kano to the 15th century, crediting Bornu refugees with this The Kano chronicle dates the first permanent market in share with , which also had awell at itscentre. were seeking more settled lives, afeature that Hausa cities need for protected cattle corrals of Fulani pastoralists who powerful spirit locales. Many developed, in part, around the of major trade routes, valued resources, especially iron, and the state. theprimacy ruler of within thecapital, and thelatter within withinlarger a walled area. This centralized plan reinforced examples,positioned thepalace atthemiddle thecity, of Nile valley. possible ties with Christian monasteries in areas westof the Hausa cities, in northern Nigeria and adjacent regions of Hausa cities were also linked to a system of satellite urban Hausa cities emerged in locations close to the intersections 15 Kanuri city planning, as in later Hausa and Yoruba tubali for the city walls. These 14 The first

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urban architecture, decorative features varied from one urban said to have greatly increased the size of the locale to another, with palaces, merchant residences and by encouraging artists, traders, and warriors to take up mosques being particularly ornamental. In symbolic terms, residence here; the Kuba monarchs provided residents with Hausa urban settings carried varied cosmological significance, relative ease, since food and other needs derived largely from based in part on orientation toward the cardinal directions surrounding peasant communities. Joseph Cornet documented and the positioning of special gates. the extensive work that went into the creation of new Kuba capital cities, and the unique roles of supervising architects CENTRAL AFRICAN MIGRATORY CITIES and designers within this process.17 A caravan system linked Congo, Angola, Cameroon, and other countries Bushong, the Kuba royal capital, to centres of Kongo trade in also saw the development of urban activity on the coast, such as and Luango, and settlements. These were often characterized by historic other places. Located, like Ife, near the juncture of forest patterns of migratory or peripatetic identity. Characteristically, and savanna, and in proximity to important rivers, the Kuba moving capitals of this sort were created at the beginning capital offered an array of resources and trade opportunities of each king’s reign, or after difficult circumstance. Some that, when coupled with taxes, tribute, craft specialization migratory cities reached populations of 15,000–20,000 and status competition focused on the arts, encouraged local inhabitants and were identified, like early West African productivity. cities, by cluster-like relationships with nearby communities. The Luba Kingdom (1585–1889), situated in the marshy Rather than emphasizing attributes of permanence and grasslands of the Upemba depression, with the source of the monumentality, as in north-eastern and southern Africa, Zaire River to the southeast, was one of many Kuba trading significant manpower was committed to the creation and allies. Thomas Q. Reefe has suggested that the Luba setting maintenance of large-scale, richly decorated architecture, was critical to its political development, encouraging shared employing ephemeral materials, such as bamboo and raffia, communal activities and cooperation in the creation of dams very little of which would remain for archaeologists to and drainage systems to counter seasonal flooding, which discover. Such centres suggest an emphasis on idioms impacted everything from housing to agriculture and fishing.18 of dynastic innovation, conveying the unique power of kings Archaeological evidence identifies human occupation here to impress through their control of resources and labour, for from at least the 5th century CE, with urban settlements both the initial construction and upkeep over time. emerging around the 10th century. Their wealth was based In the Angola–Congo border area near the Luezi River, on agriculture, specialized metal work, and trade in salt, iron, M’banza Kongo, the capital of the charcoal and copper (from the Zambian copper belt), as well (1400–1914), was established prior to the Portuguese arrival as cowrie shells and glass beads from the Indian Ocean. in 1483. Sited on high ground, it was already a sizable Two Luba leaders, Nkongolo and Kalala Ilunga, are identified city, comparable in scale to Evora, the then thriving Avis in local oral traditions with salt and iron, as well as better dynastic seat in Portugal. The Kongo practice of assimilating government. If they were historical figures, it is not clear the conquered inhabitants of other regions meant that when they lived but suggestions have been made ranging this urban centre had a diverse population, and it was an from the 15th to the early 18th century.19 Mary Nooter and important location for royal rituals that continued here over Allen Roberts have discussed the enduring importance of the centuries. While Kongo rulers rebuilt their capital cities Luba capital cities that, once abandoned by rulers when new on coming to the throne, taking up a previously inhabited centres were founded, became key ritual sites.20 site in many cases, the existence of the royal cemeteries The migratory urban centres of Kongo, Kuba and Luba, as gave spiritual vitality when a site was reoccupied. In the well as those of the Lunda Kingdom (c. 1600–1887) – and of thickly forested areas where related raffia fibre buildings and the Cameroon grasslands – take an array of symbolic forms. walled compounds were constructed, many of these heavily These are linked to internal positioning in relation to nearby populated centres were difficult to discern for travellers.16 rivers or mountains, central axis plans with bilateral siting of In the nearby (1625–1900), in the Zaire key structures (suggesting in some cases spiders or tortoises), River basin forests northeast of Kongo, a grouping of ethnically and maze-like spatial confirmation within some palace diverse principalities coalesced, following migrations in complexes. Other important urban forms associated with the 16th century. A local leader, Shyaam a-bul a Ngoong- migratory settlements include Ethiopian royal capitals and Shyaam, is credited with creating a new Kuba capital city and dynastic capitals, as well as Zulu war centres, administrative centre, drawing on Kongo and Pende models. the latter evoking Assyrian and Roman war cities.21 Here a rich court life developed based on the use of local and Taken together, these diverse African settlements convey new-world crops, craft manufacturing, wealth from trade, the early and enduring importance of ancient cities in Africa and tribute revenue from satellite communities. Shyaam is as focal points of political and artistic engagement, complex 4. 3. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 2. 1. NOTES theirresidents. for opportunities providinginways, new manyin different creative, are cities African many through generations. control of a single ruling line from assuming resource politicaland preclude withinthat, even contexts, royal the descendants egalitarian perspectives more inpoliticalapproaches: interest and innovation on the part of local leaders,larger a well as as feature is often replaced by a concomitant interest in creativity in many historic African cities than in the West or Asia, this changingto architecturalIf needs. durability is less important changeover time, providing flexibility ready in response citiesunique and towns offer advantagesand growth to ephemeralmoreThe materials that distinguish many African broad appreciation of thesocial benefits of aggregation. the reasons for their development, Africa’s urban centres show seems to have been important to their success. Whatever (floods, the hunt, protection, manufacturing, trade control) near and far. The communal need to larger issues administrative organization, and trade affiliations with centres

Anderson and Rathbone, eds., eds., Rathbone, and Anderson of Kush (). 146 in Rome to Carthage of fall the With trade. Mediterranean east–west for rivals European early and destinations merchant popular became and traders Phoenician by founded Valley Indus civilization the of cities Kenoyer, Mark (Jonathan plan agrid incorporate to first the of one and 40,000) than more perhaps ‘uncivilized’. as centres such lacking regions those and 2010. 8November accessed Network Diaspora Africa’, in West centres urban ‘Early Adekola, Kolawole 2004; Press, World Africa Trenton, NJ: eds., J. 2007; Salm Toyin Steven and Press, Falola University Cambridge York: New and Suffolk: Boydell & Brewer, 2003, pp. 33–78. 33–78. pp. 2003, &Brewer, Boydell Suffolk: unearthed written, Spoken, history: African 500 region, Yoruba-Edo of history cultural the to pathways and culture, material ‘Chronology, Ogundiran, Akinwumi see traditions, Smith, Robert 1966; Press, Ojo, 1962; J. G. Afolabi reasons. socio-political-religious for like units lineage into integrated were who strangers and war of prisoners these among well, as relationships social non-kin of array a wide define to used is ‘lineage’ however, centres, urban InYoruba heterogeneous). than (rather lineage-based 1994. Press, expression architectural Batammaliba in metaphor and Ontology Blier, Preston Suzanne others, among see anthropomorphism, architectural Huet, 1991; National, Jean-Christophe Musée Bamako: Humaines; Sciences des Institut Bamako: Volkenkunde; Cliff Bandiagara Mali’s in caves burial 1981, p. 262). eds., Levtzion, Nehemia (in J. F. aboat’ by P. only and Hopkins traversed be may it in others but low is water the when wading by 2003. Press, Architectural Princeton Jenne-Jeno’, from Mali: Evidence of Empire the before Delta Niger inland ‘The McIntosh, Keech Susan and McIntosh landscape self-organizing the Africa of architecture Garlake, Peter 2000; Heinemann, NH: Portsmouth, Press; University Oxford Oxford: eds., Rathbone, Richard and Anderson M. David see generally, more cities historic both. for Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan (2600–1900 (2600–1900 in Pakistan Mohenjo-daro ‘civilizations’, as them) with associated (and societies cities of association frequent the reflects also This On Yoruba cities more generally, see Akin L. Mabogunje, Mabogunje, L. Akin see generally, more cities Yoruba On be to assumed were they because theorists Western by discounted sometimes were cities Yoruba Early Bolland, Rita also see architecture, Dogon Tellem and On crossed be may this Inplaces sides. allfour on city the encircles Nil[Niger] the of ‘A branch notes: he As Blier, Preston Suzanne and Morris James in in prehistory’, authority to routes Niger: Alternative Middle the of cities ‘Clustered J. McIntosh, Roderick both were Tunisia, in which Carthage and Libya in include centres trading African early Other African On intervention. European or Islamic outside of aresult as begin not did they part most the For term same the using cultures many with defined, little in truth are cities and towns between differences The perchés des Dogon du Mali: Habitat, espace et société et espace Mali: du Habitat, Dogon des perchés Villages Journal of African History , Oxford: , 2002; Bill Freund, Freund, Bill 2002; Press, University Oxford , Oxford:

Yoruba palaces: A study of Afins of Yorubaland of Afins of Astudy Yoruba palaces: BC Corpus of early Arabic sources for West African history West African for sources Arabic early of Corpus – Kingdoms of the Yoruba the of Kingdoms , Cambridge and : Cambridge University Press, 2005; Roderick J. Roderick 2005; Press, University Cambridge York: New and , Cambridge AD (March 2009), http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0309/news0309.html, http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0309/news0309.html, 2009), (March Africa’s urban past urban Africa’s 1800’, in Toyin Falola and Christian Jennings, eds., eds., Jennings, 1800’, in Toyin Christian and Falola , , Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). Press, University Oxford York: New and Oxford , Karachi, , : Royal Tropical Institute; Leiden, Rijksmuseum voor voor Rijksmuseum Leiden, Institute; Tropical Royal , Amsterdam: , vol. 22, 1(1981):, vol. no. pp.1–22. BCE Butabu: Adobe architecture of West of Africa architecture Adobe Butabu: , Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, and Woodbridge, Woodbridge, and Press, Rochester of NY: University , Rochester, ) was one of the largest ancient cities (with a population of of apopulation (with cities ancient largest the of one ) was , pp. 19–36, and and 19–36, , pp. , London: Methuen, 1969. On Ife area archaeological archaeological area 1969. Ife On Methuen, , London: Yoruba towns Tellem textiles; Archaeological finds from from finds Archaeological Tellem textiles; , : University of Chicago Chicago of University , Chicago: Ancient Middle Niger: Urbanism and and Niger: Urbanism Middle Ancient , : L’Harmattan, 1994. On 1994. On L’Harmattan, , Paris: , Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, Press, University Ibadan , Ibadan: , London: University of London London of University , London: BCE The African city: Ahistory city: African The The anatomy of architecture: architecture: anatomy of The , Tripoli became a protectorate a became Tripoli , , New York: Markus Weiner, Markus York: , New Africa’s urban past urban Africa’s , Princeton, NJ: NJ: , Princeton, Sources and methods in methods and Sources Early art and and art Early Nigerian cities Nigerian

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, London , London Ancient Ancient

,

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12. 21. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13.

Press, 1977,Press, 232–312. pp. Oliver,ed., Sudan’, in Roland protected settler town (organized by Cecil Rhodes) and as a gold-rush town. agold-rush as Johannesburg and Rhodes) Cecil by (organized town settler protected amilitary as Harare midpoint, railway African East an as importance, colonial own its had Each Africa). (South Johannesburg and (Zimbabwe) (Kenya), Harare (Niger), Nairobi Niamey these among capitals, colonial new as serve to cities inland creating also were Europeans century 19th late the By (Angola). Luanda and () Accra (Senegal), them among cities, important into in time grew that coast African the along forts 1996. Art, in Africa’, Eastern in inter-Lacustrine urbanism of character ‘The Reid, Andrew see generally, more area lakes eastern perspective aglobal from urbanism of development 1981. Press, California Hall, 1998. 1–10.pp. Settlements Human in Meaning and Structure in Tony ed., Atkin, in ’, destruction of architecture The roof: the Blier, ‘Razing Preston Suzanne Africa’, in West rainbow the and ditch past urban Africa’s eds., 1727–1892’, Africa, Rathbone, and in coastal in Anderson centre urban Apre-colonial ‘Ouidah: Bénin)’, du populaire (République L’exemple d’Abomey historique: ville d’une évolutive structure la sur ‘Note Crepin, Xavier and approach communication Anonverbal environment: Beginning in the latter half of the 15th century, Europeans created trading and replenishment centres and, later, and, centres replenishment and trading created Europeans 15th century, the of half latter in the Beginning F. Allen and Roberts, Nooter Mary in regions’, savanna and Guinea in the settlements of development and ‘Genesis Andah, Bassey Reefe, Q. Thomas Cornet, Joseph Blier, Preston in Suzanne Balandier Georges On the elephant hunt and , see Humphrey J. Fisher, ‘The Eastern Maghrib and the Central Central the and Maghrib Eastern ‘The J. Fisher, Humphrey see formation, state and hunt elephant the On A. D. H. Bivar and P. L. Shinnie, ‘Old Kanuri capitals’, capitals’, P. and Kanuri D. Bivar H. A. ‘Old Shinnie, L. Massy Christiane Legonou, Blandine Houseman, Michael see architecture, Ouidah and Savi Fon, On Rapoport, Amos see generally, more planning city of dimensions cosmological On The development of urbanism from a global perspective aglobal from urbanism of development The Art Royal Kuba Art The rainbow and the kings: A history of the Luba Empire to1891 Empire Luba the of Ahistory kings: the and rainbow The , pp. 85–96; Neil L. Norman and Kenneth G. Kelly, ‘Landscape politics: The serpent serpent The politics: Kelly, G. ‘Landscape Kenneth and Norman L. Neil 85–96; , pp. Cahiers d’Etudes Africaines d’Etudes Cahiers , : Sipiel, 1992., Milan:Sipiel, The Cambridge of history Cambridge The Memory: Luba art and the making of history of making the and art Luba Memory: American Anthropologist American Royal arts of Africa: The of form of majesty The Africa: of Royal arts , : University of Pennsylvania, 2005. Pennsylvania, of University , Philadelphia: , vol. 26, no. 104 26, no. , vol. (1986), Law, Robin 527–46; pp. ,

Uppsala Universitet, 2002. On urban development in the in the development urban On 2002. Universitet, Uppsala , rev. edn, Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990. Press, Arizona of University Tucson: , rev. edn, Journal of African History African of Journal , vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University University Cambridge 3, Cambridge: , vol. , vol. 106,, vol. no.1 98–110; (2004), pp. , Uppsala Universitet, 2002. Universitet, , Uppsala , New York: Center for African African for Center York: , New , vol. 3, no. 1(1962), 3, no. , vol. , Berkeley: University of of University , Berkeley: The meaning of the built built the of meaning The , New York: Prentice Prentice York: , New The The

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