United States A Magazine on National and Global Environmental Perspectives Environmental Protection Agency April-June 1993 Volume 19, Number 2 175-N-93-018 Carol M. Browner Administrator Communications, Education, and Public Affairs

Loretta M. Ucelli Associate Administrator From the Editors Miles Allen Acting Director of Editorial Services !though the negotiations were often contentious and the skeptics were many, last year's United ations Conference on Environ­ Karen Flagstad A ment and Development laid a foundation for sound develop­ Senior Editor ment in the Third World. As Maurice Strong, secretary-general of the conference, said recently, "We got agreement at the highest level pos­ Teresa Opheim sible on our planet to the most comprehensive and far-ranging action Associate Ed itor program ever approved by the international community." Crucial to that action program are closer linkages between spheres Ruth Barker that many have viewed as disparate in the past, such as environmental Photo Editor protection and aid programs, and environmental protection and trade policies. Also crucial are creative partnerships and more of them­ Nancy Starnes Assistant Editor partnerships such as the United Nations' new Commission on Sustain­ able Development and an aid program called Africa 2000, which brings Marilyn Rogers together governments and grassroots organizations to fight against Cir ulation Manager poverty and to work to maintain ecosystems. A previous issue of EPA ]oumnl examined domestic challenges facing Francheska Greene the United States in working toward Rio's directives. This issue focuses Intern on the developing world, reporting on tough questions that must be answered as linkages are developed and partnerships are formed, and -o... on some concrete progress that has been made to help the developing Design Credits world work toward sustainable development. LL Ron Farrah -~ · · James R. Ingram Postscript: With Volume 19 (1993), EPA /011r11al became a quarterly magazine. In keeping with this change, the department previously called "Newsline" has been renamed "EPA Roundup."

Front cover: Village children in Liberia, where nearly half the population is under 15 years of age and a quarter of the children are malnourished. Will worldwide sustainable development efforts help their prospects for the future?

Pholo by Eric PoggenpohJ for Folio Inc.

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Worth Considering 26 Can the World Bank be Reformed? by Korinna Horta 2 Presidential Earth Day Address 28 Trade-Environment Tensions by Paul Cough 4 Carol Browner on EPA's Priorities 30 Trade and the Rio Declaration 4 Al Gore on Healing Our Relationship with the Earth 31 Stopping the Waste page 2 by William A. itze

:fhe Developing World 34 Building Coalitions by Linda Starke 8 Resource Rich and Poor 36 In the U.S. Interest 10 Beyond Mere Survival by Gareth Porter by Shridath Ramphal 38 About OUI Contributors 12 Products of the Earth Summit

14 What's in Agenda 21? page 37 Departments

15 Building the Capacity for Change 5 EPA Roundup by Kathy Sessions 39 Habitat 18 A Guide to International Organizations A poem by W. Luckmann - - 20 Deforestation and the 40 For the Classroom __....._____c - Frontier Lands by Carrie Meyer 42 On the Move page 6 22 The World Bank's Post-Rio Strategy 44 Chronicle by Mohamed T. El-Ashry by Teresa Opheim

The U.S. Environmental Protecti on Agency is charged by Congress to protect the nation's land, air, and water sy~tem s. Under a mandate of national environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate a nd implement action which lead to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural systems to support a nd nurture life. EPA fo1mra/ is published by EPA. The Administrator of EPA has determined tha t the publication of this periodical is neces ary in the trnnsaction of the public business required by law of this Agency. Use of funds for printing this periodical has been approved by the Director of the Office o f Management and Budget. Views expressed by authors do not necessarily reflect EPA policy. o permi sion necessary to reproduce contents except copyrighted photos and other material . Contributions and inquiries arc welcome and s hould be addressed to: Ed itor, EPA /ouma/ (A-107), Waterside Mall, 401 M Street, SW, Washington, DC 20'160. Presidential Earth Day Address President Clinton announces environmental actions

011 /\pril 21, 1993, Presirlrnt Bill Cli11to11 to our people. Our environmental S/)()kc nt the U.S. Botn11icnl Cnrrlc11s i11 program is based on three principles. Wnslri11gto11, DC, to cc!rl1mtc fnrtli Dny. First, we think you can't have a healthy I frrc nrc excerpts from liis nrlrlrcss, wliicli economy without a healthy environ­ 011 ti ined pri11ci11fl's 1111rl /JO!icy d ircct io11~ for ment. We need not choose between rcclni111i11s n clm11 c11uiro11111mt: breathing clean air and bringing home secure paychecks. The fact is that our environmental problems result not from robust growth, but from reckless '' I f there is one ommitment that growth. The fact is that only a prosper­ define~ our people, it i. our ous society can have the confidence and devotion to the rich and expan­ the means to protect its environment. sive land we have inherited. From the /\nd the fact is healthy communities first Americans to the present day, our and environmentall y sound products people have lived in awe of the power, and services do best in today's eco­ the majesty, and the be;rnty of the nomic competition. forest, the river , and the streams of "That's why our poli ies must America. That love of the land, which protect our environment, promote flows like a mighty current through this economic growth, and provide millions land and through our character, burst of new high-skill, high-wage jobs. into service on the first Emth Day in "Second, we want to protect the our effort to reinvent government, to 1970' environment at home and abroad. In an make it your partner and not your "Just as we yearn lo come together era of global economics, global epidem­ overseer, to lead by example nnd not by as i1 people, we yearn to move beyond ics, and global environmental hazards, bureaucratic fi.1 t .... the fal se choices that the last few years a central challenge of our time is to "Our Jong-term strategy invests have imposed upon us. For loo long, promote our n

2 EPA JOURNAL standards .... biotechnical industries of our country ''Today, I am signing an executive "I've asked the Energy Department, identify new sources of food, fiber, and order which commits the federal the Commerce Department, and EPA to medication. government to buy thousands more assess current environmental technolo­ "We also must take the lead in American-made vehicles, using clean, gies and create a strategic plan to give addressing the challenge of global domestic fuels such as natural gas, our companies the trade development, warming that could make our planet ethanol, methanol, and electric power. promotional efforts, and technical and its climate more hostile to human This will reduce our demand for assistance they need to turn these life. Today, I announce our nation's foreign oil, reduce air pollution, advances into jobs here in America, as commitment to reducing our emis­ promote promising technologies, well as to help promote a better sions of greenhouse gases to their 1990 promote American companies, create environment. America can maintain levels by the year 2000 .... American jobs, and save American tax our lead in the world economy by "I am proud that yesterday the U.S. dollars .... taking the lead to preserve the world Army announced its plan to clean up a "In that same spirit, I plan to sign an environment. large number of sites where we executive order committing every "Last year, the nations of the world learned recently that chemical weap­ agency of the national government to came together at the Earth Summit in ons materials may be buried .... do more than ever to buy and use Rio to try to find a way to protect the Working with EPA, the Army will recycled products. This will provide a miraculous diversity of plant and clean up this problem safely and in an market for new technologies, make animal life all across the planet. The environmentally sound manner .... better use of recycled materials, and Biodiversity Treaty which resulted had Now, we are taking steps to defend encourage the creation of new products some flaws, and we all knew that. But our people and our environment and that can be offered to the government, instead of fixing them, the United States the environment of the world. In that to private companies, and to consum­ walked away from the treaty. That left same spirit, I plan to sign an executive ers. And again, it will create jobs us out of a treaty that is critically order requiring federal facilities that through the recycling process. important not only to our future, but to manufacture, process, or use toxic "We must keep finding new ways to the future of the world. And not only chemicals to comply with the federal be a force for positive change. For because of what it will do to preserve right-to-know laws, and publicly example, the federal government is the species, but because of opportunities it report what they are doing .... largest purchaser of computer equip­ offers for cutting-edge companies "It is time that the U.S. government ment in the world, and computers are whose research creates new medicines, begins to live under the laws it makes the fastest-growing area of electricity new products, and new jobs .... for other people. With this executive use. That's why I am also signing an "Our administration has worked order, I ask all federal facilities to set a executive order today requiring the with business and environmental voluntary goal to reduce their release federal government to purchase groups toward an agreement that of toxic pollutants by 50 percent by energy-efficient computers. We're protects both American interests and 1999. This will reduce toxic releases, going to expand the market for a the world environment. Today, I am control costs associated with cleanups, technology which America pioneered proud to announce the United States' and promote clean technologies. And and still leads the world, and we'll save intention to sign the Biodiversity it will help make our government energy, save the taxpayers $40 million a Treaty. what it should be-a positive example year, and set an example for our ''This is an example of what you can for the rest of the country. country and for the world .... do by bringing business and environ­ "Poor neighborhoods in our cities "On a colder day in the middle of mentalists together, instead of pitting suffer most often from toxic pollution. winter, just three months ago, a poet them against each other. We can move Cleaning up the toxic wastes will asked us to celebrate not only the forward to protect critical natural create new jobs in those neighbor­ marvelous diversity of our people, but resources and critical technologies. I'm hoods and make them safer places to the miraculous bounty of our land. also directing the State Department to live, to work, and to do business. 'Here on the pulse of this new day,' move ahead with our talks with other "Today, I am also signing an Maya Angelou challenged us to look at countries which have signed the executive order that directs federal 'the rock, the river, the tree, your convention so that the United States agencies to make preliminary changes country.' Now, it is a season of new can move as quickly as possible toward in their purchasing policies, to use hope and new beginnings. And as we ratification. fewer substances harmful to the ozone look anew at our neighbors, our "To learn more about where we layer. Here, too, we must put our children, and our own communities, as stand in protecting all our biological actions where our values are. Our well as the world around us, we must resources here at home, I'm asking the government is a leading purchaser of seize the possibilities inherent in this Interior Department to create a national goods and services. And it's time to exhilarating moment; to face our biological survey to help us protect stop not only the waste of taxpayers' challenges, to exercise our responsibili­ endangered species and, just as impor­ money but the waste of our natural ties, and to rejoice in them." • tantly, to help the agricultural and resources.

APRIL-JUNE 1993 3 Carol Browner on EPA's Priorities

On Tue day, April 13, 1993, EPA Admi11is­ manner. If we fail at that, those across the and this Administration is to incorporate trator Carol Browner held an All-Hands country who are arguing that environ­ equity into our mission and programs. meeting for EP J\ employees al Waterside mental regulation is too costly will We must make sure that our programs Mall. Vice-Preside11t Al Gore spoke at the prevail, and we will lose ground in the are fair and protective for all, and we meeting, as did Admi11istrator Browner. work that we have done .... must do a better job of ensuring that the Followi11g are excerpts from their remarks. "The third priority is building EPA work force is representative of this partnerships. There is a tremendous country. wealth of resources outside of this "I look forward to helping all of you Agency to help us do the job that we in the work that you do to make sure that n the election last November, want to do. We must build those we integrate these missions and this '' I vision. In four years we want to look the American people were given partnerships with state and local a choice: the status quo or government, nonprofit organizations, the back and point to things all across this change. And they selected change. The business community. It is in numbers country where the public is only way that we will deliver that that we will find strength, unlike the protected and the environment has change is by working together, by strength we can never have alone .... been restored." • tearing down the barriers that exist "The final area of importance to me between programs and across media and between headquarters and the regions; by tearing down the barriers l Al Gore on Healing Our Relationship with the Earth that exist between states and EPA, between local governments and EPA. 'We are living in a time when the combined to cause a new destructive "1 have four priorities for the Agency. relationship between human civiliza­ relationship which absolutely must be First, pollution prevention. Everybody tion and the ecological system of the healed in our generation and in our talks about pollution prevention, and we 1 Earth is undergoing dramatic, radical lifetimes. Unless we heal this relation­ have a pollution prevention office that change. Three factors have combined ship now, we run the risk of crossing a does great work We have got to move to to produce this radical change: point of no return, beyond which the the next generation: to integrate pollu­ population growth, which is now ability to repair the damage will be tion prevention into every inglc thing adding the equivalent of one China's much diminished. that we do .... We must look for opportu­ worth of people every 10 years; new '1 am filled with hope because I see nities in permits, in rulemaking, and in technologies, which vastly magnify tremendous signs of progress and enforcement, to bring pollution preven­ the impact that human beings have on change. But all of us know very well tion ideas into every single thing that we the Earth, bringing us great blessings that the only way that change will do. Pollution prevention is our best hope but also often bringing us adverse come is if the United States of America for the future of environmental protec­ consequences that we did not antici­ leads the way .... This is a turning tion; not just environmental regulation, pate and are not really prepared to point. These next several years are but environmental protection. deal with; and third-most important years that President Clinton, Carol "A second priority: Why do we do the of all-a way of thinking about our Browner, and I want to be the most work that we do? To protect ecosy terns. relationship to the Earth which has exciting years of your lives. We want Unfortunately, however, the laws that convinced all too many that we simply you to be a part of a team that changes we are responsible for implementing are do not have to take responsibility for the way that we protect and preserve media-specifi c. TI1e challenge for us is to what we do; that we can act with the environment and changes the way reach across those media-specific I impunity. we as Americans think about and programs, to bring them together in a L These three factors together have fulfill our obligations of stewardship." I coordinated ecosystem protection

4 EPA JOURNAL EPA ROUNDUP

Secondhand Smoke Designated a Known Human Carcinogen

Jn its final assessment of the • Cigarette smoke increases respiratory health effects of frequency and severity of passive smoking, EPA has symptoms in 200,000 to 1 concluded that environmental million children with asthma tobacco smoke (ETS), also and increases the risk of new known as secondhand smoke, cases of asthma. is a human lung carcinogen, • Tobacco smoke also causes responsible for approximately build up of fluid in the middle 3,000 lung cancer deaths ear, a condition that can lead annually among U.S. non­ to ear infections .... " smokers. The Agency has also concluded that passive The Los Angeles Times smoking results in serious commented: " ... By formally respiratory problems for declaring that secondary infants and young children. smoke is a potent carcinogen EPA's Science Advisory Board in a class with radon, asbestos (SAB) has fully endorsed the and other established cancer­ risk assessment, including the causing agents, the report is conclusion that ETS should be likely to provide impetus for classified a "Group A" could fall to the Occupational smoking. efforts to further restrict Health and Safety Administra­ While all these lawsuits carcinogen, EPA's category of smoking in the workplace and greatest scientific certainty for tion. Action on Smoking and have been attempted before, elsewhere-renewing the Health, which for more than usually unsuccesshilly, the known or suspected carcino­ debate over the rights of gens. The SAB is the two decades has carried n EPA report is ex pected to be smokers versus those of anti-smoking crusades, has cited as compelling evidence Agency's independent panel nonsmokers .... The most of outside scientific advisors sued OSHA in an attempt to of the perils of passive smoke. bitter resistance to the EPA's force sharp restrictions or And it could aid plaintiffs that routinely reviews draft move to link secondary smoke reports. bans on smoking in the work even in cases in which and lung cancer has been place .... " exposure to the smoke waged by Philip Morris USA, According to The Wash­ preceded by many years the a leading cigarette manufac­ The Wall Street Journal issuance of the report. As in ington Post: " ... Health turer, and by the Tobacco advocates praised the report, said: '' ... As a result of the all such cases, though, th ' Institute, the industry's chief EPA's report linking 'passive' plaintiff will still have to saying that it was certain to lobbying organization. Some tobacco smoke to lung cancer prove that the presence of the lead to greater restrictions on 30 years after the landmark and other ailments, a new smoke caused his r her smoking in public places. The surgeon general's report on illness .... In part because of tobacco industry said that wave of tobacco-related smoking and health, the lawsuits is likely, legal the political complexity of scientific evidence does not industry continues to argue support the EPA's conclusions specialists say. These are pushing through regulations that there is no scientific proof expected to include: or legislation on su h contro­ .... Among the report's of a link between cancer and versial matters, the govern­ findings: smoking. Health groups­ • Workers' compensation ment has often encouraged among them the American claims by nonsmokers who private lawyers to bring • Secondhand cigarette Heart Assn., the American say they became ill in a lawsuits that might help bring smoke is a human carcino­ Cancer Society and the smoke-filled workplace. about the same r sults as gen, killing about 3,000 U.S. American Lung Assn.-said legislation. In th past, civil nonsmokers because of lung that they are hopeful the EPA • Suits against tobacco companies by nonsmokers rights and the environment cancer annually. report will spur government have been among the areas in action to curtail smoking in who have been exposed, • Cigarette smoke is respon­ anywhere, to cigarette smoke. which lawyers in the private sible for 150,000 to 300,000 public places .... Although the sector, sometimes viewed as cases of bronchitis and EPA has the authority to • Damage suits by customers 'private attorneys general,' pneumonia and other lower classify secondary smoke as a who experience adverse have promoted a public policy respiratory infections in carcinogen, it cannot itself reactions, such as respiratory through litigation .... " children up to 18 months of impose restrictions that would problems, at restaurants, bars age. protect nonsmokers. That role and other facilities that permit

APRIL-JUNE 1993 5 ·~"" ... ·-- - ..... -- .... ~;-.... :·?..._}.. -: ... ,~~ ...... - EPA ROUNDUP • ~ - - ,- ..l ... ;..;...... > ,... - : ;. : 4.

ENFORCEMENT

Stores Penalized knowing of the illegal sale of ozone depleting refrigerants is for Selling urged to call EPA' s Strato­ Ozone Depleters spheric Ozone Protection hotline at 800-296-1996. EPA's Boston office has proposed $161,000 in penalties against 10 retail stores in Texaco, U.S. Oil to Massachusetts and one each in Pay $14. 7 Million for New Hampshire and Rhode Island for selling auto air Oil Spills conditioning refrigerants Under consent decrees containing ozone depleters to proposed to the U.S. District the general public. Under the Court in Seattle, Texaco Clean Air Act, small containers Refining and Marketing Inc., (less than 20 pounds) of such and U.S. Oil & Refining Co., refrigerants may be sold only w ill pay a total of $14.7 to technicians certified to million in penalties and operate refrigerant recycling clean-up costs for two equipment. The violations separate oil spills in Wash­ occurred during a series of ington state. The actions, unannounced calls on auto announced by EPA, the of the spill, will install spill of the oil entered Com­ parts and hardware stores in Department of Justice, and prevention equipment at a mencement Bay, a part of which EPA inspectors posed as the U.S. Coast Guard, were cost of about $800,000, pay Puget Sound. The company customers. The penalties range the first to be brought under the government's removal will pay about $4 million to fr m $7,000 to $30,000, the O il Pollution Act of 1990, costs of $125,000, and pay a complete cleanup, will depending on the number of civil penalty of $480,000 to install spill prevention violations, the size of the store, enacted following the Exxon the United States in addition equipment at a cost of about and the amount of refrigerant Va ldez spill. to a $20,000 penalty already $800,000, pay the sold. The stores have 30 days Tex<\CO spilled approxi­ government's removal costs to request a hea ring with the mately 5,000 barrels of oil paid to Washington state. Agency. These are the first near Fidalgo Bay when a U.S. Oil spilled more than of almost $60,000, and pay a enforcement actions taken by pump exploded at its 14,000 barrels of oil at civil penalty of $425,000 to EPA under the Clea n Air Act refinery near Anacortes. The Tacoma when an under­ the United States in addition requirement, which went into company will pay about $8 ground pipe burst during to a $45,000 penalty paid to effect last November. Anyone million to complete cleanup unloading of a tanker. Some Washington state.

Standards to Be Strengthened for Disposal of Radioactive Wastes

EPA has proposed more roughly equivalent to two X­ mercial uses of nuclear fuel. tion of nuclear weapons. rigorous standards for rays. Also, releases of radioac­ Sources of spent nuclear fuel The standards and criteria protecting public health tive material could not cause include nuclear power plants will apply to the Department and the environment from ground water to exceed and nuclear defense produc­ of Energy (OOE) Waste the management, storage, standards set under the Safe tion reactors. High-level waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) and disposal of spent Drinking Water Act. The new is created when spent fuel is near Carlsbad, New Mexico, nuclear fuel, high-level, and standards would amend those processed to recover uranium a deep geologic repository transuranic radioactive established in 1985 under the and plutonium that is used in for defense transuranic wastes. Specifically, waste Atomic Energy Act; EPA will weapon programs. Most wastes. Before disposing of disposal systems would develop criteria for certifying transuranic wastes consist of wastes at the WIPP site, OOE have to limit exposure of compliance with them. rags, equipment, tools, and must demonstrate that individuals to no more than Radioactive wastes result sludges that have become operations there will comply 15 millirems per year- from government and com- contaminated in the produc- with the EPA standards.

6 EPA JOURNAL . : ~ •· r ~ ,, ......

EPA "Energy Star" Expands to Computer Printers

ln a major expansion of EPA' s government to encourage makers of computer printers, redesigned model will draw Energy Star program, which pollution prevention and representing 80 percent of the only 18 to 19 watts, he said. awards Energy Star logos to voluntary corporate environ­ laser-printer market, had But it may take 30 seconds energy-conserving personal mentalism. The companies agreed to redesign their to wam1 up after a long idle computers, (see July I August joining the Energy Star printer machines to use less power period, compared with 1992 EPA Journal), companies program should be applauded when they are on standby. For about 10 seconds for the accounting for 80 percent of for being at the forefront of a many printers, that's nearly all current models. At Bull the laser printers sold in the worldwide movement toward day long .... Manufacturers that H. . Italia, which makes United States have committed creating consumer products meet the standards will get an printers under the to introducing printers that that incorporate environmental 'Energy Star' seal to put on the Compuprint brand, Ralph can automatically reduce protection and energy-saving box. A similar program was Levey, a manager, said the power consumption when criteria." announced for computers last main 'bells and whistles' inactive. Studies show that year .... At Lexmark Interna­ that sell computers are computer equipment is The New York Times com­ tional, the company that factors like the number of inactive the vast majority of mented: " ... The secret to produces printers for I.B.M., dots in an inch and how time it is turned on. EPA energy conservation, according Virgil Boler, a product assur­ many kinds of type the estimates that Energy Star to the Environmental Protec­ ance manager, said the printer can produce. But printers will save 6 billion tion Agency, is not always company's laser printers eventually customers will kilowatt-hours of electricity doing more with less. Some­ typically drew about 300 watts seek out machines that use each year, reducing air times it means doing nothing when they were running and less power, he said. 'It may pollution from power plants with less. Specifically, the 68 watts when they were doing very well be that you'll see and saving consumers $450 agency wants electronic nothing. Much of the 68 watts bids from the Government million in electric bills. equipment to draw less powers a bulb for heating the that the printers must meet Administrator Carol Browner electricity while it is switched drum that is used to fuse the E.P.A. guidelines,' he said. said: "Today's announce­ on but waiting for something ink to the page; some of the 'It's an idea that has long ment reflects President to do. So last week, the agency electricity also runs a fan to been appropriate .. .. "' Clinton's vision of reinventing announced that seven leading carry off excess heat. The

On Board Computers to Watch Over Auto Emission Controls

Under a final ru le issued by EPA, will not 011/y ide11tifi; the problem standards ." each time a vehicle is driven. If on board diagnostic computers but will alert the driver with a a system is functioning will be installed on passenger cars dashboard light. Repairs of The Wall Street Journal in1properly, a dashboard light and light trncks to mo11itor the malfunctions discovered early on reported: " ... The Environ­ will alert drivers to the operation of emissio11 co11tml are 11s1ially less complicated and mental Protection Agency problem. The systems also will systems commenci11g with the cn11 freq 11ently be accomplished ordered that new passenger record where problems, which 1994 model year. l11for111atio11 011 1111der 111m111fact11rer's warra11ty. cars and light tnicks include often are difficult to find, are malfunctions will be stored in a 011 iss11i11g the rule, Adminis­ diagnostic computer systems occurring. California already memory bank, which can then be trator Carol Browner co111111e11tcd: that check for malfunctions in requires similar diagnostic accessed by technicians. "Proper vehicle 11zai11tl'lla11ce emission-control components systems for vehicles sold in According to the Age11 cy, many prolo11gs the life of vehicles, .... The diagnostic-systems that state. According to the problems with emission control improves fuel eco 110111y, and regulation applies to new cars EPA, the new systems required systems do not affect a car's msures rctum on the $50 billio11 and light trucks starting with by the federal government will performance, a11d drivers are not that motorists have i11vested i11 the 1994 model year. Under add about $65 to the cost of au.xire of them. Also, the com­ auto pol/11tio11 co11trols. I also the regulation, which stems each new car or light truck, an plexities of modern day co11lrols expect this 11ew program to be11efi t from the 1990 Clean Air Act, expense that largely will be often require exami11atio11 of the many of the areas rnrre11tly auto makers will have to install offset by fuel savings and en tire system lo discover a exceeding federal ozo11e a11d devices tha t check emission­ reduced repair problem. The 011 board computer carbo11 monoxide air q11ality control systems at least once costs .... "

APRIL-JUNE 1993 7 Resource Rich and Poor The world's inequitable distribution of wealth and consumption

UNITED STATES United States

Per capita Gross National Product $21.039 Energy use per capita (millions BTUs) 309 Access to safe water (rural population) NA Infant mortality (per 1000) 10 Population under 15 years 212 % ~ Calorie intake per day 3,200+ @O@ ATLANTIC OCEAN

Brazil

Per capi ta Gross National Product $2,952 Energy use per capi ta (millions BTUs) 47 Access to safe water (rural population) 86% Infant mortality (per 1000) 63 BRAZIL Population under 15 years 337% Calorie intake per day 2.400-2. 799

PACIFIC OCEAN

Zimbabwe

Per capita Gross National Product Energy use per capita (millions BTUs) Access to safe water (rural population Infant mortality (per 1000) Population under 15 yea rs Calorie intake per day China

Per capita Gross National Product $374 Energy use per capita (millions BTUs) 24 Romania Access to safe water (rural population) 66% Infant mortality (per 1000) 32 Per capita Gross National Product $2,312 Population under 15 years 26.3 % Energy use per capita (millions BTUs) 132 Calorie intake per day 2.400-2,799 Access to safe water (rural population) 90% Infant mortality (per 1000) 22 Population under 15 years 218% Calorie intake per day 3,200 +

Ethiopia

Per capita Gross National Product Energy use per capita (millions BTUs) Access to safe water (rural population) 11% Infant mortality (per 1000) 137 Population under 15 years 46.2 % Calorie intake per day under 2,000

Bangladesh

Per capita Gross National Product $181 Energy use per capita (millions BTUs) 4 Access to safe water (rural population) 89% Infant mortality (per 1000) 119 Popula tion under 15 years 42.1 % $609 Calorie intake per day under 2.000 30 80% INDIAN OCEAN 66 44.1 % 2,000-2,399

Sources: The 1993 lnformarion Please Environmental Almanac, Atlas of the Envlfonment Beyond Mere Survival Hope lies in equitable partnerships between rich and poor countries by Shridath Ramphal

his issue of the EPA journal is support the rest. But when many tum keeps birth rates high. Poverty, in a devoted to sustainability and the families act the same way, the result is perverse but historically predictable developing world. It follows an far more people than resources can way, restrains the demographic transi­ earlier issue on working toward sustain. Where there is already too little tion to smaller families. sustainability in the United States. The food, water, health care, sanitation, A fundamental response to the conjunction is significant, underlining as housing, jobs, energy, and land, rapid challenge of the population crisis is, it does that "sustainable development'' population growth makes development therefore, inseparable from a response to applies to all countries. the need for development itself. Ecology Nothing illustrates better how and economy are twin elements of global sustainability challenges us all than the sustainability. Trade illustrates this well. link between population and poverty. Poverty ... restrains Developing countries know that trade Growth rates have been declining, but by can be the engine that powers their climb 2050 the planet could have double the the demographic out of poverty. They have taken the number of humans it has now. While as advice coming from industrial countries much as 90 percent of this growth will be transition to smaller and from bodies like the International in developing countries, the impact of Monetary Fund and the World Bank; to a their increase on the environment (if families. far greater extent than before, they are present consumption patterns persist) turning to the global marketplace, just as will be lower than that exerted by the 10 they are embracing market forces at percent added in the developed coun­ difficult. In Kenya, for example, which home. But they face an array of restric­ tries. Nevertheless, there is no avoiding suffers acutely from land hunger, urban tions that prevent them from competing the reality that burgeoning populations unemployment, and environmental freely and benefiting fully from their in poor countries will strain their natural stress, a woman now produces nearly comparative advantage in producing resources beyond tolerable limits. seven children on average. The popula­ many types of exports. Even very poor For a family on the edge of survival, it tion could quadruple to nearly 100 countries like Bangladesh (annual makes sense to have several children in million in 35 years if the present rate of income $180 per head in 1989) and very the hope that some will survive to growth continues. In Bangladesh, where small ones like Mauritius (population almost every acre of cultivable land is 200,000) have found that the world already used, and millions live on flood­ market bristles with obstacles placed by (Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana, Secre­ prone mudbanks, facing imminent much richer countries. tan;-Genera/ of the Commonwealth 1975- disaster, the population is expected to Industrial countries, for example, 90, is President of the World Conservation double from 110 million to 220 million often follow a policy that favors imports Union (IUCN) and Co-Chairman of the over the same period, even assuming a with the least value added. Processed Commission on Global Governance. He halving of the birth rate. Increases in and manufactured products are discour­ was a member of the Brundtland Commis­ population pressure of this order aged through rates of import duty that sion and a Special Adviser to the Secretary­ contribute to many of the world's most are higher than those imposed on the General of the Earth Summit, for which he acute environmental problems, including raw material. Sawn timber, for example, wrote Our Country, The Planet (Wash­ deforestation and desertification. They faces a higher duty than raw logs, ington: Island Press). widen and deepen poverty, which in generally admitted at zero duty; furni-

10 EPA JOURNAL ture carries an even higher tariff than 20 out of 24 industrial countries are more age of gross national product they devote timber. The environmental conse­ protectionist now than they were 10 to foreign aid, with Japan now surpass­ quences are inevitable. years ago. It is because they block free ing the United States in absolute terms as This policy is applied to many trade in this way that rich countries have well? · product poor cOLmtries need to export: an added obligation to support the Third However, it is not the withholding of cotton, jute, leather, rubber, paper, iron, World through aid. aid alone that retards sustainability in the tobacco. Fruit and vegetables also Unfortw1ately, at the Earth Summit, developing world; it is the withholding confront escalating tariffs: Prepared the U. . Conference on Environment of technology, as well. Developing products have to pay twice the duty and Development (UNCED) held last countries must, of course, make their charged on fresh produce. Because June in Brazil, there was no firm commit­ development as environmentally benign industrial nations adopt this approach, ment of so-called "nt?w and additional as possible. This obligation they share exporting countries have to sell more of resources" from rich countries for with industrially advanced nations. the raw product to earn the same implementation of Agenda 21. The They now know much more about the income. They can do so only by putting decision to provide the funds needed sources of ecological damage and of the more pressure on their land and other was deferred-at best, for consideration processes and practices they should try natural resources. by the rich among themselves; at worst, to avoid. But this knowledge does not Policies that offer developing coun­ ad infinitum. Agenda 21 was agreed to, guarantee that they can use alternative tries better access to markets will be but in effect made subject to the rich processes. better for both world trade and planetary countries' providing resources to Green technologies-recycling health. The trade barriers rich countries supplement and energize the much techniques, alternative energy sources, impose cost poor countries billions of greater resources to be provided by the thriftier engines, CFC-free coolants-are dollars in lost export earnings. These poor themselves. developed mainly in indusbial countries, losses exceed by far what industrial What are the prospects for which have some 95 percent of the nations give as development aid, sustainability when over the last decade world's facilities and scientists for amounting to $54 billion in 1990. The more than half of all U.S. aid went to research and development. For the World Bank reckons that, on clothing only two countries (Israel and Egypt); global movement to sustainable develop­ and textiles alone, developing countries when the United States, which once ment to gain momentum, poor nations are losing as much as $24 billion a year, provided 60 percent of the world's aid, must be helped to employ these tech­ owing to protectionist curbs in rich now gives only about 16 percent; when nologies as they industrialize and as they cow1tries. These barriers have been more than two dozen nations now modernize their farming. This requires increasing. The United Nations says that exceed the United States in the percent- international arrangements for the

A study in contrasts: A poor Rio shantytown uphill from lpanema Beach, world famous for attracting upscale tourists.

APRIL-JUNE 1993 11 transfer of technology to developing Other implications follow. The greenhouse gas emissions, and those nations on tenns suited to their circum­ partnership is not between equals. emissions are overwhelmingly from stances. Developed and developing countries are developed countries, there is no avoiding More is r quired than awareness. The unequal in responsibility for getting it the conclusion that the primary require­ dual responsibilities of rich and poor wrong and in capacity for setting it right. ment is a reduction in emissions from countries are not wholly separate and Aristotle, in his Ethics, has instructed us those developed countries. There are self-contained. It is not simply a matter that equity between unequals requires roles for developing countries, like not of each group of countries pursuing its not "reciprocity" but "proportionality." adding to the problem by burning own path to sustainable development His dictum holds in this ultimate domain rainforests, but the central requirement is and the paths converging in a secure of environmental restoration. Propor­ a change in course by developed coun­ environment. The logo of UNCED tionality must be the ethical touchstone tries. The same is true for many other depicts the Earth "ln Our Hands." lt of the roles of developed and developing elements of global environmental asserts that sustainable development countries in their partnership for degradation: ozone layer depletion, acid requires a shared effort by all the world's survival through sustainable develop­ rain, over-fishing, hazardous waste, people, a partnership for survival in ment. nuclear risks. 'The polluter pays" is a which each cow1try has a role that is Practicality dictates no differently. If principle with application beyond related to, sometimes integrated into, the climate change, with its serious implica­ national frontiers-and beyond financial roles of others. tions for all, is essentially the result of recompense.

Products of the Earth Summit

The nearly 180 governments partici­ Secretary General Maurice Strong than 150 countries: pating in the U.N. Conference on called Agenda 21 "the most comprehen­ • A Framework Convention on Climate Environment and Development sive, the most far-reaching and, if Change requires signatories to take (UNCEO) adopted three new implemented, the most effective steps to reduce their emissions of agreements by consensus: program of international action ever gases believed to contribute to global sanctioned by the international commu­ warming, although no mandatory • The Rio Declaration on Environment nity." Agenda 21 comprises hundreds targets and timetables for such a11d Development sets out 27 prin­ of pages of recommended actions to actions were set, largely at the ciples to guide the behavior of address environmental problems and insistence of U.S. negotiators. In Rio, nations toward more environmen­ promote sustainable development. It then-President George Bush signed tally sustainable patterns of develop­ also represents an experimental process the climate change convention. On ment. The declaration, a delicate of building consensus on a "global April 21, 1993, President Clinton compromise between developing workplan" for the economic, social, and pledged that the United States would and industrialized countries which environmental tasks of the United reduce its emissions of greenhouse was tortuously crafted at prepara­ Nations as they evolve over time. gases to their 1990 levels by the year tory meetings, was adopted in Rio • The third official product of UNCED 2000 and would take the lead in without negotiation due to fears that was a "non -legally binding aiithoritative addressing global warming. further debate would jeopardize any statement of principles for a global consen­ agreement. UNCED Secretary • A Framework Convention on Biologi­ sus on the managemellt, conservation, and General Maurice Strong and U.N. cal Diversity prescribes steps for the Secretary General Boutros Boutros­ sustainable development of all types of protection and sustainable use of the Ghali each praised the declaration as forests." Negotiations on the forest world's diverse plant and animal statement, begun as negotiations for a an important achievement, but species. Then-President Bush refused legally binding convention on forests, called on states to negotiate a more to sign the biodiversity convention, were among the most difficult of the inspirational and legally progressive citing concerns about protection of UNCED process. Many states and "Earth Charter" for adoption in 1995 intellectual property rights and the experts, dissatisfied with the end result, on the 50th anniversary of the treaty's financing arrangements. On United Nations. emerged from UNCED seeking further April 21, President Clinton reported negotiations toward agreement on a that the Administration had worked •States at U CED also adopted a framework convention on forests. out an interpretive statement ad­ voluntary action plan called Agenda dressing some business and environ­ 21, so named because it is intended Two international conventions were mental groups' concerns, and he to provide an agenda for local, presented and opened for signature at announced that the United States national, regional, and global action UNCED, each of which attracted would sign the biodiversity conven­ into the 21st century. UNCED signatures of representatives of more tion. -Knthy Sessions

12 EPA JOURNAL ci 0 .s:= Q .>< ~~~~~~ ~-..:...:..&...--..:--~~~~~~~~~~~..:Je.:..-~..... ~~=--""L..:.."---".A::: ::.---...... ~~~~

In crowded Calcutta, rush hour mingles old and new modes of transportation.

What if the developed world refuses provide total assurance. Poverty traps the developing world in to take the path of sustainable develop­ Meanwhile, the industrial world a vicious circle of constraint against ment, including helping the developing continues to consume 75 percent of the sustainability. Chronic poverty works world to do so? The most extreme world's commercial energy, 90 percent against civil so iety, against good consequence would be environmental of its traded hardwood, 81 percent of governance and the realization of human catastrophe, with severe implications for its paper, 80 percent of its iron and rights broadly understood in their human life on the planet. To a degree steel, 70 percent of its milk and meat, economic, social, and cultural dimen­ unique in human history, a quarter of 60 percent of its fertilizers-to mention sions, no less than the civil and political. humanity has the potential not just for only some of the distortions in con­ As every sign points to poverty having self-destruction, but for the extinction of sumption- leaving Jess than a quarter grown and continuing to grow in the the human species. of the global resource pie for the other developing vvorld, this circle bears Developing countries cannot resign three-quarters of the world's people. directly on the prospects for themselves to that scenario, yet they Developing countries ask whether sustainability, although it is seldom know they are not empowered to global sustainability can really be talked about. frustrate it. They can find hope in the achieved under such skewed appor­ The nw11ber of people living in fa ct that as three-quarters of the world's ti onments of wealth and poverty. They poverty-on the equivalent of a dollar a people they are not wholly without ask whether a compact isn't needed day or less-which the World Ba nk negotiating strength, that with many in under w hich they restrain their placed at 1.1 billion in 1985, is now the developed world sharing their proclivity for short-term progress in estimated to have reached arow1d 1.2 insistence on survival they will never exchange fo r assurance of a new global billion. The United Nations expects this be entirely by themselves, that in the setting that offers space for their long­ figure to touch 1.3 billion by 2000 and final analysis our human instinct to term development. They have not had probably 1.5 billion by 2025-an inexo­ preserve life will transcend our capac­ an answer; what they infer from the rable expansion in the number of human ity to destroy it. But not even taken body language of the rich countries is beings condemned to lives of deprivation together do these fac tors for hope not reassuring. and desperation. Among children w1der

APRI L-JUNE 1993 13 five, 180 mm ion are reported to suffer from serious malnutrition, while 14 million die annually- most of them from preventable causes. In many parts of the What's in Agenda 21? developing world, notably sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, there have been sharply reduced economic growth The Preamble outlines the purpose, wastes, and radioactive wastes. rates, falls in real per capita income, scope, intent, and some of the Section 3, "Strengthening the rising unemployment, and cutbacks in terminology used throughout the text Role of Major Groups," includes education and health care. of Agenda 21. ways to increase the participation in The implications of such marginal Section 1, "Social and Economic sustainable development efforts of existence are that for people the priority Dimensions," includes recom­ major social groups: women, youth, is survival and that for governments the mended actions on: sustainable indigenous peoples, nongovern­ reality is powerlessness. Strategies for development cooperation, poverty, mental organizations, local authori­ susta inable development are the best consumption, demographics, hea1th, ties, trade unions, business and options for survival, but they present human settlements, and integration of industry, scientific and technologi­ themselves as alternative pathways; their environment and development in cal communities, and farmers. adoption presupposes a capacity to act decision making. Section 4, "Means of Implemen­ a11d a horizon farther away than tomor­ Section 2, "Conservation and tation," comprises chapters on row. Since survival in many developing Management of Resomces for financial resources; technology countries does connote making i.t to Development," includes chapters on transfer, cooperation, and capacity tomorrow, governments feel impelled to atmospheric protection, land re­ building; science; education, public opt for short-term gains. The best chance sources, deforestation, desertification awareness, and training; institu­ for sustainability, then, lies in poor and drought, mountains, agriculture, tional arrangements; legal instru­ societies, themselves, choosing the path biological diversity, biotechnology, ments and mechanisms; and that their ow n long-term interests oceans, freshwater resources, toxic information collection, analysis, and require. One way of improving the odds chemicals, hazardous wastes, solid dissemination. is to strengthen the capacity of people at -Kathy Sessions the community level, so that the impetus fo r sustainability does not have to come entirely from governments. required to establish the conditions of sustainability in developed countries­ This implies a larger role for nongov­ civil society. When everything has been wi.11 depend on the capacities of people ernmental organizations. More funda­ said about international regimes, about to discern the pathway of sustainable mentally, it means developin g a free indus trial country policies, and about living and to ta ke it. • society in the true sense of the word. governmental programs fo r sustainable Fom1al democracy through elections is development, sustainability in the only the beginning. Much more is developing world-perhaps not u nlike

This boy was born retarded, deaf, and almost mute. Doctors believe he suffered prenatal lead poisoning attributable to a landfill near his Bangkok home. Environmental stresses are coupled with inadequate access to health care in many developing countries.

14 EPA JOURNAL Building the Capacity for Change The world stands ill-prepared to address problems that cut across sectors and boundaries by Kathy Sessions

"It is much harder to a.sk the right more basic questions such as, What is address problems that cut across either question than to find the right answer sustainable development? What are the sectors or national boundaries are quite and even the right answer to the wrong first priorities for action among the weak. For now, the lack of definition of question isn't worth much." myriad environmental and economic sustainable development may be a -Elting Morison, goals set out in Rio? And whose capaci­ "constructive ambiguity," because it has Men, Machines, and Modern Times ties are to be strengthened-from engaged nations in a process of discov­ governments and international institu­ ery about the interrelationships of their tions to markets and nongovernmental worlds. tis already a truism to say that the organizations-to play what roles? Building capacities for sustainable United Nations Conference on At first glance, the official products of development caru1ot be seen merely as I Environment and Development UNCED are of little help. None provide developing technical expertise in various (UNCED) heralded a 11ew global comrrlit­ a succinct definition of "sustainable sectors. The biggest challenge is to ment to sustainable development, development." The Rio Declaration on develop decision-making processes, from premised on the interconnectedness of Environment and Development's 27 the local to the global level, that involve human activity and the environment. principles are more a list of North-South input from all relevant actors and that Also widely accepted is the notion that compromises than coherent guidelines are designed to deal with the relation­ "capacity building" is needed, from the for sustairntbility. And Agel1da 21, ships between sectors and between grassroots to the global level, to translate UNCED' s rnammoth action p\an, commumtie5. this new commitment into reality. recommends more than 2,500 ,actions in UNCED took at least two steps in this Capacity building usually is under­ 150 program areas, without explicit direction, the first being Agenda 21 itself. stood to mean helping governments, prioritization. 'fhe two-and-one-half year negotiation of communities, and individuals develop Look a bit deeper, however, and the the action plan-involving delegates the skills and expertise needed to achieve UNCED agreements provide fairly dear, from nearly 180 countries and hundreds their goals. Ca.pa.city-building programs, if tentative, lessons for capacity building of outside experts-was an experimental often designed to stre11gthen participants' on the road from Rio. process for building consensus on a abilities to evaluate their policy choices Goverrunents from all ki11ds of global sustainable development work and implement decisions effectively, may countries acknowledged at UNCED that plan. The final product combines include education and training, institu~ the well being of current and future recommendations for sectorial actions tional and legal reforms, as well as generations are interconnected-by with suggestions for integrating environ­ scientific, technological, and financial ecosystems and markets, communica­ mental and economic consideratioJlS in assistance. tions and migrations-and that meeting decision making. The centerpiece is a Ask what specific capacity building is human needs will require decision recommendation that national govern­ needed to achieve sustainable develo~ making that can cope with these inter­ rnents and local communities prepare rnent, and you will get many answers, connections. Most governments are their own "Agenda 21" plans, not as reflecting conflicting opinions about better suited to handle an array of ends in themselves but rather as tools for specific concerns-such as energy or exploring the linkages among a wide (Sessions is a senior policy analyst in the waste management-than to deal with range of policy decisions and their Washington Office of the United Nations the relationships between sectors. And impacts on current and future genera­ Association of the U.S.A.) the capacities of the world community to tions.

APRIL-JUNE 1993 15 Agenda 21 emphasizes the impor­ teclmical resource issues, and recom­ tives-rather than just envirorunental tance of broad social participation in mend further actions to promote sustain­ protection, and there are few widely these and other decision-making pro­ able development. "Cross-sectorial" accepted standards in this evolving area cesses, devoting an entire section to issues such as financing and capacity by which the body could evaluate means of "strengthening the roles of building will be discussed annually; behavior. It falls to the CSD itself to major groups" as important partners, sectorial issues will be considered as part build consensus on norms of behavior including business and industry, labor, of a multi-year review of Agenda 21 which, over time, could provide a basis farmers, indigenous peoples, women, beginning in 1994. As in UNCED, a for more effective monitoring and youth, local authorities, scientific and range of NGOs will participate as compliance. technical communities, and nongovern­ observers, submitting reports and The new CSD is, in the words of one mental organizations (NGOs). representing their constituencies. Each U.N. diplomat, a new room in a house CSD session will conclude with a short under renovation. While broader U.N. A Permanent Forum Created ministerial meeting to give political reform initiatives may eventually streamline the labyrinth of U.N. eco­ A second step taken by UNCED to impetus to its work and to discuss urgent and emerging concerns about the nomic, social, and environmental efforts, strengthen global decision-making environment and development. the new commission begins with no capacities was a decision to create a high­ The CSD' s first meeting will be budgetary authority over other U.N. level U.N. Commission on Sustainable crucial, shaping expectations as well as bodies or over the World Bank and the Development (CSD) to serve as a its methods of work. With such short International Monetary Fund, which permanent forum through which sessions, commission meetings must be have direct impacts on socioeconomic governments could review progress organized carefully. And much of its and environmental welfare. North-South toward the goals of UNCED and inte­ work will have to be done disagreements, not only over economic grate economic and environmental intersessionally-by working groups, policies but over the mechanisms for policy making. secretariat staff, and outside experts­ decision making, continue to fragment Since then, the U.N. General Assem­ but these arrangements have yet to be power between the one-state, one-vote bly and its Economic and Social Council resolved. bodies of the U.N.-enjoying political have moved to establish the CSD. In Getting the CSD underway will still legitimacy but unable to command February, they elected the United States leave significant gaps in global decision­ resources-and the one-dollar, one-vote and 52 other states as charter members of making capacities. Some environmental­ international financial institutions­ the new commission and scheduled its ists initially hoped that the CSD could act enjoying the confidence of donors but not first substantive session for June 14-25, as a watchdog to monitor compliance of broad legitimacy. 1993, in New York City. governments and international institu­ The CSD will rely on political rather The CSD will meet for two to three tions with environmental agreements, than legal authority to integrate global weeks each year. It will review reports much as the Human Rights Commission environmental and economic policies. from governments and international does in its field. Yet the CSD's mandate Its success will depend heavily upon the organizations of their efforts to imple­ is sustainable development-integrating q~ty of participation from national ment Agenda 21, discuss financial and environmental and economic objec- governments, including the reports and

Reprinted with permission.

16 EPA JOURNAL information they provide, the technical expertise and political authority their delegates bring, and the degree to whlch these governments reinforce CSD decisions through national representa­ tives to other international forums. Governments must ensure that the CSD secretariat has adequate resources to fulfill its fom1idable mission of integrat­ ing information from a complex array of sources and maintaining momentum between sessions. They also should schedule CSD sessions to follow other relevant international meetings to enable the CSD to integrate and build on work being done elsewhere. It comes down to political will: If the United States and other cow1hies use the new commission to build consensus on global sustainable development goals, and if the countries reinforce that consensus through their national and international efforts, the CSD in turn can greatly strengthen their collective capacities to tackle environment and development problems. Much also depends upon govern­ ments complementing this global effort by creating similar decision-making processes at regional, national, and local levels. National governments in particular must improve their ability to address sustainable development problems in a holistic manner, i.1clud­ ing participatory processes for consul­ tation and mechanisms to coordinate Basic infrastructure is sorely lacking in many developing countries. These national sustainable development Bogota workers are installing water pipes. efforts.

A Need for New Partnerships People began with different agendas, environmental degradation, poverty, and dollars in its fiscal year 1993 foreign aid along the road to Rio. Many participants population pressures. Representatives of budget on programs whose objectives from industrialized countries sought industrialized countries accepted a are onsistent with sustainable develop­ agreements to address urgent environ­ special obligation to help poorer coun­ ment and humanitarian goals. The study mental problems such as deforestation, tries build the capacities to make a acknowledged that some foreign aid climate change, and the rapid loss of transition to more sustainable paths of dollars are allo ated for other worth­ biological diversity. Participants from development, not as charity but as while objectives, such as conflict man­ developing counhies and those coun­ investments for shared benefit. TI1is agement and international coordination. tries making the transition away from emphasis on "common but differentiated It ultimately concluded, however, that communism were detennined to defend responsibilities" may prove to be one of many of the international economic the right to development of the world's UNCED's most important legacies, activities currently supported in the poor majority and to share the burden of pointing to the potential of sustainable foreign aid budget should be reevalu­ change with industrialized countries development capacity building as a new ated, reduced, or redirected, allowing for whose own economic development rationale for, and new approach to, a doubling of the amount devoted to patterns have had serious environmental development assistance. sustainable development. consequences. Such an approach could have signifi­ Agenda 21 highlights several areas In the process of negotiations, most cant implications for U.S. foreign where partnershlps for capacity building delegates began to acknowledge the assistance. A Bread for the World study are needed. For starters, each country is common stake shared by all states in recently concluded that the United States urged to review its national capacities resolving the interrelated problems of spent only about one out of every four and capacity-building needs for develop-

APRIL-JUNE 1993 17 ing national sustainable development international cooperation on global their actions. strategies. Donors are urged to provide environmental monitoring and assess­ A related priority is the need for financial and technical assistance for ment through the Ea rthwa tch program environmentally sound technologies. these reviews and for countries' subse­ of the UN. Environment Program During the UNCED negotiations, a quent efforts to implement their Agenda (UNEP). UNEP also is given the lead in U.S.-led effort to redirect debate from 21 plans. developing techniques like full-cost "technology transfer" toward "technol­ Agenda 21 also highlights the need for accounting, which would provide ogy cooperation" was received with improved information collec tion, decision makers with more accurate cautious interest by negotiators from analysis, and dissemination. It calls for reflections of the costs and benefits of developing countries. Recommendations that emerged in Agenda 21 included calls for the development of regional info rmation clearinghouses and research networks to help link national and global infor­ A Guide to International Organizations mation on environmentally sound technologies. International assistance is Agency for International Development-AID is the principal U.S. govern­ requested to build developing coun­ ment development assistance agency. AID's central Office of Environment tries' national capacities to assess and and Natural Resources supports a series of technica l assistance and support adopt appropriate technologies. projects for all AID field missions; geographic bureaus and field missions Governments are encouraged both to provide funding for a broad range of environmental and natural resource share publicly available technologies programs. with poorer countries and to provide Global Environment Facility-Established in 1990 through cooperation incentives to the private sector to share among the World Bank, UNEP, and UNDP, the GEF is an experiment in privately owned technologies. providing low- or no-interest loans for programs in four areas: protection of Beyond decision making and infonna­ the ozone layer, reduction of greenhouse gases, protection of international ti onal capacities, Agenda 21 places major water resources, and protection of biodiversity. emphasis on human resources. TI1is International Development Association-An affiliate of the World Bank, refl ects a broader acknowledgement of IDA is a lending agency intended to finance development projects in the the need to refocus development assis­ poorer member countries for the same general purposes as the World Bank. tance on building indigenous capacities, International Monetary Fund-The IMF is a specialized agency of the United recognizing that too often traditional Nations that aims to promote international monetary cooperation and "technical assistance" funding has been stabilization of currencies, to facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of spent on expatriate experts whose work world trade, and to help member countries meet temporary difficulties in fa ils to strengthen local ownersl ip of or foreign payments. capacities to sustain their activities. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development-OECD pro­ Agenda 21 gives the U. . Develop­ motes economic and social welfare in member countries and harmonious ment Program (UNDP) the primary development of the world economy. Members of OECD are the industrialized responsibility for mobilizing and countries of North America and Western Europe, and Australia, Japan, and coordinating international capacity­ New Zealand. build ing assistance. In response, UNDP United Nations Development Program- UNDP is the United Nations' has initiated a "Capacity 21" program central agency for funding economic and social development projects around designed "to help governments build the the world. It is intended to help developing countries increase the wealth­ capacity to fo rmulate and implement producing capabilities of their natural and human resources. national programs of sustainable United Nations Environment Program- UNEP is the U.N. agency intended development." The program is intended to cover the major environmental issues facing both the developed and the to help ini tiate capacity-building efforts developing areas of the world. UNEP also is responsible for promoting that would ultimately be mainstreamed environmental law and education and training for the management of the into ongoing development efforts. environment. World Bank-Officially named the International Bank for Reconstruction and Words Come Easier Than Money Development, the World Bank is the leading organization in the fi eld of Enthusiastic Vf'rbal commitments made multilateral financing of investment and technical assistance. Beginning by heads of state in Rio failed to translate operations in 1946, this specialized agency of the United Nations originally into much fi nancial support. UNCED was concerned with reconstruction of Europe after World War II and now negotiators had wrangled over how provides assistance to developing nations and the underdeveloped areas of sustainable development assistance the Western world. should be handled, with the "Group of -Eds. Tl" bloc of nearly 130 developing Sources: International Organizations: A Dictionary and Directory by Giuseppe Sc/1iavo11e (SI. James Press, 1983); World Directory of Environmental Organizations by Thaddeus Tryzna and cow1tries pressing for the creation of a Robert Childes (California Institute of P11blic Affairs, 1992!. new, democratically controlled "Green

18 EPA JOURNAL Low-tech operation: A camel operates a community we/I in Bangladesh. Agenda 21 calls for regional information clearinghouses and research networks to share information on environmentally sound technologies.

Fund," and the industrialized country without clear commitments of resources ability of existing development efforts to governments favoring the donor­ to fulfill those tasks. Some pledges made build effective sustainable development controlled Global Environment Facility. at Rio, like that of the European Commu­ capacities, fueling increasing concern for By the end, such disagreements over nity of about $4 billion for Agenda 21, the quality as well as quantity of funds financing mechanisms became less were offered without clarifying whether spent. And UNCED's political reach did significant than the fact that little new this was new or only redirected assis­ not extend, by and large, to the World money was available through any tance. Bank, the International Monetary Fund, mechanism . The governments did The tacit agreement reciched in Rio the General Agreement on Tariffs and agree that "new and additional" that donors would add an "Earth Trade, transnational corporations, or resources would be needed to finance Increment" to the next replenishment of other major actors whose decisions are Agenda 21 through a variety of mecha­ the International Development Associa­ likely to have far greater in1pacts on nisms, although most of the responsi­ tion, the branch of the World Bank which economic and environmental bility for financing national efforts falls makes interest-free loans to the poorest sustainability than will development to each country. They also agreed that countries, has yet to move forward. A assistance. the "cost of inaction could outweigh pledging conference at the 47th General In many ways UNCED mirrored the financial costs of implementing Assembly last fall did yield some domestic concerns with the quality of Agenda 21 ." increased offerings for development human life enjoyed by citizens now and But industrialized countries' domestic activities, among those a U.S. pledge for in the future. Americans share with preoccupations, preexisting foreign aid increased bilateral and multilateral others around the world a hope that the commitments, and a global recession development assistance in 1993, but end of the cold war creates new opportu­ appeared to confound their stated desire agai11 these came amidst confusion nities to meet human needs. Taking to provide support. Southern govern­ regarding their relationship to Rio goals. UNCEO's lessons to heart could help ments in tum made clear that their UNDP's efforts to raise $100 million for reinvigorate our awareness of the commitment to implement Agenda 21 Capacity 21 have brought in only $30 necessity of working within a global was contingent on assistance from their million to $40 million in pledges but conununity to build capacities for change Northern neighbors. The U.N. system­ almost nothing in hand. in a world order premised on including UNEP and UNDP-also was Serious questions remain for both sustainability, equity, prosperity, and given significant new responsibilities donor and recipient countries about the security for all . •

APRIL-JUNE 1993 19 Deforestation and the Frontier Lands

Costa Rica illustrates how economic problems can lead to environmental crisis by Carrie Meyer

n examination of the degrada­ to cattle ranchers, such as subsidized percent of Costa Rica's territory is suitable tion of Costa Rica's forests and credit and preferential exchange rates, to for pasture, implying that forests were A soils during the 1970s and early encourage them to produce beef for squandered and soil resources washed 1980s illustrates one facet of the concept export. From the 1960s to the late 1970s, away as steep and fragile slopes became of sustaim1ble development: A troubled beef exports increased over 500 percent, pastureland. Pastures also encroached on economy can lead to a degraded environ­ and forests were cut to make grazing good agricultural land, while small farmers ment. lands for the beef. Between 1963 and struggled to grow subsistence crops on Almost 70 percent of Costa Rica's total 1984, pastureland almost doubled, rising steep and eroding slopes. land area is suitable only for forests; yet, to 54 percent of the cow1try's land area. Poverty and unequal access to income because of rapid deforestation during the However, as the Tropical Science Center and land are also part of the picture. In past two decades, today Jess than 40 in San Jose points out, only about 10 1986, the poorest fifth of the population percent of the land is under forests. Once the forests were cut, soils that had sustained them were qujck.ly lost. Between 1970 and 1989, an estimated 2.2 billion metric tons of soil were eroded in Costa Rica. Had the loss of these natural assets been recorded, the annual depre­ ciation of soil and forest assets would have amounted to more than 5 percent of the Costa Rican gross domestic product (GDP) between 1970 and 1989. Costa Rica's land policies, economic subsidies, and the government's han­ dling of the debt crisis of the early 1980s can be directly linked to the destruction of the forest lands, as those policies ncouraged the nation's rapidly growing and poor population to move out onto the forested, or "frontier," lands. Among the poli ics that led to Costa Rica's troubles were incentives provided

(D r. Meyer is nn Associate of the World Resources lnsfitute (WRJ) n11rl conuthor of WR/'s October 1992 rrport, Population With city jobs scarce during the recession of the 1980s, many of Costa Rica's urban poor took Growth, Poverty, and Environmental refuge in rural areas. Farming lands unsuitable for agriculture, they car.ted out a meager Stress: Frontier Migration in the Philip­ existence at best. pines and Costa Rica.)

20 EPA JOURNAL received only 3.3 percent of national income, while the richest 10 percent received 38.8 percent. Land distribution was equally skewed. In 1984, 42 percent of the nation's farms were too small to support a family, while farms larger than 200 hectares tied up almost half of all agricultural land. High birth rates, especially in rural areas, meant that more and more peasants were forced to migrate in search of land or employment. Costa Rica's traditional land tenure policies also have exacerbated the destruction of frontier lands. Squatters were traditionally granted provisional rights to any under-utilized public or private land that they occupied for a year, if they "improved" the land by at least partially clearing it. They could then sell the land to a speculator or a cattle rancher who could receive full title. With government incentives for cattle ranching buoying demand for pasture, "professional squatters" had a compel­ ling reason to clear land merely to sell their "improvements" and then move on to repeat the process elsewhere in the forests. The "debt crisis" that hit Costa Rica in the early 1980s brought burgeoning unemployment and plummeting real wages, and pushed many more landless Most of Costa Rica makes poor pasture/and; nevertheless, many forested peasants toward the frontiers in search of acres were cleared in the 1960s and 1970s so that beef could be produced subsistence. The roots of that crisis can for export. Remaining forests show up dark in the background. be traced to the early 1970s, when economic policies biased toward indus­ try undermined the basis for sustained ln just two years-1981and1982- short-lived. Between 1977 and 1983, the economic growth. 1l1e growth Costa unemployment doubled and real wages number of people living below the Rica experienced later in the decade was dropped by 30 percent. poverty line swelled by 50 percent, but maintained only by rapid expansion in Rural areas became the refuge for by 1986 it had fallen again to its earlier the government sector, which was those with nowhere else to tum. While level. Be ause the economic recovery financed by foreign loans. In 1974, Costa migration from rural to urban areas was was led by growth in agriculture, the Rica's total long-term debt was $21.3 a major feature of the 1970s, during the poorest people bcnefitted the most. million (in 1984 dollars). By 1979, the five-year period leading up to 1984-­ Between 1981and1989, the incidence of debt had multiplied 13-fold and equalled which included the two years of deep poverty fell from 25.4 percent to 10.2 10 percent of GDP. recession-man.> migrants left the percent, even as per-capita income Due to a weakening global economy, metropolitan area than entered it. At the declined. Today, the Costa Rican falling commodity prices, and rising same time, the net number of those government has better positioned itself interest rates, Costa Rica found it leaving rural areas whose land resources to encourage both economic growth and impossible to service its debts and were ranked as "poor" or "very poor" environm 'nlal protection. The structural declared a moratorium on interest dropped dramatically. Four times as adjustment policies Costa Rica adopted payments in 1981. To obtain approval many squatters received rights to land in in the early 1980s laid a firm foundation for new loans from the International the period of economic crisis as did in the fo r its economic future. The nation has Monetary Fund, the government earlier census period. The vast majority also moved to protect its natural re­ adopted a stabilization plan that cut of these settled in districts with poor or source base by repealing the economic government expenditures by 28 percent very poor lands-lands that were incentives that encouraged beef exports between 1980 and 1982. 1l1is dramatic unsuitable for agriculture. and reforming land-tenure policies that contraction in the government sector led Fortunately, although Costa Rica's encouraged forest clearing.• the downturn of the rest of the economy. economic crisis was deep, it was also

APRIL-JUNE 1993 21 The World Bank's Post-Rio Strategy The bank plans to follow through on Agenda 21 by Mohamed T. El-Ashry

wenty years ago, popular how to operationalize sustainable and the Environment provided the consensus held that the goals of development, and equipped with that impetus and intellectual foundation for economic development and knowledge, we must set about closing the bank's current four-point strategy for environmental protection were mutually the gap between the rhetoric of sustain­ sustainable development, outlined exclusive. Economic development was able development and its limited practice below: believed to be unavoidably destructive to in the field. Regrettably, national and the environment and environmental international institutions-the World • Environ.mental Assessment. The first protection was considered a constraint to Bank included-have in the past not component of this strategy is the devel­ development. Today, this dichotomous fully met this challenge of implementa­ opment of a comprehensive environmen­ view has largely given way to a better tion. The poverty, hunger, and disease tal assessment procedure which aims to understanding of the linkages between suffered by millions in the developing ensure that development options under development and the environment. The world demand that we do better. consideration are environmentally sound accords agreed to at the United Nations Agenda 21-the main operational and sustainable. All projects the bank Conference on Environment and Devel­ product of UNCED-provides the post­ helps to finance-other than those such opment (UNCEO) indicate that develop­ Rio world with a starting point. A as education or family planning projects, ment policy makers have come to realize remarkably comprehensive document, it which are unlikely to have direct, that degradation of the environment and guides the implementation of national adverse environmental consequences­ depletion of valuable natural resources and international policies in support of must undergo an environmental analysis not only impede economic development sustainable development into the coming or a full environmental assessment, but threaten human survival. At Rio, the century. Agenda 21 also embodies one depending on their potential environ­ world community reached an unprec­ of UNCED's major themes-that mental impacts. Borrowers' environ­ edented consensus on the need to fully concerted action and shared responsibil­ mental assessment capabilities are integrate environmental concerns into ity by developed and developing strengthened by methodological, the mainstream of economic decision countries are crucial for addressing the technical, and staffing assistance pro­ making. This is essential for successfully linkages between development and the vided by the bank, and internal bank redirecting the economic, demographic, environment. support for environmental assessment and political forces that underlie envi­ What role should the World Bank has been bolstered until borrowers' rorunental degradation at both local and play in response to the Earth Summit's capacities have improved. global levels. clarion call for sustainable development? Environmental assessment is a vital To ensure that this vision materializes, With its long-standing commitment to first step. It recognizes and responds to a however, we need to move beyond poverty reduction and uniquely diverse powerful reality: If soils are damaged, agreement on the need for better and capacity-in technical assistance, project aquifers depleted, and ecosystems integrated policies and on to their finance, policy dialogue, and research­ disrupted, then regardless of any short­ effective implementation. We must learn the bank is well placed to adopt, and term income benefits, the long-run follow through on, the holistic approach prospects for development will be (El-Ashry is Chief Environmental Advisor championed by Agenda 21. The Earth undermined. But environmental to the President and Director of Environ­ Summit and the bank's own 1992 World assessment is only part of a strategy for ment at the World Bank.) Development Report on Development sustainable development. With the

22 EPA JOURNAL Better access to education can help break the cycle of poverty, population growth, and environmental degradation. The World Bank plans increased funding for education, health, nutrition, and family planning. This primary school is in Calcutta.

addition of four billion people to our are often politically marginalized and by two-thirds. And with the 10th grant numbers over the next 40 years, it is not excluded from the decision-making and refunding of th.e International Develop­ enough simply to protect the environ­ policy-implementation processes. Local ment Association (IDA)-the lending ment and promote economic growth. community participation and consulta­ arm of the bank-IDA has pledged a We must strike at the roots of poverty. tion can change this by establishing the stronger attack on poverty in the poorest • Reduction of Poverty. The second legitimacy of development efforts and countries of Southeast Asia, Africa, and component of the bank's strategy for policies at the outset, building powerful Latin America. Particular empha is will sustainable development builds on the constituencies for environmental be on poverty reduction, family plan­ relationships between poverty allevia­ stewardship, and greatly improving the rting, and social services for women in tion, economic efficiency, and environ­ prospects for successful implementation. these areas. mental quality. More than any other The key to effective change is empower­ Building on the syn rgy behvc n influence on the environment, none is as ing the poor to break the vicious cycle of poverty reduction and economic effi­ immediately powerful as poverty. For poverty, population growth, and ciency also has a powerful impact on the the poor just to survive, they are environmental degradation. envirorunent. The bank is working with compelled to take what they can from This means better access to education its borrowers to develop policies that can the land today, and they lack the means and social services as well as a voice in provide both substantial economic and to conserve their natural resources for and "ownership" of development efforts enviroru11ental benefits, such as the tomorrow. Yet, they suffer most directly that affect them. The bank's annual elimination of subsidies for environmen­ and severely when these resources social sector lending is projected to aver­ tally harmful activities, clarification of deteriorate. age about $5 billion over the next three property rights, and liberalizati on of To improve the environmental health years. Lending for clean water and sani­ trade. The elimination of energy subsi­ of developing countries, we must attack tation is expected to double, and invest­ dies in developing countries, for in­ the political consequences of poverty as ments in education, health, nutrition, and stance, would save governments nearly well as its economic basis. Poor people family planning are expected to increase $230 billion each year with a dramatic

APRIL-JUNE 1993 23 Ten countries, including the Philippines, have national environmental action plans that will help foster sustainable development. These terraced rice fields are part of a Philippine project studying the comparative success of different strains. impact on air quality. Where the links makers in environmental planning and cow1try's entire development strategy, between poverty and the environment investment strategies by reviewing EAPs represent the holistic, cross­ are not so positively related, policy environmental priorities and identifying sectoral approach called for by Agenda measures can minimize the tradeoffs by required policy actions, investments, and 21. They also help development assis­ targeting environmentally destructive institutional changes, coordinated across tance institutions and donor agencies set behavior with market-based incentives, economic and social sectors. EAPs also their own appropriate targets and such as ta xes or charges, or government facil itate policy dialogue between funding priorities. The bank's own reguJations. A recent study of air donors, recipients, and beneficiaries, as country assistance strategies are rein­ pollution from transport in Mexico City, their development is based on a process forced by analytical and policy work conducted by the bank and the Mexican of popular participation at all levels of done as part of national EAPs. regulatory authorities, recommended a the community. Ten such action plans­ • Global Environment Facility. The mix of such policies-mandated emis­ for Burkina Faso, Egypt, The Gambia, fourth and fi nal component of the bank's sion standards, fuel improvements, and a Ghana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Nigeria, strategy calls for addressing interna­ gasoline tax- some of which the city has Rwanda, the Philippines, and Sri tional environmental challenges through aJready begun to implement. Lanka- have been completed by IDA participation in the Global Environment • Setting Priorities and Defining countries thus far. Nineteen more are Facility (GEF). Two important conven­ National Strategies. The third part of the expected by the close of the bank's 1993 tions, dealing with biodiversi ty conser­ bank's post-UNCED strategy is to assist fiscal year. Regional environmental vation and climate change, were signed member countries in setting priorities, action plans are also underway (e.g., in in Rio, and the GEF has emerged as both building institutions, and formulating Central and Eastern Europe and in a facilitator and funding mechanism to targeted policies for environmental Africa) to address environmental secure the participation of developing stewardship. To this end, the bank problems that transcend national countries in realizing the goals of the Rio c ntinucs to provide ad vice and help borders. conventions and for integrating global arrange tcclrnical assistance for countries Environmental action plans explicitly environmental concerns into the devel­ in the preparation of their national recognize that the environment ca1rnot be opment process. environmental action plans (EAPs). The sectorially delineated. By integrating Established in 1990 as a three-year EAP process aid government decision sustainability considerations into a pilot program to address global environ-

24 EPA JOURNAL mental issues of cl imate change, ozone working to articulate linkag£'S to the generations by helping developing depletion, Joss of biodiversity, and biodiversity and climate change conven­ countries mitigate their growing contri­ pallution of international waters, the tions, and to assist developing countries bution to global environmental degrada­ GEF is implemented by the U.N. Devel­ in the formulation of their national action tion. opment Program, the U.N. Environment plans and strategies under these conven­ Behind the transition from policy Program, and the World Bank. The GEF tions. A major challenge for the GEF is integration to implementation at the provides a reasonably large volume of how it can play the catalytic role of World Bank is a spectrum of research additional resources to developing integrating global environmental and analysis that informs policy making countries to invest in global environmen­ considerations into the regular develop­ for environmentally sound development. tal protection. In total, industrialized ment assistance programs sponsored or The research efforts of the bank's and developing countries have pledged co-financed by bilateral and multilateral environment department and other some $1.3 billion to the faci li ty for agencies-particularly in the areas of sector departments emphasize the commi tment over the three-year pilot energy planning and development, forest integration of environmental concerns phase. TI1e facility is also uniquely management, and agriculture. Another into the bank's policy work through, for important because it is specifically challenge is integrating the global actions example, the economic valuation of designed to serve the interests of the it supports into country p riorities and environmental "goods" and "bads" and world as a whole. Protection of the national sustainable development plans. improving efficiency in energy produc­ global commons has typically been The GEF illustrates a new approach to tion and use. More emphasis is being considered a classically unresolvable North-South cooperation on the imper- given to social and cultural issues, such problem of collective action, but at as the role of women in development, UNCED, the international community cultural heritage and indigenous rose to the challenge of defending the peoples, and the challenges of equitable global commons from further degrada­ More emphasis is resettlement practices. To this end, a tion. The GEF stands as the practical being given to new division of social policy has been manifestation of that resolve. A number established in the bank's envirorm1ent of donors pledged in Rio a two-to-three­ social and cultural department. fo ld increase in its resources beyond the The challenges of enviromnent and pilot phase. issues, such as the development are daunting, and the real ln the transition from pilot to perma­ role of women in work of integration and implementation nent status, the GEF is undergoing a lies ahead. International institutions number of important institutional development .... have a major role to play in bringing adjustments. Membership will become about a new era of international coopera­ universal-any country that wi shes to tion fo r sustainable development. We join the GEF will have the opportunity to have accumulated an unprecedented do so without paying a membership fee, tant issues of global environment as they wealth of scientific knowledge and and can join the current restructuring relate to sustainable development in improved tools for analysis and predic­ discussions. Efforts are underway to developing countries. Institutionally, it tion, and we have gained the technical establish decision-making procedures may be a model for broader international and institutional experienc to take within the faci li ty that guarantee a cooperation without setting up new action. Further, the agreements at balanced and equitable representation of bureaucracies. More important, I believe UNCED mark the beginning of an the interests of developing countries the GEF points to a wi llingness on the international political will to take the while giving due weight to the fu nding part of the world's wealthier states to necessary steps to protect the earth on efforts of donors. The GEF is also safeguard the inheritance of future which our survival depends. •

Environmental Indicators at Different Country Income Levels

Urban population Municipal wastes Carbon dioxide emissions without adequate sanitation per capita per capita• 70 KJograms 16 Tons 60 600 12 40 d 8 20 4

100 1.000 100.000 100 1.000 10.000 100.000 100 1.000 100.000 Per capita income (dollars. log scale) Note: Estimates are based on cross-country regression analysis of data from the 1980's. •Emissions are from fossil fuels. Source : World Bank

APRIL-JUNE 1993 25 Can the World Bank Be Reformed? The bank's record on promoting sustainable development is poor

by Korinna Horta

r. El-Ashry's article acknowl­ natural resources and increasing poverty according to the report, is that the bank edges that protecting the that arise from many of the policy emphasizes only rapid loan approval environment is not separate reforms the bank promotes through its and pays scant attention to the actual from development and poverty reduc­ structural adjustment programs. World implementation of projects. Environ­ tion, but that, indeed, it is the basis for all Bank forestry-sector loans to the West mental organizations have pointed out economic activity and ultimately human Africa countries of Ghana and the Ivory for several years that the bank's over­ survival. This represents an important Coast are examples of a lack of attention whelming priority to meet certain departure from the still widely held view to the environment and the needs of local lending targets and its internal structure, of a tradeoffbetween economic develop­ people. which rewards staff for rapid loan ment and environmental quality. Equally After years of international criticism processing, prevents the institution from important is Mr. El-Ashry's recognition and pressure on part of nongovernmen­ promoting the long-term viability of its that environmental concerns must be tal organizations and some parliaments, development projects. It also leads to fully taken into account by mainstream including numerous legislative efforts by pervasive violations of the bank's stated economic decision making. the U.S. Congress, the World Bank policies, which require consultations However, the real task at hand is launched in 1987 widely publicized with populations affected by projects, bridging the gap between the rhetoric of environmental reforms. While these because these are time consuming and sustainable development and what is reforms have led to vastly increased therefore not conducive to career actually happening. The same institu­ environmental staff at the bank and to advancement of bank staff. tional barriers that prevented the World several positive policy statements, such The World Bank's policy of withhold­ Bank from financing environmentally as the one strengthening the require­ ing project documents and reports from sustainable programs in the past con­ ments for environmental impact assess­ the public in both donor and recipient tinue to be at work today. ments, there is mounting evidence that countries and from lawmakers and The World Bank, the world's largest their impact in field projects has often government entities is another key development agency, is widely viewed been marginal at best. institutional barrier that stands in the by both environmental and development Interestingly, a recent internal World way of sustainable development. While organizations as an institution that Bank report, known as the Wapenhans the need for confidentiality of certain continues to be incapable of promoting Report, named after the bank's now documents may be legitimate for the environmentally sustainable develop­ retired vice president who headed the borrowing country's national sover­ ment. Environmental organizations in task force that wrote the report, identifies eignty, there is no justification for both developed and developing coun­ the bank projects' lack of sustainability in keeping secret relevant environmental tries have accumulated widespread much the same way that environmental and social information related to World evidence that World Bank financed organizations have. The Wapenhans Bank programs. projects often lead to environmental Report carried out an internal review of There are, for example, no provisions destruction and social disruption and the bank's $140 billion loan portfolio and to ensure that the environmental impact that very little attention is being paid by reached the disturbing conclusion that, assessments and national environmental the World Bank to the degradation of according to the bank's own criteria on action plans, mentioned by Mr. El-Ashry adequate economic rate of return, nearly as key elements in the bank's strategy to (Horta is an economist with the Environmen­ 40 percent of recently evaluated projects achieve sustainable development, are tal Defense Fund.) are failures. The underlying problem, made public systematically. The World

26 EPA JOURNAL Bank refuses to make this environmental ture focused on rapid project processing designed to protect indigenous peoples, information available to the public, and not on the actual project impact on and that its top-down management stating that it is up to the recipient the ground, and an overall lack of access planning for the forest resources of Laos governments to decide what to do with to information and accountability. would reduce access to the forest for it. However, not many governments in In addition, about 80 percent of all about 50 percent of the country's recipient countries choose to grant access GEF investment projects are mere population that relies on traditional to information and involve the commu­ components of much larger World Bank forest uses. nities and resource users that are directly loans, which often undermine the very Some of the findings of the World affected by the environmental plans. same global environmental goals that the Rainforest Movement were corroborated More often than not, these planning GEF seeks to address. Yet neither the by an internal World Bank report. exercises are carried out in a top-down governments participating in the GEF Although local community involvement fashion by foreign experts on short-term nor the GEF's Scientific and Technical is essential to any long-term conservation missions, and their on-the-ground Advisory Panel, which evaluates GEF efforts, the internal World Bank report impact is questionable. Development project proposals, have full access to found that no provisions were made for will be sustainable only when local information on the associated World a participatory development process in people are actively consulted. How this Bank loans. and arow1d the areas to be protected by can be achieved without public access to Environmental organizations have the GEF project. project information is incomprehensible. documented that, especially in forestry Mr. El-Ashry's article rightly empha­ The Global Environment Facility and energy projects, World Bank loans sizes the need for integrating global (GEF) is largely run by the World Bank, are often at odds with the objectives of environmental concerns into the devel­ which administers, chairs, and coordi­ biodiversity conservation and reduction opment process. The global environ­ nates the facility and handles all GEF of greenhouse gas emissions that the GEF ment would greatly benefit if the World investment projects. The other two seeks to achieve. For example, the World Bank's annual lending operations of participating agencies, the U.N. Devel­ Rainforest Movement, an international about $25 billion were made consistent opment Program and the U.N. Environ­ environmental organization based in with global environmental goals. This ment Program, are very junior partners Malaysia, recently produced a study on a will require major institutional reforms, in the GEF. As such, the GEF suffers GEF biodiversity protection project that without which sustainable development from many of the same problems as is attached to a World Bank forest loan will continue to elude us.• regular World Bank lending, namely a for Laos. The study found that the World highly centralized management struc- Bank was violating its own policies

lndUstria\iz.atbn has ils ~dice - G\c:ba1 warming. ac1 rc1m. Lakes and rivers ~iscned. Yw HON. de I iA>aboul must de\fe\op diWerenl\y ~E:tt1ng Cfie of than \ did t\ wu wanl to these cars~. . avotd mv miSt.aKe;; and rre:;~~ the en'lironrnenl. Any questions?..

By permission of Mike Luckovich and Creators Syndicate.

APRIL-JUNE 1993 27 Trade-Environment Tensions Options exist for reconciling trade and environment by Paul Cough

xpansion of world trade and Mammal Protection Act. The Act also country imposing the import restriction worsening regional and global regulates the U.S. tuna fleet's dolphin acts unilaterally, based on its domestic environmental problems kilJ rate. environmental laws, or whether it acts increasingly bring trade and environ­ The GATT panel ruled that the U.S. pursuant to an international agreement. mental interests into conflict. North­ could not restrict tuna imports based on In the tuna-dolphin case, the U.S. action South tensions, in particular, have harvesting methods as long as the was unilateral and was directed at harm become acute, mainly because of differ­ methods did not affect the product itself. to the global commons. ences in the scope, stringency, and cost of It also ruled that the ban could not be Developing countries, in particular, national environmental regulations. justified under GA TT provisions that have characterized the unilateral use of These tensions and their root causes allow import restrictions for the purpose trade restrictions to address the environ­ are addressed in the Rio Declaration (see of protecting "human, animal, or plant mental impacts of production processes box) and in Agenda 21. Trade and life or health" or to conserve exhaustible as "eco-imperialism" and a violation of environment issues also figure promi­ resources, because those provisions their sovereignty. In general, countries nently in the North American Free Trade apply only to protecting life or health are more receptive to the use of trade Agreement (NAFfA), in the Uruguay and conserving resources within the restrictions in connection with interna­ Round of negotiations under the General jurisdiction of the importing country. tional environmental agreements, such Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GA TT), The panel's report, which has not yet as the Montreal Protocol on Substances and in the work of such international been adopted by the GATT Council, is that Deplete the Ozone Layer. However, bodies as the United Nations Conference very troubling to environmentalists, who it may not always be possible to negoti­ on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) are concerned that governments will be ate an effective international environ­ and the Organization for Economic deprived of the use of trade restrictions mental agreement. Cooperation and Development (OECD). to protect the regional and global The World Bank estimates that a 50- This article examines the principal trade environment. While in some cases percent reduction in agricultural and and environment tensions between alternatives may be available, such as industrial trade barriers erected by the developed and developing countries and assisting the exporting country in developed countries would increase describes some options for resolving changing its production process, lifting developing countries' annual export them. the threat of trade restrictions may earnings by $50 billion, which approxi­ In 1991, a dispute settlement panel reduce the effectiveness of these alterna­ mately equals the value of official under the GAIT found that a U.S. ban tives. The question arises: Should development assistance provided by on imports of tuna from Mexico countries be pressured by GATT rules to the developed countries. If concluded violated GA TT rules. The ban was become part of the problem by providing successfully, the Uruguay Round of imposed because the Mexican tuna a market for products made in an GAIT negotiations, discussed below, fleet's "incidental" kill rate for dolphins environmentally harmful way? may significantly increase developing during tuna harvesting was higher than An important factor in the dispute is countries' export earnings by reducing that permitted under the U.S. Marine whether the environmental impacts of such trade barriers, or protectionism. the production process are confined to Under GAIT rules, countries are the exporting country or whether they supposed to treat imported products (Cough manages trade and environment also affect other countries (especially the "no less favorably" than comparable issues and the OECD portfolio for EPA's importing country) or the global com­ goods produced domestically. How­ Office of International Activities.) mons. Also important is whether the ever, developing countries are con-

28 EPA JOURNAL Aluminum ingots being loaded in Ghana. Developing countries have called the unilateral use of trade restrictions for environmental reasons "eco­ imperialism."

cerned that some ostensibly environ­ Trade liberalization makes it more "within the carrying capacity of support­ mental standards may actually be likely that comparable goods pro­ ing ecosystems"; carrying capacity "green" protectionism-standards duced under different environmental varies from country to country, depend­ designed to favor domestic producers conditions will compete directly for ing on climate, geography, and other over foreign competitors. market share. Environmentalists are factors, and ecosystems may span The Draft Final Act of the Uruguay concerned that trade liberalization national boundaries. Countries also Round of the GATI contains new rules may encourage countries to set low differ in the resources they have avail­ on the use of technical regulations and levels of environmental protection­ able for environmental protection and standards. These new rules would not only standards, but their enforce­ the priority they assign it compared to, cover, for example, environment, health, ment-to reduce production costs and say, improved nutrition. Should a and safety regulations pertaining to encourage foreign investment. This, in distinction be made between standards agricultural products, chemicals, and turn, may force other countries to that protect environmental carrying motor vehicles. The rules would require lower their environmental standards capacity, which varies from country to cow1tries to use the least trade-restrictive to maintain the competitiveness of country, and standards that protect means for achieving environmental their exports. human health and safety? objectives and, in most cases, to use For most environmental problems, The GAIT came into force in 1948; it relevant international standards instead the evidence indicates that environmen­ now has 107 "contracting parties," a of national ones. Environmentalists fear tal expenditures have a minor impact majority of them developing countrie . that international standards will become on international competitiveness. The GA TI recognizes the urgency of a ceiling rather than a floor, and will However, the impact of, say, a large raising the living standards of develop­ exert downward pressure on the carbon tax to reduce greenhouse gas ing countries and of the "progressive environmental standards of developed emissions could be very significant if development" of their economies. It countries. They are also concerned that imposed by some countries and not by promotes increased market access a least trade-restrictive rule could be others. under favorable conditions for their interpreted narrowly by CATI dispute Some suggest that countries with processed and manufactured products. panels, threatening domestic regulatory stringent environmental standards It asks contracting parties to expand regimes. (primarily developed countries) should trade with developing countries by Both developed and developing impose duties on imports from coun­ harmonizing and adjusting "national countries are concerned about the risks tries with not so stringent standards policies and regulations ... land] posed by international trade in hazard­ (primarily developing countries) to technical and commercial standards ous wastes. This trade is addressed, in compensate for differences in expendi­ affecting production." part, by the Basel Convention on the tures on environmental protection. The Uruguay Round of CATI Control of Transboundary Movement of Should countries of the North and negotiations has been underway since Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal. South have comparable standards to 1986. A "Draft Final Act Embodying the The convention came into force in 1992, protect the environment, health, and Results of the Uruguay Round" has been but has yet to be ratified by the United safety? Sustainable development prepared, but has not yet been agreed States. means, among other things, remaining upon. ff concluded successfully, the

APRIL-JUNE 1993 29 now have stringent domestic standards. One way to reduce trade barriers posed Trade and the Rio Declaration by product standards is to expand international cooperation on product risk "States have, in accordance with the sustainable development in all assessment and testing, perhaps using as Charter of the United Nations and the countries, to better.address the principles of international law, the a model the OECD's cooperative pro­ problems of environmental degrada­ gram of investigation on chemicals and sovereign right to exploit their own tion. Trade policy measures for pesticides. This approach might or resources pursuant to their own environmental purposes should not might not lead to a larger and more environmental and developmental constitute a means of arbitrary or acceptable set of international environ­ policies, and the responsibility to unjustifiable discrimination or a mental standards, but it would make it ensure that activities within their disguised restriction on international easier to distinguish between legitimate jurisdiction or control do not cause trade." (excerpt from Principle 12) standards and "green" protectionism. damage to the environment of other "States shouJd effectively cooper­ With respect to environmental risks States or of areas beyond the limits of ate to discourage or prevent the from production processes, one alterna­ national jurisdiction." (Principle 2) relocation and transfer to other States tive to trade restrictions is international "States should cooperate to of any activities and substances that cooperation on environmental labeling of promote a supportive and open cause severe environmental degrada­ international economic system that traded products to reflect their life-cycle tion or are found to be harmful to environmental impact, and thus influ­ would lead to economic growth and human health." (Principle 14) ence consumer choice. Another option is to provide training and financial/ Uruguay Round may improve market being studied and tested. The NAFrA technical assistance to exporting coun­ access for developing countries in such and the parallel and follow-up mecha­ tries to help them change processes that areas as natural resource-based products, nisms may offer a practical model for cause environmental harm. Promotion tropical products, agriculture, and pursuing more open trade in concert of trade in environmentally cleaner textiles and clothing. with environmental protection. teclu1ologies deserves special attention, The North American Free Trade UNCTAD is developing case studies on as does encouraging muJtinational Agreement (NAFTA) between Mexico, trade-environment linkages in Brazil, corporations to apply their home country the United States, and Canada was Colombia, India, the Philippines, and standards (if they are more stringent) to signed in December 1992 but has not yet Turkey and is examining the environ­ their operations in developing countries. been ratified by Congress. An environ­ mental impact of producing and As mentioned earlier, these options may menwl review of the draft agreement processing commodities such as cocoa, work best if trade restrictions are was performed by the United States coffee, and rice. The GATI 's Working available as a backup. (with EPA participation) and utili2.ed in Group on Environmental Measures and Finally, countries of the North and negotiations. NAFTA provides that International Trade is investigating the South could take concrete steps "to obligations of international environmen­ trade impacts of environmental promote the internalization of environ­ tal agreements on stratospheric ozone regulations for product packaging and mental costs" in the prices of traded depletion, hazardous wastes, and labeling, an issue of particular concern products, in keeping with Principle 16 endangered species take precedence over to developing countries. An OECD of the Ri o Declaration. Progress NAFTA obligations, subject to certain working group is developing guide­ toward this goal would be a useful conditions. lines for improving the compatibility of measure of the extent to which ex­ Promotion of sustainable develop­ trade and environmental policies. panded trade contributes to sustainable ment is one of the NAFT A's stated An especially promising option is for development.• purposes. The NAFTA confirms that countries to conduct environmental each country may set standards to reviews of trade agreements and trade Additional in formation: achieve the level of environmental reviews of environmental agreements as On the polietJ intersect behueen trade rmd prote tion it deems appropriate. It a standard procedure. Such reviews, environmm t, EPA's National Advisory discourages ountries from relaxing conducted early in the negotiating Council fo r Enviro11me11tal Policy and environmental standards in order to process, should help reveal the environ­ Teclmologi; (NACEPT) has published The attract inveshnent. Important environ­ mental and economic implications of Greening of World Trade (March 1993), a mental issues not addressed in the these agreements and foster public 240-page report representing work carried NA FT A itself are being taken up in comment and debate on the issues that 011t by the advisory group over a two-year parallel and follow-up mechanisms, are revealed. period. It provides an overoiew of the polietJ which include a pollution control As to environmental risks from issue through 12 in-depth tech11 ical support­ program for the U.S.-Mexico border, a traded products, it has been suggested ing papers and reco1111nr:11d11t ions of the North American commission on the that COUJ1tries adopt international Committee to EPA. Copies are available for nvironment, and bilateral environmen­ environment, health, and safety stan­ sale for $14.00 from the Government tal agreements. dards. However, such standards, where Printing Office, Superintendent of Docu­ A number of options for reconciling they exist, may not provide an accept­ ments, Washington, DC 20402, GPO Order trade and environmental interests arc able level of protection for countries that #055-000-00425-1; (202) 783-3238.

30 EPA JOURNAL Stopping the Waste Technology itself is not the problem by William A Nitze

he goal of sustainable develop­ further development of renewables and These trends must be accelerated, ment is to pass on to future other less polluting energy sources give however, if we are to achieve the generations a stock of environ- us the potential rapidly to reduce energy­ necessary rate of improvement in the mental amenities (clean air, clean water, related pollution per unit of income in ratio of pollution and natural resource top soil, natural ecosystems) at least as rich and poor countries alike. depletion per unit of income necessary good as the stock we now have. To have Second, much of the pollution and for sustainable development. This any fiope of achieving that goal, we must natural resource depletion associated acceleration will in turn require much reduce the amount of pollution and with current economic activity around more rapid dispersion of less polluting resource depletion per unit of income at the world results from wasteful technolo­ and resource intensive technologies a rate sufficient to offset future growth in gies and practices that could be corrected among and within countries. The world population and in per·capita cost effectively using currently available operative term here is technology income. World population growth will technologies. China has been reducing cooperation, which may be defined as probably decline only gradually from its its energy intensity of production by 3 the combination of actions required to current level of 1.7 percent per year. percent per year since the mid-1980s achieve this dispersion. Before discuss­ Average world per capita income should through price reform and investment in ing these actions, it is important to grow by at least 2 percent per year if we co-generation and other energy efficient address two possible misconceptions are to make progress in reducing poverty technologies. Brazil has reduced its about technology cooperation. and the gap between rich and poor. deforestation rate by eliminating certain First, technology cooperation might Therefore, we will have to reduce the subsidies for clearing land in the Ama­ be considered as primarily concerned average amount of pollution and natural zon. Russia has an almost limitless with technology. It is not. The keys to resource depletion per unit of income by inventory of energy conservation, technology cooperation lie in human 3.5 to 4 percent per year. pollution prevention, and industrial education, motivation, and organization This rate of improvement is daunting; modernization projects with high rates of and in access to financial resources, not it is greater than that achieved by the return and short paybacks. in technologies themselves. ff the city, United States; Japan, or any other Third, the richer industrialized company, association, or other group of country in the past. It is potentially countries are already moving in the people directly involved in using achievable in the future, however, for direction of more service-oriented, less technologies to achieve their objectives three reasons. resource- and pollution-intensive are properly educated, motivated, and First, rapid technology development economies, and a number of developing organized and have access to capital, is enabling us to decouple economic countries are beginning to follow. they will be able to get their hands on the growth from pollution and natural Information processing and telecommu­ technologies required. resource depletion. In the energy sector, nications are inherently less polluting To make this happen, information, for example, the United States and other and resource intensive than steel or decision-making power, and access to Organization for Economic Cooperation paper manufacturing; pharmaceuticals financial resources must be pushed as far and Development (OECD) countries use fewer resources and produce less down into the system as possible. We achieved substantial economic growth pollution per unit of value added than will have to find ways to spread the during the high energy price years of basic chemicals. In this respect, the more horizontal, participatory, team­ 1973to1986, with little if any growth in differences between the economic oriented, and fluid management struc­ primary energy consumption. Renewed structures of the OECD countries and tures being adopted by many successful incentives for greater efficiency and those of the more prosperous segments corporations to governments, nongov­ of developing countries such as Brazil, ernmental organizations (NGOs), and (Nitze is President of the Alliance to Save China, India, and Mexico are already other institutions around the world. Energy.) narrowing. The second misperception is that

APRIL-JUNE 1993 31 An Ethiopian woman waters trees planted to form a windbreak as part of a land conservation and irrigation project. The challenge is to make the right low- or high­ technology solution available where it is needed.

technology cooperation is primarily a through subsidy elimination, taxes, and ning changes, developing countries are North-South or West-East process. TI1is fees as the d eveloping countries. unlikely to do so. is true in only one limited respect. The Based on the above discussion, there Similarly, if OECD companies d o not improvements in education, motivation, are four critical elements in a successful develop and implement comprehensive and organization suggested above will teclm ology cooperation strategy: "eco-efficiency" programs and extend require some initial "pump-priming" those programs to their overseas affili­ investments by the OECD countries, the ates, companies in non-OECD countries World Bank, the Global Environment are unlikely to make the necessary Facility, and other development institu­ We must act as changes in their own management tions. Otherwise it is m1true. Many of procedures. We must act as laboratories the technologies and methods that must laboratories in in discovering what does and does not be dispersed already exist or are being discovering what work. When experiments su ch as developed in the South. Most of the demand-side management-utilities' financial resources required will have to does and does not consideration of energy efficiency as a be generated internally. resource to be evaluated equally with Many OECD countries face a chal­ work. traditional energy supply options-or lenge in internal technology dispersion EPA's green programs are successful, we similar to that faced by the developing should promote their spread to other and Eastern European countries. West­ countries. ern governmenta l and nongovernmental •Start at Home. The United States and • Get the Market Signals Right. The organizations have almost as much work other OECD countries will have little most powerful catalyst for deployment to do in organizing for change as their credibility in helping developing or of environmentally sustainable technolo­ developing country or Eastern Europecu1 Eastern European countries deploy gies is market signals. When oil prices counterparts. TI1e successful "Waste environmentally sustainable technolo­ were high in the late 1970s and early Reduction Always Pays" program gies and m ethods if we are unwilling or 1980s, people invested in energy effi­ developed in Dow U.S.A.'s Louisiana unable to adopt them at home. if OECD ciency. When oil prices collapsed in Division has still not been adopted by the governments do not develop more 1986, that investment slacked off. In Texas Division; the United States and effective means of "taming the automo­ countries where strict environmental Western Europe arc experiencing the bile" through alternative fu els, green regulations make the discharge of toxic same political resistance to internalizing cars, improved public transportation, chemicals into the environment expen­ pollution and resource-depletion costs congestion pricing, a11d land-use plan- sive, polluters invest significant re-

32 EPA JOURNAL sources in pollution prevention and waste minimization. In countries where those regulations do not exist or are not enforced, that investment is small or nonexistent. Once again the United States and other OECD countries must take the lead if we expect governments of developing countries to overcome political resistance to internalizing the costs of pollution and resource depletion in their own countries. • Focus on Infrastructure Development. The history of development assistance since 1945 suggests that donor govern­ ments and international development institutions are not necessarily very good at picking specific technologies, but can be effective in helping build the local infrastructures needed to develop and deploy those technologies. An outstanding historical example is the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGlAR), which helped spread the green revolution throughout the developing world and Jed to the creation of the International Rice Research Institute and other .z;>£d..wt.. institutions doing research on sustain­ "l ' m begiuning to think 1 need a three-million-year sabbatical able agriculture. CGIAR is serving as a from humankind to recover my healtJ1." model for the Global Change System for Analysis, Research, and Training Drawing by Ded1ni; copyright 1992, The New Yorker Magazine, Inc. (ST ARD, which proposes to create a network of centers for global change research and training throughout the of return, and acceptable levels of legal lowest possible first cost, this plan would developing world. Both of these and political risk. In the case of renew­ incorporate supply- and demand-side initiatives were created by NGOs and able energy, agricultural, and other options based on their net full-cycle costs only later supported by governments, small-scale local projects, there is also a after reflecting environmental impacts. suggesting that governments should rely need for intermediaries that can aggre­ As the plan evolved, it would induce heavily on the private sector in building gate a number of projects into a package reform of local electricity pricing the infrastructure required. sufficiently large to attract funds from practices and other innovations. • Create Financial Leverage. Financing larger institutions. The good news is that we already is one of the most critical elements in Multilateral and bilateral funding have available the teclmologies, manage­ technology cooperation. Fortunately for sources should use their limited funds to ment techniques, and successful mcx:I ls overstretched OECD budgets, the provide an incentive for creating those to substantially reduce pollution and constraint on financing technology conditions. The Alliance to Save Energy natural resources depletion around the transfer is not availability of money per is starting work on a sustainable cities world. l11e bad news is that we are a se. Public and private investors in Asia, project, supported by the Agency for long way from developing the human Latin America, and Eastern Europe are International Development, that will infrastructure, incentives, and institu­ already budgeting hw1dreds of billions attempt to develop collaborative electric­ tional arrangements necessary to speed of dollars on energy and other develop­ ity sector projects in several large up the deployment of those technologies ment projects. The World Bank and developing country or Eastern European and techniques. l11erefore, the key to a other development institutions have tens cities. A collaborative including local successful technology cooperation of billions of uncommitted project funds. government, the local electricity sup­ strategy is to focus our limited resources There are large pools of private capital plier, local and foreign NGOs, and local on building that infrastructure, creating available for investment in the develop­ and foreign companies would jointly those incentives, and developing those ing world and Eastern Europe. The real develop an integrated resource plan for arrangements. • constraint is a shortage of well designed meeting the city's future electricity needs. and managed projects that combine As opposed to relying solely on the environmental sustainability, high rates construction of more power plants at the

APRIL-JUNE 1993 33 Building Coalitions Africa 2000 offers a model of cooperation by Linda Starke

eople attending the Earth areas. Each grant is for less than $50,000. coordinator's field trip notes are re­ Summit in June 1992 discussed The innovative aspect of this network viewed by the national selection commit­ repeatedly the need to build new is its use of national selection committees tee at regular meetings, sometimes as coalitions as we work toward sustainable in each of the 12 countries it operates in often as every other month. UNDP in development-coalitions, for example, to date (Burkina Faso, Burundi, New York provides a set amount to each that include the expertise of environmen­ Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, country every three months, based on tal groups, business, government, Mauritania, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, recent grants and the coordinator's academia, and labor unions. While the Uganda, and Zimbabwe). These groups assessment of need, and it is up to the Rio delegates were talking, the vital bring together individuals from various committee to approve grant applications work of coalition building was going on government agencies, universities, and decide how much money to award. in many parts of the world. The Africa research institutes, UN. agencies Africa 2000's evolution during its first 2000 Network is one good example. working in the country, and national and four years more or less parallels the Africa 2000 grew out of a June 1986 regional NGOs. In many cases, the international community's growing proposal to support small, community­ national selection committees provide understanding of how environmental based initiatives that was made by the the only opportunity these people have and economic problems and solutions Canadian government at the U.N. to work together on their country's are inextricably linked. Projects were Special Session on Africa. The Trust pressing environment and development initially rather narrowly focused, with Fund for $25 million that was subse­ issues. And the members take away almost all of them involving tree plant­ quently established has received from the meetings an appreciation of the ing in an effort to ease fuel wood short­ contributions so far totaling $17 million importance of building coalitions. ages. One of the first country programs from the governments of Canada, In each of the 12 countries, a full-time to be up and running, for example, was Denmark, France, Japan, and Norway; national coordinator appointed by Ghana's. In 1989 and 1990, 28 out of the it is administered by the U.N. Develop­ UNDP administers the program. He or 35 projects funded were for afforestation ment Program (UNDP) in New York. she responds to requests from local or agroforestry, with grants ranging from The network was not set up to create community groups and national NGOs $1,077 to $22,298 (which went to Friends new groups to do development work; for small grants for projects that both of the Earth in Ghana for work with 25 rather, it supports the activities of preserve the environment and promote communities). existing grassroots groups and nongov­ development. The coordinator visits the National coordinators and selection ernmental organizations (NGOs). project site, checking in particular to committees quickly learned, however, Between 1989 and the end of 1992, grants ensure that the people who are supposed that treating in isolation one aspect of totaling more than $14 million had been to benefit from the project are involved communities' environmental problems given to over 400 projects in natural in its design and execution. Issues to be was a recipe for failure. If people in a forest management, erosion control, discussed with the community include community who are struggling to make water harvesting, range management, the source of water for any agricultural ends meet see no immediate benefit of watershed management, food preserva­ project, the land to be used, who is going tree planting, they are unlikely to help tion and storage, and a host of other to do the actual work, how success of the protect and nourish trees that have been project is going to be measured, and the planted. This is the basic lesson the role of any NGO from outside the world has learned in the last decade: For community that might be involved with (Starke is a Washington-based freelance development to be sustainable, it must writer and editor on international environ­ the project. meet as many people's needs as possible. mental issues.) Project applications and the In Africa, this means projects have to

34 EPA JOURNAL include income-generating activities, for $17,844 from the network in 1991 for a (half of whom are women), in the helping people raise their standard of cattle-keeping and conservation project. national selection committees, and on an living through higher incomes is a must. The members-24 women and eight advisory group that works with UNDP One example of this more holistic men-learned not only bookkeeping on the overall program. But this is less approach is found in an Africa 2000 skills but also fod der management, the true at the local level, and further efforts project in Rubuyenge'. Rwanda. The proper way to raise calves, the prepara­ are needed to open opportunities for communities' immediate problem was tion of liquid manure from cow dung, women to suggest, design, and manage reduced availability of food, which led and organic farming. Sweet potato vines grassroots programs. local women to think about cultivating and banana trees were planted along Another possible area for improve­ marshlands in the area as other cropland with fodder trees fo r the cattle, so that ment lies in broadening the network's became scarce and as food aid dimin­ the land was used as productively as admirable scope of community participa­ ished. They sought help through a local possible. As in Rwanda, the project tion even further. The only sector of NGO, which received a grant of$18,758 addressed several of the community's society not included on any selection from the network. needs at once, increasing its chances of committees is business, yet the expertise These funds were used to drain success. of a local industrialist or a member of the selected marshlands so that fruit and These two projects illustrate the chamber of commerce could surely be fuel wood trees could be planted, to important role accorded to women in the helpful as committees consider the translate agricultural guidelines into Africa 2000 Network. Their involvement feasibility of proposed projects, espe­ local languages, and to start a pig­ in the network is crucial because women cially given the network's emphasis on breeding project. This has helped raise have primary responsibility for provid­ income-generation projects. e erthe­ incomes in the area, and now the women ing household food throughout the less, as a UNDP review found, "the are consideri11g starting fish-farming and continent. Yet everyone involved agrees composition of the committees has duck-rearing projects. that there is still considerable room for contributed to the development of a Similarly, the Chandarema Women's improvement in this area. Women are spirit of partnership and dialogue among Group in the North Maragoli area of increasingly active in the daily work of the various categories of entities in­ western Kenya has received help from network projects, but they are less volved in the network." Africa 2000. This local group has been involved at the decision-making level in The Africa 2000 etwork is a good working together on small retail communities and the NGOs that serve illustration of how th se lofty concepts businesses in maize, chicken, fish, and them. Women's voices are certainly heard so often in Rio can work in the real bananas since 1977. They received heard among the national coordinators world. •

Facing food shortages, these Rwanda women sought financial aid from Africa 2000 to cultivate fruit and fuelwood trees and other crops in a former marshland.

APRIL-J UNE 1993 35 In the U.S. Interest A focus on the environment is crucial for America's future national security by Gareth Porter

n the post-Cold War era, environ­ humanitarian interests. The capability of in global efforts to reduce environmental mental security should be recog­ the developing world to produce enough threats. I nized as one of the pillars of U.S. food to feed its population is imperilled A strategy for North-South environ­ national security, along with military by the combination of high population­ mental security cooperation should and economic security. The environmen­ growth rates and the loss of soil nutrients include the following elements: tal security of the American people­ and soil erosion, which could reduce defined in terms of reducing threats from global food production by as much as 20 • Reorientation of U.S. bilateral environ­ global environmental deterioration­ to 30 percent within two decades if it is mental assistance to sustainable develop­ should be integrated more fully into U.S. not slowed. Such a global food crisis ment global policy. Mounting stresses being could create humanitarian crises and • The reform of multilateral financial placed on the Earth's life support political chaos in many more countries. institutions systems threaten the well-being of Deforestation and soil erosion will Americans in a number of ways: continue to swell the tide of illegal • New initiatives in U.S. debt and trade policies Mexican immigration into the United • Increases in global temperature States. And wars could break out in the • U.S. leadership in making global expected in the next few decades from Middle East and elsewhere as a result of environmental agreements effective increased concentrations of heat-trapping conflicts over dwindling water supplies. gases in the atmosphere could raise sea The developing countries are crucial Most foreign policy professionals and levels, causing saltwater intrusion into to reducing global environmental threats members of Congress continue to think U.S. water supplies. Global warming in part because, by early in the next of any foreign assistance that does not could also cause the Midwest to suffer century, they are expected to account for serve U.S. short-term political-military or scorching droughts on a regular basis. more of the greenhouse gas emissions economic interests as "international than the industrialized countries and welfare." Not so. U.S. overseas develop­ • We are confronted with the potential because they hold 90 percent of the ment assistance (ODA) policy should be loss of a significant proportion of the based on the premise that it serves the world's biological species and a threat to Earth's biological diversity and will be the locus of most of its loss in future mutual interest of both parties in global the security of the world food supply environmental security. Developing from its dependence on relatively few decades. Over 90 percent of the world's countries need greater capacity to varieties of food crops that are vulner­ population growth, moreover, will take implement natural resources manage­ able to diseases and pests that have place in the developing world. There­ ment plans and programs to reduce the developed resistance to pesticides. fore, supporting sustainable develop­ ment paths in these countries must be an stresses on their natural resources related • The depletion of the ozone layer integral element of a U.S. environmental to poverty and powerlessness. U.S. increases exposure to ultraviolet radia­ security strategy. development assistance should focus tion, which can weaken the human U.S. policies toward developing increasingly on these sustainable immune system, damage both food crops countries should be explicitly oriented development objectives. And the United and the phytoplankton upon which all toward the goal of North-South partner­ States, which is now next to last among marine life ultimately depends, and ships for sustainable development. The donor countries in percentage of gross dramatically increase skin cancers. United States should offer, in concert national product devoted to ODA, with other industrialized countries, to should commit itself to the target of The erosion of the environmental reduce inequities in trade and financial doubling the amount of its assistance by security of other countries also affects relations and to provide appropriate the year 2000 if recipient countries other U.S. global security, economic, and financial and technical assistance to demonstrate serious commitment to developing countries in return for their sustainable development goals. is (Porter International Program Director commitments to more sustainable Making the World Bank and the of the Environmental and Energy Study development policies and participation International Monetary Fund {IMF) more Institute.)

36 EPA JOURNAL responsive to the needs of sustainable development is the most important means of altering global development patterns. The World Bank has ignored the potential of integrated resource planning (!RP) to maximize energy efficiency in developing cow1tries, and too little of the Bank's lending-includ­ ing lending by its International Develop­ ment Association arm for the least developed countries-goes explici tly for poverty alleviation. The United States should press fo r a new World Bank policy for sector lending in energy, power, and transportation that has as its ultimate goal basing all loans for these sectors on long-term national plans that employ least-cost, demand-side plan­ ning. And the United States should support a global goal of 50 percent of au project lending going for poverty alleviation beginning in fiscal year 1995. Few would question the need for economic stabilization and reform in heavily indebted cow1tries, but the narrow, short-term· perspective of the lMF's conditions for structural adjust­ ment sometimes conflicts with the needs of environmental sustainability. While some IMF conditions, such as reducing agricultural i11put and energy subsidies, are clearly supportive of sustainable development, others-such as exchange rate devaluation and import liberaliza­ tion-may or may not promote environ­ mental sustainability, depending on the circumstances. The environmental Hunger in Somalia. Unless current trends in population growth and natural resource security of the United States will not be depletion are reversed, the world may see more famines like those that have swept protected if developing countries are through Somalia and Ethiopia. able to service their debts but continue to destroy their natural assets in the country protectionism (which alone cost practice of increasing the tariffs on process. The United States should call developing countries the equivalent of 3 proce sed goods in direct proportion to for the IMF to develop the expertise on percent of their collective gross national the degree of processing. And the United social and environmental issues needed product each year) have deprived States should support the "Trinidad to analyze the linkages between adjust­ developing countries of large amounts of Terms" for bilateral debt reduction for ment policies, poverty, and environmen­ income. These inequities in North-South the poorest countries by the Paris lub of tal degradation. It should seek an IMF trade tend to force developing countries creditor nations-reducing the debtor mandate to adopt explicit poverty to export more of their natural resources country's debt by two-thirds and alleviation and human resource develop­ in order to maintain the same level of rescheduling the remaining one-third ment goals as conditions for loans. imports. They create a powerful incen­ according to the country's ability to pay. U.S. policies toward North-South tive for these countries to cut down more The ultimate goal of U.S. policy, how­ trade and financial relations should forests and convert more land from ever, should be complete forgiveness of reflect their impacts on the ability and subsistence agriculture to export crops, the bilateral debt of those heavily willingness of d eveloping countries to often pushing farmers into forests and indebted, low-income countries that manage their natural resources marginal lands. would still have unsustainable debts sustainably. A sharp decline in com­ The United States should insist that even after the enactment of the Trinidad modity prices (46 percent for a weighted the GA IT Uruguay Round not only Terms. index of 33 primary product exports), dismantle most barriers to developing If the climate and biodiversity heavy debt burdens, and industrialized country exports but also eliminate the conventions are to be effective in

APRIL-JUNE 1993 37 reducing the threats of global warming the relevant agencies of the developing plan for holding its emissions to an and biodiversity loss, key developing country and with other donor countries, agreed-upon level if the industrialized countries will have to be persuaded to must offer significant benefits to the countries pledge a major new program of make significa nt commitments to country in return fo r agreement to loans for the purchase of energy effi cient limiting greenhouse gas emissions and to specific actions to enhance global coal conversion and industrial technolo­ conserving biological resources, based on environmental security. gies. To convince skeptical Chinese a series of unprecedented North-South ln the case of the climate change officials that such a bargain is in China's bargains. Instead of counting on multi­ convention, for exa mple, any agreement interests, however, a final proposal lateral conference diplomacy to arrive at by industrialized countries to reduce or would have to include the results of a such bargain , the United States should even stabili ze greenhouse gas emissions detailed feasibility study, carried out ta ke the lead in reaching substantive will be nullified by the growth of with the participation of Chinese energy understandings with these major Chinese emissions over the next 30 years experts and financed by the industrial­ developing countries. Working groups unless China agrees to a major effort to ized countries. • should be organized by the National control its emissions. There is scope for a Securi ty Council staff to develop detailed win-win solution to the problem, proposals for ultimate presentation to however, because of the extreme energy the key developing countries. These inefficiency of the Chinese economy. proposals, based on consultations with China might agree to adopt a national

About Our Contributors

Dear EPA f 011rnnl: l have been struggling to inform myself about recycling and related environmental matters. I recently discovered the EPA Region 1 Library, the best I have found yet. I enjoyed reading your July I August 1992 issue on recycling. However, I am very frustrated that you do not publish mailing addresses for the authors and organizations mentioned. l have wasted a great deal of time trying to locate this information!

Keith K. Davison 239 Cli nton Road Brookline, MA 02146

Thank you fo r the good iden. From now on, EPA Journal will publish information about how to contact our contributors:

Sir Shridith Ra mphal Mohamed El-Ashry William Nitze World Conservation Union World Bank-Environment Department The Alliance to Save Energy Rue Mauvemey 28 1818 H Street NW., Room S5055 1725 KStreet NW., Suite 509 Ch-1] 96 Gland Washington, DC 20433 Washington, DC 20006 Switzerland Phone: 202/ 473-3471 Phone: 202/857-0666 Phone: 41 22 999-0001 Fax:202/477-0565 Fax:202/331-9588 FAX: 41 22 999-0002 Korinna Horta Linda Starke Kathy Sessions Environmental Defense Fund 1789 Lanier Place NW., Suite 43 U.N. As ociation of the U.S.A. 1875 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 101 6 Washington, DC 20009 1010 Vermont Ave. NW., Suite 904 Washington, DC 20009 Phone and fax: 202/387-4238 Washington, DC 20005 Phone: 202/387-3500; X25 Gareth Porter Phone: 202/347-5004 Fax:202/234-6049 Environmental and Energy Fax:202/628-5945 Paul Cough Study Institute Carrie Meyer U.S. EPA (A-106) 122 C Street NW., Suite 700 World Resources Institute Office of International Activities Washington, DC 20001 1709 New York Ave. NW. 401 M Street SW. Phone: 202/628-1400 Washington, DC 20006 Washington, DC 20460 Fax: 202/628-1825 Phone: 202/662-2592 Phone: 202/260-8975 Fax:202/638-0036 Fax:202/260-4470

38 EPA JOURNAL O nIE PEOPLE of Namibia, living with Children Yearn fo~ Rain little rainfall is a fact of life. The nation, on the southwest roast of Africa, has the driest The sun smears itself again climate on the contin ~ m 1992, suffered across dusty classroom panes through its worst drought in a quarter of a century. and the many looks of children W. Luckmann, a Namibian poet and taM:hel: crowd open and droughty doorways. writes that the following poem "was inspm one day Their books huddle them in bondage when, during our school holidays, I was driving to ~s cannot hold or sort the written word. the coast and saw how numerous cattle were led by butthelt herdsmen along the road. Apparently, that was the 'lhe~ ther poem only grazing left on some drought-stricken 6ums. As I fro.m Ids boolc:-oolcnd hoard H1' words only border and skirt teach a lot of fanners' children, my mind couldn't • drawn back home: help turning back to many hot days when we dis­ cussed poems about rain." to cattle that silently tread along spar.;e roadside curbs; to fathers that ponder how a drought can hold quiet title to their land; to seasons that come as they go, ~yip& dryiolprints on family land. Today's poem describes: the hissing soles of motor-cars the sliding, skipping of schoolboy shoes the first rains that pat the tops of flowers like cldldren's heads And the children lllce backward seecllinszs yearn fur rain to tum with thrustmgfingers the dusty pages of another summer season. - W. Luclanann

(The writings of Luc.kmllnn and other Southern African writers are ftatured in The Kalahari Review, 4000 Cathedral Ave., NW, #1388, Washington, DC 20016.)

APRIL-JUNE 1993 39 NL Y ABOUT HALF of the mature forests that once 1. DIVIDE INTO GROUPS. graced the tropical regions of Earth still stand. The Each group will represent 0 forests that remain, which are mostly in the Amazon one of the following: Basin, continue to be destroyed at a quick pace. Consider these facts about the rainforest: •Brazil •Japan • Forty million acres of tropical rainforest (about the size of the state •Indonesia of Washington) are being cut and cleared every year. •Niger • The United States • 90 different Amazonian tribes are thought to have disappeared this •Student moderators, to century as their habitat and livelihood have been destroyed. guide the debate

• 90 percent of all primates are found only in tropical forest regions 2. RESEARCH the issue of of Latin America, Africa, and Asia. deforestation and find background information • 700 tree species (the equivalent of the total species found in Canada about your country.The and the continental United States) were found in 10 one-hectare following questions should plots in Borneo. guide your research: • Less than 1 percent of 250,000 known tropical rainforest plants have been screened for use in life-saving drugs. • Why is deforestation occurring? What are some alternatives to destroying the When the countries of the world got together for the United forests that also consider the Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the "Earth needs of people? How can Summit") in June 1992, destruction of the tropical-and temperate-­ we save forests for the forests was one of the delegates' great concerns. After much dis­ future? agreement and negotiation, the nations agreed on non-binding •Does your country have principles for the management, conservation, and sustainable many forest resources? Have development of all types of forests. By holding your own Earth your forests been used to Summit, you and your classmates can decide what the world should make wealth for your do about the rapid decrease in the world's forests. country? Will future genera­ According to the 1993 Information Please Environmental Almanac, tions be affected by how the Earth Summit discussion on the forest principles centered on quickly you are cutting your disagreements between the developed world and the developing forests now? countries. The developing countries argued that they alone should • Does your country have determine how their forests are used. Therefore, they said, their financial wealth compared to forests cannot be controlled by an international treaty. They pointed the other countries involved out that developed nations long ago cut down many of their forests in your Earth Summit? Does to enrich themselves. They argued that the developing world has the your country consume a lot right to do the same with its forests, if it so chooses. The final of natural resources com­ agreement largely reflects this position of the developing world. pared to the other countries? • How might your country benefit from other countries' practicing sustainable development, or using their resources wisely? •Who should pay for international efforts to save

EPA JOURNAL the forests? Can your potential areas of compro- then hold the Summit to country afford to contribute mise within the proposals. decide what to do to im- To the Teacher: Objec- much toward worldwide A representative from prove the environment tives of this activity are: sustainable development each country should have around your school. Ex- 1. To examine the issue efforts? Should the money five minutes to present her amples: Study which of rainforest destruction that all the countries contrib- or his group's proposal. hazardous substances are and possible efforts to ute go into a fund controlled Moderators and representa- used in your school and slow that destruction; equally by everyone, despite tives from the other coun- investigate whether there are 2. To become aware of how much each individual tries should have the alternatives to those sub- the variation in environ- country pays? Or should the opportunity to ask questions stances. Or examine your mental and economic countries that pay the most after each presentation. school's waste stream and resources that exists have the most control over Moderators should then identify ways to reduce it. between various how the funds are spent? consider the proposals and Prepare a checklist for your countries; and 3. To their own research, and local school board highlight- •Should each country have analyze the different come up with a compromise ing the environmental positions the countries the right to decide on its own proposal. The compromise concerns you have about how to use its rainforest might take on forestry should be presented to the your school, or visit a school issues, to defend or resources? Why or why not? other students for their board meeting to make your refute those positions, Note: Moderators should reaction and debate. Stu- views known. then to synthesize new focus their research on dents should debate in the principles by which deforestation and identify spirit of compromise and Some Sources: nations can agree to potential solutions to slow it. with the understanding that • The 1993 information Please support sustainable some agreement is necessary Environmental Almanac, development efforts. 3. WRITE A SHORT to conserve the world's World Resources Institute. Teachers should use forests. discretion in choosing PROPOSAL to debate at • Atlas of the Environment, G. moderators for this your Earth Summit. Write Lean, D. Hinrichsen, and A. Extensions: lesson plan. They about: What should the Markham. Prentice Hall 1. Organize an environmen- should help moderators world do to work toward Press, 1990. conserving forest resources? tal "Town Summit" for your look for areas of agree- Who should pay for those community. Develop a list of • Eville Gorham, "An ment among the various efforts? What should your environmental concerns you Ecologist's Guide to the proposals and be country do? have about your community. Problems of the 21st Cen- prepared to ask ques- Your proposal should Then list the diverse groups tury," The American Biology tions of the presenters. benefit your country eco- within your community, Teacher, Vol. 52, No. 8, pp. nomically and protect your such as businesses and 480-483,Nov/Dec.1990. country's forests. However, minority groups, that might • Russell E. Train, /1 A Call for keep in mind that the have different perspectives Sustainability," EPA Journal, proposal should help all on your concerns. Actual Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 7-10, other countries work toward representatives from the Sept. I Oct. 1992. conserving the world's community should be resources. contacted for their views and (Teacher Ron Monson perhaps invited to the Town provided valuable input in 4. HOLD YOUR EARTH Summit. developing this lesson plan. SUMMIT. Moderators 2. Organize an environmen- For more ideas on presenting should review the finished ta! "School Summit" or forestry issues to students, proposals before the Earth "School District Summit." contact Monson at Summit, listing questions to Identify which environmen- Minnehaha Academy, 3107 ask the presenters and tal issues are most important 47th Ave. S., Minneapolis, identifying differences and to your fellow students and MN, 55406.) •

APRIL-JUNE 1993 41 SUssman Gardiner Herman

Robert M. Sussman is EPA's tional Safety and Health the congressional lobbying natural resource cases new Deputy Administrator. Administration, and the campaign on the Clean Air arising from federal statutes He is an expert in federal Food and Drug Administra- Act and acid rain. From and the Constitution. environmental law, w ith tion. He is currently co- 1978 until 1981, he served as From 1979 to 1984 as nationally recognized authoring a book for the Clean Air Coordinator of the team leader of the General expertise in the Toxic Environmental Law Institute Sierra Club, where he Litigation Section, he Substances Control Act on TSCA and the Federal directed a nationwide effort supervised lawyers conduct- (TSCA) and other statutes Insecticide, Fungicide, and to educate citizens about the ing environmental and Fifth that EPA administers. He Rodenticide Act. Clean Air Act and encourage Amendment takings cases. was the principal drafter of Sussman earned a B.A. participation in the states' Before that he served as a two regulations under TSCA degree in English from Yale clean air planning process. trial attorney for the section that developed from negotia- University, graduating He has been a board (1978-1979). tions between environmental magna cum Jaude in 1969. In member for the League of As Staff Counsel for the groups, EPA, and the 1973, he graduated from Conservation Voters since Criminal Appeals Bureau of chemical industry. Yale Law School, where he 1989. There he endorsed the New York City Legal Aid Sussman's experience was editor of the school's senatorial and congressional Society, he briefed and in ludes extensive litigation law journal. candidates, established the argued criminal appellate in the federal courts. He has league's substantive agenda, cases. From 1972 to 1976 he argued two cases before the David Gardiner has been and developed the league's was Staff Counsel for the Supreme Court and has named Assistant Adminis- annual Environmental society's Prisoner's Rights appeared before nearly al l of trator for Policy, Planning Scorecard. Project and responsible for the U.S. Courts of Appeals. and Evaluation. He graduated from federal constitutional Sussman comes to EPA Gardiner was Legislative Harvard College with a B.A. litigation over conditions in from the law firm of Latham Director of the Sierra Club degree in History in 1977. state and local prisons and and Watkins, where he has since 1983. In that position, jails. been a partner since 1987. he directed all of the Sierra Steven A. Herman has been Herman also worked as There he established an Club's lobbying in Washing- appointed Assistant Admin- counsel at the Pulaski environmental group that ton, DC, on legislative and istrator for Enforcement, a County, Little Rock, Arkan- grew to include 10 attorneys. administrative matters. position in which he acts as sas, Legal Aid Bureau (1970 Previously he was an These involved air and water primary advisor to the to 1972), where he counseled attorney with the Washing- pollution, toxic waste Administrator on criminal community groups and ton, DC, law firm of cleanup, wilderness and the and civil enforcement government officials on Covington and Burling; he protection of public lands, activities. school problems, welfare, joined the firm in 1974 and global warming and energy Herman previously and public housing policies. became a partner in 1981. policy, and international served, from 1984 until his He received his B.A. From 1973 to 1974, he was a environmental issues. recent EPA appointment, as degree from Rutgers Univer- law clerk to the Honorable Besides managing the Sierra Assistant Section Chief of sity in 1966 and a J.D. degree Walter K. Stapleton, a U.S. Club's Politica l Litigation General Litigation in the from Rutgers Law School in District Judge for the District and Media programs, Environmental and Natural 1969. of Delaware. Gardiner directed policy and Resources Division at the The new Deputy Adm in- strategy development, Department of Justice. There Robert W. Hickmott has istrator is the author of communications, and he supervised complex and been appointed as the new several articles concerning research. often controversial environ- Associate Administrator for the activities of EPA, the ln 1981, Gard iner was the mental litigation while the Office of Congressional Consumer Product Sa fety Sierra Club's Washington representing the government and Legislative Affairs. In om mission, the Occupa- Representative. He directed in environmental and this position he serves as the

42 EPA JOURNAL Hickmott Ucelli Lot1s principal advisor to the tions, Education, <1nd Public national and local media, peals, and U.S. Supreme Administrator on all con­ Affairs. Congress, and the public Court. gressional and legislative Her background in while serving as editor-in­ In 1978, Lotis was ap­ activities. communications includes chief of four union publica­ pointed Administrative Law Before joining EPA, m<1naging communications tions. As a member of the Judge for the Federal Energy Hi ckmott was Deputy and media relations for the federation's senior manage­ Regulatory Commission. He Executive Director for the ational Abortion Rights ment team, she established had responsibility for Democratic Senatorial Action League (NARAU the union's legislative and supervising all attorneys Campaign From 1989 to where she served as Director political goals on issues engaged in the trial of oil 1 91 he was an Associate of Communications from affecting federal employees. and gas pipeline rate with the law firm of 1989 to 1992. At NARAL, she Other positions held proceedings. Skadden, Arps, Slate developed substantive were: Regional Press Secre­ In 1973, Lotis ·was ap­ Meagher and Flom. From message strategy, supervised tary, Mondale/ Ferraro pointed Assistant General 1987 to 1989, Hickmott was press operations, served as Campaign (1984); Florida ounseJ for gas pipeli ne and Chief of Staff for Senator spokesperson, and imple­ Press Secretary, Carter I electric rates, with responsi­ Timothy E. Wirth, and from m ented a national communi­ Mondale Campaign (1980); bility for ad ,·ising the 1985to1987 he was ational cations plan and message News Editor, KDKA Radio, Federal Power ommis ion Finance Director for the strategy through the national Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on the atural Ca and Wirth for Senate Campaign. media and state-level (1979-1980); and Anchor and Federal Power Acts as thev He has nlso held positions grassroots affiliates. News Director, WCLG related to reg ulation of rates, as Political Affairs Director Jn 1988, she worked as Ri1dio, Morgantown, West charges, and terms of service for the Congoleum Corpora­ coordinator of special events Virginia (1977-1979). for interstate gas pipelines tion, 1983 to 1984; Executive for the Dukakis/ Bents n In 1976, she graduated and electri utilities. Director, National Business Campaign, devising and from West Virginia Univer­ From 1968 to 1972, he Council, Democratic a­ managing media arrange­ sity with a B.S. degree in ser ed as sole counsel for tional Committee, 1980 to m ents for the presidential Journi1lism. major rate cases and super­ 1983; Public Affairs Counsel, and vice-presidential debates vised other proceedings at E I. duPont Company, 1978 and town meetings. Jon G. Lotis is a new the Federal Power ommis­ to 1981, and Director of the Before that, Ucelli was Administrative Law Judge at sion. Alumni/ Admissions Vice President of Public EPA. He comes to thi He received a B.A. in Programs of Boston Affairs and Communications Agency from the Federal Business Administration University's Alumni Affa irs for the National Association Energy Regulatory Commis­ from the University of Office, 1976 to 1978 of Broadcasters (1986 to sion. Pittsburgh in 1963, and a J.D Hickmott graduated 1988) At AB, she directed Judge Lotis is a certified from George Washington summa cum laude from the daily internal and arbitrator on the panel of University Law School in Boston University's School external communica tions for comm ercial arbitrators of the 1967.• of Public Communications the association, which American Arbitration with a B.S. in public commu­ represents 940 television and Association and also for the nications in 1976. He 5,000 radio stations, includ­ American Association of received his J .D. from ing a ll the major networks. Better Business Bureaus. He Georgetown University Law As Director of Communi­ also serves as a mediator and Center in 1988. cations (1981 to 1986) for the mentor for the District of American Federation of Columbia Mediation Service. Loretta M. Ucelli is the new Government Employees, He is licensed to practice Associate Administrator for AFL-CJO, she promoted before the U.S. District the Office of Communica- union activities with the Court, U.S. Court of Ap-

APRIL-JUNE 1993 43 CHRONICLE

Fire on the Cuyahoga

by Teresa Opheim

he blaze did not last long; the mon­ days after the fire. "It's a funny line-if you etary damage was fairly small. Yet don't live in Cleveland." Tthe 1969 fire on Ohio's Cuyahoga Twen ty-four years later, locals have River ignited a public outcry about the state grown tired of the ri ver's lingering notori­ of the nation's environment and, along with ety. Said one city booster recently: "How oil spills and "dying" lakes, led to the long do we have to go before we don't passage of the major environmental legisla­ have to continually bring up that there was tion of the early 1970s. a brief fire on a river 20 years ago? ... I Running through Akron and Cleveland, don't read tories about Washington from Ohio, into Lake Erie, the Cuyahoga had Washington that constantly mention this been polluted for years. ln 1881, the mayor was the city where Li ncoln was shot." of Cleveland called it "an open sewer Today, the water quality in the river's through the center of the city." The river 40-mil e stretch between Cleveland and had burned twice before, in 1936 and 1952, Akron has greatly improved, according to without much fa nfare. But it was the blaze David Stroud of the Ohio Environmental on June 22, 1969, that caught the public's Protection Agency. However, the northern imagination and led many to thi nk, as one part of the river that serves as a ship local mayor said, "My God, if this is what channel is dredged annually, and the we can do to our water, then there's got to sediments are still contaminated to such an be a change." extent that they must be put into a confi ned At noon that day, a section of the river disposal facility Oxygen levels arc still covered with oil and debris, just southeast very low, and fish that happen into the of Cleveland, was ignited by an u nknown section of the river in the Cleveland area source. The blaze lasted could go belly-up in the summer. slightly more than 20 The Cuyahoga River has come a long minutes and caused way from the sordid state of affairs of 1969. $50,000 in damages to Today, the banks of the river even run two wooden railroad through a festive area of restaurants and bridges. shops, an example of urban renewal that For Ohioans, the experts say is a direct result of improved "spiritual damage," as water quality. However, it is the one newspaper put it, Cuyahoga's misfortune to be a small river was greater. As a result located in the midst of a huge population of news accounts and base and the industrial and municipal jokes about the absurdity waste that's produced as a result. As one of a river igniting, state official says, "There will never be a images of the fiery water trou t stream flowing through downtown resonated throughout the Cleveland." • nation. "Tell someone Blaze on the Cuyahoga, 1969. you're from Cleveland and he'll say: (Opheim is Associate Editor of EPA Journal. The Plain Dealer photo Cleveland. Ohio 'Cleveland, eh? Isn't that the p lace where l11for111alio11 in c/11ded in this article is lake11 the river is so polluted, it's a fire hazard?"' la rgely from Cleveland newspaper acco1111 /s.) th Cleveland Plain Deail'r editorialized

44 0 ··.~. ~.; , ( ' 199J-J42-1J8: 80002 EPA JOURNAL Letters

Growing with Garbage Watch that Exponent EPA Journal is having a terrific influence The inset entitled "What's in a Number" on page on young people. As an example, my 11 of the January /February /March edition of the niece, Roberta Davis, recently completed a EPA Journal contains a misprint concerning science fair project entitled "Growing with exponents. A certain level of Pollutant X would Garbage." The project was featured in her cause a potential risk of 5 x 10-7 or 5 additional local newspaper, the Foster County Indepen­ cases of cancer per 10 million people (rather than dent. The idea for the project was taken 100 million). The misprint illustrates how easy it from the EPA Journal issue on recycling. is for regulators like ourselves to get lost in a sea Roberta is 11 years old and just finished of numbers. the fifth grade at Carrington Elementary School in Carrington, N.D. She lives with Staff, Ground Water Management Section her parents and two sisters on a farm. EPA, Region 2 They raise grains, sunflowers, and live­ stock. Morris Beaton Water Quality Branch EPARegionS

Back Cover: Satellite images from 1974 (top) and 1992 (bottom) show the progressive destruction of Mexican rainforests. Red indicates living vegetation; blue, urban areas or barren landscapes; green, dry natural vegetation; black, wet soils or wetlands; and white, clouds. These are composite images generated from Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) remote sensor measurements of electromagnetic energy reflected from the Earth's surface. The images were created as part of EPA's North American Landscape Characterization (NALC)/Pathfinder project, in conjunction with a global effort led by NASA to monitor the status of tropical rainforests around the world. NALC is funded by EPA's Office of Research and Development as a component of the Agency's Global Change Research Program. The program is being conducted by the Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada. Images ptovlded by USGS EROS Dato Center. Satellite photos reveal progressive rainforest destruction (see inside back cover).