NORTH ATLANTIC RIM, BARRIER OR BRIDGE? Suzanne O. Carlson Wide and far they fared Needing sustenance Over ice and wastelands To Vinland they came Wealth weighs little For those who die early Rune stone from Hønen, Norway. Translation by Suzanne Carlson For Sea rovers, the highways are marked by waves below and clouds above. Aided by the sun and the stars, we can guess that the earliest skippers followed the icy rim edge in wooden dugouts or skin clad craft. Food was abundant on the edge of the pack ice: seal, walrus, fish, big and little, birds and their eggs. As the rebounding land emerged, other ocean-loving mammals followed the fish, otters, and the great white bear appeared. Arctic berries clung close to the ground while millions of cawing sea birds clung to bare rocky cliffs. Historians and archaeologists talk of immigrants moving north into the newly exposed rich northern Tundra both in Europe and North America. But it was not until Guthorm Gjessing, Norwegian archaeologist and ardent diffusionist, noticed a striking similarity between the cultural remains in Norway and the Maritime Archaic or red paint people of Maine and the Canadian Maritimes that the Atlantic rim connection was made. Style and technique of worked stone and the use of skin boats for deep-sea fishing and red ochre in burials were common. Impossible some say, but others–usually those with salt in their blood–think otherwise and see the fish-laden pack ice as a bridge not a barrier to traveling around the North Atlantic rim. In the Nova film, Secrets of the Lost Red Paint People, director Ted Timreck explores conditions, similarities, motives and the artifacts—leaving us intrigued by the possibility of circumpolar sea migrations. I was delighted when, in a discussion about the Vikings, Ted looked at me with a grin and said, “maybe the Vikings were the last, not the first of the early visitors to our side of the Atlantic. What do you think?” Certainly not the first, but I don’t think that they were the last either. Among the first to test the icy boreal waters was the astronomer, Pytheas of Marseilles, who ventured to Ultima Thule and witnessed the sea “turning into thick cold gray sludge”. Roman merchants no doubt ventured into the North Atlantic, but only Tacitus left an account of Agricola’s men subduing the Orkneys. Caesar commented on the construction and sea-worthiness of Gaelic ships. But it was 925 AD before Dicuil, an Irish monk, records that his brethren had been visiting Thule for many years. He gives a description of that barren land that leaves little doubt that he is referring to Iceland. Saint Brendan’s sixth century Atlantic shuttles are set down in the twelfth century Navigatio Sancti Brendani Abbati. Even Farley Mowat’s latest speculation in his book, the Farfarers, of the westward trail of his fictitious Albans presents very plausible candidates for the white robed men of Vitramannaland, also known as Albania or Ireland the Great which lies somewhere near Vinland.. Viking lore tells of long migrations of Germanic tribes into Scandinavia and the eventual melding with the native heirs of the red paint people. I believe that Norse mythology reflects folk memory of real events. The united body that would one day be known as the Vikings, took to the sea very early and they traveled far and wide. The Swedes went east down the Russian rivers to Miklagård—the great city of Constantine. Ingvar took his East Vikings as far as the Caspian Sea. His story is recorded in a series of memorial rune stones in Södermanland, Sweden. The West Vikings, the scourge of Europe, swarmed over all the islands of the North Atlantic, North Sea, and up the Seine to Paris. By 874 Iceland had been “discovered”. Soon inhabited, it was pronounced “fully settled” by 930. The North Atlantic voyager who should be considered the discoverer of the New World was Gunbjorn, who fell afoul of Iceland and emerged from the fog on the rocky skerries off the east coast of Greenland sometime in the late ninth century. North American settlement, for Greenland is certainly geologically and geographically part of North America, began with the arrival of the outlawed Eric the red, with his band of settlers in 985 in the fjords of the west coast of Greenland. This settlement, known as the “Eastern Settlement” spawned another outpost three hundred miles to the north which was known as the “Western Settlement”. The two settlements struggled to survive until the Western Settlement was abandoned around 1340 and the “east” settlement disappeared during the little ice age of the mid-16th century. The fate of Vinland the Good is not so clearly documented. Both the Greenlander’s saga and Erick’s saga tell of Bjarne Herjolfsson’s wind and fog-swept coasting west of his intended Greenland landfall. Leif Erickson later followed his wake but naming his own landfalls, Helluland, Markland and Vinland the Good. Members of the Erickson clan continued exploring and his sister-in-law with her second husband, Thorfinn Karlsefni attempted permanent settlement at Hop in Vinland. Constant skirmishes with the natives contributed to the abandonment of Hop after three years and the saga record retreats into relative silence on the Vinland activities. Other than brief references by the saga men and rune carvers, we are left with a few Atlantic coast clam shells found in a Danish midden, a chunk of Rhode Island anthracite coal found in Greenland, a Norse penny in a native context in Maine and a Norse spindle whorl in the artifact collection unearthed at L’Anse aux Meadows, in Newfoundland for verified physical evidence. The “context for controversy” emerged back in the 1830’s when Carl Christian Rafn, Danish antiquarian, scholar, professor, Royal Councilor and possessor of formidable knowledge of the repertoire of Old Norse literature, published his Antiquae Americanae. In it, he presented a forceful case for Norse presence along the New England coast which included the Dighton writing rock and the Newport Tower. This enthusiastic support set off a flurry of interest, explorations, discoveries and proofs in a search for Leif’s Vinland. Armed with this or that theory, amateurs and professionals alike scoured the countryside looking for clues, especially runic inscriptions. Since those days words, phrases, pleas and prayers have been discerned carved on stone in a myriad of languages from a myriad of times to bolster the faith of diffusionists. The longest journey and the longest debate centers on a stone found in Douglas county, Minnesota. Olaf Ohman and his son said they had extracted a marked stone from between the roots of a poplar tree while grubbing land. The newly settled Swedes in the area were quick to recognize the marks as the runic letters of their forefathers, and a translation soon appeared. It tells of eight Goths and twenty-two Norwegians, out on a voyage of discovery from Vinland, who returned from camp after a fishing trip and found ten of their fellows red with blood and dead. It also states that they had another ten men by the sea looking after the ship that was fourteen days’ journey from the sea. This date was translated as 1362. The inscription, on what is now known as the Kensington Stone, was soon declared a fake by notable runologists and linguists on both sides of the Atlantic. The prime candidate for the hoaxer was the Swede Ohman himself. Disgusted by the publicity, Ohman place the stone face down as a doorstep in his barn. Hjalmar Holand, a young journalist, became interested and, in 1907 acquired the stone from Ohman. Holand devoted the rest of his life to defending the authenticity of the inscription. The most likely tie to the inscription is the expedition of Paul Knutson who embarked for Greenland and lands west at the behest of King Magnus of Norway in 1354 to bring apostatic Christians back into the fold, and, no doubt catch up on back payments of Peter’s pence. The theory is that Knutson’s crew made its way through Hudson Bay and up the Nelson River where a reconnaissance party traveled overland to meet its fate. The notorious stone now has its own museum in Alexandria Minnesota, but its authenticity is still fiercely attacked or stoutly defended by a new Figure 1: Kensington rune stone generation of stone watchers. Sanity was introduced into the debate by Robert Hall in his slim 1982 volume, the Kensington Stone is Genuine. Hall, then professor emeritus and former chair of the language department of Cornell University, methodically sifts through the evidence and concludes that the stone must be genuine based on philology, circumstances of the find and meticulous comparison of the conflicting data. The Old Viking routes were not exclusively for raiding and rapine. The anonymous author of the 13th century King’s Mirror, using the device of a father (the King) instructing his son on the ways of the business, presents a reliable text book on early medieval trade in northern realms. The power of the King and his agents increased with their control of that trade. An additional twist was added when the church demanded ever-greater payments. Church records, even in far away Greenland mostly consist of payment ledgers and inventories of church property (movable and fixed). I have been sleuthing the documentary treasures found in the Diplomatarium Norvegicum (available on the Internet) which include customs records, bills of lading in addition to the endless church and royal decrees. In addition to exotic Greenland fare, timber, fur and fish galore was finding its way to southern markets.