Centro Journal ISSN: 1538-6279 [email protected] The City University of New York Estados Unidos

Acosta, Leonardo The Year 1898 in the of the Caribbean: and in the Machinations of the U.S. Music Industry Centro Journal, vol. XVI, núm. 1, spring, 2004, pp. 6-13 The City University of New York New York, Estados Unidos

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CENTRO Journal

Volume7 xv1 Number 1 spring 2004

The Year 1898 in the Music of the Caribbean: Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Machinations of the U.S. Music Industry

LEONARDO ACOSTA

ABSTRACT

This paper analyses the impact that 1898, with the subsequent occupation and intervention in Cuban affairs and the occupation and treatment of Puerto Rico as a colony by the United States, had on the music of these Caribbean nations. Among the key factors discussed that affected musical production are the commercialization of music by American recording corporations and the massive migration of musicians, especially Puerto Rican musicians, to the United States. New York, like the Caribbean before it, would become the an entrepôt for musicians and musical styles, especially for Puerto Ricans. Out of this fertile mix new musical styles, such as salsa and Latin jazz, would be created. [Key words: 1898, Caribbean migration, Caribbean music, Puerto Rican music, New York, commercialization]

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e are accustomed to think of appropriation of all economic sectors of or Colombia. But Cuban music did show our music immediately fell into the hands the year 1898 in somewhat apoca- the Island, beginning with the land itself the ability to expand, a situation which was of U.S. publishers and record companies, W lyptic tones, much as those with and the sugar industry, which had been magnified after 1898. Since the beginning which in fact had been in since the more religious inclinations might view the destroyed by the war and purchased at of the colonial period, with Havana the beginning of the century. As Cristobal year of the millenium, 2000. This vision ridiculously low prices. obligatory meeting point of the Indies Díaz Ayala has pointed out, “The powerful of ‘98 may be in some ways influenced by But what interests us here is what all Fleets, Cuba received and distributed North American recording industry was the Spaniards, who for over a century have of this meant for the music, in the short musical influences from Europe, Africa, able to expand beyond the U.S., first in been crying about ‘98 as though it were a term of course, but especially over the long and throughout the Americas. In the 19th search of raw material, and then by selling national tragedy. Fortunately, the situation term. First off, it is important to consider century, with the independence of the equipment and records to those countries.... in Spain has changed so much that those Cuba’s central role in this U.S.-impelled continental colonies, there were migratory In 1904 Columbia announced the opening brilliant intellectuals who never tired of process, since in my view Cuba was con- movements that still require detailed study, of a recording lab in Mexico. Victor fol- weeping over the fall of the empire are verted into a kind of pilot experiment for most evidently from Mexico, Venezuela, lowed suit in 1905, and as of 1915 had been today viewed with a certain curiosity, U.S. strategy in Latin America. And, indeed, and Colombia into the Spanish-speaking making recordings in , Santiago since Spaniards today feel that they didn’t Cuba offered the ideal conditions for such Antilles. How many musical exchanges de Chile, Montevideo, Lima and other only lose out at that time, they stood to a role, with music providing one must have resulted from these migrations? cities.” To cite further, Díaz Ayala goes gain as well. For them 1898 is more a of the best examples. And even in Cuba’s wars of independence, on to say that, “For all intents and purposes symbol of a generation of intellectuals, There can be no doubt that Cuba had which saw the participation of thousands it can be said that the main effort of the off the mark on many issues, but nonethe- a huge variety of musical genres and styles, of Latin Americans from different countries, North American recording business was less brilliant. At the same time, the U.S. as well as a potential for astute and how many rhythms and “airs” must have centered in the Caribbean. Its strategy gained in the short run in material terms opportunistic exploitation. This musical been heard in the rebel camps? These included traveling with portable recording what it lost in prestige, so that by now abundance stemmed in large part from the exchanges might help explain why Cubans equipment to record in the countries them- no historian of sound judgment would exceptional development of Cuba’s colonial were composing bambucos and singing selves.... In some countries where they set conceive of the Spanish-American war creole society in the 19th century, along rancheras long before the advent of radio. up recording studies the system was discon- as a glorious page in the history books. with strong European influences. But it The year 1898 constitutes a turning point in tinued before too long; but in others, such Cuba and Puerto Rico, who were the also derived from Cuba’s dubious honor of this process in the sense that, following the as Cuba, it was still alive until well into the ones who lost the most in the short and being the very last Latin American country development of North American musical 1930s.… The other method was to bring local medium terms, could see within a few to put an end to the slave trade and abolish firms, this interchange only accelerated, musical personalities to record in the U.S.” decades those events as not only having slavery, which happened in 1886, an event although only in certain directions. And it nother important point made by fatal consequences (which of course they that served to strengthen the presence of was Cuba that assumed the role of the Díaz Ayala is that the Cuban did), but also as another chapter in the ethnic groups such as the Yoruba, Carabalí, privileged exporter, becoming almost A recording industry didn’t get going history of their entry into modernity. and Arará, whose music had already become colonialist, though the major beneficiaries until 1944 (much later than the music Ye t rather than engaging in a partisan polit- an important (even though semiclandestine) were of course the corporations. industry in Mexico or Colombia and ical interpretation of the matter, let’s focus force by the beginning of the 20th century. The neocolonial situation faced by later, of course, than that in the Southern on the issue at hand: nuestra música. One must also consider the existence of the Puerto Rico and Cuba was decidedly less Cone, which had always been more Indeed, one of the decisive facts for the quite different poles –- almost two separate favorable over the longer term for Puerto closely linked to Europe). Because the subsequent history of Caribbean and Afro- musical countries — within the island: Rico, as is most directly evident in the industry was so dependent on labels like Caribbean music stems from the Spanish- the western part, with its strong Yoruba growing number of musicians who were Decca, Victor, and Columbia, a very large American War, which led to the occupation and Abakuá elements, and the eastern part, forced to migrate to the United States number of recordings of Cuban music of Cuba and Puerto Rico by the U.S. armed Oriente, which exhibited more Bantú and beginning in 1917 and then during the have been forgotten and never reissued. forces in 1898. From a Cuban perspective, Dahomeyan features owing to the Franco- 1920s and ‘30s, in proportions much larger On the other hand, Ruth Glasser has the military intervention between 1898 Haitian immigrations. At the same time than those of their Cuban counterparts. pointed out that in 1925 Victor had only and 1902 was above all the symbol of we find strong lay influences from Europe, (It is interesting to note, and deeply ironic, 25 recordings of Puerto Rican music, national humiliation and frustration, which crystallized in the prolific presence that while in our times “Lamento Borincano” as compared with 355 from Cuba and the though what was most troubling, even more of the operetta, most prominently popular stands as a classic throughout Latin America, Lesser Antilles, of which we can assume than the occupation itself, was the famous in the eastern part of the island. its parallel composition of the same years, that the majority were pressed and/or Platt Amendment, which was inserted into Not to say that Cuba had greater musical Grenet’s “Lamento Cubano,” is virtually registered by New York houses. John Storm the Constitution of 1901 and was not richness than any other country, and in fact forgotten after endless attempts by Roberts tells us that as early as 1850 there abolished until 1934. The other crucial and I myself feel that there was even greater different governments to prohibit it.) was already Cuban music being printed widely known development was the U.S. variety and potential in countries like Brazil Needless to say, the commercial future of in New York, though he doesn’t provide

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more precise information. He does (as described by John Storm Roberts in Before long we see Puerto Ricans in all urthermore, in that period Puerto inform us that already in 1932 E.B. Marks his by now classic books), there was a clear spheres of New York music, in both white Rican bands incorporated other had “almost 600 Latin numbers,” most of prevalence of Cuban composers and and black jazz bands. The extraordinary FCaribbean genres into the obligatory them Cuban. More recent information is rhythms or genres. The ‘20s and ‘30s figure Augusto Coén participated in black North American and Cuban repertoires, somewhat vague, but it does give us an saw the prominence of pieces by Nilo reviews with Lew Leslie’s Blackbirds and including the danza and plena and the idea of the impetus that the houses gave Meléndez, , Sánchez Rhapsody in Black, and thereafter in the Dominican merengue, the Venezuelan to Cuban music, paralleling the record y Fuentes, Moisés Simón, Gonzalo Roig, bands of Noble Sissle, Duke Ellington, joropo, and the Colombian bambuco and companies and theatrical productions and Eliseo Grenet, and musical genres and Fletcher Henderson; he also played cumbia, which set the stage for what of Broadway, which had been getting like the son, the , the rumba (and the alongside Blake and Alberto Socarrás would become, decades later, the music “Latinized” since the beginning of the conga) for ballroom consumption, the latter before forming his own band, Augusto that came to be called salsa. Thus the century. Hollywood sound films would two of these created by white, middle- Coén y sus Boricuas. Assuming 1934 is Puerto Ricans found themselves in the then be the fourth means of diffusion, class, and very professional composers the correct date for the group’s formation, epicenter of all the inter-Latin American not only for live music, but also for music who achieved immense popularity among this would be the first Latin orchestra in fusions taking place in theater, film, already recorded by American companies. all social sectors from many countries the U.S. with the big band sound during recordings, radio, and cabaret in the U.S., uban music in the 20th century (a process similar to that of some composers the Swing Era. The musicians interpreted as well as in the fusions with North thus experienced its exceptional of plena in Puerto Rico). In the 1940s danzas and plenas in addition to the Cuban American styles such as jazz, r&b, soul, Cinternational expansion thanks to through ‘50s, we see the mambo, Afro- repertoire, thus preceding by seven years and disco. And the career of any Cuban the powerful U.S. culture industry. Cuban Cuban jazz, the cha cha as well as black the debut of the Afro-Cubans of Machito musician in the U.S. would have been far music was spoken of as the “chosen music” orchestras like those of Alberto Socarrás, and Mario Bauzá. more difficult if it weren’t for the help due to such factors as the U.S. economic Marcelino Guerra, and Machito, and of Among the many Puerto Rican and provided by Puerto Rican musicians, control of the island; the emergence of course major exponents of Latin music other Latin instrumentalists and arrangers not to mention the disc jockeys, a dependent but enterprising bourgeoisie such as Arsenio Rodríguez and Miguelito of that period, we find Juan Tizol with empresarios, and of course, of utmost (to which was added the new political class Va ldés. It was perhaps only in the field of Duke Ellington and Harry James, Rafael importance, the public, a point made by headed by “generals and doctors,” as Carlos composition that figures as noteworthy as Escudero and Fernando Arbello with Paquito D’Rivera. All of this becomes Lobería puts it); massive U.S. investments, Rafael Hernández and Pedro Flores have Fletcher Henderson, Louis “King” García understandable when we realize that as which included the important area of gotten their due. Even so, the Puerto Rican with the Dorsey brothers and Benny of 1930 the majority of the Spanish- tourism; and of course the unusually wide legacy served as the central core, along with Goodman, Rafael Hernández with Lucky speaking population in New York was variety of available genres and styles, some that of the Cubans, in the universalization Roberts, and Moncho Usera with Noble already Puerto Rican. But further, to put of them, like the omnipresent habanera, of the Caribbean current in popular music. Sissle, among other examples of Latin things into their proper perspective: already internationalized during the 19th It is worth recalling certain historical presence in the formative years of jazz nobody in the U.S. could master all century. Puerto Rico by contrast received landmarks. For instance, sixteen Puerto history. We note a similar phenomenon of the available musical styles like the far less attention, and among the many Ricans, among them none other than of intermixing within the Latin orchestras, Puerto Ricans did; above all, the Puerto economic and cultural realities Puerto Rafael Hernández and his brother Jesús, from the Catalans Xavier Cugat and Enric Ricans played jazz and of course Cuban Ricans were forced to face, there was one took part in the formation of the famous Madriguera to the Cuban groups; Antonio music, which had arrived in Puerto Rico that bears directly on our theme of music Hellfighters military band (Infantry Regi- Machín sang with the Puerto Rican since the 19th century with the tours history, and that is the crisis of the military ment #369) during World War I, a band Plácido Acevedo, Alberto Iznaga with of the teatro bufo. And if Puerto Ricans and municipal bands. As in Cuba, so in led by the African-American musician Noro Morales, Alberto Socarrás with constituted the majority of the musicians Puerto Rico, these bands had an inex- James Reese Europe. Europe convinced Augusto Coén, Davilita with Johnny brought together by Mario Bauzá and haustible quarry of excellent musicians; his superiors that Puerto Rico was the Rodríguez. Later on, figuring as Machito to form their historic orchestra, while they went into decline in Puerto “Mecca of good professional musicians,” mainstays of Machito y sus Afrocubanos it is also the case that when Chano Pozo Rico early on, during the U.S. occupation, namely those who were impeccable were the boricuas Pin Madera, Ray Santos, died, the only one who could compete in Cuba this Spanish-origin tradition was readers of music and played many kinds Frankie Colón, Mike del Río, Robert Torres, with him was the boricua Sabú Martínez. preserved until as recently as the 1960s. of instruments. After the war, some Puerto Víctor Venegas, José Mangual, and many Nonetheless, the so-called “division of Such circumstances, then, impelled the Rican musicians (such as Rafael Duchesne, others. And inversely, many Cubans found labor” set up in the U.S. for the Latinos mass migration of Puerto Rican Moncho Usedra, Ismael Morales, Rafael work in Puerto Rican bands, from Mario continued into the 1950s: musical genres, musicians to the U.S. Escudero, Francisco Tizol, and Oscar Bauzá and Alberto Socarrás with Rafael their creators, and top stars were for the In the first two waves of Latin Madera) stayed on to play in Broadway Hernández’s Grupo Victoria to the many most part Cuban (a situation which of (mainly Cuban) music, that of the 1920s orchestras, while some Cubans, such as Cuban musicians who played with Tito course included musicians of high quality and ‘30s and that of the 1940s and ‘50s Alberto Socarrás, began to arrive as well. Puente and Tito Rodríguez. and even genius, Arsenio Rodríguez being

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a prime example), while the Puerto Ricans or perhaps the pope of the mapmakers, we dare to get to the heart of the question, as the jazz ambassador to four continents. were generally the sidemen or studio I would classify Brazil as a Caribbean backed up as we are by the wisdom of a He even managed to visit the homeland musicians, except for a few exceptional country, along with a good part of Mexico, black musician from the north and of a of Chano Pozo four times, between 1977 cases. This situation held, even though and, in passing (why not?), New Orleans. white musician from the south. Back in and 1990, and founded the United Nations such major figures as Rafael Hernández And yet a Caribbean island like Jamaica the 1950s, half joking and half serious (as Orchestra, which includes musicians from and Pedro Flores, along with Bobby Capó, invaded the world with reggae, and the was his wont), Dizzy Gillespie announced all parts of Latin America. This effort, Daniel Santos, Ruth Fernández, and others, Dominican merengue left its national his candidacy for president of the United which Dizzy carried out so tirelessly were idols in Mexico and all of the borders behind to affect us all, while those States in jazz magazines like Down Beat for the cause of mutual understanding Caribbean, including Cuba. But in the from the Continent earned their place in and Metronome. He even went so far as to among the world’s peoples and cultures, Mecca of our music, the Palladium Ballroom salsa, and the Argentines claimed their name his cabinet, which included Max is summed up by another ingenious of the 1950s (on Broadway and 53rd Street own in Latin jazz, which is no longer Roach and other bebop greats; Miles musician, born at the other end of the and one block from Birdland, the Mecca of just Afro-Cuban or Afro-Boricuan. Davis was announced as minister of agri- continent, in a letter to a friend which jazz), two of the three signature orchestras, And now, the question remains: after so culture. This apparent joke was then trans- appears in the liner notes to one of his those of Tito Puente and Tito Rodríguez, much good music resulted from develop- lated, many years later, into Gillespie’s role albums. The letter reads: were Puerto Rican. And we’ve already seen ments after 1898, what can be said about that not all of Machito’s “Afro-Cubans” that particular year? November, 1974, Rome. were strictly Afro-Cuban. To sum up, the captains of the music I’ve recorded the LP with (Gerry) Mulligan. You have no idea what that was like. It was t’s no surprise, then, that after two industry took advantage of our music as though we were possessed. On the other hand, when you listen to it, you will become aware revolutions –- the Cuban revolution and with it became even bigger multi- of something that I have always believed and maintained. It doesn’t matter what country Iand the British invasion –- had the millionaires, a process which I described or culture you represent; if you make music in a serious way you will always find a common effect, for different reasons, of diminishing many years ago as “musical colonialism.” language to make yourself understood. I think that instead of politicians people should use the impact of Caribbean music; it was Today I prefer to say that we have musicians in the United Nations in order to get along better. above all the Puerto Ricans who were actually won a major battle. The music The letter is signed, Astor Piazzolla. called upon to create the first style of pan- of the Caribbean, in the vestibule of the ESSAY TRANSLATED BY JUAN FLORES Caribbean music, salsa, whose roots are New World, has turned out to be a not only in earlier Cuban music but also major influence in North America and in what we have seen to be the diverse is triumphing in Europe, Japan, and even 7(0) repertoire of the Puerto Rican groups in in Africa. All over the world it is a sonorous OBRAS CITADAS New York since the 1930s. I believe that this ingredient of everyday life, just as the Acosta, Leonardo. 1995. Una controversia salsera. Revista Domingo, El Nuevo Día 16 de julio. highly significant phenomenon has not been world’s diet has as indispensable parts sufficiently studied or researched. the foods corn, potato, chili, and Blanco, Jesús. 1992. 80 años de son y soneros del Caribe. Caracas: Tropykoss. Ye t there is still another point that usually tomato, all of which the Europeans Boggs, Vernon. 1992. Salsiology: Afro-Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York goes unnoticed. After the eruption of salsa, “discovered” in this Orbe Novo (New City. New York: Excelsior Music Publishing Co. with its ups and downs, we sense that it World) in the 16th century. With multi- Díaz Ayala, Cristobal. 1994. Cuba canta y baila: discografía de la música cubana. Vol 1, wasn’t the that was the national corporations or without them, 1898–1925. San Juan: Fundación Musicalia. most maligned by the events following from with or without Internet and global- D’Rivera, Paquito. 1997. Mi vida sexual. Manuscrito inédito. 1898, but rather the music of the rest of the ization, our music is here to stay. Caribbean, no matter whether it came from Who would have thought that the Glasser, Ruth. 1995. My Music is My Flag: Puerto Rican Musicians and Their New York Communities. Berkeley: University of California Press. the other Antillean islands or from the bolero, like the tango and even the habanera, continent, from Colombia and Venezuela. would still have life at the dawn of the Leymarie, Isabelle. 1998. Latin Jazz. : Ed. Vade Retro. This is not surprising because even with 21st century? Or that genres and rhythms Manuel, Peter, with Kenneth Bilby and Michael Jargey. 1995. Caribbean Currents: Caribbean the recognition that Brazil had always been that scandalize any tourist, like Latin Music From Rumba to Reggae. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. a geographical and musical colossus, a fact jazz or rumba flamenca, would be in their Moore, Robin. 1997. Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in hardly known in Hollywood but for the heyday in our times? Havana, 1920–1940. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. presence of Carmen Miranda and the bossa If the year 1898 was originally of primarily Roberts, John Storm. 1986. Afro-American Latinized Rhythms. Latin New York. nova in the early 1960s, only in recent years political or military interest, and also has that country come to claim its rightful economic as well as cultural import, Rosado, Marisa, ed. 1977. Ensayos sobre la danza puertorriqueña. San Juan: Instituto de place in the popular music of the Americas. today we can see it with musical eyes. Cultura Puertorriqueña. And if I were God, or the United Nations, And it is with this musical vision that Stearns, Marshall W. 1966. La historia del jazz. La Habana: Imprenta Nacional.

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