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cover next page > title: Twisted Cross : The German Christian Movement in the Third Reich author: Bergen, Doris L. publisher: University of North Carolina Press isbn10 | asin: 0807822531 print isbn13: 9780807822531 ebook isbn13: 9780807860342 language: English subject German-Christian movement--History, Germany--Church history--1933-1945. publication date: 1996 lcc: BR856.B398 1996eb ddc: 261.7/0943/09043 subject: German-Christian movement--History, Germany--Church history--1933-1945. cover next page > If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_ii next page > page Page ii Twisted Cross The German Christian Movement in the Third Reich DORIS L. BERGEN The University of North Carolina Press Chapel Hill and London < previous page_ii next page > page If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_iv next page > page Page iv Frontispiece: Photomontage by John Heartfield, Berlin, June 1933. From the Arbeiter-Illustrierten Zeitung,no. 23. Heartfield, a communist, attacked the fusion of Nazism and Christianity. The caption above the image reads: "On the Founding of the German State Church: The Catholic Adolf Hitler organizes the Protestant German state church and names a Reich bishop." In heavy print below: "The Cross Was Not Yet Heavy Enough." Facing the cross is Ludwig Müller. (Copyright Gertrud Heartfield, Berlin) © 1996 The University of North Carolina Press All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bergen, Doris L. Twisted cross: the German Christian movement in the Third Reich / by Doris L. Bergen. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8078-2253-1 (alk. paper) ISBN 0-8078-4560-4 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. German Christian movementHistory. 2. GermanyChurch history1933-1945. I. Title. BR856.B398 1996 261.7'0943'09043dc20 95-17954 CIP 00 99 98 97 96 5 4 3 2 1 < previous page_iv next page > page If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_v next page > page Page v TO MY FAMILY < previous page_v next page > page If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_vii next page > page Page vii Contents Preface xi 1 One Reich, One People, One Church!: The German Christians 1 2 The Anti-Jewish Church 21 3 The Antidoctrinal Church 44 4 The Manly Church 61 5 Non-Aryans in the People's Church 82 6 Catholics, Protestants, and Dreams of Confessional Union 101 7 Women in the Manly Movement 119 8 The Ecclesiastical Final Solution 42 9 The Church without Rules 72 10 The Bride of Christ at War 92 11 Postwar Echoes 206 Notes 231 Bibliography 301 Index 331 < previous page_vii next page > page If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_viii next page > page Page viii Illustrations Photomontage by John Heartfield, "On the Founding of the frontispiece German State Church" Campaigning for the church elections, July 1933, in Berlin 6 Branch office of the German Christian movement in 16 Dortmund Poster announcing a joint rally of German Christians and the 36 Confessing Church German Christian flags, November 1933 46 Reich Minister of Church Affairs Hanns Kerrl and his wife 56 Procession of clergy with German Christian flags 64 Friedrich Wieneke, German Christian pastor in Soldin, July 67 1933 First Reich Conference of German Christians, Berlin, April 73 1933 Ludwig Miiller, Germany's Reich bishop, 1933 76 Reich Bishop Müller on tour, 1935 78 German Christian rally in Berlin, February 1934 80 < previous page_viii next page > page If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_ix next page > page Page ix Joachim Hossenfelder, German Christian Reich leader, 1933 84 Mass wedding of National Socialist men and women, 1933 123 Wedding with groom in SS uniform, 1934 124 Women greet Reich Bishop Müller 127 Wedding procession, Berlin, 1933 131 Regional treasurers of the German Christian movement, 1939 135 Reinhold Krause, leader of Berlin German Christians, 1933 146 Correspondence from the Institute for Research into and Elimination 151 of Jewish Influence in German Church Life, 1942 Sports Palace rally, November 1933 166 German Christian barricade in Holzwickede 190 Guida Diehl, founder of the New Land League 220 < previous page_ix next page > page If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_xi next page > page Page xi Preface Why write a book about the "German Christians" (Deutsche Christen), a group of pro-Nazi Protestants in the Third Reich? While working in the Community Archive in Minden, I came across some correspondence that led me to contemplate my motives. In 1960, two former adherents of the German Christian cause exchanged letters. How, they asked each other, could they promote new approaches to the history of the church under National Socialism? Despite the neutral language, their intentions were clear: they wanted someone to write a positive account that would help rehabilitate their movement. A doctoral student might assume the task, one of the men suggested. His friend was dubious. A student might be found, he responded, but who would supervise such a work? Those letters were written the year I was born, and both men have since died. In a sense, the line of inquiry that brought me to this study was the opposite of theirs. To me, the German Christian movement embodies a moral and spiritual dilemma I associate with my own religious questions: What is the value of religion, and in particular of Christianity, if it provides no defense against brutality and can even become a willing participant in genocide? Perhaps my background in a family of ethnic German Mennonites from Ukraine has made me sensitive to and wary of certain connections between religious and ethnic identities. In my initial reading about Protestants in Nazi Germany, I was struck by what seemed contorted efforts to fuse Christianity with Germanness and purge it of Jewish influence. I wanted to explore how members of the German Christian movement synthesized Christianity and National Socialism, two systems of belief most people would regard as fundamentally irreconcilable. This book is the result. < previous page_xi next page > page If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_xii next page > page Page xii Many people shared in this project at every stage. It is a great pleasure to thank at least some of those whose financial backing, guidance, and encouragement made its completion possible. A fellowship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and a Sir James Lougheed Award from the Alberta Heritage Foundation allowed me to conduct extensive research in Germany in 1988-89. Additional funding from the German Academic Exchange Service and the University of Vermont's Committee on Research and Scholarship enabled subsequent shorter research trips. Staff at the many archives I visited in Germany were consistently helpful and accommodating. Encounters with archivists Bernd Hey in Bielefeld, Dietrich Meyer in Düsseldorf, Helmut Baier in Nuremberg, and Walter Fleischmann-Bisten in Bensheim helped keep my work on track. Professor Kurt Meier of Leipzig met with me and offered useful suggestions. Head archivist Hans-Eberhard Brandhorst in Minden kindly allowed access to the uncataloged collection of the Kirchengeschichtliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft (Working Group for Church History) there. Eberhard Bethge encouraged me and granted permission to use the Bonhoeffer papers; Herta Staedel and Annie Hauer allowed me to consult the papers of their late husbands. Retired pastor Herward Reiser in Augsburg put me in touch with Mrs. Staedel and offered his own insights. Professor Rudolf Fischer of the University of Bielefeld generously shared his collection of pamphlets and clippings from the National Socialist period, and Marlies Ostendorf and Dietrich Becker provided hospitality, ideas, and contacts. Conversations with Victoria Barnett and Anja Baumhofin Bielefeld and Nina Lübbren in Berlin helped clarify some key ideas. Mentors, colleagues, and friends in Canada, the United States, and Germany have been enormously helpful. Annelise Thimme has inspired me since she supervised my master's thesis at the University of Alberta. Gerhard L. Weinberg of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill remains an unparalleled source of frank, insightful guidance. Daniel S. Mattern, Michaela Hönicke, and Cindy Hahamovitch read drafts and offered incisive suggestions. Boris Ruge sent me a copy of the John Heartfield photomontage. John S. Conway of the University of British Columbia and Rainer Hering at the Staatsarchiv in Hamburg provided stimulating and thoughtful criticisms of earlier versions of the work. Colleagues at the University of Vermont, in particular Patrick Hutton, James Overfield, and David Scrase, have given me advice, encouragement, and much more than simply a place to do my work. Lewis Bateman at the University of North Carolina Press has been unfailingly supportive. Two readers for the press < previous page_xii next page > page If you like this book, buy it! < previous page_xiii next page > page Page xiii made detailed, helpful comments that improved the work significantly. As managing editor and copyeditor, Ron Maner and Trudie Calvert have been wonderful. My friends Glenn Sharfman and Susannah Heschel listened to my ideas and generously shared their views and expertise; Linda H. Pardo helped me motivate and organize myself. And Arthur Kuflik brought his unerring judgment and ethical sense to the
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  • Creating the Paradigm: Historical Preconditions of Modern Asatru

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    chapter 1 Creating the Paradigm: Historical Preconditions of Modern Asatru Modern Asatru, as well as the current popular appeal of ‘Germanic’ or ‘Nordic’ themes and images, are outcomes of and contributors to a discourse of Germanic myth. This discourse is related to a general tendency to conflate cul- ture, religion and ethnicity, or to culturalize and ethnicize religion and simul- taneously sacralize culture. In this chapter I argue that we can identify two prior eras, two points of crystallization, where similar tendencies were promi- nent and which were formative for later religious and ideological appropria- tions of Germanic myth: German Romanticism around 1800 and völkisch nationalism in the first third of the 20th century. The first formative moment was defined by the scholarship of Johann Gottfried Herder, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, and other intellectuals of German Romanticism. They were the first to systematize ideas about a holistic unity of natural environment, language and history located in a deep past and in rural populations. This unity and its expression in an indigenous mythological heri- tage were perceived as the necessary foundation for a proper nation or Volk. This Romantic constellation proved to be exceptionally malleable, productive and persistent. It influenced both cultural pluralism and exclusionist ideolo- gies with affinities to racism and anti-Semitism. It inspired nationalist move- ments not only in Germany, but in Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon and Baltic countries as well. Moreover, it provided the basis for European and North American counter-cultural movements as diverse as Anglo-Saxonism and modern witchcraft (Wicca). It is no coincidence that the years after 1900 – our second point of crystallization – have been characterized as ‘neo-Romantic.’ Romantic ideas about a unity of the Volk were radicalized in the German völkisch movement and turned into an alternative religion around 1910.