Change Adaptation Socioecol. Syst. 2015; 2: 141–157

Research Article Open Access

Bamlaku Tadesse*, Fekadu Beyene, Workneh Kassa, Richard Wentzell The Roles of Customary Institutions in Adaptation and Coping to Climate Change and Variability among the Issa, Ittu and Afar Pastoralists of eastern

DOI 10.1515/cass-2015-0025 support in the form of safety net and MERET project received March 31, 2015; accepted November 12, 2015 and their indigenous social support mechanisms; petty trading especially by women; brokering on livestock Abstract: (Agro) pastoral communities who reside in trade; engagement in contraband trade; searching for the arid and semi-arid environments of Ethiopia are daily labor, and among others. The paper also tried to vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and variability assess the roles of customary institutions in social support specifically to the recurrent drought, floods and conflicts. mechanisms to the problems posed by the impacts of From their long years of rich experiences of how to survive climate change and variability to their age old traditional on such environmental pressures, (agro) pastoralists ways of livelihood mechanisms. have also developed various forms of adaptation as well as coping strategies to the impacts of climate change Keywords: Climate change, adaptation, coping, Ethiopia, and variability. Such strategies are closely guided and (agro) pastoralists supervised by their customary institutions which have rich experiences in addressing the socio-economic/ cultural, political and environmental/ecological aspects. To mention some of the adaptation mechanisms in the 1 Introduction study area are pastoral mobility; relying on traditional early warning mechanisms; area enclosures and preparing Pastoralists play an important role in managing the world’s of hays/forage; diversifying livestock and selection of dry land ecosystems with the help of their customary their species; the shift from pure form of pastoral to agro- institutions. While their dependence on the dry lands pastoral production systems; and among others. Some of makes them vulnerable to the ecological effects of climate the coping strategies employed by the (agro) pastoralists change and variability, pastoralists’ adaptive capacity are also their engagement in charcoal production and fire provides a unique opportunity to prepare for and manage wood collections; the sell of their livestock, government the associated shocks and stresses, such as drought and floods. The adaptive capacity of a community is its ability to adjust to climate change, to moderate or cope with *Corresponding author: Bamlaku Tadesse, Bamlaku Tadesse (Assit. the impacts, and to take advantage of the opportunities. Professor in Social Anthropology) is currently a PhD candidate Adaptive capacity is often determined by a range of in Peace and Conflict Resolution, Department of Gender and factors, processes and structures such as income, literacy, Development, College of Social Sciences and Humanities, Haramaya institutional capacity, social networks, as well as access University, Dire- Dawa, Ethiopia, E-mail: [email protected] Fekadu Beyene, Fekadu Beyene (PhD) Assoc. Professor in Resource to information, markets, technology, and services [1, 2]. Economics, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Communities are already undertaking activities to cope and Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension, Hara- adapt with drought and other climate-related hazards (i.e. maya University, Dire- Dawa, Ethiopia conflicts, disease and pest outbreaks, bush encroachment, Workneh Kassa, Workneh Kassa (PhD, Marketing), College of and land degradation). Therefore, an assessment of the Business and Economics, Department of Management, Haramaya University, Dire- Dawa, Ethiopia current local coping and adaptation strategies, as well as Richard Wentzell, Dean for the College of Law at Haramaya Universi- their effectiveness and sustainability can give us an insight ty, Dire- Dawa, Ethiopia on local adaptive capacity in the study area.

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The base of this adaptive capacity is mobility, which critically important in adaptation and coping strategies ensures that livestock makes the best possible use of dry regarding three aspects: first, they structure impacts and land resources. The patterns of pastoralists’ mobility are vulnerability, second they mediate between individual regulated by changing environmental conditions and and collective responses to climate impacts and thereby enable them to maximize their productivity under water shape outcomes of adaptation, and finally they act as scarcity. the means of delivery of external resources to facilitate The Horn of Africa is inhabited by the world’s largest adaptation, and thus govern access to such resources [1]. population of pastoralists, characterized by a high level The mediating role of institutions between people and human insecurity, having witnessed numerous civil wars, the environment, between individuals and collectivities, as well as several interstate wars [3]. Pastoralist conflicts and between different collectivities make them essential in the Horn of Africa for pastureland, water, and access to adaptation efforts. Traditional leadership through routes aggravated in the second half of the twentieth customary institutions is dominating in the most remote century [3]. Reasons can be that land and water resources and marginalized pastoralist and agro-pastoralist are becoming scarcer due to climate change, but also due communities of the arid and semi - arid regions of the Horn to changing consumption patterns that make pastoralists of Africa in general and eastern Ethiopia in particular. dependent on external resources e.g. through involvement These are not only home to pastoralists, agro-pastoralists in trade or industrial farming practices. Pastoral but also to sedentary agriculturalists, private ranchers, communities in the Horn of Africa in general and eastern national parks and various investment and development Ethiopia in particular have been adapting their livelihood projects [8, 9, 10, and 11]. This means that these various strategies to the changing environmental conditions for actors have to share the scarce resources available to them many centuries. Their strategies to cope with and adapt to and interact in protecting their day-to-day activities so these droughts are deeply grounded in traditional social as to ensure their livelihoods. Customary institutions in structures and resource management systems. Ethiopia are, for instance, the Xeer in Issa- Somali [12], A key element of pastoralist communities in the Horn the Gumma in various Oromo clans, the Madda in Afar of Africa is caring for and protecting livestock within a [13], the Wilok in Nuer, or the Carlok in Anyuaa [14]. They variable environmental setting in order to sustain daily are mainly addressing conflict issues but also they are subsistence needs (milk, blood, meat and hide), cultural involving other aspects of socio-economic, environmental needs (for marriage, and other rituals and social status) and political affairs. and for social security purposes. To maintain viable The objective of this paper is to provide an overview livelihoods, herders and farmers (pastoralists and agro- on the roles played by customary institutions in adapting pastoralists) must be able to cope with and adapt to all to and coping with the impacts of climate change in climatological dynamics and extremes across various vulnerable (agro) pastoral communities in the Horn of time scales, from individual weather events to long- Africa. term climate change [4]. The occurrence of recurrent droughts had been a major issue throughout the history of the Ethiopian lowlands [5]. Most recently, droughts 2 Materials and Methods and the chronic failure (late arrival, early cessation, or non-appearance) of long rain in the period from March 2.1 The study area through May endanger the pastoralist and agro-pastoralist communities of Afar, Hawiya, Issa, Ittu and Kereyu ethnic The research was carried out in the Mieso Mullu district of groups and forced them to reconsider their current coping Shinlle zone, Somali Regional State, the Amibara district and adaptation strategies [6]. These address tangible of Zone 3, Afar Regional State and the Mieso district of assets, such as financial and natural resources, and less West Hararaghe Zone, Regional state in eastern tangible elements such as the indigenous knowledge/ Ethiopia. The study area is one of the most affected by the skills and opportunities to make decisions and implement impacts of the recurrent conflict and drought conditions changes to their livelihoods or lifestyle so as to survive in Ethiopia which hampered to sustain the traditional and ensure their old aged livelihood mechanisms [7]. modes of (agro) pastoral livelihoods. The study area is The adaptive dynamics of local level institutions largely arid and semi-arid with high temperatures and low are of high relevance because centralized planning or precipitation and is part of the arid and semi-arid lowlands generic, ready-made technical fixes are of limited value north of the Hararghe highlands. We involved participants for local practice. Local institutional structures become from the Afar, Issa-Somali and Ittu-Oromo ethnic groups

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Figure 1: Map of the study area with clan distributions among the three districts (Amibara, Mieso and Mieso-Mullu) that are strongly competing in this region on the same to those changes through their customary institutions. resources and thus provoke permanent conflicts. See map Respondents were also given an opportunity to suggest of the study area and the distribution of clan and ethnic additional strategies not listed in the survey. The field work groups in their respective districts in figure 1 below. was conducted between February 2013 and November 2014. A total of six kebeles1 (two kebeles from each district) 2.2 Data and methods were selected purposively based on the severity of drought and conflict situations while the 128 household heads for We involved qualitative and quantitative information in the survey were selected randomly from the six kebeles. our study. The quantitative data were generated through The qualitative data were generated through using surveys in 128 randomly selected households of the Mieso- semi-structured key informant interviews, focus group Mullu, Mieso and Amibara districts. The main questions discussions, personal observations and informal covered in this topic were the perceptions of (agro) discussions. In-depth interviews with key informants pastoralists to the different aspects of the manifestations were conducted and data generated in order to have of climate change and variability. They were also asked thick description of the events under discussion. Key about the roles of customary institutions in social support informants and focus group discussion participants were system to those catastrophes induced by climate change selected based on their age and level of awareness about and variability. Based on the qualitative information their culture, society and environment and heads of gathered from the author’s personal observations, key households and members holding positions in customary informant interviews and focus group discussions, institutions preferred. A total of 16 Issa, 18 Ittu and 14 Afar respondents were asked to rank on the survey determined with a five point Likert scale for the different alternatives 1 Kebele (Amharic word) is the lowest administrative unite below given about how (agro) pastoral communities adapt/cope a district

Brought to you by | George Mason University Authenticated Download Date | 3/10/16 11:18 AM 144 B. Tadesse, et al. for individual interviews; and 6 focus group discussions rank the perceptions by weighting the (agro) pastoralists’ for each groups (Issa, Ittu and Afar) were conducted and perception (within and between the study groups) and then the participants were selected from the (agro) pastoralists, by multiplying it with arbitrary values to each alternative. clan leaders, community elders and representatives, zonal Accordingly, the factors that are devised as adaptation and and district level officials of the three districts. coping strategies to the impacts of climate change and Secondary sources of both published and unpublished variability were ordered according to their importance. documents such as reports, letters, cases, and annual plans were also reviewed and analyzed thematically. The unpublished documents were found mostly in the 3 Results and Discussion archives of Harari regional state administration, the zone and district level administration and security, justice 3.1 (Agro) pastoralists’ adaptation strate- bureau, agriculture and natural resources offices of the gies to the impacts of climate change and three districts. variability Respondents were asked to rate the adaptation and coping strategies to the impacts of climate change and Strategies of the pastoralist communities we surveyed variability employed by (agro) pastoral communities as consist, for instance, in diversifying crops and livestock very important, important, not sure, less important and production, migration to urban centers, area enclosures, not important. The result of the chi-square test indicates charcoal making and firewood collection, petty trading, that the responses between the three study sites are agro-forestry and short-cycle vegetable and fodder significantly different in all factors that are devised as production for their livestock, construction of water points. adaptation and coping strategies to the impacts of climate In the household survey, participants were asked to change and variability. This indicates that the perceptions rate the climate change adaptation and coping strategies to the response factors that are employed by the (agro) employed by their communities on a 5 point Likert scale, pastoral communities of the three study sites are different namely (1) very important, (2) important, (3) not sure, (4) due to their difference in socio-economic, political and less important and (5) not important (Table 1). resource factors. Then index values were calculated to In the survey result, diversifying crop production was

Table 1: Ranking of climate change adaptation strategies by district

Climate change adaptation Mieso-Mullu Mieso Amibara Both 3 districts Chi- strategies square test Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank

Diversifying crop production 4.76 2 6.53 3 10.64 1 4.31 4 50.4*** Harvesting wild fruits and other 3.34 7 3.70 9 4.15 9 2.40 9 22.3*** tree products Charcoal burning 3.32 8 4.84 6 9.90 5 3.55 6 44.7*** Migrating to urban areas and 4.00 6 3.34 10 8.39 8 3.09 8 32.8*** other countries Use bank accounts to accumulate 1.64 11 2.79 11 2.89 10 1.47 11 20.3*** wealth Use informal saving and credit to 2.38 10 3.95 7 2.81 11 1.89 10 25.3*** accumulate wealth Raising livestock and doing 4.52 4 7.30 1 10.03 4 4.44 3 27.7*** additional activities Diversifying livestock/cattle 4.68 3 6.75 2 10.48 2 4.56 2 11.3** species Mobility with livestock 5.26 1 6.18 4 10.29 3 4.79 1 17.5** Searching for other paid jobs 2.79 9 3.92 8 9.75 6 3.26 7 39.2*** Diversifying to other livelihood 4.25 5 5.45 5 9.15 7 3.90 5 28.4*** activities ***Significant at 1%, ** Significant at 5%

Brought to you by | George Mason University Authenticated Download Date | 3/10/16 11:18 AM The Roles of customary institutions 145 reported to be the 2nd, 3rd and 1st most important adaptation in their degree of transforming in to agro-pastoralism strategy to climate change and variability by the sampled among these pastoralists. The majority of the various respondents of Mieso-Mullu, Mieso and Amibara districts Oromo clans in the area are almost in the process of respectively. The responses were also found to be transforming in to sedentary agriculturalists while few statistically different at 1%, meaning the certainty level Afars in Amibara district who are along the Awash river is 99.9% and it is more certain about the responses of all practiced agriculture and the remaining (the majority) sampled respondents (128). This indicates that there is the are still pure pastoralists. When we see the Issa and the trend of shifting from pure form of pastoral production Hawiya Somali, the Issa are still entirely engaged in pure system to the practice of agro-pastoral production system form of pastoral production system while the majority of as an alternative pastoral livelihood strategy mainly the Hawiya are turned in to agro – pastoral production due to the environmental/climatic pressure posed on system. pastoralists. Today most of the communities in the study Furthermore, the focus group discussion participants area particularly in Mieso are predominantly shifting to at Mieso added that one of the (agro) pastoralists’ sedentary agriculturalists (crop farming communities) adaptation strategies to the impacts of climate change unlike the previous times. Some pastoralists in the Afdem and variability is the shift of livelihood strategy from pure and Mieso-Mullu area transitioning into agro-pastoral form of pastoralism in to mixed form i.e agro-pastoralism. production systems due to the scarcity of the pastoral As a result, they began to practice crop farming which land for their livestock and the stiff competition on are drought resistant that needs shorter periods of rain grazing lands with the neighboring pastoral communities. and harvested in a short period of time. They depend Similar to other countries in the Horn of Africa, agro- on both rain feed and irrigation for their agricultural pastoralism in Ethiopia has been spreading into purely practices. The Mullu River is the main source of irrigation pastoral rangelands as people have increasingly adapted agriculture in the Sodomogoro Misra kebele which was to farming practices. The emergence of agro-pastoralism started during the Dergue regime. From this irrigable land, as a new form of pastoral adaptation production system agro-pastoralists produce maize, pepper and chat during could be partly associated with the decline in range land the dry season. resources as well as decrease in both livestock numbers The shift from pastoral in to agro-pastoral production and their productivity. This compounded situation may system has its own impact on the customary land tenure have forced pastoralists to resort to agro-pastoralism. system. A study about the Karrayu also stated that “the According to the community elders in Mieso, the Ittu resort to farming activities has meant that their traditional pastoralist communities were able to graze their animals land tenure arrangements have undergone significant as far as Afdem district, but today the area is entirely changes and modifications” [15]. He also further controlled by the Issa Somali2. They further argued that discussed about the dynamics nature of pastoral land not only had the Ittu Oromo lost their grazing lands to the tenure system and the agricultural modes of adaptations Issa Somali but also to the Afars. The encroachment of to the changing environmental conditions that “the both groups in to the Ittu territory has negatively impacted Karrayu cattle-herders resort to whenever circumstances on their age long pastoral livelihood strategies. However, require it and are opportune”. When pastoralists are this argument remains a controversy that the Issa and Afar transformed in to agro-pastoral production system where elders responded that they (the latter) never encroach the households are largely depend on crop production as and take over Ittu’s land. Ittu’s elders further added that household income (greater than 50%) and their daily food/ these pastoralists who displaced from Afdem area are energy consumption (greater than 15%), the communally forced to engage in crop farming by leaving their old aged owned land which was administered by their customary livelihood strategy, i.e. pastoralism. The same is true in institutions is now owned and administered privately by Amibara district that few pastoralists are also turned in to each households for agricultural purposes. agro-pastoralism particularly along the Awash River and In addition, the shift of pastoral production in to agro- its environs. Besides to the practice of irrigation farming pastoral production system and sedentary agricultural by the Afar pastoralists along the Awash River, they also practices in selected kebeles of Mieso Mullu district like engaged in rain feed agriculture though the rainfall is Mullu, Kurfasewa, HulkaDobba, Mencha, and Hardim almost unpredictable and erratic. There is the difference is also a form of adaptation mechanisms in which they began to practice mixed farming production system. 2 Focus group discussion with community elders at Mieso, 21 Oc- The decrease in range land resources, in the number of tober 2014 livestock and their productivity is also mainly because

Brought to you by | George Mason University Authenticated Download Date | 3/10/16 11:18 AM 146 B. Tadesse, et al. of the impacts of global climate change. According to 2nd for Mieso and Amibara and the 3rd for Mesio-Mullu the focus group discussion participants, the rest of other district sample respondents. Though pastoralists face an kebeles in this district are currently pure pastoralists who acute shortage of pasture land and water points, they are are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The trying to diversify their livestock species as adaptation emergence and rapid expansion of agro-pastoralism in strategy. Elders at Mieso town reported that there is the Ethiopia is partly associated to the decline in range land introduction of new types of animal production system resources as well as decrease in both livestock numbers which was not accustomed to the existing communities’ and productivity [16]. As a result of this adaptation way of life although the communities in the Mieso area mechanism, the participants confirmed that the Somali are accustomed to cattle milk. Some of these newly and the Oromo pastoral and agro-pastoral communities introduced animals in Mieso area are camel and goat are engaged in recurrent conflicts when the Oromo agro- production. The rationale why the Ittu (agro) pastoralists pastoralists encroach the Somali pastoralist grazing areas adopted these animals is because of their complementary due to the high population pressure, clearing and burning nature of the dietary system with other animals (that the natural forest for farmland and settlement area means camels are browsers based on trees and bushes considering that it is vacant land. The Somali pastoralists while cattle are grazers basically depend on grass). in turn encroaches the farmlands of the Oromo agro- Camel and goat are drought resistant animals unlike that pastoralists especially during drought periods in search of of cattle. In the previous times the predominant animal water and pasture land. production system in the area was cattle. The practice Besides to the practice of crop production as an of sheep production decreased from time to time when adaptation strategy and to ensure their food security, cactus tree emerged and widely spread in the area which (agro) pastoralists are also depending on harvesting is not mostly edible by animals as it is toxic and seriously of wild fruits and other tree products as an adaptation damages their eyes. strategy to climate change/ variability, the 7th for Mieso- Besides to diversifying livestock species as an adaptive Mullu and the 9th for both Mieso and Amibara district strategy, focus group discussion participants at Mieso respondents respectively though there is the decline in the reported that pastoralists also practiced the selection of wide coverage of forest resources. The survey result also livestock species that are best adapting to the new ecology shows that charcoal burning is another adaptation and and also more productive with the limited pasture and coping strategy, the 8th, 5th and 6th for Mieso-Mullu, Mieso water. They have indigenous knowledge in indentifying and Amibara district sample respondents respectively. the most productive and healthy animal breeds. Selected In addition, respondents have also reported that breeds especially bulls for breeding are communally migrating to both urban areas and other neighboring owned through their customary institutions that are countries like the Middle East as well as searching for targeted to serve across all clan members. According to paid jobs are adaptation strategies. While migration is the the Ittu community elders in Mieso, camel production 6th, 10th and 8th ways of adaptation strategy, searching for was not widely practiced in their culture in the previous other jobs is reported to be the 9th, 8th and 6th for Mieso- times rather they were engaged in other types of livestock Mullu, Mieso and Amibara district sample respondents production (cow, sheep and goat). Although production of respectively. camel in the Ittu culture was a recent phenomenon, there Respondents were also asked to rate about the culture is a new trend of shifting from the production of camel to of (agro) pastoralists in using bank accounts to save and sheep and goat since goat and sheep needs less pasture accumulate wealth in good times and use it when there than camels. This is mainly due to the change of the is sever and prolonged drought, the 11th for Mieso-Mullu ecology that disfavors camels feeding habit. This does not and Mieso and the 10th for Amibara district respondents mean that the pastoralists no longer have access to camel respectively. This implies that (agro) pastoralists have milk simply that the number of camels is diminishing. poor culture of using bank accounts. Their responses It was also observed that there is an increase in the towards the use of informal saving and credit associations number of donkeys, because of their multi-functionality to accumulate wealth is the 10th for Mieso-Mullu, the 7th for in transporting water and fuel wood, while the cattle Mieso and the 11th for Amibara district respondents. population is already wiped out on account of prolonged Furthermore, diversifying the livestock species is drought and disease. On the contrary, in Afar there is a also reported to be another form of adaptation strategy. clear shift from cattle towards goats and camels. In Afar, it The survey result shows that diversification of livestock is used to be only cow milk that was commonly sold, but species is the most important adaptation strategies, the

Brought to you by | George Mason University Authenticated Download Date | 3/10/16 11:18 AM The Roles of customary institutions 147 now the pastoral women have started selling camel milk3. number of their livestock population so as to reduce the Elders added that selling milk was not the culture of Afar burden on the natural resource base and also to limit the people at all. It is very recently that women are engaged in scope of their mobility beyond their territory as they face business of milk selling due to the decrease in household resistance/conflict from the other ethnic and clans. income as a result of the pressure of climate change/ One aspect of the impact of climate change is the variability on their single-handed livelihood strategy (i.e. encroachment of unwanted bushes (such as cactus and pastoral production system). While the (agro) pastoralists prosophies) which gradually replaced the grass and practicing livestock production as their day today activity tree species. From both field observations and focus they are also doing additional income generating schemes, group discussions it is clearly feasible that species of the the 1st for Mieso and the 4th for Amibara and Mesio-Mullu savanna grass land including important trees(bushes) district respondents. in which pastoralists livestock are depend on them are The survey result also revealed that (agro) pastoralist now disappearing and to the extent in some places that mobility is reported to be another form of the (agro) there is totally bare lands with full of dust particles. pastoralists’ adaptation strategies, the 1st, the 4th and the This has its own repercussion on the scarcity of fodder/ 3rd most important strategy for Mieso-Mullu, Mieso and pasture. In other words, bush encroachment is a factor for Amibara districts respectively. (Agro) pastoral mobility is exacerbating feed scarcity. an old aged and long years of pastoralists’ practice so as Furthermore, there is also the shrinking of the to maximize their productivity and efficiently utilize their pastoral range lands due to the appropriation of pastoral resources. Such practices were respected and tolerated land for investment and national parks/game reserves. among most pastoralists in the form of reciprocity when The Afar lost a total area of land 47,141 hectors for the one group is badly affected by drought at one time and the above mentioned purposes [17]. As a result of these and others do the same at another time. However, pastoralist other combined factors, pastoralists are now developing mobility in these days is considered as a survival/coping new coping and adaptation strategies. Some of these strategy to the prolonged and severe drought due to the strategies as mentioned above are area enclosures which influence of global climate change/ variability rather than help to preserve some areas of pasture land for dry seasons a normal pastoralist way of life. as contingencies. From the key informant interview, it was These days mobility of pastoralists with their revealed that there was the practice of area enclosure livestock across regional and international boundaries formation particularly in Mieso area as an adaptation is no more functional and productive since pastoralists strategy. However, currently the practice as an adaptation started to claim their own territories and boundaries. strategy is decreasing due to the scarcity of available Therefore, their mobility across boundaries during land for pasture and farm land due to the increase in drought seasons aggravates/instigates pastoral conflicts population pressure, the encroachment of farmers in to due to the fear of territorial ownership and sometimes pastoralist range lands, and the appropriation of (agro) due to the fear of the spread of livestock diseases. One of pastoralists’ range lands for investment, national parks, the important factors affecting pastoralists’ mobility is sanctuaries and game reserves, and among others. the introduction of manmade regional and international Another strategy is preparing hays/forage and feed boundaries that restricts their mobility to access pasture their animals in times of drought periods especially and water freely and easily. The occurrence of recurrent from the protected national parks and game reserves in droughts and conflicts in the pastoralist areas also badly agreement with the park administrative officials, and the affects the efficiency and effectiveness of pastoralists’ like. This strategy is in response to the acute shortage productivity and in turn jeopardizes their livelihood of pasture that (agro) pastoralists are facing due to the strategies. The pastoralists, therefore, responds to such prolonged drought and unpredictable rainfall patterns. changes by devising different forms of survival and coping Pastoralists are allowed to prepare hays as fodder from mechanisms to the impacts of global climate change/ the controlled areas (national parks and game reserves) variability. For instance, they are forced to reduce the especially during drought periods and carry and feed their animals outside of the reserved areas. The focus group discussion participants in Andido town of Amibara district 3 In old times selling camel milk was prohibited because camel is reported that in very recent times, there was an agreement more respected and valued among the (agro) pastoralist communi- ties. Milking of camel is not allowed to women and to the extent that between the local administrators (officials responsible for they are not allowed to look after them due to the issue of purifica- the parks and reserve areas) and the community in Afar tion. on the issues that the pastoralists can use the border areas

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Figure 2: Bare lands due to prolonged drought in Mieso-Mullu district

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Figure 3: Invasive bush encroachments (cactus and prosophies) in Mieso district

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Figure 4: Invasive bush encroachments (cactus and prosophies) in Amibara district

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Table 2: Ranking of coping strategies to climate change and variability by district

Coping strategies to Climate District Total Chi-square change test Mieso-Mullu Mieso Amibara

Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank

Migration to neighboring 1.01 6 1.96 5 4.51 1 3.95 5 32.5*** countries Charcoal making 1.55 1 2.00 4 4.28 3 4.34 2 21.1***

Searching for daily labor in 1.37 2 2.73 1 4.26 4 4.38 1 22.5*** nearby town Involving in contraband trade 1.08 5 1.66 7 3.72 6 3.93 6 19.3**

Theft of properties 0.89 7 1.83 6 2.44 7 3.58 7 15.7**

Petty trading 1.37 2 2.68 2 4.34 2 4.24 4 27.2***

Brokering on livestock trade 1.37 2 2.32 3 4.21 5 4.33 3 14.0**

Firewood collection or clearing 0.29 8 0.00 9 0.00 8 0.00 8 15.4** forests for marketing Safety net and rationing pro- 0.29 8 0.00 9 0.00 8 0.00 8 28.3*** gramme Cattle raiding 0.25 10 0.01 8 0.00 8 0.00 8 13.9**

*** Significant at 1%, ** Significant at 5%

of the park during drought periods though demarcation pastoralist areas as an alternative livelihood strategy by of border areas was difficult and always led to conflicts those households or individuals who are forced to drop between the pastoralists and the park administrators. or near to drop their main livelihood system, i.e. pastoral production system. The production of charcoal as a coping strategy is currently facing new challenges with the rise 3.2 (Agro) pastoralists’ coping strategies to of the emerging trends of pastoral production systems. the impacts of climate change and variability One of the emerging trends is the eruption and widely distributions of the unwanted bush encroachments in the Coping mechanisms to climate change and variability are area that hindered for the survival of the indigenous forests/ short term strategies employed by the (agro) pastoralists. trees which are the main sources of charcoal production. Some of the coping/survival strategies to such changes As a result of the expansion of permanent settlement and in the study area are charcoal production, petty trading, urbanization in the area that needs the construction of brokering on livestock trade, contraband trade, safety net permanent houses by destroying forests/trees has also programme and its rationing, and MERET4 project and greatly affects the forest coverage. Previously pastoralists also its rationing program, daily/wage labor, and the like. are mobile that needs a mobile and temporary hut so that These will be discussed in detail below. there was no need of cutting larger trees for permanent The survey result shows that charcoal making is one house constructions. But today, there are the emergences of the most important coping strategies employed by the of smaller administrative and illegal/contraband centers (agro) pastoralists communities of the three study areas, here and there that hugely demands wood/trees for the 1st, the 4th and 3rd factor for the Mieso-Mullu, Mieso permanent house construction. As there is a competition and Amibara district respondents respectively with the on territorial expansion between Afar and Issa, these response pattern being significantly different at 1% (99.9% contending parties are establishing new settlement centers certain in their responses). Currently there is a high rate of which are strategically important for center of contraband charcoal production and fire wood collection in the (agro) trade, administration, and the like mainly along the major high way. Examples of new permanent settlement areas 4 MERET-is abbreviated as Managing Environmental Resources to are Melka Sede, Melka Werer, Andido, Gedamaitu, Adaitu, Enable Transition to More Sustainable Livelihoods. Unduffo, Hardim, and among others.

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One may ask a simple but important question about different at 5% (that means, it is less certain at 95%). whose section(s) of the (agro) pastoralists are changing This is a new trend that in the previous times the brokers their age old livelihood strategy to charcoal production. on cattle trade were only those who reside in the urban From the field observations and focus group discussions, areas, but now those rural dwellers who were engaged in it is the most vulnerable and destitute (agro) pastoralist (agro) pastoral production system are also engaged in this groups who are forced to shift from pure form of pastoral system as the number of (agro) pastoralists who lost their production system (when they lost their animals due to cattle are increasing at an alarming rate. severe drought) in to charcoal production as an alternative The focus group discussion at Mieso-Mullu5 also livelihood diversification and coping strategy. It is because revealed that some (agro) pastoralists are also engaged charcoal is becoming too expensive that currently attracts in contraband trade as an alternative survival/coping not only the vulnerable individuals/households but also strategy although such contraband trade is decreasing others who perform well as an option of additional asset due to the strict control of the government in the eastern accumulation. From the gender perspectives, more women part of the country. In the previous times the area between are engaged in charcoal production than men in the study , Bike, Afdem, Mieso through Herina are known area. When a household lost their traditional livelihood contraband routs in the Hararghe province of Ethiopia that strategy and turned in to destitute life, wives/women are have a direct connection with Somaliland and Djibouti. the first to seek for alternatives as they are the one who From the survey result, the perceptions of the respondents shoulders the household burden and are responsible towards this variable as a coping strategy is reported to for all the domestic activities and care for all the family be the 5th, 7th and 6th for the Meioss-Mullu, Mieso and members. As a result they are responsible to seek for the Amibara district respondents respectively. However, due daily subsistence allowance of their household members. to the interruption of the -Djibouti railway, That is why more women are engaged in charcoal some of these areas are no more functional as centers for production than men in most (agro) pastoralist areas of contraband trade rather new centers are opened along eastern Ethiopia. the Addis – Djibouti asphalt main highway. Places such On the other hand, when there is severe and as Gedamaitu where the Issa already controlled is “a prolonged drought, (agro) pastoralists are forced to sell small town in Afar region found towards the north of the their livestock and in turn buy food and food supplements. Alledeghie plain - the vast plain used as the main grazing As a supplement to this, they also depend on government area for Afar, but now Issa is the centre for dispatch and support in the form of safety net programmes (food delivery of the contraband goods”[18]. The Afar being in for work), and indigenous forms of social support the strategic location in this area had the upper hand in mechanisms. These social support mechanisms are controlling and acting as middlemen between traders applied when someone has no any kind of cattle to sell of the center and the hinterland for generations [17]. during drought periods. In this self help association, the However, currently the Afar lost their position to the Issa poor are beneficiary in the form of Zakat (form of religious since the Afar was forced to pushed back to the northward alms) or giving goat as a gift. Those who are destitute directions by leaving the two important routs (the rail enough/poor are also allowed to engage in fire wood way and the asphalt) and other important centers when collection and charcoal making. the Issa encroach the area. The competition between In addition, from the discussion it was also reported the two is still hot and they are on the accusations and that some community members particularly women who counter accusations for claiming and reclaiming of these are close to the main high way or rural towns are engaged important contraband centers and their environs. with various forms of petty trading to support the income Besides, safety net programme and MERET project of their household since the age old traditional way of life with their rationing programmes are also other forms of is under threat, the 2nd most important coping strategy coping mechanisms for the (agro) pastoralist communities for all sample respondents of the three districts with the in the area, the 8th for Mieso-Mullu and Amibara and the 9th pattern of responses being different at 1% significance coping strategy for Mieso district respondents respectively. level (meaning the certainty level is more at 99.9%). The safety net and MERET project programmes are initially Furthermore, brokering on cattle trade was also in the principle of food for work but now it is changed in reported as another alternative livelihood coping/survival to development works. This means every household head strategy, the 2nd, 3rd and 5th most important strategy for the Mieso-Mullu, Mieso and Amibara district respondents 5 Focus group discussion with community elders at Meios-Mullu, respectively with the response factor being significantly 23 October 2014

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(both male and female headed household) or his/her Furthermore, searching for daily labor and migration representative is expected to participate in community in to the nearby as well as other distant major cities development works like natural resource management, including the neighboring Arab states especially by youth conservation programs and other community works groups of both sexes is also a response to the impacts of (like soil band construction, watershed management, climate change and variability. Mostly men are the one formation of area enclosures, road construction, who are searching for daily labor in the nearest urban plantation, seedling, pond construction, and others) centers while girls are the one who migrate to the Arab in their kebeles three days per week so as to receive the countries as house maids. The survey result shows that allotted rationing for each household usually one quintal it is the 2nd, 1st and 4th most important coping strategy (100 kg) of wheat. MERET project plays an important currently employed by the(agro) pastoralist youth groups role in adaptation and mitigation of climate change and in the study area with the response pattern is different at variability in the forms of sustainable land management 1% significant level. While elderly women are obliged to and rehabilitation of degraded lands; reclamation stay in their locality till their death with their disasters/ of wastelands, re-vegetation of degraded hillsides, catastrophes and taking care of the children and the restoration of damaged pasturelands, and adoption of elderly with limited/scarce resources. In addition, women improved soil and water conservation technologies in are also suffering to collect water and fire wood by cultivated fields and community owned lands [19]. The traveling long distances away from home besides to their authors further added about the role of MERET project in responsibility to buy their household food consumption this regard is that it gives great emphasis on comprehensive from the market. Collecting water and firewood in the planning and implementation of the above mentioned pastoralist area are now becoming very tedious. integrated land reclamation interventions. In the focus group discussion6 it was also reported that some individuals who are turned to a destitute life In addition to distributing 100 kg of wheat for each household and lost their hope and becoming more vulnerable to the who directly participated in community development works, impacts of climate change and variability are becoming there is also a direct support in the safety net programme basically for those households who are unable to participate instigators of conflict in the form of theft, cattle raiding, in community development works (mostly the elderly and the charcoal production, resource appropriation and other sick). The beneficiaries/participants of this programme are only types of coping mechanisms. This in turn aggravates the heads of households in each kebele. scale of their vulnerability and also impacted on their traditional means of adaptation and coping mechanisms. The World Food Program supported MERET Project Besides, (agro) pastoralists have also their own socio- (formerly known as Food for Work Project) in Ethiopia was cultural systems of adaptation and coping strategies to the initiated in 1974, mainly as a response to the drought and impacts of climate change and variability. With the minimal famine of 1973/74 in the Northern part of the country (mainly functioning and/or total absence of modern governance Tigray & Wollo). The program, which started in the form institutions in most (agro) pastoral communities for of relief, gradually shifted to development program with long centuries, they have developed complex systems of the objective of addressing the problem of food shortages indigenous social organizations based on the core principles and vulnerability to the recurrent droughts through the of reciprocity, tolerance, respect and peaceful co-existence. rehabilitation of degraded lands and enhancement of The basis of pastoral socio-cultural and political productivity in the project areas. However, until 1980 organizations is the clan. Clan is a set of patrilineally related the projects were small, fragmented and scattered all households traced to an apical ancestor who is considered over the places and had little impacts. The relatively as the founding father of that specific clan and considered smaller projects were consolidated into one project called as the father of all clan members. “Rehabilitation of Forest, Grazing and Crop lands” in 1980; Furthermore, at clan level each individual is expected and this marked the beginning of large scale Food for Work to help others in times of hardship including the project, now called “MERET Project”. The name of the contributions for compensations during conflict resolution project kept changing during the different phases in view processes. This kind of intra-clan assistantship is common of fine-tuning the names to the roles and functions of the among most pastoral communities in Ethiopia which is project. It is coined from its major intervention areas and is a kind of wealth redistribution system within each clan. intended to emphasize the existence of strong relationship between sustainable natural resource management and 6 Focus group discussion with community elders at Andido-Amiba- improvement of livelihoods of people [20]. ra district, 23 October 2014

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To mention, the common social and cultural adaptation If someone who lost his cattle due to drought cases, strategies are herd splitting, herd maximization, the the community members in his clan will contribute emphasis on milk and milk products rather than different types of animals so as to withstand and cope meat and crop, intra and inter-clan co-operation and up the misfortune. Even the milking cow will be given reciprocity, herd diversification, among others are the to someone who is badly in need of it by someone who most important features in these societies. Furthermore, has extra milking cows or goats. The (agro) pastoralists there are also other forms of customary adaptation and developed a social security system where wealth, land, coping mechanisms such as the practice of transhumant water and pasture are all communal and shared fairly pastoralism (moving between two fixed points, i.e for among the clan members using a system of indigenous dry and wet seasons), inter-household co-operation, management, governed by the Gada system. Busa-gonofa marketing and changing food habit, splitting the herd in Borena Oromo helps people in need and also maintains into home and satellite herd and into wet versus dry herd, solidarity and shares wealth. This strategy ensures their traditional management of useful trees and adoption of survival despite the losses caused by drought, animal or crop farming/agro-pastoralism. Generally, the pastoral human disease. This system also restocks and maintains customary institutions in the study areas are served for the the health of the herd. Busa-gonofa involves different purpose of planning, enforcing and managing the rules of units, i.e clans, sub-clans, family groups and households resources and land use, mobility and settlement patterns, with implicit independence to manage their own affairs. disaster and risk mitigation, conflict management and Another form of social support system is Kallow/ resolution, and among others. qeretta which is practiced during marriage ceremonies in To conclude, there are new and emerging trends the Mieso area Oromo culture. In this system, there will be in (agro) pastoralists’ adaptation and coping strategies a contribution of cattle/money/crop for the bridegroom if to the impacts of climate change and variability in the he is poor. The bridegroom is allowed to wonder in every study area. Some of these emerging adaptation and household and called the word Kallowfunufee. Then they coping strategies includes (but not all) remittances will understand his request and the household members from relatives; transformation of pastoralists into agro- will decide what type of gift they are going to give him, i.e pastoralists, especially in areas situated next to water either cow, ox, sheep, goat, money or crop. The request of sources; seeking employment (mostly casual labor); Kallowfunufee in the community is only allowed to those engaging in petty trading, selling firewood and charcoal youngsters who are destitute enough and have no any as well as handicraft products. One can observe that the other choice to get married. high prevalence of diversification as a livelihood strategy Hirppa is also the social support system that helps to signals efforts by the (agro) pastoralists to actively manage each other when someone face a problem like the loss of vulnerability by increasing the reliability of livelihood one’s cattle due to drought, cattle raiding, flooding and assets. But the people’s involvement in so many coping any other means of manmade and natural calamities. If and survival strategies is also a sign of grief in (agro) someone lost his/her property due to fire, the community pastoralists’ livelihood systems. has also the responsibility to support /contribute both in kind and in cash for the needy one in this Hirppa program. The Afar has also various institutionalized mutual aid 3.3 The roles of customary institutions in associations in their communities named kaidoh which social support systems induced by climate lead to the growth and establishment of new households. change and variability The communities reinforce these mutual aid associations. Some of these include; hantilla in which lactating animals With the absence of modern institutions for social are given as free loans to destitute Afars so that they can security, the roles of customary institutions in social have some milk. The Irbu is a system where those who support systems in response to the catastrophes induced lost their animals due to epidemics or raids are allowed by climate change and variability are very important. to ask for animals from individual households for help (by There are different names and functional principles wandering from hut to hut) but do not consider themselves of such institutions among the various (agro) pastoral as beggars. Gera hara in Afar is also a customary system communities in eastern Ethiopia. For example, Debbare where an individual is allowed to ask his local community in Oromo is an institutional system to help the poor and members to give him animals in order to buy a firearm the needy people if someone face a problem because of since arming oneself is considered as a mutual security drought and other types of climate change manifestations. and protection from enemies.

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Furthermore, the Issa-Somali has also similar of village heads to ensure that the herd is developed for indigenous institutions that are considered as traditional the greater good. At the same time milking cows are also social protection/security mechanisms. To mention, Zakat shared and/or given to an individual who has no milking which is a religious alms from wealthier relatives/clan/ cow especially to those households who have babies. At sub-clan members usually provided to disadvantaged clan level, defense becomes important and communal, as groups once a year and it is mandatory. Irmaansi is when does paying off debts or compensations during killings. households provide milking animals to households The clan will help a family if someone is badly injured or who have no lactating stocks across seasons to use it has no milking cows [22]. and return back at the end of the milking period. Maal (literally means milking) is the sharing of livestock during milking period. Rai is the culture when children from poor 4 Summary and conclusion pastoralists herd for richer relatives and receive food and Although local institutions play a critical role in other benefits as payment. Keyd is the process of adopting supporting adaptation and copying mechanisms, the livestock offspring from richer households, sometimes on intensity of adverse future climate impacts is likely to credit. It also refers to when pastoralist women reserved increase and also increasing their vulnerability and the traditionally preserved butter from the special fatty reducing existing adaptive capacity. The linkages among cows. Finally, Dhowrto/Dawarsi and alternatively named external interventions and local adaptations/copying as Qaadhaa is the contribution of both animals, milk and strategies can only be understood through a focus on the its product for distribution amongst poor households with mediating role and linkages among different institutions no milking animals, especially during dry season (Jilaal). in a given territory, and their influence on production and Furthermore, such traditional asset redistribution systems adaptation possibilities. As climate change and variability are important social institutions in Somali community and its impacts become more obvious, it is increasingly which are considered as traditional social security important to integrate the concerns for managing risks systems [21]. In Somali culture the mutual support system faced by households and communities into earlier is known as Kalmo and is administered by the Ogamilog or concerns for growth, poverty alleviation, equity, and village head. Pastoralist mutual assistance systems come sustainability [23]. into play when a household member becomes destitute The existing national plans for adaptation and due to war or drought and when he/she has many children copying strategies seem to have attended only in a limited and cannot support his/her family with the remaining fashion to the role of local institutions in designing, livestock [22]. supporting, and implementing adaptation and copying Different social groups and individual households strategies. However, if adaptation is inevitably local, have varying levels of access to existing institutions. there is a great need to involve local institutions more Vulnerable groups in general have lower institutional centrally in planning for and implementing adaptation access than those who are more powerful or better off. policies and projects. At the very least, there must be Before external support for greater adaptive capacity far greater coordination between adaptation policies is made available, therefore, an analysis of the nature and measures adopted by institutions (customary and of institutional linkages and access for different social modern) and decision makers at the national level, and groups becomes critical. their counterparts at the local level. In general, (agro) pastoralists have developed the There are strategies that enhance the local people’s different forms of social support systems that are important control over their resources, adaptive strategies, in the successful life of (agro) pastoralists where there alternative conflict management and the development are no well established government institutions working of indigenous institutions that live in the arid and in this field. Such institutions enable (agro) pastoralists semi-arid lands where (agro) pastoral communities are to recover from severe and recurrent natural disasters/ residing. The survival of the (agro) pastoral production shocks and help to thrive to the normal conditions. For system is a function of adaptability to the social and example, if a fellow (agro) pastoralist loses his/her herd; physical environment and more importantly due to the his/her lineage contributes livestock to keep him/her from many different strategies that are employed to meet dropping out of the pastoral production system. At village each new challenge. These adaptive/coping strategies level (agro) pastoralists help each other to water animals, are the major mechanisms that maintain the resilience move huts, and search for lost animals and during burials. of the system and help to minimize unforeseen risks. Besides, bulls are shared for breeding under the direction

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Although these traditional (agro) pastoral production support for such partnerships (from both GOs and NGOs) systems are environmentally and socially sustainable in can greatly enhance the informal institutional processes such fragile and harsh environments, the system is now through which adaptation and coping strategies occur. being endangered to meet the basic livelihood necessities The partnerships among the local level public and civil due to over population, over stocking, drought, bush society institutions are linked more closely with the encroachments and the like [24]. Therefore, the study adaptation/coping practices related to the diversification concludes the urgent need of developing the sustainable of livelihood strategies. Finally, this research recommends livelihoods through locally adaptive strategies particularly that there should be the recognition of property rights those strategies that have the capacity for becoming the ownership and land tenure system which helps to reduce basis of sustainable livelihood. the rate of overgrazing and deforestation by hindering Among the various indigenous adaptation and coping the encroachment of outsiders (farmers, governmental mechanisms, some of them are widely practiced by these organizations, and investors) in to (agro) pastoralists (agro) pastoralist communities. These include mobility; grazing areas. herd splitting; the redistribution of surplus livestock within social networks; diversification of livestock comprised of Acknowledgments: The authors would like to camels, goats, sheep, cattle and donkeys to enable them acknowledge Dr Christine Frust, Journal editor and the to exploit different expanses of the range during any anonymous reviewers for the unreserved and fruitful period of the year; livestock loans and gifts; formation of comments forwarded to this article. We also would like complex social security networks based on kinship and to acknowledge Mr. Zelalem Gebeyehu (Staff member and friendship; reliance on relief food, farming along the river PhD candidate of Agricultural Economics at Haramaya and gathering wild fruits, and among others. University) for his contribution in GIS based map of the The government’s ability at local, regional and study area with clan/ethnic distributions. national level to manage and regulate access to natural resources can protect against the ill-effects of climate change and environmental degradation. When customary References and modern institutions are strong enough with efficient [1] Agrawal, Arun. 2008. The Role of Local Governance and leadership skills, the impacts of conflict, drought and Institutions in Adaptation to Climate Change: Paper prepared famine will be reduced/limited and on the contrary when for the Social Dimensions of Climate Change, Social they are weak, it will be the vise versa. Development Department, The World Bank, Washington DC, Resilience to climate change and variability in the dry March 5-6, 2008. 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