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'A Species of Heathen?' a Social History of English Migrants in Wales, C.1850-1914 Lewis Owen Aberystwyth University Departm

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'A Species of Heathen?' a Social History of English Migrants in Wales, C.1850-1914 Lewis Owen Aberystwyth University Departm ‘A Species of Heathen?’ A Social History of English Migrants in Wales, c.1850-1914 Lewis Owen Aberystwyth University Department of History and Welsh History 30 September 2018 A thesis submitted to Aberystwyth University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 1 Abstract Over the course of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, Wales experienced its most sustained and prononounced phase of demographic growth. Migration was a critical catalyst in this process, of which the most substantial contributors in terms of absolute volume were English migrants. By 1900, approximately 16% to 25% of the Welsh population was either English-born or the first-generation relations of English migrants. However, the significance of their presence in Welsh society during this period is inversely proportional to their presence in the historiography: there exists no major study devoted solely to the issue of English migration to Wales, while tangential academic discussion of the topic generally tends to focus on its negative aspects (primarily in the context of the decline of the Welsh language). This thesis will thus seek to address the aforementioned historiographical shortcomings, while endeavouring to present a more rounded analysis of the socio-cultural traits of English migrants in Wales as well as their role in shaping the complexion of contemporary public discourse. It will deploy both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to achive these objectives, making use of relevant data from both the 1891 and 1901 censuses, the abundance of material derived from contemporary newspapers, journals and other publications, and a limited range of personal accounts from English migrants themselves. The overarching aim is to contextualise the particular experiences of English migrants within the broader development of Wales’ modern national identity. 2 CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION – Pages 4-23 i. Migrant communities in Wales: A historiographical overview – pp. 4-18 ii. English migration to Wales in historical context – pp. 19-23 CHAPTER 2: GENDER AND FAMILY PERSPECTIVES, c.1850-1914 – Pages 24-61 i. Gender and age imbalances in industrial Wales – pp. 24-29 ii. Interpreting the census data: Blaina 1891 and 1901, Dowlais 1891 and 1901 – pp. 30-40 iii. Masculinity and English migration - pp. 41-54 iv. Femininity and English migration – pp. 55-59 v. Conclusion – pp. 60-61 CHAPTER 3: CLASS PERSPECTIVES, c.1850-1914 – Pages 62-115 i. The dimensions of Welsh industrialisation – pp. 62-67 ii. Ariangarwch and Welsh attitudes to the capitalist economy – pp. 68-76 iii. English migration and rioting in Wales – pp.77-83 iv. Social stratification of English migrant workers: A quantitative analysis –pp. 84-98 v. Case study: The Mold Riot – pp. 99-113 vi. Conclusion – pp. 114-115 CHAPTER 4: LANGUAGE PERSPECTIVES I: A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS, c.1850-1914 – Pages 116-173 i. English migrants and the Welsh Language: Public attitudes – pp. 116-123 ii. English literary perspectives on Welsh: the works of Barrow and Brunton – pp. 124-129 iii. English migrants and the ‘Bilingual Difficulty’ - pp. 130-139 iv. ‘Becoming Welshmen’? The issue of linguistic assimilation – pp.140-172 v. Conclusion – pp. 173 CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE PERSPECTIVES II: A QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS, c.1850-1914 – Pages 174-216 i. English migrants and the Welsh language: An analysis of the census data, 1891-1901 – pp. 173-210 CHAPTER 6: RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES, c.1850-1914 – Pages 211-273 i. Fin de Siècle anxiety in the ‘Nonconformist nation’ – pp. 217-229 ii. The English Causes: The moral and strategic case – pp. 230-255 iii. The English Causes: Opposition – pp. 256-267 iv. Conclusion – pp. 268-273 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION – Pages 274-285 BIBLIOGRAPHY – Pages 286-307 3 Chapter 1: Introduction Migrant communities in Wales: A historiographical overview Over the course of the nineteenth century and the first decade of the twentieth century, Wales experienced a population boom unprecedented in its demographic, social and cultural magnitude. From the year of the inaugural nationwide census in 1801 to the eve of the First World War, a predominantly agrarian society of a little over 500,000 inhabitants had been transformed into an advanced industrial nation of almost 2.5 million,1 with several major Welsh urban centres such as Cardiff and Swansea having been elevated to positions of truly global prominence. From a linguistic perspective, the changes were no less dramatic: whereas an estimated 90% of the population of Wales were Welsh speakers in 1801 (of which a substantial proportion were also Welsh monoglots), the census of 1901 revealed that the native language had been reduced to a state of minority for the first time in its history.2 Perhaps inevitably, sweeping social, political and institutional developments also accompanied this extraordinary period of growth. To paraphrase an infamous Metternichian quip, Wales in 1801 effectively resembled little more than a geographical expression from a legislative perspective, having been subsumed into England since the Acts of Union in the mid-sixteenth century. By 1914, however, the promulgation of a succession of ‘Welsh-specific’ parliamentary laws (starting with the 1881 Sunday Closing Act), as well as the establishment of several ‘national’ organisations (including the University of Wales in 1893 and the National Library of Wales in 1907), had facilitated the creation of a recognisable and formal institutional profile for Wales. Coupled with the emergence of particular trends in the Welsh political landscape, namely the ascendancy of the Liberal Party after 1868, the rise of Cymru Fydd during the 1890s and the enduring resonance of the issue of disestablishment, it is unsurprising that the second half of the nineteenth century has generally been regarded as a truly pivotal phase in the evolution of Wales’ modern national identity.3 In many ways 1 Davies, J., Hanes Cymru: A History of Wales in Welsh (London, 2007), p. 384. 2 49.9% of the population were recorded as being Welsh speakers in that year. This proportion would decline to 43.5% by the following census in 1911. Jones, R.T., Faith and Crisis of a Nation: Wales 1890-1914 (Cardiff, 2004), p. 13. 3 See Morgan, K., Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 1880-1980 (Cardiff, 1981) & Jones, B., ‘Banqueting at a moveable feast, Wales 1870-1914’ in Jones, G.E. & Smith, D. (Eds.), The People of Wales: A Millenium History (Llandysul, 2000), pp. 145-78. 4 therefore, the rapid expansion of the Welsh population during the ‘long nineteenth century’ laid the foundations for the contours, fissures and idiosyncrasies of the nation’s present-day socio-cultural character. To a large extent, the pace of this population growth was sustained by significant levels of inward migration, particularly towards the second half of the nineteenth century. Indeed, with the notable exception of the United States, no other region of the western hemisphere would be exposed to such intensive levels of migration during this period than Wales.4 As was befitting for an increasingly industrialised and urbanised society, the diversity of the migrants themselves was striking. For example, the prominence of the Welsh copper trade during the middle of the century, especially around the Swansea area, attracted a considerable number of specialised metalworkers from Spain, who formed a small but nevertheless distinct community in Wales. Meanwhile, the development of the great dockyards around the south-eastern coastline was responsible for both Chinese and Afro- Caribbean immigration towards the turn of the century. The magnetic lure of its industrial base was not the only factor in cementing Wales’ status as a national, cultural and ethnic melting-pot. Socio-political persecution throughout the nineteenth century, particularly in the form of the Russian pogroms, precipitated the substantial enlargement of Wales’ Jewish population, while the devastating economic impact of the famine in Ireland resulted in extensive levels of migration across the Irish Sea.5 The attitudes of the indigenous Welsh population to the emergence of these migrant communities periodically fluctuated between sober toleration and vehement antipathy, which naturally varied according to the particularities of local conditions. Due to their perceived complicity in suppressing wages, as well as their Catholic identity, the Irish population of Wales were persistent victims of native bigotry, which manifested itself most seriously during a series of riots between 1826 and 1882.6 Similarly, anti-Semitic agitation was the underlying cause of the Tredegar riot of 1911,7 while Chinese businesses in Cardiff were occasionally targeted in racially-motivated disturbances during the same period.8 4 Jones, G.E., Wales 1880-1914 (Cardiff, 1988), p.1. 5 See O’Leary, P., Immigration and Integration: The Irish in Wales 1789-1922 (Cardiff, 2000) & Parry-Jones, C., The Jews of Wales: A History (Cardiff, 2017). 6 Miskell, L., ‘Reassessing the Anti-Irish Riot: Popular Protest and the Irish in South Wales, c. 1826–1882’ in O’Leary, P. (ed.), Irish Migrants in Modern Wales, (Liverpool University Press, 2004), pp. 101-118. 7 Holmes, C., ‘The Tredegar Riots of 1911: Anti-Jewish Disturbances in South Wales’ in The Welsh History Review, vol. 11, no. 2, (1983), pp.214-225. 8 May, J.P., ‘The British working class and the Chinese, 1870-1911, with particular reference to the seaman’s strike of 1911’ (Unpub. University of Warwick MA thesis, 1973). 5 In recent years, scholarly attention has become increasingly drawn
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