In search of an appropriate research methodology for investigating traditional African .

Gerald Steyn

Architecture, Pretoria Technikon, Pretoria, South . E-mail: [email protected]

Africa's building traditions are under threat. There is a real need to subject them to rigorous scientific investigation to support conservation and explore indigenous knowledge systems. But the taxonomy is still immature and the analytical criteria Eurocentric. In addition, the education of architects generally limits their involvement to measured drawings and does not equip them with suitable interpretive skills in this field. This report attempts to contribute to the issue of appropriate methodologies by reviewing three constituent elements: theory, literature and fieldwork. These are discussed in terms of sources and methodologies exposed to while studying the Swahili and Arab architecture of the East African Coast and during appurtenant excursions to Kenya and . The report does not suggest a strict methodologist approach and it is emphasized that research must be interdisciplinary. It does recommend, however, that further work on typology would allow architects to trace the evolution of traditional architecture and anticipate future development. This would be a unique contribution.

An interest in vernacular building, indigenous to the people of a specific including that of Africa, only emerged area, and built by the people among architects in the middle 1960s - themselves. Terms like "vernacular" an interest arguably stimulated by work and "indigenous" are used such as Rudofski's Architecture without interchangeably. architects (1964) and his subsequent Having recognized traditional The Prodigious Builders (1977). African architecture as an intrinsic part His photographs and succinct of the continent's cultural and descriptions of the traditional buildings technological legacy, it is essential also and towns of Africa, the Mediterranean, to recognize that it is being threatened Middle East and other ancient and by war, neglect, urban sprawl and medieval settlements reminded the ignorance. The motivation for profession of the richness of form, researching traditional African texture and types at its disposal. architecture is, therefore, simple: first, it This awareness should have been must be determined what should and accompanied by a revision of the could realistically be preserved, and definition of architecture. Pevsner's "A record what is under threat and might bicycle shed is a building, Lincoln face destruction in the near future. Cathedral is a piece of architecture" Second, it is an indigenous knowledge (1963:15), is simply too elitist and system that should be explored for exclusive. A more appropriate concepts and technologies that could definition would include everything again be broadly applicable. built by man and "possibly also by his Investigations within this framework precursors" (Egenter 1992:77). Even commenced at Pretoria Technikon in Vitruvius recognized mud as part 1999. A grant from the National of the genealogy of architecture. Research (NRF) enabled the For the purpose of this report, author to visit Dar es Salaam and traditional architecture is defined as the in 2000, and Lamu and pre-colonial buildings and settlement

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Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services Malindi/Gedi In 2001 and 2002, measured drawings of buildings in order respectivel y. to record, restore or recycle them. An These excursions provided a architect's formal training simply does commendable overview, but with not provide the same competence in hindsight it is clear that there is a thin interpretation as that of an line between a mere familiarization visit archaeologist. and scientifically accountable This report aims to explore these fieldwork. The difference is time, focus issues of concern by discussing the and ... method. available sources and methodologies in When studying the history of the terms of research on the traditional built environment, architects should Swahili and Arab architecture of the consider who built what, where, when, East African coast. There are two why and how. This broad-based reasons for basing this report on work approach has the potential to relate the done on the Swahili Coast (figure 1). buildings under study to both the physical and cultural landscape. But the choice of a suitable methodology is obviously critical to avoid problems with substantiation. This report focuses - from an architect's point of view - on the three areas of concern that underpin a methodology in this field, namely (1) theory, (2) literature and (3) fieldwork. These are discussed in terms of obstacles experienced, with thoughts on possible solutions. Figure 1 Architecture, as a discipline Map of the Swahili Coast (Steyn). involved with both art and science, provides settings for all the activities of human life - settings shaped by rational, First, while much of the tropical symbolic and psychological factors. For interior of sub-equatorial Africa that reason, architectural research often remained isolated until the middle of the culminates in value judgement and 19th century, trade from the Indian speculation, and lacks the hard scientific Ocean "opened up" parts of the East edge of, say, archaeology and physical Coast comparatively early. Apart from anthropology. Empirical and formal leaving no written record, the people of methods of verification, such as the interior used perishable natural phenomenological description, are materials such as mud, wood and grass, simply not embedded in architectural and the tangible manifestations of most inquiry. As a matter of fact, even the early cultures have simply vanished. use of the terms "typology" or References in ancient literature "morphology" in architectural discourse (including Periplus maris Erythraei, tends to require clarification! written c. 60 C.E., AI Mas'udi in 916 The sUbjective nature of much that C.E. Chinese descriptions from c. 1100, has been written, the inaccuracies and AI Idrisi in c. 1150, Ibn Battuta in 1331 contradictions and the alarmingly small and Alvares in 1540) and the pool of original research must also be archaeological remains of the stone considered. houses of the East Coast, on the other . .Fieldwork in architecture is mostly hand, indicate the forms of early hn11ted to surveys required for settlements and buildings.

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Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services Second, the Swahili tradition • Some authors believe technology constitutes the only surviving urbanized spread from through indigenous culture in the south-eastern and along the Sahel corridor and eastern African region (Kenya, (McEvedy 1980:30; Oliver Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, 1999:74). Others propagate a trans­ Mozambique and South Africa). The transfer of technology sites visited all originated between 1100 (Reader 1999:187; Bahn 2000:150). and 1400 C.E. and represent a full spectrum of settlement conditions - The tools for analysing traditional Lamu and Zanzibar, both functioning architecture also remain contentious. towns and World Heritage Sites, are Guidoni rejects what he calls the "over­ subject to intense efforts to conserve used and abused typological method of th their respective 19 century Swahili and classification", which he maintains Omani character. Malindi, also a cannot reflect the "internal complexity" functioning town, seems to be or history of a culture (1975:17). Much responding well to the demands of of the published work, however, seems commerce and tourism without losing to be on the assumed anthropomorphic its distinctly tropical African and cosmological aspects of African atmosphere and appearance. Gedi is a homesteads, while there is still not a ruined and abandoned Swahili consistent - and generally accepted - settlement, now a Kenyan National typology for African settlements. Monument. Susan Denyer's taxonomy of 26 house forms (1978:133-142) is Problems related to theory admittedly very clearly typologically oriented - and probably the most Apart from the purely historical value, comprehensive to date. But what is what we hope to achieve by studying needed is a broader system of traditional architecture is insight into classification to describe the distribution ideas and fonnative concepts. Robert of both homestead and settlement forms Maguire stated at a RIBA conference in and to allow comparison with examples 1976 that "Vernacular is not a style ... it outside Africa. Denyer's classification can't be copied. The significance of the of styles has not been seriously vernacular is as a learning tool" (quoted challenged to date. They are (1) in Jencks 1997:172-173). Important Sudanese, (2) Impluvial, (3) Hill and (4) lessons include the use of appropriate Beehive (1978:159-168). These terms materials and a straightforward are simply too loose and certainly not approach to achieve both architectural parallel. complexity and human scale. Current anal ytical processes The nature of traditional African generall y rely on Eurocentric and architecture is subject to controversy. Euclidean parameters for evaluation, There is no urcorpus - no body of such as organising and axial lines, knowledge that is accepted as infallibly zones, grids and systems of proportion correct to rely on. Two examples (Leupen et al. 1997:25). These are the illustrate this point: criteria for evaluating formal aesthetics. • While Rapoport suggests that But they are often totally inappropriate climate is a modifying rather than to the African situation - many African form-determining factor (1969), types are based on anthropomorphic and Talib argues that climate, rather than zoomorphic mysticism. The Swahili and culture, was the dominating Omani stone houses, on the other hand, influence in both Arab and African are very similar to the "typical" Islamic settlement (1984). home, characterized by its organising

183 Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services courtyard and privacy for women Recently he offered a drastically (Hakim 1990:70). revised view (2002:184): When dealing with such issues, two crucial questions emerge: how does one The initial impetuses that stimulated the coastal architecture became incorporated in a single validate such data and how does one coherent, living and evolving, secure and analyse it? Validation requires the established local architectural tradition. convergence of evidence, and in literature that means the corroboration Contemporary architects often of facts by a number of independent confuse contextualism with visual researchers. formalism, rather than associating it Since Amos Rapoport published a with the environmental, climatic, social theoretical framework for the study of and economic aspects of a place. in 1969 (House A researcher undoubtedly needs a form and culture), the theme has been good theoretical background on the relatively popular. However, even a roots and socio-economic development cursory scrutiny of bibliographies in of the inhabitants of the traditional existing literature is revealing: architecture under study. More references to Bourdier, Chittick, Gardi, references probably exist for East Phillipson, Davidson, Fraser, Garlake, Africa than for any other sub-Saharan Kirkman, Lewcock, Oliver (Paul), region. Commendable sources include Prussin and Rudofski (the list is Allen (Swahili origins, 1993), Mazrui obviously not complete) appear to be and Shariff (The Swahili: Idiom and alarmingl y common. It seems as if a identity of an African people, 1994) and large number of contemporary authors Middleton (The world of the Swahili, rely on a relatively small pool of 1992). primary evidence - actual site reports - What protocols are available for making multiple referencing to the same analysis? Lawrence lists seven root source a very real concern. "explanations" for vernacular The real authoritative sources are architecture (1987: 17). Thematically unquestionably in-depth regional they are (1) aesthetic/formalist, (2) investigations based on many years of evolutionary, (3) social and in situ surveys and observations. In this geographical "diffusionism", (4) category, Bourdier's (1996) work in physical, such as technology, site and and Frescura's on southern climate, (5) social such as defence, Africa (1985, 1981) are benchmark economy and household structure, (6) methodological examples. Ghaidan's socio-cultural including religion and Lamu: A study of the Swahili town "collective spatial images" and finally (1975) and Kirkman's Gedi (1975) offer (7) typology. valuable information, but Garlake's Papanek lists six explanations Early of the East (1995: 118-135): (1) methodological, African Coast (1966) remains the (2) dispersion and convergence, (3) standard reference. In addition, Garlake evolutionary, (4) socio-environmental, personifies the changing attitude. (5) cultural and (6) formal aesthetic. Initially he stated scathingly (1966:12): An in spite of what Guidoni suggests, the typology of vernacular [The Swahili] position on the perimeter of the Islamic world and the basic inability of the settlements seems to have been c~ltu~e. ~ha.t evolved on the coast to respond neglected, while that of Denyer is much with initiative, or to originate its own individual too simplistic and iconic. The whole solutions to its problems '" help to explain the static quality of the architectural style". issue of typology needs to be reviewed. It is puzzling that, of all the scholarly disciplines, only architecture

184 Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services found it necessary to elevate typology to studied exclusively in terms of spatial a highly debated philosophy. In organization ... " (1985:45). archaeology, for instance, typology is The final obstacle is that of simply defined as "The arrangement of interpretation. And the biggest problem similar artefacts into sequences here is that Western scholars tend to spanning space and time" (Bahn, view African traditional architecture as 2000:8). An earlier definition is just as a representation of some distant past. As unambiguous: "Typology is the study of Clark wrote: "It is inconceivable that the forms and functions of even the remotest and apparently most archaeological objects and their primitive communities can have relationship with other objects" preserved their culture intact since an (McKern et al. 1974:178). The issue of early period of the Stone Age" ordering is inherent to scientific (1957:171). We have to remember that investigation. Researchers must be able typological development could also be to name things according to a characterized by devolution or convention and classify data according degeneration. to frameworks appropriate to the field of inquiry. A common typological Weaknesses in the literature protocol obviously facilitates communication. Research on the built environment Considering onl y the built obviously relies enormously on environment, a study of African drawings, arguably often more so than architecture should differentiate on data in text. Problems with between at least three typological layers illustrations, as well as with facts and or strata. The first constitutes the interpretation, are discussed in the elements that seem to make up an following two sections. African homestead, such as lapas or courtyards, building envelopes (whether Illustrations and graphics separate huts or under one roof), transitional elements (verandahs, A quick and cost-effective method has canopies, gazebos and loggias) and all been to scan plans, sections and forms of perimeter definition. The elevations, store them as Windows second is the individual homestead, Bitmap images and trace them using a made manifest by combining some of South African drawing program called the elements into a whole. The third is Caddie (www.caddie.co.za). The the settlement, composed by advantage of using such a program is its aggregating a number of homesteads. analytical ability: dimensions, areas, An architectural type should then be angles and all sorts of discrepancies are a description of a class of homestead or immediately and - because drawings settlement .in plan, section and three­ are often enlarged for more detail - dimensional form, ideall y also with glaringly revealed. It also allows reference to place and period. Terms manipulation of drawings for like "model", "type", "archetype", comparison and classification. Only "stereotype" and "prototype" could be rarely, though, could an example simply used· in discourse, but one should be traced and filed. More often tracing beware of vague abstractions. One is being substantiated with comparisons should also avoid the straightjacket of in other literary sources. Fieldwork is two-dimensional thinking. In fact, the only really credible solution. For Norberg-Schulz laments, "Today, the example, when drawing settlement typology of settlements is generally layouts, even official survey maps

185 Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services obviously do not reveal the built fabric scale bars. Figure 4 compares plans of on the ground (figures 2 and 3). the walled perimeter of the same abandoned Swahili town, that of Takwa on the Lamu Archipelago, by two sources. Even orientation differs!

/

~NNAH, 2001 G0 o 100m "-.+/ I I I I .

Figure 4 Two versions of the perimeter wall of Takwa, off the Kenya coast (Steyn).

The need to use only information from original site surveys is adequately illustrated in figure 5. Of the three versions of this 15th century Swahili Figure 2 house at Songo Mnara, only the one Survey map (top) and trace of old part of below was actually measured by the Malindi, Kenya (Steyn). author, the eminent Peter Garlake (1966:192). The one in the middle appears in Denyer's African traditional architecture, still a standard reference in schools of architecture (1978:198). One can clearly see a number of fundamental differences; a clear indication that copies are suspect because they are recycled and become increasingly distorted. Hodd' s interpretation is Figure 3 simpl y an abstract reduction A typical house in the old part of Malindi (1997:357). (Steyn). Sometimes diagrams are confused with site plans. Using Lamu, a Swahili Another major problem is the town off the Kenya Coast, as an determination of the accuracy of draw­ example, figure 6 illustrates the ings in literature. An obstacle often difference between a relatively encountered is the lack of, or incorrect,

186 Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services convincing tourist-oriented diagram and The alleys with their neat parallel a copy based on surveyed drawings. edges, which scale two to three metres wide, could cause serious embarrassment when used for analysis.

&::ala 11500 ~ 6 51Ji'OO 250

Figure 6 The difference between site diagrams and plans. A tourist map of Lamu above, and a drawing based on a surveyed map below (after Ghaidan, 1976:Fig. 3-1).

Text

Scholarship is made manifest in the literature - the ability to write up conclusions in words, which is also the format in which scientific knowledge is Figure 5 disseminated. The uninitiated naturally Different interpretations of the same house tends to accept the established in Songo Mnara, Tanzania (see references for sources). authorities without question. The ability to read critically about a theme obviously takes a long time to develop.

187 Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services The following critique of aspects of the , Zanzibar City, which is literature related to Swahili and Omani also a World Heritage Site. architecture in was only LaNier and McQuillan's topic is the possible because field trips allowed Omani houses of Stone Town, but they considerably more informed reading. are clearly describing a typical early Nnamdi Elleh's African arch­ Swahili house (1983:7.1-7.2) with its itecture: evolution and transformation (1997) is an important and recent book. oblong rooms ... arranged parallel to the main fa~ade of the building". They also state "the His theme is the so-called "triple­ impact of Arab culture and Islamic religion had heritage theory" (traditional, Islamic a decisive influence on the development of the and Western influences on African built form between 1830 and 1880 architecture) and he propagates the view of Egypt as a major influence on sub­ This is misleading. Omani occupation Saharan architecture. This is an example did not result in any development of of the school of thought that sub­ form - in rare instances the earl y Saharan Africa was incapable of Swahili houses were modified, but more indigenous innovation. often they were simply demolished and His views on the development of the Omani houses built right over the , on the other hand, site. favour Africa. The same is true of his Another popular source is Ronald description of Lamu (1997:149): "The Lewcock's Zanj, the East African coast narrow winding streets of Lamu are also (1971). Lewcock's description of the indicative of a traditional culture "great houses" of "the trading port" of influenced by surrounding villages". Zanzibar - obviously the Omani houses This is a bold claim without any - is deceptive. No mention is made of evidence ~ one would have expected an Omani ongin. In fact, when some comparative anal ysis. Lamu describing the plan and roof displays most of the characteristics of a configurations of an Omani house, he small Arab town, and only the also alludes to the early Swahili house surrounding thatch and mud huts betray (1971:92): its African locality. But while such a claim is probably academically careless, From a central courtyard, with clear water splashing in a raised pool, the wide staircase led other statements show ignorance up to the main living quarters on the first floor, (1997:165-166): "The islands of which had the typical long narrow rooms of the Zanzibar and Pemba have some of the coastal plan. Open terraces on the flat concrete roofs were reached up wooden staircases, and best preserved classic architecture of often low arched openings were pierced below Swahili middle ages ... ". There is the balustradings so that women could look out certainly no preserved "classic while preserving their privacy. architecture of Swahili middle ages" in either Zanzibar or Pemba (Garlake, The following issues are 1966:7). There are hardly any surviving contentious: ruins! • The "clear water splashing in a Elleh's theme is African architecture raised pool" sounds attractive, but is and the impact of external influences _ not typical. According to Siravo, the but he fails to mention the rise of Om ani explorer Burton described the power in the Indian Ocean in the mid typical courtyard in Zanzibar as a 18th century, the resulting transfer of the storage area (1997:32). Muscat-type Omani house to East • The "long narrow rooms" are Afric~n shores and the subsequent inherent to the early Swahili rather promInence of this type in, especiaU y, than the Omani house, whose room width is the same, due to similar construction techniques, but which, 188 Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services due to layout, is more con­ the need to review · and update the ventionally rectangular (f~gure ' 7) . . existing literature.

Early Swahili

Figure 8 The openings in the crenellations of the Lamu Fort (Steyn). Omani

Obstacles encountered during field \ ~m surveys

The method of investigation was to Figure 7 visit as many examples of Swahili and The plan form of an early Swahili house compared with that of an Omani house in Arab stone houses, as well as nearby Zanzibar City (Steyn). thatched wattle and mud houses, as possible and to survey selected • This parapet configuration is not representative examples with an common in Zanzibar at all - on the electronic measuring device and a East Coast the openings in the camera. Surveys had to be sufficiently parapet referred to are mainly found detailed ,to allow accurate "as is" plans, on Omani forts and seem to have a sections and elevations to be drawn, defensive function (Fig. 8). once back in South Africa. There is a vast difference between No other author mentions the flat working in rural villages and in urban roofs of Stone Town being used as situations. Referring specifically to the terraces. In cultures where roofs are Swahili Coast, Leslie writes that a used as living spaces they generally village is a collection of huts of persons feature some sort of screens for privacy, of the same family with their wives and which these houses do not have. relatives, which .form . a close social Such discrepancies in African entity. In total contrast, the tenants who architectural history seem clear proof of might occupy a house in a town like Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar City are often 189 Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services allocated one room per household and when more recent partitioning and infill are usually from a number of Bantu­ panels were demolished as she tried to speaking tribes or other nationalities, get more light and air into the buildings. including Arab and Indian (1963:71- Such observations are often a very 81). For them the house is a dormitory, convenient point of departure. not a home. In towns like Zanzibar City and The inhabitants of a rural village can Lamu many houses are owned by seldom imagine why anyone would find government or absentee landlords and their mud huts interesting. They often occupied by a number of tenants, or in struggle to survive and shelter is simply some cases even squatters. It is often part of the system of needs, especially relatively easy to trace the stages of since most activities take place outdoors development, since alterations to the anyway. In such a situation field original structures were clear! y surveys and observations could take a recognizable, due to unsympathetic long time before any significant patterns methods and materials. An analysis of are recognized, if ever. Interviews the illustrated example revealed how the rarely reveal settlement patterns simply building responded from single because they are fully integral with household occupancy in a colonial social custom (figure 9). dispensation to multifamily occupancy in a democracy (figure 10).

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Figure 9 Plan layout and perspective view of a rural homestead surveyed near Gedi, 15 km south of Malindi, Kenya (Roodt & Steyn).

Expatriates could be valuable sources of information. Nancy Figure 10 Galloway, a British citizen resident on Isometric view of an Omani house on Zanzibar Island, has remodelled a ~afacheni Street, Stone Town, Zanzibar number of houses in Stone Town City, surveyed in 2000, below and a including her own house and th~ speculative interpretation of the original building housing her tour operation. Ms form above (Steyn). Galloway claims that she was The inhabitants are usually highly astonished at the spaciousness of the suspicious and very often hostile. The houses, which only became apparent

190 Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services onl y wa y to gain access is to ask but the same obviousl y applies to somebody from the neighbourhood - a traditional architecture (2000:9). merchant or craftsman - to negotiate a From the brief overview above, fee with the occupants. Even so, some some tentative guidelines emerge for tenants are bound to resent this architects who hope to contribute to the intrusion, which could lead to some broad-based research referred to in the very awkward situations! introduction. In both instances, therefore, the Since South African schools of biggest obstacle was gaining access. architecture simply do not prepare their The researcher must have a streamlined graduates for historiographical research, and efficient way of working, since there is generally very little they can there is usually not an opportunity to currently contribute, beyond measured return. But most important is probably a drawings. trust-inspiring, friendly and relaxed The built environment, however, is attitude. an ecosystem for human activities. Interpretations of traditional Methodological guidelines architecture could never be credible unless researchers become much more The time has come for a reliable aware of the subtle interaction between database of African architecture. The culture, an artificial phenomenon, purpose would not only be to nature and habitat. authenticate the existing data by testing Such a project must unquestionably against the real world, but also to search be an interdisciplinary study, must be for new data. Real measured drawings tightly focused and must be are required - not more examples from geographically delimited. the literature. This means physical visits What architects should be able to to sites to record data correctly (Fig. contribute towards such a project is 11). research on typologies for land use and the shaping of space and form. In collaboration with the engineering sciences the use of materials, energy, climate control and construction techniques could be explored, as well as airflow between buildings and shadow patterns. Work on the historical dimension, the theory of settlement development, socio-cultural factors, contextual considerations and organizational systems requires the involvement of other sciences, Figure 11 including anthropologists, Information on this Lamu house, surveyed in 2001, includes neighbourhood, town and archaeologists and historians. locality maps, plans, sections and three­ Interdisciplinary communication not dimensional views. To that can be added only requires a common typological good data on its context and historical protocol, but also a common language. development (Steyn) A longer-term involvement with a community is preferable to a "record­ We have to accept Anderson and and-run" approach, and it is advisable to Rathbone's view that, due to extreme learn the terminology in the lingua diversity, a common methodology or franca of the area. In Swahili, for theoretical approach is unfeasible. They are referring to African urban history,

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Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services instance, many terms are commonly ignored. The field, within a single used. Some are: project is, however, so wide that only interdisciplinary cooperation could hope • Baraza - A stone bench adjacent to to achieve viable results. the entrance on the street. There is no "grand theory" for the • Boriti - Round mangrove pole used unfolding of African history. The broad as a roof beam. stream was, however, severely disturbed th • Daka - An entrance porch with in the 19 century by a number of stone benches. factors: Omani and Portuguese • M abati - Corrugated iron sheeting occupation in the east and south-east used to roof over the flat roofs as a respectively, and British in protection against the tropical rain. the far south, and in between not only • M akuti - Roofing tile woven from the Great Boer Trek and Zulu palm thatch. expansionism, but also the slave trade. • M sana - Elongated room in a But all these traumatic events simply Swahili house. preceded - and were overshadowed by • Mtaa (pI. mitaa) - Cluster of - probably most disruptive of all: the buildings forming a ward, "". sometimes based on family and In view of this chaotic and fuzzy ethnic affinities. Several such wards nature of African history, a strict make up a neighbourhood. methodologist approach is not • Sebule - The entrance or informal propagated. Architecture is the lTIOSt reception hall. tangible manifestation of a culture. And • Zidaka - A matrix of wall niches, an architect's most convincing framed with decorative plaster contribution would probably be the mouldings. building-physical, rather than the qualitative dimension. Furthermore, There is, however, an opportunity what is needed is consensus on for architects - with their training in typology, data from primary sources, exploratory and creative thinking - to focused long-term fieldwork, credible develop skills to make a unique arguments and bold syntheses, and contribution. All societies are in a state finally, lively interdisciplinary of flux. Schoenbrun suggests, "shared discourse. histories of technological achievement offer the evidentiary basis for returning Sources cited to Africa the search for African solutions to African problems" (1997). • Allen, 1. de V. 1993. Swahili origins: A problem-driven agenda for Swahili culture & the Shungwaya researching traditional architecture phenomenon. London: Currey. could enable architects to combine the normative principles of precedent with Anderson, D. and Rathbone, R. the organizational and generative nature (editors). 2000. Africa's urban past. of typologies to develop descriptive and Oxford: Curry. predictive phenomenological models of settlen1ent. Bahn, P.G. (ed.). 2000. The atlas of CC.lll'lliSioll world archaeology. London: Tin1e­ Life. Traditional African architecture has Bourdier, J-P. and Minh-Ha, T.T. 1996. been neglected for far too long, and the Drawn from African dwellings. potential to learn from it simply Bloomington: Indiana University.

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Frescura, F. 1985. Major developments Lawrence, R.J. 1987. Housing, in the rural indigenous architecture of dwellings and homes: design theory, of the post-difiqane research and practice. Chicester: John period. Johannesburg: University of Wiley. the Witwatersrand. Unpublished PhD thesis. Leslie, J.A.K. 1963. A survey of Dar es Salaam. Nairobi and London: Oxford Frescura. F. 1981. Rural shelter in University Press. southern Africa. Johannesburg: Ravan. Leupen. B., Grafe, C., K6rnig, N., Garlake, P. 2002. Early art and Lampe, M. and De Zeeuw, P. 1997. . Oxford: Oxford Design and analysis. Rotterdam: 010. University Press. Lewcock, R. 1971. Zanj, the East Garlake, P.S. 1966. Early Islamic African Coast. Shelter in Africa. architecture of the East African Coast. Edited by P. Oliver. London: Barrie & London: Oxford University Press. Jenkins, pp. 80-95.

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Ghaidan, U. 1976. Lamu: a study in Mazrui, A and Shariff, I. 1994. The conservation. Nairobi: East African Swahili: Idiom and identity of an Literature Bureau. African people. Trenton: N.J.: Africa World Press. Guidoni, E. 1975. Primitive architecture. London: Faber and Faber. McKern, S.S. and T.W. 1974. Living prehistory: an introduction to physical

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Digitised by the University of Pretoria, Library Services anthropology and archaeology. Menlo Reader, J. 1999. Africa: A biography of Park, Cal.: Cummings. the continent. New York: Knopf.

Middleton, J. 1992. The world of the Rudofsky, B. 1977. The Prodigious Swahili: An African mercantile Builders. London: Secker & Warburg. civilization. New haven: Yale University. Rudofsky, B. 1964. Architecture without architects. London: Academy Muturo, H. 1979. In unpublished Editions. Master's thesis. Map provided by the National Museums of Kenya. Schoenrun, D.L. 1997. Contributing to the internet discourse on Bantu Norberg-Schulz, C. 1985. The concept dispersal. [email protected]. of dwelling. New York: Rizozoli. Siravo, F. 1996. Zanzibar: a plan for the Papanek, V. 1995. The green historic Stone Town. Commissioned imperative: Ecology and ethics in by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture - design and architecture. London: historic cities support programme. Thames & Hudson. Zanzibar: Gallery.

Pevsner, N. 1963. An outline of Talib, K. 1984. Shelter in Saudi Arabia. European architecture. i h ed. London: Academy Editions. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Vitruvius. First century AD. The ten Rapoport, A. 1969. House form and books of architecture. Translated by culture. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice­ M.H. Morgan in 1916. Republished in Hall. 1960. New York: Dover Publications.

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