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Fault-Related Deformation Over FAULT-RELATED DEFORMATION OVER GEOLOGIC TIME: INTEGRATING FIELD OBSERVATIONS, HIGH RESOLUTION GEOSPATIAL DATA AND NUMERICAL MODELING TO INVESTIGATE 3D GEOMETRY AND NON-LINEAR MATERIAL BEHAVIOR A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Peter James Lovely January 2011 © 2011 by Peter James Lovely. All Rights Reserved. Re-distributed by Stanford University under license with the author. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 United States License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/us/ This dissertation is online at: http://purl.stanford.edu/yb440sg1391 Includes supplemental files: 1. High resolution copy of Figure 1.4a: ALSM hillshade image and outcrop map of Sheep Mountain anticline, WY (Figure_1.4_HiRes.pdf) ii I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. David Pollard, Primary Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. George Hilley I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Mark Zoback Approved for the Stanford University Committee on Graduate Studies. Patricia J. Gumport, Vice Provost Graduate Education This signature page was generated electronically upon submission of this dissertation in electronic format. An original signed hard copy of the signature page is on file in University Archives. iii iv Abstract A thorough understanding of the kinematic and mechanical evolution of fault- related structures is of great value, both academic (e.g. How do mountains form?) and practical (e.g. How are valuable hydrocarbons trapped in fault-related folds?). Precise knowledge of the present-day geometry is necessary to know where to drill for hydrocarbons. Understanding the evolution of a structure, including displacement fields, strain and stress history, may offer powerful insights to how and if hydrocarbons might have migrated, and the most efficient way to extract them. Small structures, including faults, fractures, pressure solution seams, and localized compaction, which may strongly influence subsurface fluid flow, may be predictable with a detailed mechanical understanding of a structure's evolution. The primary focus of this thesis is the integration of field observations, geospatial data including airborne LiDAR, and numerical modeling to investigate three dimensional deformational patterns associated with fault slip accumulated over geologic time scales. The work investigates contractional tectonics at Sheep Mountain anticline, Greybull, WY, and extensional tectonics at the Volcanic Tableland, Bishop, CA. A detailed geometric model is a necessary prerequisite for complete kinematic or mechanical analysis of any structure. High quality 3D seismic imaging data provides the means to characterize fold geometry for many subsurface industrial applications; however, such data is expensive, availability is limited, and data quality is often poor in regions of high topography where outcrop exposures are best. A new method for using high resolution topographic data, geologic field mapping and numerical interpolation is applied to model the 3D geometry of a reservoir-scale fold at Sheep Mountain anticline. The Volcanic Tableland is a classic field site for studies of fault slip scaling relationships and conceptual models for evolution of normal faults. Three dimensional elastic models are used to constrain subsurface fault geometry from detailed maps of fault scarps and topography, and to reconcile two potentially competing conceptual models for fault growth: by coalescence and by subsidiary faulting. The Tableland fault array likely initiated as a broad array of small faults, and v as some have grown and coalesced, their strain shadows have inhibited the growth and initiation of nearby faults. The Volcanic Tableland also is used as a geologic example in a study of the capabilities and limitations of mechanics-based restoration, a relatively new approach to modeling in structural geology that provides distinct advantages over traditional kinematic methods, but that is significantly hampered by unphysical boundary conditions. The models do not accurately represent geological strain and stress distributions, as many have hoped. A new mechanics-based retrodeformational technique that is not subject to the same unphysical boundary conditions is suggested. However, the method, which is based on reversal of tectonic loads that may be optimized by paleostress analysis, restores only that topography which may be explained by an idealized elastic model. Elastic models are appealing for mechanical analysis of fault-related deformation because the linear nature of such models lends itself to retrodeformation and provides computationally efficient and stable numerical implementation for simulating slip distributions and associated deformation in complicated 3D fault systems. However, cumulative rock deformation is not elastic. Synthetic models are applied to investigate the implications of assuming elastic deformation and frictionless fault slip, as opposed to a more realistic elasto-plastic deformation with frictional fault slip. Results confirm that elastic models are limited in their ability to simulate geologic stress distributions, but that they may provide a reasonable, first-order approximation of strain tensor orientation and the distribution of relative strain perturbations, particularly distal from fault tips. The kinematics of elastic and elasto- plastic models diverge in the vicinity of fault tips. Results emphasize the importance of accurately and completely representing subsurface fault geometry in linear or nonlinear models. vi Preface Faults and folds are inherently three dimensional structures that form according to the laws of physics in response to mechanical forces within the earth. However, structural analysis is often based upon two dimensional models and ad hoc kinematic methods. Recent advances in computing power and numerical methods provide the means to consider structural evolution in three dimensions with sophisticated mechanical models. Great strides have been made; however, routine structural analysis remains primarily a two dimensional and kinematic science. This thesis aims to advance our ability to model geologic structures in three dimensions and using mechanical approaches. In Chapter 1 of this thesis, I present a new method for creating a three dimensional geometric model of a folded geologic surface at Sheep Mountain anticline, WY, using airborne LiDAR data, outcrop mapping, and numerical interpolation. Accurate geometric characterization of the present day structure is a necessary first step for any 3D analysis of fault-related folding. Chapter 2 focuses on faulting processes in the Volcanic Tableland, Bishop, CA. Mechanical models are used to infer three dimensional subsurface fault geometry from maps of fault scarps and deformed topography, represented by airborne LiDAR data. Strain perturbations resulting from slip on the largest faults are then applied to investigate the relative importance of several different conceptual models for fault evolution. Chapter 3 considers mechanics-based restoration, a relatively new modeling approach that realizes the retrodeformational benefits of kinematic restoration in a fully mechanical framework. However, the new method is not without flaws. I demonstrate detrimental kinematic implications that stem from unphysical boundary conditions used in published restoration studies, and consider alternative methods that produce more physically appropriate results. In Chapter 4, I consider the limitations of simulating geological processes using elastic models without friction. Cumulative fault-related rock deformation is not elastic in nature, but elastic models are appealing for their numerical stability and computational efficiency. Mechanics-based restoration methods assume elastic deformation because it is reversible. In the vii Appendix, I use mechanical models to study fault slip, but the models are applied to earthquake processes rather than cumulative deformation. Models indicate that regions of reduced static stress drop in the vicinity of fault tips in large earthquakes rupturing multiple fault segments may help explain slip distributions inferred from geophysical inversion. While these research goals may appear diverse at first glance, all focus on characterization of the geometry and mechanics of faults and fault-related folds, which are common elements of hydrocarbon traps. In the first chapter of this thesis, I present a new three dimensional model of fold geometry at Sheep Mountain anticline, WY. David Pollard suggested using airborne LiDAR data and outcrop mapping to model fold geometry at Sheep Mountain anticline before I arrived at Stanford, and this project evolved under my direction over the following four years. I spearheaded the field mapping, data processing, and interpolation efforts, and wrote the initial manuscript. Co-author Christopher Zahasky, an undergraduate intern from the University of Minnesota in the summer of 2009, did much
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