Published in Tectonics. ho ih ntecuefrtecag ntesri eiei ie h rcuedevelopment fracture the time, in regime strain the also in and change time, the for and cause space the over on variation light paleostrain throw area Cenozoic Shan late Tian the eastern of the picture in clear outcrops a give on applications the The over method discussed. new are this ones of traditional advantages Theoretical technique. analysis events clustering strain different a Then to using corresponding outcrop. populations the into from grouped are fracture tensors each strain on local slip the for calculated is strain overall tensor the strain calculate local to the fractures several tensor, from data slip the fitting of In instead study, paleostrains. this realistic good more a deciphering and for outcrop methods the quantitative develop of to strain opportunity the tech- about new information the detailed traditional field, more the Unlike much in provide niques collected manually outcrops. is from data data whose methods slip inversion acquiring fracture/fault paleostress quantitatively quality of high way of efficient historical amounts an of large provide estimation fractures and rock models on outcrop deformation digital shear from surfaces fracture automatic for of techniques of extraction development Recent decades. for history rocks paleostress in the found determine evidence to from trying been have geologists rocks, should the stress tectonic in past traces that left have principle the on Based system. dynamic earth the of standing Abstract a tt e aoaoyfrGoehnc n epUdrrudEgneig hn nvriyo Mining of University China Engineering, Underground Deep and Geomechanics for Laboratory Key State uniaieydcpeigplotanfo iia outcrops digital from paleostrain deciphering Quantitatively ★ ∗ oe n t plcto nteesenTa hn China Shan, Tian eastern the in application its and model mi address: Email author Corresponding https://github.com/EricAlex/structrock. from: available Code h nweg ftesri/tesfil vlto ntm sfnaetlt h under- the to fundamental is time in evolution field strain/stress the of knowledge The [email protected] n ehooy uhu211,China 221116, Xuzhou Technology, and i Wang Xin XnWang) (Xin a egGao Feng , 1 a, ∗ ★ Published in Tectonics. Melichar (e.g., settings tectonic all in out carried been have reconstructions utpetcoi vns ec utpesrs esr;teasmto that assumption the tensors; stress multiple hence events, tectonic multiple tensor” stress single a to related that are assumption the body; rock the in discontinuities by caused perturbations that example, tion For world. (e.g., analysis real paleostress the for in assumptions apply basic the not in do depend methods inversion the which on tions discussion” conceptual intense an such to submitted is and methods of number high of opinion 2002 al. et (e.g., decades 1982 last the during worldwide developed been by methods inversion paleostress ( the rocks of the introduction in traces left have should stress tectonic in past record that their from ( past data faultslip the ge- from in singularly structural structures, acting deformation of systems stress branch characterizing a is is target analysis whose reconstruct Paleostress ology to used dynamics. be can and and movements strain, crustal and past stress regional and local in changes past reflects Introduction 1. Shan Tian Eastern Clustering analysis; tensor; Strain model; outcrops Digital methods; Quantitative Paleostrain; networks. fracture in Keywords: displacements shear of distribution the and patterns oee,tedbt sntcoe,adteciiusaemil ocrigta conven- that concerning mainly are critiques the and closed, not is debate the However, bodies planetary other and Earth the of subsurface and surface the of deformation The , ; ; aob tal. et Lacombe 2011 Angelier tesrs tt shmgnoswti h tde okbody” rock studied the within homogeneous is state stress “the , 2015 ; Simón tp n Tullis and Stipp , ; 1984 ilre al. et Riller ( 2019 , , 2006 1989 ), prasn te rnho tutrlaayi ffr uha such offers analysis structural of branch other no “perhaps ; , , moc tal. et Amrouch , 1990 2017 2003 ; ; ; evu tal. et Delvaux ahmt tal. et Hashimoto Shimizu goe h atta alsaeuulyterslsof results the usually are faults that fact the ignores , 2 2010 , 2008 , , 2011 ,adsvrltosnso paleostress of thousands several and ), 1997 Wallace , thcpre al. et Etchecopar Simón 2019 ; ; rote al. et Arboit Angelier ws n Unruh and Twiss Hancock ; , ( asr tal. et Maestro 2019 1951 ,bsdo h principle the on based ), and ) , obr tal. et Homberg , 1979 , 1985 , 2015 1981 goe oa stress local ignores Bott bok bounded “blocks ; .Snetefirst the Since ). neire al. et Angelier , ; , alfutslips fault “all ,teassump- the ), 2019 aadhand Radaideh ( 1998 1959 .I the In ). ; ,i has it ), , . Kaven 1999 , , Published in Tectonics. hnei h tanrgm ntm,tefatr eeomn atrsadtedistribution the and patterns the development for fracture cause the the time, on in regime light late strain throw the the and of in picture time, change clear and a space give over area variation Shan applications Tian paleostrain eastern The Cenozoic the from discussed. outcrops are on ones method traditional our of the over the method obtain new Theoretical this to local. of and directions advantages far-field both shortening outcrop, that the principal by body experienced their events rock shortening on tectonic local analysis outcrop, the the clustering in of a tensors tensor, strain perform Lagrangian strain we of population Lagrangian a a For fracture. hence that strain, encloses tightly displacement a slip in small the outcrop, results are an displacements it from fracture fault on each that For is dimensions. fault adopted to method respect our with outcrops assumption digital only the The from paleostrain model. deciphering quantitatively for approach an propose assumptions. controversial extent some to those quality of high rid of get amount to great the opportunity and an data, gives slip data fracture/fault the as of serve quality also the can of steps) measure and a striations (fault indicators slip that of parameter extra amount an relative methods, the those quantifies In outcrop. single slip one just fracture/fault from of extracted be thousands can Usually data outcrops. from data slip fracture/fault quality high al. et models outcrop ( digital from surfaces fracture of extraction automatic for techniques of ment inversion 2019 paleostress the as well as data (e.g., field results the lack of the quality about the complaining assessing are for attitude parameters critical of and cautious a for called have recently who ones” other that assumption the rotation” and significant tilted; no usually show are and rigid are planes fault the by age al. et Wang o hr a eacac osleteaoepolm,bnfiigfo eetdevelop- recent from benefiting problems, above the solve to chance a be may there Now nti ae,bidn pnlreaonso ihqaiyfatr/al lpdt,we data, slip fracture/fault quality high of amounts large upon building paper, this In ). , 2019 ,wihpoiea ffiin a fqatttvl curn ag mut of amounts large acquiring quantitatively of way efficient an provide which ), , goe h atta alsitrcin r ut omn te researchers Other common. quite are interactions faults that fact the ignores pre n Zweigel and Sperner 2017 n siaino itrclserdfraino okfatrs( fractures rock on deformation shear historical of estimation and ) , 2010 ; iplt tal. et Hippolyte mvmn nec al sidpneto the of independent is fault each on “movement 3 , 2012 goe h atta strata that fact the ignores ; Lacombe , 2012 ; Simón Wang , Published in Tectonics. 42°N 43°N 44°N eooc(e.g., Cenozoic nwihteCnzi omtosaedtce rmteudryn omtosadfr a form and (e.g., formations folds EW-trending underlying of the series from detached are formations Cenozoic the which in researches. paleostrain tectonic and development system fracture rock for area ideal an it late two by created is (e.g., It 1990 zones) suture Shan Asia. Tian central southern and in (northern ranges zones suture mountain Paleozoic active prominent Fig. in the shown of as South, one the is in Basin Tarim the and North the in Basin Junggar datasets outcrop digital the and area study The 2. networks. fracture/fault in displacements shear of et ffligadtrsigi h antcoi etr nteesenTa hnarea, Shan Tian eastern the in feature tectonic main the is thrusting and folding of Belts h td rai oae tteesenTa hn hn,wihi one ythe by bounded is which China, Shan, Tian eastern the at located is area study The iue1 h td ra atr inSa,Cia h alsaemdfidafter modified are faults The China. Shan, Tian eastern area: study The 1: Figure ; le tal. et Allen 82°E 82°E onradTapponnier and Molnar , 1993 TARIM BASIN 83°E 83°E ,adhsbe eciae ic h ni-uai olso nthe in collision India-Eurasia the since reactivated been has and ), onre al. et Molnar 84°E 84°E , 1975 85°E 85°E 4 ; , apniradMolnar and Tapponnier 1994 JUNGGAR BASIN .TeTa hnMutispropagated Mountains Shan Tian The ). 86°E 86°E 87°E 87°E , 1979 7000 0 0 ae al. et Ma Urumqi Legend Topo(m) ,wihmakes which ), ide tal. et Windley Inferred Faults Faults 1 88°E 88°E Beijing inShan Tian . ( 2002 100 ). 42°N 43°N 44°N , Published in Tectonics. 42°N 43°N 44°N hni rsnl esial cierne( range active seismically a presently is Shan ra(Fig. area stars. quadrangular blue with marked are datasets outcrop digital after (modified map Geological 2: Figure (e.g., century = M (Atushi, earthquakes large two recorded has area The and faults southern reactivated the by interior. accommodated along the within was faults deformation young little by relatively absorbed and was edges, shortening northern N-S the of 90% - 80% by presented field velocity movement crustal 2006) to ( (1992 blocks wedge-shaped as progressively rose and outward .,Dcme 3 96 n v oeaeerhuk vns(M events earthquake moderate five and 1906) 23, December 8.3, h leqarnua tr ihbaklbl hw ntegooia a ftestudy the of map geological the in shown labels black with stars quadrangular blue The esi ciiisaewdl eoddwti h atr inSa ( Shan Tian eastern the within recorded widely are activities Seismic 82°E 82°E 2 aklctoso uco ie hr eaqie iia uco datasets outcrop digital acquired we where sites outcrop of locations mark ) onradDeng and Molnar TARIM BASIN 83°E 83°E , 1984 84°E 84°E ae al. et Ma ; onradGhose and Molnar ( 2002 85°E 85°E 5 Ni )o h td ra uco ie hr eacquired we where sites Outcrop area. study the of )) , 1978 JUNGGAR BASIN ). 86°E 86°E ≥ Urumqi , .,Ags 2 92 aa,M Manas, 1902; 22, August 8.2, age al. et Yang 2000 age al. et Yang Beijing .I niae htteTian the that indicates It ). 87°E 87°E , ≥ 0 2008 ( )drn h 20th the during 7) 2008 E T D K P EN S J Z C O Pt Igneous Rock Ophiolites ue al. et Fu Legend 1 .Tecurrent The ). Outcrop Sites Inferred Faults Faults eel that reveals ) 88°E 88°E Q N , 100 2003 ∈ 42°N 43°N 44°N ). Published in Tectonics. 1otrpstswr uvydt cur h iia uco aaes h aaesare datasets The time. and datasets. space Fig. outcrop in in digital shown paleostrain the labels the using acquire numbered analyze to to surveyed were effort sites an outcrop in 21 exposed area, Shan are Tian formations eastern corresponding the whose in choose eras to stratigraphic tried we different sites, from outcrop the outcrops of distribution even spatially the and surfaces fracture rdtoa aesrs neso ehd r rbeai swl edsusdltri the in later discussed be examples. will the application as of assumptions problematic the are of methods some inversion that paleostress shows traditional also detailed outcrop The the of field. strain the the in about collected information manually traditional is than data data whose of amounts methods large information inversion this detailed paleostress by provided more be much can outcrop and the outcrop, of strain slip single the fracture/fault one about just hence from surfaces, extracted fracture be of can data, thousands Usually assessment. and quality rigorous more its see a please For method results. this inversion of stress description the detailed of quality the to on according influence of which primary measure data, a good slip a fracture/fault as the serve also of may quality indicators the slip measured of be amount to relative outcrops The on exposed extracted. be and to need surfaces fracture the course of and outcrop, proposed approach region-growing A by steps). and striations relative (fault the indicators as slip well as of direction, amount slip the estimate then and outcrop, digital automatically the are from that extracted surfaces fracture on displacement slip by caused morphology surface by assessment quality its and outcrops digital from derived data slip fracture/fault The 3.1. Methodology 3. Fig. in shown As clouds). (point age al. et Wang age al. et Wang h rcuefutsi aai eie rmdgtlotrp sn ehdproposed method using outcrops digital from derived is data slip fracture/fault The ( 2017 ( 2019 sue o uoaial xrcigfatr ufcsfo h digital the from surfaces fracture extracting automatically for used is ) .Bscly hsmto nlzsteaiorp ftefracture the of anisotropy the analyzes method this Basically, ). 2 pr rmcnieigteepsr odtoso the of conditions exposure the considering from apart , 2 . 6 age al. et Wang ( 2019 iplt tal. et Hippolyte ,hr emil discuss mainly we here ), ( 2012 ,has ), Published in Tectonics. titos ieto siaini rmrl nune ytedcesn muto slip of amount decreasing the by quasi influenced the primarily only that is much so estimation experiment, striations direction this fault for striations’ with chosen be surface should fracture steps fault a the than striations, developed of less quasi one just the of as point estimation such direction decreasing the indicators, with of slip decreases change quality capture the can illustrate cloud to Also, point since density. a surface, indicators fracture same slip the of archived covering be amount cloud can point the the This of unchanged. density kept point are the factors changing other by while variable only the it make to below. discussed are results, estimation direction serve slip can the indicators of slip index of confidence amount an the how as and influences estimation, indicators direction slip slip of the amount of the How quality the important. very are data the in of noise handling the and and error data slip fracture/fault the of assessment quality the and why etc., reason lithology, the that’s erosion, by influenced also of is quality morphology steps). surface the quasi fracture and while the striations However, (quasi surface, indicators slip fracture of amount the the on on depends direction estimations those slip the determine steps quasi and steps. steps” “quasi of effect the striations” components: “quasi three of of combination a strength as effect shear morphology base the surface on of indicators effect slip the of considers contribution the by describes proposed that was model strength theoretical shear the on on seen obviously morphology be surface parameter can A they not. whether or do, surface as fracture steps morphology the fault surface and fracture striations the fault of traditional anisotropy the similar causing are that indicators slip ufc opooyo elfatr n siae h ietosadteaon fquasi of amount the and directions the striations estimates and fracture real a of morphology surface neprmn a eindt ihih h ffcso h muto lpidctr and indicators slip of amount the of effects the highlight to designed was experiment An age al. et Wang age al. et Wang 푀 퐵 푓 / fiorpcmrhlg eg,jit ihn lpidctr ni) h effect the it), on indicators slip no with joints (e.g., morphology isotropic of 퐵 ( n us steps quasi and 2019 ( 2019 푀 endtetrs“us titos n qaises orfrto refer to steps” “quasi and striations” “quasi terms the defined ) 푀 푓 ’ ehdesnilyfistetertclmdlto model theoretical the fits essentially method )’s htdcesstesersrnt ln t lpdrcinadthe and direction slip its along strength shear the decreases that 푔 hticesstesersrnt ln ieto htfcsthe faces that direction along strength shear the increases that 푀 푔 / 퐵 h obnto fdrcin fqaistriations quasi of directions of combination the : 휃 푚푎푥 ∗ 7 / 퐶 htdsrbstecnrbto ffracture of contribution the describes that rsel tal. et Grasselli 휃 푚푎푥 ∗ / ( 퐶 2002 rmthe from .A ). Published in Tectonics. fsi hwdb h al tp hudas ecniee odtrieteeatslip exact the determine and to show, considered striations be also sense should the Let steps So direction. fault two in. the show slipped by have actually to showed striations fault slip fault the of for the possible But equally are that shapes. directions “zigzag” opposite steps’ fault the of because striations. quasi for applied estimation be occurrence may reliable experiment for this searching in from studies 0.05 future of in threshold the for generality, striations, of quasi loss particular of without to So amount the morphology. related surface not fracture is of form it certain and or instability, type to rock prone be of estimation may 0.05 the occurrence which of striations’ below threshold quasi anisotropy the surface fracture that of Note degree certain instability. describes to only prone more estimation the occurrence makes striations’ experiment quasi this in of steps Fig. fault than in developed shown less as much steps are and quasi striations obvious of isn’t amount there the since of instability, decline constant estimation occurrence quasi of the amount causes the of that reduction the striations primarily it’s that occurrence Note the of striations. quality quasi quasi the for of estimation index of confidence an occurrence as serve the may striations of quasi of estimation amount the in Fig. in instability shown as an when emerges striations and 0.05, density, roughly point to decreasing with declines expected it as declines striations quasi of amount from for changed mm cloud point 12 the to of mm density 2 point the steps, fault The than developed less cloud. much point are Fig. the in of shown are density experiment point this the of reducing results by produced be can which indicators, sal h al titosso h lpdrcinmr ossetyta h al steps, fault the than consistently more direction slip the show striations fault the Usually 휙 푓 and age al. et Wang 휙 [( 푔 휙 etesneo lpsoe ytefutses hnteeatslip exact the then steps, fault the by showed slip of sense the be 푓 + 휋 ( ) o 2 mod ( 2019 3 asg fteeeg fbdqaiydt) hs the Thus, data). quality bad of emerge the of sign (a b ’ ehda lutae nFig. in illustrated as method )’s 휋 )] etetoopst lpdrcin httefault the that directions slip opposite two the be 3 8 o rcuesraewoefutstriations fault whose surface fracture a For . 3 ,adtefc htfault that fact the and c, 3 .Teestimated The a. Published in Tectonics. h es fsi hwdb h al tp gesmore. agrees steps fault the by showed slip of whom sense with directions the slip opposite two the from direction slip the chooses essentially which eaiesi ( slip relative ( striations quasi of ( amount the steps of combination the use we enhanced So more and slip. more the is anisotropy with slip surface fault the of along degree the simplicity that geometrical means toward This slip direction. with evolve faults that geometry 3D and direction aye al. et Sagy 푀 푔 휙 / 퐵 푆 휙 ,wobt ecietedge ffatr ufc nstoy oetmt the estimate to anisotropy, surface fracture of degree the describe both who ), sdfie sfollows: as defined is 푀 푆 ( = 푆 2007 =                undefined 휙 ( 푀 휙 aesontruhtevrain nRSruhes pcrlshape, spectral roughness, RMS in variations the through shown have ) 푓 푓 푓 / + 퐵 휋 + ( ) 푀 o 2 mod 푔 / 퐵 ntefatr surface. fracture the on ) 휋 ) if if if |[( | | 휙 휙 9 푓 푓 휙 − − 푓 + 휙 휙 푔 푔 휋 | | ( ) = 휋 < o 2 mod 휋 / / 2 2 휋 ]− )] 휙 푔 | 휋 < 푀 / 푓 2 / , 퐵 n quasi and ) (1) Published in Tectonics. siae muto us tp n h curneo us tp lte gis h on density. The point the (c) against plotted density. steps point quasi the of against occurrence the plotted estimated and striations The steps quasi quasi (b) of of plane. amount occurrence estimated fracture the the and on directions striations slip quasi possible of the amount all against plotted polar are striations curve quasi fitted of amount the and changed to occurrence cloud fitted the is point estimate model the to theoretical of surface the density fracture mm, point 12 a the to For steps, mm (a) fault 2 indicators. than from developed slip less of much amount are the striations of fault effects whose the highlight to experiment The 3: Figure 240 120 240 120 7mm 8mm2mm 9mm 3mm 4mm 270 90 0 60 60 300 300 180 180 0 0 240 120 240 120 270 90 0 60 300 60 300 180 180 0 0 120 240 120 240 270 90 0 300 60 60 300 (b) (c) (a) 10 180 180 0 0 휃 ∗ 푚푎푥 240 120 240 120 10mm 11mm 12mm 5mm 6mm / 퐶 푀 270 90 0 rmtesraemrhlg fti fracture this of morphology surface the from 푓 / 퐵 60 60 300 300 n us steps quasi and 180 180 0 0 240 120 240 120 270 90 0 푀 60 60 300 300 푔 / 180 퐵 0 0 . 240 120 휃 ∗ 푚푎푥 / 90 0 퐶 n the and 60 300 0 Published in Tectonics. slip surface; fracture the of vector sasi distance slip a is .,adw set we cases, and our 0.6, In dimension. fracture the to respect coefficient the which in setting, this In lines. Fig. in shown as true, u is dimensions, fault to small are respect displacements tectonic fault with that several method, to our in one assumption only of the result If the events. deformation usually is and deformations, tectonic undergone have fracture a on slip the from resulted tensor strain Lagrangian The 3.2. ntefatr ufc a esmlfida ipesera lutae yterddashed red the by illustrated as shear simple as simplified be can surface fracture the on h lpo h rcuesraeacmoae h oa tano h okms which mass rock the of strain local the accommodates surface fracture the on slip The 푀 푆 = 푀 푓 / 휁 퐵 푘 o02t keep to 0.2 to + ln h axis the along 푀 e 1 푔 / steui etro axis of vector unit the is 휁 퐵 st aesr httesi distance slip the that sure make to is ecie nSection in described e 3 푘 steui etro axis of vector unit the is nterneof range the in 푋 1 ; e 2 steui etro axis of vector unit the is 11 푀 3.1 푋 ( 0 1 푆 , n h lpvector slip the and , 0 sal a aiu au around value maximum a has usually odfietesi distance slip the define to . 12 ) 푋 . 3 eueteetmtdrelative estimated the use We . 4 h ml lpdisplacement slip small the , 푘 푋 srltvl ml with small relatively is 2 n lotenormal the also and , u = 푘 e 1 .. there i.e., , 푘 = 푀 휁 푆 , Published in Tectonics. esrwt epc otercaglrCreincodnts( coordinates Cartesian rectangular the to respect with tensor components have displacement lines). slip dashed small (red shear a of illustration The 4: Figure nti ipie ipesermdl h displacement the model, shear simple simplified this In 푢 X 1 2 = 푋 푘 2 , 푢 2 = X 0 3 and [∇ u ] 푢 3 = = 12          u 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 h orsodn ipaeetgradient displacement corresponding The . u 푘 ntefatr ufc n h ipie simple simplified the and surface fracture the on 0          X u = ( X 푋 ) 푖 e ftemtra points material the of 푖 X and 1 u = 푢 푖 e 푖 is: ) (2) Published in Tectonics. n h xrsino h arninsri esri rnfre as: transformed is tensor strain Lagrangian the of expression the And xrsino h arninsri esrfo h oriaesse ihsadr basis standard with system coordinate the from tensor strain Lagrangian the of expression and north which region, in study system whole coordinate large the even a discuss or example, can mass for we rock which the in by system experienced deformations coordinate tectonic unified scale a need We the surface. fracture around the deformations local describing for only since fracture, suitable basis and standard fracture (with each here for used unique system coordinate Cartesian the that Note vn,telclLgaga tantnosrsle rmtesi ntoefatrsare fractures those on slip the from resulted tensors paleostrain strain particular one Lagrangian In local fractures. of the groups event, certain on slip the by recorded hence and strain Lagrangian the of directions shortening principal the of analysis clustering The 3.3. is: tensor strain Lagrangian The { e 1 , h aesri fterc asa h cl fotrp st oeetn accommodated extent some to is outcrops of scale the at mass rock the of paleostrain The e tensors 2 , e 3 } e ′ 3 otecodnt ytmwt tnadbasis standard with system coordinate the to = e ( 2 0 , stenra etro h rcuesraeand surface fracture the of vector normal the is 0 , 1 ) onsvrial p h rnfrainmti httasom the transforms that matrix transformation The up. vertically points E ∗ T = = =          2 1 푘 [∇ 0 0 0 0          / e e e 2 u 3 2 1 E · · · (∇ + 푘 ∗ e e e 푘 ′ ′ ′ ′ 1 1 1 2 / / = 0 2 0 2 e 13 u e e e T ′ 1 ) 3 2 1 ⊤ ⊤ = · · · E          e e e (∇ + ∗ ( ′ ′ ′ 2 2 2 T 1 , e e e 0 u 3 2 1 , ) 0 · · · ⊤ ) { e e e (∇ e ′ ′ ′ 3 3 3 onseast, points ′ 1          , u e )] ′ 2 , e ′ 3 e } 1 is: stesi ieto on direction slip the is e ′ 2 = ( { 0 e , 1 1 , , e 0 2 ) , e points 3 } is ) (3) (4) Published in Tectonics. itrclserdfraino okfatrswl nvtblt nrdc os otedata. the to noise introduce estimate inevitability and will fractures models rock outcrop on deformation digital shear from historical surfaces we fracture methods in extract the fractures automatically so consider, rock to exhaustively the can used we of than conditions complex more true always The are nature away). the far too are regions low-density neighbors in nearest alone lie (points (whose that packed points closely outlier are marks set and that a neighbors), points nearby Given together many with groups literature. DBSCAN scientific space, in some algorithms in mining points data of cited most the of one also and directions shortening principal the by proposed of DBSCAN, analysis clustering the for used is (DBSCAN) analyses. clustering the of results principal the while direction direction, certain elongation in mass rock the of shortening with associated directly direction shortening say Let’s elongation. and zero Fig. in lines dashed red as shown model shear simple n which in form: diagonal its in written directions be strain can principal three its of composed basis standard the with system outcrop. this of fractures on slip the the enables of from analysis resulted This clustering tensors a strain mass. through Lagrangian rock outcrop the the by on tend experienced effect paleostrains should other’s of hence each analysis the and out canceling mass, of rock instead the similar, of be strain to body the to contributing and constrained 3 epciey n loteegnausof eigenvalues the also and respectively, lseigagrtmcle est-ae pta lseigo plctoswt noise with applications of clustering spatial density-based called algorithm clustering A tensor strain Lagrangian the analysis, clustering the simplify To 퐸 1 , 퐸 2 and n n 퐸 3 1 3 se tal. et Ester a eue ofrhrdsigihplotaneet ae nthe on based events paleostrain distinguish further to used be can od h lseigaayi ic h lpo rcue smore is fractures on slip the since analysis clustering the do to r h nteogtosaogtepicpldirections principal the along elongations unit the are 퐸 [ E 1 ( 1996 ∗ < ′ ] n 푖 0 ,i n ftems omncutrn algorithms clustering common most the of one is ), , = 퐸          2 14 퐸 0 0 0 1 = E ∗ 0 ′ 퐸 rpicplsris nteequivalent the In strains. principal or , 0 0 2 and 4 퐸 0 h rnia tan r shortening, are strains principal the , 3 퐸          3 > 0 ewl s h principal the use will we , E ∗ ′ ntecoordinate the in , { n n 1 1 , , n n 2 2 { , n n and (5) 푖 3 1 } } . , Published in Tectonics. hycnb dutdacrigt h itiuincaatrsiso h aa norcases, our In data. of the values of used characteristics the distribution the to according adjusted be to can respect They with neighborhood a of ( radius point some the DBSCAN: by required are parameters Two vnseprecdb h uco okms.I diin hr em ob oedegree some be to seems there addition, In mass. rock outcrop the paleostrain by reflecting experienced groups into events cluster to tend do surfaces fracture the of most by indicated Fig. space. in in shown paleostrains as map, geological the outcrop on corresponding locations the to linked also are outcrop each from directions (Table shortening poles ostrain occurrences the surfaces’ with fracture along corresponding the clusters/groups, the of different on plots to shown assigned are colors directions, different shortening with outcrops similar surfaces, reflecting fracture populations corresponding into their group and which plots, poles in shown are directions shortening Section in scribed discussions and Results 4. outcrops. the of most for points 10-30 of range directions between shortening distance principal two any For and analysis. clustering the perform to tions to crucial is algorithm DBSCAN the as such analyses. noise our to robust is that algorithm clustering A h rttigwrhntn sta,fralo h ucos h hreigdirections shortening the outcrops, the of all for that, is noting worth thing first The de- as area Shan Tian eastern the from acquired we that datasets outcrop digital The direc- shortening principal two between similarity or “distance” the define to need We n 1 푗 , 푖 ≠ 푗 휖 h nl ewe hmis them between angle the , n h iiu ubro onsrqie ofr es ein(minPts). region dense a form to required points of number minimum the and ) n 휖 2 푖 1 r nterneof range the in are r rcse sn h rpsdmto.Tecutr fpaleostrain of clusters The method. proposed the using processed are and n 1 푗 퐷 as: ( n 푖 1 , n 1 푗 ) = (        14 휃 휃 휋 푗 푖 푗 푖 ◦ − 15 , = 20 휃 cos 푗 푖 ◦ ) − n h sdvle fmnt r nthe in are minPts of values used the and 1 if if [( 5 휃 휃 nodrt nlz h deciphered the analyze to order in , n 푗 푖 푗 푖 푖 1 휋 > ≤ · n 휋 1 푗 / / )/(∥ 2 2 n 1 푖 1 .Tecutr fpale- of clusters The ). ∥∥ n 1 푗 ∥)] edfiethe define we , (6) n 푖 1 Published in Tectonics. einlsotnn rus hc a eceryse rmotrp1-,1- n 13-4 and 11-1 10-1, outcrop from seen Table clearly the in be to can corresponding surfaces which fracture groups, between seem shortening confined regional groups and shortening strains local angle by high caused the be to to corresponding of be surfaces sense the to fracture in The seem groups groups shortening azimuth. (far-field/regional) shortening horizontal angle the of high one The with correlated azimuths. opposite roughly with groups 11-4 outcrop on clues some left have may N-S 13-10. events, and to shortening NE-SW from latest region time the over study directions of the shortening through of because change The just poles occurred. tilted the have must not in events shortening arcs are older (black they outcrops The that those suggest from events. also surfaces shortening plots) bedding older tilted by near the caused The of be events. occurrences may shortening latest groups the shortening of NE-SW directions horizontal shortening the is this that imply may measurements GPS from derived tensor (e.g., rate strain geodetic current the of axes shortening Table enta hsotrphdlnsie oadopst ietos hc sntvr likely. very not is which directions, opposite toward landslides had would outcrop outcrop this one in that azimuths mean opposite roughly with groups shortening angle landslides), high (e.g., of faults pair non-tectonic a represent may groups shortening that angle suspect high to the reasons of good one are there Although here. relationships strain regional-local the Table information shortening other their of of Table from surfaces 13-4 occurrences 11-3, fracture the 10-2, (e.g., by that groups confined fact not the are by surfaces supported fracture further corresponding be can this And far-field/regional events. by most NE-SW strain caused are horizontal they that near region: case strong and fairly study a groups makes which the shortening groups, N-S shortening through horizontal directions near show shortening outcrops of the of groups the in consistency of oeo h hreigdrcin oe lt loso ar fhg nl shortening angle high of pairs show also plots poles directions shortening the of Some age al. et Yang S1 1 ,wihmasta hyaentcue ylclsri vns h principal The events. strain local by caused not are they that means which ), mr xmlscnb enfo uco 14 15ad1-0i supporting in 13-10 and 11-5 11-4, outcrop from seen be can examples (more , 2008 S1 .Amdllk h idlsersrcue a esial odescribe to suitable be may structures shear Riedel the like model A ). gesmr ihtena oiotlNSsotnn rus which groups, shortening N-S horizontal near the with more agrees ) 1 n 22 23 31fo upriginformation supporting from 13-1 12-3, 12-2, and 16 Published in Tectonics. of of be decrease more both the could are that of events and result events, shortening the time, shortening NE-SW N-S In the the with Neogene. correlating with that the correlating than developed after groups happened shortening must angle regime high strain the the in change the that means Tian of edge southern the of that than current smaller the that is (e.g., fact Shan edge the northern by the supported near is conclusion rate This shortening Shan. Tian of edge southern the stress tectonic horizontal current oe ateta etclydie h pito inShan. Tian of uplift the drives vertically that mantle lower of increase the IssykKul, i.e. Shan, Tian of uplift the to related be al. et Qiao stress vertical the Suppose Shan. Tian of edge northern the near developed more are Table from Table found information be dipped steeply can examples more (many slightly fractures all thrusting almost the are than grouped they be but and groups, direction shortening horizontal opposite horizontal the the the in to into move just corresponding could fractures they thrusting that such the groups of shortening that to similar shortening the very angle by high are the supported to groups be corresponding can surfaces fracture This the of first. occurrences start the faults that fact dipped steeply most the with down, slide to stress tectonic horizontal near the of stresses combined the from resulted is outcrop the of 휎 휎 휎 푉 푉 퐻 휎 to h atta h egn ucosaeas ffce yteN-Wsotnn events shortening NE-SW the by affected also are outcrops Neogene the that fact The u oeitrsigepaainfrtehg nl hreiggop sta h strain the that is groups shortening angle high the for explanation interesting more a But nsae h ihagesotnn ruscreaigwt h - hreigevents shortening N-S the with correlating groups shortening angle high the space, In r iia ewe h oteneg n h oteneg fTa hn hnthe then Shan, Tian of edge southern the and edge northern the between similar are n h etclstress vertical the and 퐻 휎 a o xli h oaino h hreigdrcin rmN-Wt -,and N-S, to NE-SW from directions shortening the of rotation the explain not can 퐻 sraoal ag nuh h pe lc fsm ftetrsigfut begin faults thrusting the of some of block upper the enough, large reasonably is ine al. et Tian ( age al. et Yang 2017 dnie ai nraei eietto aeatr26M htcould that Ma 2.6 after rate sedimentation in increase rapid a identifies ) S1 ( ). 2010 , 2008 휎 niae htteemyb mlsaehtuwligfo the from upwelling hot smallscale a be may there that indicates ) 푉 ; 휎 uoihe al. et Zubovich gaiainlfre pitfre t.,adwe h ai of ratio the when and etc.), force, uplift force, (gravitational 퐻 rteices of increase the or 휎 퐻 ertenrhr dems esmlrta htof that than samller be must edge northern the near 17 , 2010 etc.). , 휎 푉 휎 vrtm.Hwvr h decrease the However, time. over 푉 eet h otws fLake of northwest the Beneath . evu tal. et Delvaux 1 n h supporting the and ( 2013 bserved ) Published in Tectonics. lns hssuygtrdo hs osm xetcnrvrilasmtost decipher to assumptions controversial extent some to fault those existing of the rid on get but study methods, This inversion shear resolved planes. paleostress maximum traditional the by of plane assumed the as on groups stress occur shortening necessarily not angle will high slip of the existence that shows The of order understood. chronological is systems, patterns) paleostress stress the of successive after number etc., and (e.g. framework correlations, geologic stratigraphic overall the striations, fault the of movement), of relations sense crosscutting and (direction style kinematic the style, deformation the including (e.g., traditional study the field hand, detailed a other need the methods inversion On paleostress applications. various avail- in sources paleostrain data the deciphering enriches for greatly able study This area. in study recorded the well over very all are outcrops strains ordinary regional the of characteristics the reactivated interior, by the accommodated within was faults deformation little relatively south- and the along edges, faults northern young by and absorbed ern was shortening N-S the of 90% - 80% that reveals Shan Tian the to related be could Pleistocene. early Pleistocene since Middle uplift the since change regime that propose strain further the we uplift. researches, previous plateau and Tibet research the this of by dynamics presented the evidences From to related be could change stress GPE observed the the that As plateau, way. Tibet the comparable by influenced and strongly is significant Asia in a distribution in contribute deformation both present-day that the explain demonstrated to and insufficient are alone related collision forces India-Eurasia or the alone to forces buoyancy that concluded They coupling. and Eurasia subduction towards oceanic plates oceanic of convergence gradients the by energy provided forces potential the Asia, gravitational in (GPE) the by explained integrating be by can generated prevails forces shortening buoyancy NS the where Altai and Shan Tien Tibet, Himalayas, finite NW-SE Using from modelling, Pleistocene. Middle Shan, element the Tian since N-S western to Pleistocene in Pliocene-early late time the in during directions paleostress of variation a lhuhtecretcutlmvmn eoiyfil rsne by presented field velocity movement crustal current the Although egol tal. et Vergnolle ( 2007 hwdta h rsn-a eomto nthe in deformation present-day the that showed ) 18 evu tal. et Delvaux eadcutre al. et Dehandschutter age al. et Yang ( 2013 propose ) , ( 2002 푆 2008 퐻푚푎푥 ), ) Published in Tectonics. h rcuesrae a evr elfitdb ebl itiuin(e uco 11-3, outcrop (see Fig. distribution in Weibull 13-5 a by and fitted 13-2 well 12-1, very be can surfaces fracture the to fractures new creating than efficient energy more shortening. be the may accommodate This 13-4). and 11-3 outcrop existing (e.g., 10-2, the directions shortening of the strikes to) the the (perpendicular for when optimal accomplish even not are 13-4), to discontinuities and surfaces 11-3 bedding 10-2, 10-1, like outcrop discontinuities (e.g., existing shortening on slips the use events ntoefatr ufcs ute eerhsaenee nti subject. this on needed are researches Further surfaces. fracture those on the of parameters The of distribution. distribution Weibull Weibull a by described be also can which strength local Tian eastern the in features Table tectonic From main the area. of Shan one consistent is is thrusting which that directions, knowledge shortening the the with surfaces to fracture perpendicular on roughly slip are by accommodated strikes are whose events shortening N-S the and NE-SW the more consider to models. need complex paleostress and heterogeneous to vastly paleostrain from two op- inversion get in The would result states. methods stress may inversion different occurrence paleostress plane’s traditional fault and stress the directions, the of slip groups, variation posite shortening slight angle a high but of similar, cases are the states in And paleostrains. realistic more h attigwrhntn sta,frec uco,teetmtdrltv slip relative estimated the outcrop, each for that, is noting worth thing last The h oe lt ftesotnn rus orsodn rcuesrae hwta both that show surfaces fracture corresponding groups’ shortening the of plots poles The 푀 1 푆 ecnas e htbt h ES n h - shortening N-S the and NE-SW the both that see also can we a erltdt h nrynee omk lpdisplacements slip make to needed energy the to related be may 6 o xml) hsmyb srbdt h aitosin variations the to ascribed be may This example). for 19 푀 푆 on Published in Tectonics. itnuse ihdffrn oos h lc os(oe)adac ersn h edn surfaces. bedding the represent arcs and (poles) dots corre- black the The to colors. after linkage different (modified their with map distinguished and geological outcrop the each on for locations directions outcrop shortening sponding paleostrain of clusters The 5: Figure IR D N N C C S 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 42˚N 43˚N 44˚N 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 270 K 82˚E 82˚E 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 180 0 270 TARIM BASIN 83˚E 83˚E 90 180 0 270 K C 90 180 0 84˚E 84˚E 270 20 90 180 0 270 85˚E 85˚E K J JUNGGAR BASIN 90 180 0 270 0 86˚E 86˚E E T D K P EN S J Z C O Pt Igneous Rock(IR) Ophiolites Legend 1 Outcrop Sites Inferred Faults Faults ae al. et Ma 90 180 0 270 Q N K D 87˚E 87˚E 100 ∈ 90 180 0 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 ( 2002 CHINA 88˚E 88˚E ) ieetcutr are clusters Different )). 90 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42˚N 43˚N 44˚N EN 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 K C C S S J 1 Published in Tectonics. etclyu,ec xsi ee og hstbelss5eapeotrp.Frrs fteotrp,please outcrops, the of rest For outcrops. example 5 (Table lists information table points supporting This axis the blue long. see the meter and east 1 points is axis axis red each the up, north, surfaces. vertically points bedding axis with the green represent outcrops the arcs system: and the coordinate (poles) reference dots onto The black projected The clusters. surfaces different to fracture assigned corresponding corresponding colors the different of the plots and poles the occurrences plots, poles surfaces’ in fracture directions shortening paleostrain of clusters The 1: Table aaesN.O. Datasets 11-3 11-1 10-2 10-1 13-4 hreigdirections shortening 270 270 270 270 270 lsesof Clusters 180 180 180 180 180 0 0 0 0 0 S1 ). 90 90 90 90 90 21 lsee fractures Clustered 270 270 270 270 270 nplsplot poles in 180 180 180 180 180 0 0 0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 lsesprojected Clusters noteoutcrop the onto Published in Tectonics. ehiusfratmtcetato ffatr ufcsfo iia uco oesand models outcrop digital from surfaces fracture of of extraction development Recent automatic for understood. manually techniques is with framework study geologic overall field the detailed after a data require collected usually and controversial, extent some to that assumptions are have usually methods inversion paleostress Traditional decades. for rocks Conclusions 5. distributions. Weibull fitted slip well relative estimated the of histograms The 6: Figure

elgsshv entyn odtrieteploteshsoyfo vdnefudin found evidence from history paleostress the determine to trying been have Geologists Probability Density Probability Density 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 0 . ebl D aaees shape( parameters: PDF Weibull shape( parameters: PDF Weibull 0 0 0 . . 1 1 0 uco 13-2 Outcrop 11-3 Outcrop . ha antd ( magnitude Shear ( magnitude Shear 2 0 . 2 k k .23 location( 2.2203; ) location( 2.2942; ) 0 . 3 0 M M . 3 f f /B /B + + 0 M M . 4 g g /B /B 0 l l ) ) . .34 scale( 0.0314; ) scale( 0.0264; ) 4 0 . 5 ha magnitude shear of Histogram PDF Weibull magnitude shear of Histogram PDF Weibull 0 . 5 λ λ 0.2054 ) 0.2471 ) 0 . 6 22 푀

푆 Probability Density Probability Density 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 . ebl D aaees shape( parameters: PDF Weibull shape( parameters: PDF Weibull 0 = 푀 푓 0 . / 1 0 퐵 . 1 + 푀 uco 13-5 Outcrop 12-1 Outcrop 0 ha antd ( magnitude Shear ( magnitude Shear 푔 . 2 / 0 . 퐵 2 ntefatr ufcsadthe and surfaces fracture the on k k .46 location( 2.1466; ) location( 2.3863; ) 0 . 3 M M 0 f f . /B /B 3 + + M M 0 g g /B /B . 4 l l ) ) .33 scale( 0.0343; ) scale( 0.0213; ) 0 . 4 ha magnitude shear of Histogram PDF Weibull magnitude shear of Histogram PDF Weibull 0 . 5 λ λ 0 0.2158 ) 0.2215 ) . 5 0 . 6 Published in Tectonics. fti ebl itiuinmyb eae oteeeg eddt aesi displacements slip make to parameters needed energy the the and to distribution, related Weibull be may a distribution by Weibull this fitted of well very be can slip not surfaces relative are estimated fracture The the discontinuities directions. existing shortening the the to) of (perpendicular strikes paleostrain for the optimal to the surfaces when bedding even Shan, like Tian shortening, discontinuities existing the eastern on accomplish slips the the like use environment to tend thrusting events shortening a becomes stress In tectonic horizontal the to enough. stress large vertical the of into ratio changed the faults thrusting when dipped faults steeply normal more groups the of shortening some angle that by high explained The be suitable also be may here. may relationships structures strain shear regional-local Riedel the the describe like to model A to corresponding groups. surfaces shortening fracture regional between the confined are groups to shortening corresponding surfaces angle that high show the outcrops many as strains, regional strains local the by by caused confined be and to uplift seem Shan groups Tian shortening angle the high to The related Pleistocene. be early since could the Pleistocene that Middle propose We the since Pleistocene. change Middle regime the strain since N-S the to NE- Pleistocene on from early changed the locations Shan during Tian outcrop SW eastern in corresponding directions the shortening far-field to the map, linked geological are shortening outcrop paleostrain each of clusters from the directions time: and space over variation paleostrain Cenozoic technique into analysis grouped clustering are a DBSCAN. then using called events and strain outcrop, different the to from corresponding fracture extent each populations on some slip to for strain the calculated local is the without tensor methods, paper, inversion paleostress this traditional the In in assumptions controversial paleostrains. realistic more methods quantitative deciphering and the for automatic Thus develop to outcrop. opportunity outcrop, the good single a of provide strain one techniques the new just about information from detailed data more slip much provides fracture/fault which automatically quality and high easily of can fractures thousands rock provide on deformation shear historical of estimation h plctoso ucosi h atr inSa ragv la itr ftelate the of picture clear a give area Shan Tian eastern the in outcrops on applications The 23 푀 푆 on Published in Tectonics. neir . 99 rmoinaint antdsi aesrs eemntosusing determinations paleostress in magnitudes to orientation From 1989. J., Angelier, Research: Geophysical of Journal sets. data slip fault of analysis Tectonic 1984. J., Angelier, given a for stresses of directions principal mean the of Determination 1979. J., Angelier, and Stress 2010. J.P., Callot, J.M., Daniel, N., Bellahsen, O., Lacombe, K., Amrouch, Paleostress 2011. J.M., Daniel, N., Bellahsen, O., Lacombe, N., Beaudoin, K., Amrouch, magma- and tectonics collisional Palaeozoic 1993. C., Zhang, B.F., Windley, M.B., Allen, References from data cloud point articles/Quantitatively-deciphered-paleostrain/10735988 outcrop original re- the anonymous find the can paper. and this Readers improved editors greatly have The which suggestions, and comments research. valuable made this viewers valuable in their problems for H. important Bürgmann Christopher on Roland Professor comments Professor thank and to Ellsworth like William would Professor We Scholz, 2020QN29). Central the no. for Funds (Grant Research Fundamental Universities the and 51934007) no. (Grant China of dation Acknowledgments subject. this on focus should researches Further surfaces. fracture those on al lpdt.Junlo tutrlgooy1,37–50. 11, geology structural of Journal data. slip fault 5835–5848. 89, Earth Solid T17–T26. 56, Tectonophysics population. fault 29. Tectonics wyoming. anticline: anticline, basement-cored mountain a Sheep in mechanisms deformation and kinematics patterns, strain 38. Letters Research Geophysical rocks. sedimentary folded in magnitudes 89–115. 220, Tectonophysics asia. central shan, tien chinese the of tism hsrsac a uddb h tt e rga fNtoa aua cec Foun- Science Natural National of Program Key State the by funded was research This 24 https://figshare.com/ ( Wang , 2019 ). Published in Tectonics. thcpr . asu,G,Dinee,M,18.A nes rbe nmicrotectonics in problem inverse An 1981. M., Daignieres, G., Vasseur, A., Etchecopar, discovering for algorithm density-based A 1996. 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Gps surrounding and 2010. shan tien al., the et for V.I., field Makarov, W., Michajljow, P., Molnar, O.I., Mosienko, Sciences Earth D: Series China 1064–1080. in 51, Science observations. gps from inferred mountains 30 Published in Tectonics. h eeec oriaesse:tegenai onsnrh h e xspit atadtebu xspoints axis blue the long. and meter east 1 points is axis axis red each the up, north, surfaces. vertically points bedding axis with the green represent outcrops the arcs system: and the coordinate (poles) reference dots onto The black projected The clusters. surfaces different to fracture assigned corresponding colors different the corresponding the and of plots poles occurrences the surfaces’ plots, poles fracture in directions shortening paleostrain of clusters The S1: Table materials Supplementary Appendix: 270 270 hreigdirections shortening lsesof Clusters 180 180 0 0 90 90 270 270 lsee fractures Clustered uco 11-4 Outcrop 11-2 Outcrop nplsplot poles in 31 180 180 0 0 90 90 lsesprojected Clusters otne nnx page next on Continued noteoutcrop the onto Published in Tectonics. 270 270 270 hreigdirections shortening lsesof Clusters 180 180 180 0 0 0 al 1– S1 Table 90 90 90 270 270 270 lsee fractures Clustered otne rmpeiu page previous from Continued uco 12-2 Outcrop 12-1 Outcrop 11-5 Outcrop nplsplot poles in 32 180 180 180 0 0 0 90 90 90 lsesprojected Clusters otne nnx page next on Continued noteoutcrop the onto Published in Tectonics. 270 270 270 hreigdirections shortening lsesof Clusters 180 180 180 0 0 0 al 1– S1 Table 90 90 90 270 270 270 lsee fractures Clustered otne rmpeiu page previous from Continued uco 13-1 Outcrop 12-5 Outcrop 12-3 Outcrop nplsplot poles in 33 180 180 180 0 0 0 90 90 90 lsesprojected Clusters otne nnx page next on Continued noteoutcrop the onto Published in Tectonics. 270 270 270 hreigdirections shortening lsesof Clusters 180 180 180 0 0 0 al 1– S1 Table 90 90 90 270 270 270 lsee fractures Clustered otne rmpeiu page previous from Continued uco 13-5 Outcrop 13-3 Outcrop 13-2 Outcrop nplsplot poles in 34 180 180 180 0 0 0 90 90 90 lsesprojected Clusters otne nnx page next on Continued noteoutcrop the onto Published in Tectonics. 270 270 270 hreigdirections shortening lsesof Clusters 180 180 180 0 0 0 al 1– S1 Table 90 90 90 270 270 270 lsee fractures Clustered otne rmpeiu page previous from Continued uco 13-8 Outcrop 13-7 Outcrop 13-6 Outcrop nplsplot poles in 35 180 180 180 0 0 0 90 90 90 lsesprojected Clusters otne nnx page next on Continued noteoutcrop the onto Published in Tectonics. 270 hreigdirections shortening lsesof Clusters 180 0 al 1– S1 Table 90 270 lsee fractures Clustered otne rmpeiu page previous from Continued uco 13-10 Outcrop nplsplot poles in 36 180 0 90 lsesprojected Clusters noteoutcrop the onto