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Conservation Principles of Conservation : Recommended Guidelines for Conservation Literacy from the Education Committee of the Society for Conservation Biology∗

We live in a world of diminished eco- ucation Committee of the SCB. The ways from a list of important topics, logical diversity. We extract , principles we present here emerge such as the table of contents of the materials, and from from the large body of in textbooks mentioned above. First, and modify landscapes at rates that and , from the prac- each item or entry is not a topic ti- cannot be sustained. These activities tice of conservation over the last cen- tle but rather a principle, a statement have resulted in accelerated rates of tury, and from a variety of emerging of concept or goal that stands on its , degradation, and loss of interdisciplinary perspectives in the ownasanidea to guide teachers and , and disruption of the nat- social . Thorough overviews engage learners. Each of these princi- ural systems in which our cultures of the theoretical and empirical bases ples reflects the findings of a variety are embedded. The Society for Con- for these guidelines have been given of research that is available in text- servation Biology (SCB) believes that by Meffe and Carroll (1997), Massa books but perhaps may not be easily conservation education is a necessary and Ingegnoli (1999), Garc´ıa (2002), accessible to all groups of learners. step toward correcting these prob- Primack (2002), and Hunter (2002). Second, the framework is a hier- lems. Its stated goals and objectives Here we aim to describe the body archy of principles, each of which include “the education, at all levels, of knowledge that we view as the hall- stands alone while contributing to preparatory and continuing, of the mark of conservation literacy rather the overall conceptual whole. We public, of , and of managers than to prescribe what any partic- want to encourage people to use this in the principles of conservation biol- ular individual ought to achieve. It material in as many different ways ogy.” is our expectation that these prin- as possible. Users can build upon What are these principles? What ciples will serve different purposes whichever principle or group of prin- are the central concepts and values for different audiences. For exam- ciples are appropriate to their appli- that underlie the professional inter- ple, conservation organizations may cation, without the need to investi- pretation of the field of conservation use them to develop educational pro- gate or understand them all. biology, an understanding of which grams for their members, where the Third, the three hierarchical levels— represents what could be called “con- emphasis might be on helping citi- primary principles, secondary prin- servation literacy?” Although there zens better understand the basis for ciples, and supporting principles— have been occasional spotlights on effective conservation policies. They offer the principles of conservation education in the literature of con- may serve as a guide in the devel- biology in increasing detail. Some servation biology ( Jacobson & Hard- opment of conservation biology users might only want to use and un- esty 1988; Fleischner 1990; Orr 1992, courses for undergraduate students derstand the primary principle asso- 1994; Trombulak 1993), no consen- (major and nonmajor) or for natural ciated with each theme. It would also sus has emerged on essential guiding professionals in continuing be both correct and useful if the mate- principles. Here we attempt to pro- education programs. They may also rial was used or studied at the greater vide a framework for such guidelines. serve as a guide in the development level of detail of the secondary prin- This document is the result of a long- of graduate programs in conservation ciples. A longer and more detailed term project carried out by the Ed- biology, where the emphasis is on ac- course of study would be based upon quisition of career skills. the more specific supporting prin- ∗ Translations of these guidelines in various Because this framework is designed ciples. The framework can even be languages will be available on the Conserva- tion Education section of the SCB Web site as an educational tool for a variety used, in a scientifically correct man- (http://www.conservationbiology.org). of audiences, it is different in several ner and appropriate to local needs, 1180

Conservation Biology, Pages 1180–1190 Volume 18, No. 5, October 2004 Trombulak et al. Conservation Education 1181 in a “mixed-level” approach. For ex- As such, this document covers prin- ganisms at all levels of organi- ample, a legislative office interested ciples that are applicable to any re- zation, including , , in species protection and gion of the world, while recognizing higher taxonomic levels, and the restoration might examine the five that using them successfully in any variety of and ecosys- primary principles as well as all of the specific region depends on familiar- tems. secondary principles and concepts of ity with the biological characteristics (1) There is an immense and of- Theme V (Action). and conservation realities of that re- ten unmeasured variety of living It might be tempting to view con- gion. While the principles represent organisms on . servation biology as just another spe- a thorough survey of the discipline of (2) The diversity of nature can cialized subject area, relevant to only conservation biology, we do not view be measured in a variety of ways, afew and unimportant to everyday this document as a final delineation including absolute numbers, rel- life. Given the magnitude of the im- of conservation literacy. Rather, we ative abundance, and ecological pact that humanity is having on life hope that publication of these guide- distinctiveness. on Earth, however, conservation lit- lines will mark the onset of a dialog in (3) Biological diversity is threat- eracy ought to be considered one the international conservation com- ened with extinction when one of the cornerstones of good citizen- munity on the goals, values, and con- of two related patterns is ob- ship in any nation (Orr 1992, 2004). cepts in conservation biology; threats served: when an element is rare The development of conservation lit- to biological diversity, ecological in- or when it is in decline. eracy guidelines by the SCB is in line tegrity, and ecological health; and (4) Biological diversity, even un- with the path taken by other pro- strategies for their protection—a di- der conditions not altered by hu- fessional societies for the develop- alog on conservation literacy. These man actions, is not fixed over ment of literacy guidelines in their five topics—goals, values, concepts, time but is influenced by both respective fields (Gilliard et al. 1988; threats, and actions—form the frame- ecological and evolutionary pro- Geological Society of America 1999; work for the five overarching themes cesses. North American Association for Envi- of the principles. We specifically ac- (5) Changes in biological di- ronmental Education 1999; American knowledge that a significant number versity that are more rapid or Chemical Society 2003). of the principles of conservation biol- more extensive than changes In our view, depth of understand- ogy as presented here are not simply that would occur without the im- ing in any subject entails knowledge empirical facts or theoretical predic- pacts of human actions are likely of principles as well as the ability to tions, but are desired outcomes based to negatively affect ecological in- use that knowledge to solve prob- on -laden beliefs. This is not a de- tegrity and ecological health. lems. This paper is about the prin- parture from the norm for conserva- (6) All aspects of biological di- ciples of conservation biology. The tion biology but is in fact recognized versity potentially play a role ability to solve problems is necessar- as a key attribute of the discipline in maintaining ecological health ily developed to different degrees de- (Barry & Oelschlaeger 1996; Meine & and, therefore, are considered of pending on an individual’s level of ed- Meffe 1996). value in conservation biology. ucation and experience. We do not (B) Ecological integrity: Ecological address here the complex subjects integrity is the degree to which of problem-solving skills or other re- an assemblage of organisms lated intellectual and scientific skills, The Principles of Conservation maintains its composition, struc- important as they are. Those are top- Biology ture, and over time rela- ics for future discussions. At a practi- tive to a comparable assemblage cal level, we leave it to those responsi- Theme I. Goals of Conservation Biology that has been unaltered by hu- blefor curriculum development and man actions. implementation at individual institu- Conservation biologists seek to main- (1) The integrity of an ecological tions to flesh out examples of skills tain three important aspects of life on system (e.g., , ecosys- associated with each principle for dif- Earth: the natural diversity found in tem) can be measured in a variety ferent levels of education and experi- living systems (biological diversity); of ways, including measures of ence. the composition, structure, and func- its structure (what a system looks Further, each teacher should de- tion of those systems (ecological in- like in space and time), func- velop examples of these principles tegrity); and their resiliency and abil- tion (the relationships between that are relevant to her or his stu- ity to endure over time (ecological components), and composition dents in the context of developing health) (Callicott et al. 1999). (what the component parts of an understanding of one’s local en- the system are) relative to that of vironment and an appreciation for (A) Biological diversity: Biological di- the system were it unaltered by the condition of the entire . versity is the variety of living or- human actions.

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(2) Protecting and restoring the how we view nature, and these be placed on a component or ecological integrity of an eco- systems may vary both within function of nature. logical system require conserva- and among cultures. (2) Instrumental values can be tion across all levels of the biolog- (1) Human value systems deter- held even when it is not possible ical hierarchy and across all eco- mine how we view nature, in- to assign an unambiguous mar- logical aspects of structure, func- cluding how we judge the value ket value if a component or func- tion, and composition. of individual aspects of nature, tion of nature has a recognized (C) Ecological health: Ecological human effects on the environ- use or serves a function for soci- health is a relative measure of ment, and changes to biologi- ety. Such values include the eco- the condition of an ecological cal diversity, ecological integrity, logical services provided by na- system with regard to its re- and ecological health. ture, including maintenance of siliency to and ability to (2) There exists a range of human soil fertility and climate control. maintain its organization and value systems regarding nature, (D) Psychological values of nature: autonomy over time. from the view that everything in Psychological values are those (1) Ecological health is evalu- nature has its own absolute right that contribute to the psycho- ated through a combination of to exist to the view that nature logical (emotional, spiritual, aes- measures, none of which alone exists solely for use by humans, thetic) well-being of humans. is an index of health. Perti- with many shades in between. (1) Psychological values can be nent variables include produc- (3) A diversity of value systems derived from an tivity (a system’s ability to pro- exists both among human cul- with and caring for ecological duce more ), complexity tures (in that some cultures tradi- systems, which may expand a (the number of elements in the tionally place a greater emphasis sense of self and increase the system, the number of connec- on one set of values than on oth- sense that one has realized his tions among those elements, the ers) and within human cultures or her full potential (Naess & strength of interactions among (in that different people within Rothenberg 1989). the elements), and resiliency a single culture may value nature (2) Psychological values can be (the ability of the system to re- in different ways). derived both from a direct expe- turn to a particular state fol- (4) Efforts to achieve conserva- rience with nature and indirectly lowing perturbation) and are as- tion must be carried out with from the knowledge that nature sessed relative to that of the sys- an awareness and understanding exists even if aspects of it are not tem were it unaltered by human of these different values systems experienced directly. actions. both among and within cultures. (2) Ecological health focuses on (B) Intrinsic values of nature: Intrin- Theme III. Concepts for Understanding the processes underlying the ob- sic values are those values of na- Biological Diversity, Ecological servable patterns of biological di- ture itself, independent of any Integrity, and Ecological Health versity and ecological integrity. usefulness to humans. (1) Humans may value nature An understanding of the important and natural entities (e.g., indi- components of nature that should vidual or , ecosys- be conserved is based on an under- Theme II. Importance of Biological tems, mountains) owing to their standing of many key biological con- Diversity, Ecological Integrity, and . Attribution of in- cepts, including those within - Ecological Health trinsic value is independent of omy, ecology, genetics, geography, The conservation of nature is con- any use value the entity has. and . sidered important for three : (2) Destroying or interfering nature’s intrinsic values; its instru- with entities that have intrinsic (A) Taxonomic hierarchy: All - mental or economic values; and its value may,in some views, be con- isms are related to each other to a emotional, spiritual, and psychologi- sidered morally acceptable only greater or lesser degree, and the cal values. These values are not mu- to satisfy vital needs. pattern of relationship can be de- tually exclusive, but different peo- (C) Instrumental values of nature: scribed as a hierarchy of related ple may hold different values, which Instrumental values are based groups. must be taken into account to achieve on usefulness to humans, com- (1) Organisms can be grouped conservation (Norton 1987). monly measured in terms of eco- by degree of evolutionary relat- nomic or value. edness to one another. (1) Some instrumental values can (2) There is a hierarchy in the (A) Value systems and perceptions of be measured in economic terms, organization of these groups by nature: Value systems determine such that a monetary value can relatedness, from evolutionarily

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significant or distinct units to greater probability of reducing loss of genetic information than species, and on up to higher when the num- are large . levels of taxonomic organization ber of individuals in a popula- (1) The size of a population de- (e.g., , family, order). tion is small (i.e., random genetic pends on the tradeoff between (B) Ecological hierarchy: The com- drift). the tendency of a population to ponents of nature are grouped (6) Genetic diversity within grow exponentially and the limi- together in sets of nested and in- species is influenced by tations imposed by biotic factors teracting levels of organization, flow among populations, which (e.g., density dependence, pre- ranging from very small (genes) results from the movement of in- dation) and abiotic factors (e.g., to very large (ecosystems and dividuals and, in some species, climate) in the environment. landscapes). the long-distance transfer of re- (2) The patterns of growth (1) There is a hierarchy in the productive cells (gametes) such shown by populations when organization of life (ecological as pollen. Movement among sub- they are near the limit imposed hierarchy) from genes, subpop- populations inhibits the fixation on them by environmental fac- ulations (demes), populations, of alleles, which can alterna- tors may include a smooth ap- , communities, tively be viewed as maintenance proach to some intrinsic limit, os- ecosystems, and landscapes. of diversity (no alleles are lost) cillation around a limit, or pop- (2) An element of one hierarchi- or homogenization (subpopula- ulation crash. Which pattern a cal level can have an influence tions do not become genetically population shows is influenced on levels both above and below different). by several factors, especially the it. (D) The species concept: The basic rate of recovery of food supplies (C) Genetic diversity: The informa- unit of organization for organ- and the behavioral and demo- tion for making an isms is the species; however, there graphic responses of predators. is coded in an individual’s genes. is substantial variation within (3) The size of a population is, in Genetic information varies from species, making their subgroups general, inversely related to the one individual to another, making evolutionarily distinct. probability of inbreeding, the all individuals potential sources (1) There is a variety of defini- loss of genetic information due of important information. tions for species, but from the to chance events associated (1) The biological basis for many perspective of conservation, a with survival and , of the characteristics that make species is considered a group of and susceptibility to extinction. up an individual organism is de- organisms that can actually or po- Therefore, small populations are, termined by information coded tentially interbreed with one an- in general, at greater risk of ex- in the individual’s DNA. other or a group of organisms tinction than large populations. (2) The exact information coded that share common traits and (4) Metapopulations can occur in the genetic material may differ common descent. when partly isolated subpopu- from one individual to another (2) Species are not uniform, ho- lations are connected by occa- and from one group of individ- mogenous entities. They may sional dispersal of individuals uals to another. contain diverse groups, each of from one subpopulation to an- (3) The differences among indi- which represents a unique set of other. Metapopulations can lead viduals and groups in the exact genetic information and a unique to a reduction in the risk of ex- information coded in the DNA evolutionary trend. tinction of any of its component are what is called genetic diver- (3) Species are not unchanging subpopulations. sity. over time; rather, they evolve in (F) Species distributions: Different (4) Genetic diversity may reflect response to the forces of selec- species are distributed in differ- different selective forces operat- tion, , and chance. ent patterns over the Earth based ing on populations in different (4) The classification of an indi- on their individual histories and environments and therefore rep- vidual organism into a particular biological characteristics. These resents an important mechanism species may change over time, patterns can change over time in whereby species can respond to reflecting our developing under- response to changing conditions environmental change. standing of evolutionary and eco- and human actions. (5) Genetic diversity can be re- logical relationships. (1) Each species has a distribu- duced through the operation of (E) Population growth: Populations tion determined by - chance events associated with tend to grow exponentially un- ary history, environmental fac- the survival and reproduction til limited by something in the tors (e.g., temperature, soil, rain- of individuals in nature. Such environment. Small populations fall), and historical events (e.g., chance events have a much are more at risk of extinction and colonization, extinction).

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(2) The presence of any species (5) The boundaries between (3) Extinction independent of in a given location is subject to communities or ecosystems may the actions of humans results change if the factors change that be relatively clear, such as be- from stochastic events operating make the location suitable for the tween terrestrial and aquatic over long periods. species. ecosystems, or they may be (4) Rates of extinction can (3) Distributions of many species fuzzy. In no case is the divi- vary over time. At infrequent have been affected by humans, sion complete because there will times during Earth’s history, ex- both directly (through their local always be interactions between tinction rates have been high extirpation or transportation and species predominantly found in relative to lower background release) and indirectly (through one with those pre- rates. Some of these periods human alterations of habitats dominantly found in another. of high extinction rates—termed that make the movement or per- (H) Stochasticity: Stochasticity refers mass —were associ- sistence of species more or less to the operation of chance in ated with extreme geological likely). nature from one time period to events, but the causes of others (4) Species with high local abun- another—for example, the chance are unknown. dance also tend to have large geo- that an individual will survive, (5) Rates of extinction caused graphic distributions, which can the chance of having one off- by human action are greatly ele- reduce the chance of extinction. spring or two, or the chance of vated over background rates and (G) Communities and ecosystems: experiencing a bad growing sea- are thought to be comparable to Communities and ecosystems son. or greater than rates during mass are collections of individuals (1) Natural systems are con- extinctions. representing several to many stantly changing and are unpre- (6) A given number of species species interacting with one an- dictable over long periods. This can be maintained in a system if other in a particular area and applies equally to populations, the extinction rate equals the with nonliving components of communities, and ecosystems. rate over evolutionary nature that are necessary for life. The confidence in predictions time but will decline if species (1) The definition of a commu- about the future condition of lost to extinction outnumber nity or depends on natural systems decreases as the those gained through speciation the context in which it is con- length of time over which the (as is the case with mass extinc- sidered. For example, a commu- predictions are made increases. tions and human-induced extinc- nity can be defined as the micro- (2) Stochastic changes caused tions currently taking place). fauna in the litter layer of a for- by humans (e.g., an oil spill, est or as all the organisms in that destruction of a specific hab- . itat fragment) are a distinct phe- (2) The composition of a com- nomenon superimposed on nat- Theme IV. Threats to Biological munity or ecosystem depends ural stochasticity. Diversity, Ecological Integrity, and on the population growth pro- (I) Extinction: Extinction refers to Ecological Health cesses of its constituent popula- the termination of an evolution- Nature has faced and continues to tions and on interactions among ary line. It can occur as a result face numerous threats from humans, species (e.g., , compe- of both human and nonhuman including direct harvesting, habitat tition, herbivory, parasitism, and causes; however, the rate of ex- destruction, and introduction of non- predation). tinction due to human action to- native species. People’s perceptions (3) Community or ecosystem day is far greater than the rate of the magnitude of a threat are composition may change as a re- generally seen in the fossil record strongly influenced by how much sult of the responses by its con- before humans. change they have seen occur, such stituent species to changes in (1) Extinction is the long-term that each generation develops a dif- environmental conditions. Thus, expectation for all populations— ferent standard for what is normal or their composition is not static 99.9% or more of all species that natural. but shifts over time. have ever existed have gone ex- (4) Which species are poten- tinct. tial members of a community or (2) Lineages of a lesser rank than (A) Ecological economics: Recent ecosystem will depend on the species (e.g., subspecies, stocks) developments in ecological eco- regional pool of species from go extinct more frequently than nomics correct past misconcep- which they can be drawn and on species, which contributes to tions in neoclassical economic each species’ dispersal and com- the erosion of biological diver- theory, which have contributed petitive abilities. sity. to the loss of biological diversity,

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the degradation of ecological in- quency and intensity of their ac- of the activities in both space and tegrity, and the decline of ecolog- tions as well as the area over time. ical health (Costanza 1991; Daly which the actions are practiced. (2) Different species and groups &Farley 2003). Varying these actions can modify of species may go extinct or be (1) Human activity is a subset of their impact on nature. threatened with extinction as a natural processes, not vice versa. (1) Ecosystems differ from one result of a combination of differ- (2) Human economic activity en- another in how they are af- ent human activities. compasses services provided by fected by a given type and mag- (3) Different species and groups natural ecosystems, yet not all of nitude of human impact. These of species may be more suscep- nature is available to be used as differences are based, at least in tible to extinction from one type aresource for human economic part, on their own characteris- of human activity than another. activity. tics, such as rate of productivity. (4) Human activity might alter (3) Economic and physical con- (2) As human activity changes species’ interactions, leading to straints limit human economic an ecosystem, the altered system extinctions of multiple species in activity and population growth, may be more susceptible to sub- a system (e.g., trophic cascades). and not all of these constraints sequent changes. That is, the sys- (F) Global : The Earth can be surmounted through tem will lose resiliency. is currently experiencing an in- technology. (3) All contemporary human im- crease in average temperature (B) Impacts of human colonization pacts are amplified exponen- caused by human addition of in ancient times: Human soci- tially by the current growth rate greenhouse gases into the at- eties have a long history of of the human population; more mosphere. This change in tem- causing extinctions and major people live now than ever before perature will have severe conse- changes in ecosystems. and the population is almost cer- quences for life on Earth through (1) In the prehistoric (Martin & tainly committed to an increase rapid changes in climate, ge- Klein 1984) and historic (Crosby over the next 50 years (Cohen ographic range, and ecological 1993) past, arrival of humans 2003). processes, increasing the risk to new areas led to extinctions (D)Patterns of extinction: Species of extinction (McCarthy et al. of other species and large-scale are currently going extinct at a 2001). changes in natural communities. rate never before seen in hu- (1) Fossil fuel use during the past (2) Humans have caused extinc- man history and seen in the fos- century has resulted in an in- tions and changes in natural com- sil record only during infrequent crease in greenhouse gases, par- munities in a variety of ways, in- times of mass extinction. ticularly , in the cluding the cumulative impacts (1) The pattern of extinctions . The increased pres- of direct exploitation for food, among species we observe to- ence of these greenhouse gases modification of natural vegeta- day is unprecedented in human in the environment has already tion, and introduction of exotic history. These extinctions erode resulted in an increase in the species. biological diversity, ecological global average temperature over (3) Human-caused changes in integrity, and ecological health the last century that is greater natural communities may be with long–term consequences. than that of any century in the so pervasive yet poorly docu- (2) Currently, the extinction rate past 1000 years. mented that contemporary hu- is exceeding the speciation rate. (2) Uptake of carbon by plants man cultures may not be widely Thus, species are currently going offers only a temporary solu- aware of how the biological con- extinct at a rate such that they tion because most of this carbon ditions observed in the present cannot be replaced by evolution will be released back into the have been altered by human ac- for millions of years. atmosphere during decomposi- tions in the past. (E) Proximate causes of extinction: tion; current conditions on Earth (4) Some human cultures may Humans bring about extinction do not permit accumulation of have developed a level of ecolog- through four primary actions: new fossil fuel deposits. ical knowledge or practice that , habitat mod- (3) The effects of continued in- supported the protection and ification, (such creases in greenhouse gas concen- restoration of biological diver- as through overhunting and over- trations will inevitably continue sity, ecological integrity, and eco- harvesting), and the introduc- to affect climate for centuries, re- logical health. tion of non-native species. sulting in regional and seasonal (C) Contemporary human impacts: (1) The effects of human activi- changes in temperature and pre- Humans can affect species and ties on a species’ extinction risk cipitation. Even assuming no ecosystems through the fre- are influenced by the magnitude further additions of greenhouse

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gas to the atmosphere, our cli- (2) Humans as individuals and that target a species alone, or mate will continue to change as societies have made value-based they may be helped by protec- aresult of the additions already choices about how much the tion activities that include multi- made. condition of an ecosystem can ple species or entire communi- (4) Regional and seasonal changes or should be modified, and these ties. in climate will have many effects choices have determined and (3) Given the stochastic effects on species, including changes in continue to determine the condi- on population sizes from both nat- geographic distributions, risk of tion and composition of the nat- ural and human causes, species- extinction, community composi- ural world. protection activities must neces- tion, and ecosystem function. (I) Changing standards: People’s sarily take place in a climate of (5) It is not possible to halt com- ideas about what constitutes the uncertainty. pletely the effects of these in- normal condition of nature are (B) Ecological reserve systems: Ar- evitable changes in climate on strongly influenced by what they eas that are designated for con- species. It may be possible, how- have experienced in their own servation need to be established ever, to reduce the magnitude lifetime, regardless of whether in such a way that they col- of the effects by changing hu- those conditions were already al- lectively cover the full range of man resource be- tered by humans in the past. ecosystem types and can protect haviors and land-use policies. (1) As biological diversity, eco- the species present there from (G) Cascading effects: The extinc- logical integrity, and ecological premature extinction. tion of one species can cause health decline, each generation (1) Ecological reserve systems the unpredictable extinction of views the new lower level as are sets of areas managed in such other species as a result of “normal,” and this affects value away that their primary function their interactions in nature; these judgments that people make is to protect a species or group subsequent extinctions can in about the natural world and of species from extinction and to turn affect other species, caus- therefore affects the land-use de- promote natural ecological and ing a ripple effect throughout an cisions they make. evolutionary processes. ecosystem. (2) As people’s firsthand expo- (2) Such reserve systems are de- (1) The degradation of biologi- sure to natural systems declines, signed to include area sufficient cal diversity, ecological integrity, as a result of cultural changes and for the target species to be viable and ecological health at one level lack of accessibility, their percep- with limited human intervention of biological organization may tions of “normal” conditions of and for natural processes to oc- have subsequent impacts on bi- nature change. cur. ological diversity, ecological in- (3) The effectiveness of reserve tegrity, and ecological health at Theme V. Protection and Restoration systems is influenced by their other levels. of Biological Diversity, Ecological context, including the stresses (2) Extinction or habitat degra- Integrity, and Ecological Health placed on them by actions tak- dation may in turn cause addi- ing place outside of the system, tional impacts, leading to a series The conservation of nature requires actions taking place inside of the of changes cascading through an a combination of strategies, includ- system, and the degree to which ecosystem. ing the protection of endangered the organisms present in the re- (3) The ways in which cascading species, ecological reserves, control serves perceive them to be con- effects will occur are difficult, if of human actions that hurt ecosys- nected. not impossible, to predict in ad- tems, ecosystem restoration, captive (4) The design and management vance of their occurrence, but breeding, control of non-native species, of ecological reserves must ad- their effects can be large and lon- and conservation biology education. dress the predicted effects of glasting. global climate change on the sys- (H) Historical condition of ecosys- (A) protection: tem or species they are intended tems: The present-day condition Species at risk of extinction re- to protect. of most ecosystems is dramati- quire protection from exploita- (C) Human uses of nature: Human cally different from that of the tion and loss of habitat. uses of nature can be modified past because of the actions of hu- (1) Single-species protection ac- so that the impacts on ecological mans. tivities focus on identifying the systems are lessened. (1) The actions of historical and factors that led to the decline in (1) Human enterprises should be current human societies have re- population size and on remedia- more harmoniously integrated sulted in dramatic modifications tion of those factors. within the context of their nat- of most present-day terrestrial (2) Individual species may be ural environments, rather than and aquatic ecosystems. helped by protection activities segregated from them.

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(2) Modifying ways in which hu- (1) Species and subspecies on eliminate established non-native mans use nature so that they the brink of extinction in the species whenever possible. more completely mimic natural wild may be helped through (1) Non-native species are one ecological processes can lessen breeding in facilities such as of the prime threats to native the impact of these uses on bi- , aquaria, botanical gardens, species and ecosystems world- ological diversity, ecological in- and facilities. wide. tegrity, and ecological health. (2) Care must be taken to main- (2) Non-native species can be (3) The impact of human uses tain genetic diversity from gener- spread either accidentally or in- of nature on biological diversity, ation to generation and to mimic tentionally. ecological integrity, and ecologi- selective pressures the organ- (3) Most introductions of non- cal health can be lessened by a re- isms would encounter in nature. native species are probably un- duction of the magnitude of hu- For animals, habituation to hu- successful, but a few have had man impacts in both space and mans should be minimized. devastating consequences both time. (3) Captive breeding programs ecologically and economically. (4) Although biological reserves for conservation are expensive (4) After a non-native species be- and national parks are often an and therefore are not practical comes established, it is difficult essential component of conser- for all species. For some species, if not impossible to completely vation strategy, the ultimate suc- they may be biologically un- eradicate it. cess of conservation depends on feasible. For some endangered (5) The ability of a non-native refashioning human activities to species, however, captive breed- species to establish itself is in- coexist with biological diversity ing may be the only strategy avail- fluenced both by its own char- and ecological systems. able to prevent immediate ex- acteristics (e.g., reproductive bi- (D) Ecosystem restoration: Ecosys- tinction. ology) and the condition of the tems that have been degraded (F) Management of harvests: The natural community into which through changes in function and numbers of individuals from it is being introduced (e.g., eco- species composition need to be species that are harvested in na- logically healthy communities restored to as close to their nat- ture need to be controlled so that tend to be less vulnerable to ural (as contrasted to culturally the harvest does not significantly invasion). modified) conditions as possi- increase the probability that the (H)Political participation: Under- ble. species will go extinct. stand and participate in the (1) Ecosystems that have been (1) Indiscriminate harvesting can realm of human politics and pol- degraded through human modi- accelerate or cause extinction. icy, making sure to insert the fication can, in some cases, be (2) Control of harvesting,through importance of maintaining na- restored through elimination of outright bans in the case of tive into public dis- the external stresses, reintroduc- rare, threatened, or endangered course. tion of native species, removal of species; through controls of har- (1) Understand the processes exotic species, and restoration of vest of vulnerable age or stage and structures by which public ecological processes. classes; through limits on the policy is established—including (2) The extent to which a restora- number of individuals harvested; , administrative regulations, tion effort is considered “suc- through limits on the length and channels for lobbying. cessful” depends on the goals of time over which harvesting (2) Be familiar with the people identified. No effort can ever re- can occur; and through establish- who play key roles at a variety of store exactly the natural ecosys- ment of “no-take” reserves, may geographic levels, from local to tem in its composition, struc- promote species persistence. international. ture, and function. (3) To prevent extinction through (3) Share knowledge and exper- (3) An ability to promote resto- over-harvesting of species, soci- tise of conservation biology with ration should not be seen as a eties must be willing to regulate policy makers whenever oppor- justification for promoting habi- harvesting guided by a biological tunities arise or can be created. tat destruction elsewhere. understanding of population de- (I) Education: Conservation educa- (E) Augmentation of natural popula- mography. tion needs to occur at all levels in tions: Species at risk of extinc- (G) Management of non-native species: all societies so that humans can tion can, in some cases, bene- Efforts must be made to decrease better learn to coexist with na- fit from having their populations the probability that non-native ture. increased through the introduc- species will become introduced (1) Conservation education pro- tion into the wild of individuals or successfully established, and grams seek to develop in people bred in . efforts need to be made to a deeper understanding of the

Conservation Biology Volume 18, No. 5, October 2004 1188 Conservation Education Trombulak et al.

Table 1. A summary of the themes and primary and secondary principles of conservation biology presented in this paper.∗

Themes Primary principles Secondary principles

Goals: the goals of conservation Conservation biologists seek to Biological diversity is a measure of the diversity of all life biology maintain three important at all levels of organization. aspects of life on Earth: Ecological integrity is a measure of the composition, biological diversity, ecological structure, and function of biological systems. integrity, and ecological health. Ecological health is a measure of a ’s resiliency and ability to maintain itself over time. Values: why biological diversity, The conservation of nature is Value systems determine how we view nature, and this ecological integrity, and important for nature’s intrinsic may vary within and among cultures. ecological health are important values, its instrumental values, Intrinsic values are those of nature itself, separate from a and its psychological values. usefulness to humans. Instrumental values are based on the usefulness of nature to humans. Psychological values are those that contribute to the psychological well-being of humans. Concepts: concepts for An understanding of conservation All organisms are related to one another. understanding biological is based on key concepts in The components of nature are grouped together in sets diversity, ecological integrity, , ecology, genetics, of levels of organization, from small (genes) to large and ecological health geography, and evolution. (landscapes). Genes contain the information for making an organism, and this information varies from one organism to another. The basic unit of biological organization is the species. Populations grow exponentially unless limited by the environment; small populations are more at risk than large ones. Species are distributed in different patterns over the Earth based on individual histories, characteristics, and responses to human action. Communities and ecosystems are collections of interacting species and the components of their physical environment. Nature may behave stochastically, in that conditions and outcomes may be unpredictable. Extinction is the termination of an evolutionary line and can occur as a result of both human and nonhuman causes. Threats: threats to biological Nature has faced and continues to Principles of ecological economics correct oversights in diversity, ecological integrity, face numerous threats from neoclassical economic theory, which have and ecological health humans, including direct contributed to conservation threats. harvesting, habitat destruction, Human societies have a long history of causing and introduction of non-native extinctions and making major changes to ecosystems. species. Human actions affect nature through their frequency, intensity, and spatial extent. Species are currently going extinct at a rate faster than at any time in human history and at a rate comparable to mass extinction events seen only in the fossil record. Humans cause extinction through habitat destruction and modification, overexploitation, and introduction of non-native species. Humans are currently causing the Earth’s climate to warm, which will have severe consequences for natural systems. Extinction of a species can cause extinctions of other species. The present condition of most natural systems is changed from the past as a result of human actions. Ideas about the “normal” condition of nature are influenced by what a person experiences in his or her own lifetime. continued

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Table 1. (continued)

Themes Primary principles Secondary principles

Actions: protection and Conservation requires a Protect species at risk of extinction. restoration of biological combination of many different Designate ecological reserves. diversity, ecological integrity, strategies. Lessen the magnitude of human impacts on natural systems. and ecological health Restore ecosystems that have been degraded. Augment populations with individuals raised in cultivation or captivity. Control the number of individuals harvested in nature. Prevent the establishment of non-native species, and eliminate non-native species that have become established. Understand and participate in the policy-making process. Educate others about the importance of conservation. ∗Complete descriptions of the supporting principles associated with each secondary principle are presented in the text.

importance and tools of conser- national community of conservation Jeffrey J. Lusk vation biology. biologists based on their experience Department of , 008C (2) Education is most successful with teaching and mentoring conser- Hall, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK when it focuses on developing vation-literate citizens, decision mak- 74078, U.S.A. knowledge, skills, and attitudes ers, and conservation practitioners. in a way that gives people ex- tended direct experience. Thomas L. Fleischner (3) Conservation biologists have Environmental Studies Program, Prescott Col- a unique set of knowledge, skills, Acknowledgments lege, 220 Grove Avenue, Prescott, AZ 86301, and concerns to share with U.S.A. others. This document is a product of the Literacy Guidelines Working Group Glenn Brown of the SCB Education Committee. All authors contributed to the develop- Environmental and Management Pro- Conclusions gram, Capilano College, 2055 Purcell Way, ment and writing of the document. North Vancouver, , Canada, We set out to describe hierarchically We thank all the members of the Ed- V7J 3H5 the central principles of conserva- ucation Committee since 2000, Carol Brewer, two anonymous reviewers tion biology, summarized in Table 1, Meg Domroese to facilitate development of conser- for editorial advice on this document vation education programs at vari- and for moral support, and all mem- Center for Biodiversity and Conservation, bers of the SCB who have provided American Museum of Natural History, Central ous levels and a general appreciation Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024, by all persons of what conservation on earlier versions of these U.S.A. biologists have found to be impor- guidelines. tant for the discipline. Mastering the Literature Cited appropriate principles and the skills Stephen C. Trombulak American Chemical Society (ACS). 2003. to apply them constitutes conserva- Department of Biology and Program in tion literacy. Our belief is that if cit- Environmental Studies, Middlebury College, Undergraduate professional education in chemistry: guidelines and evaluation pro- izens, decision makers involved in Middlebury, VT 05753, U.S.A., trombulak@ middlebury.edu cedures. ACS, Washington, D.C. Available conservation, and conservation prac- from http://www.chemistry.org/portal/a/c/ titioners become fully conservation- s/1/general.html?DOC=education%5Ccpt% Kristian S. Omland literate, then our collective societies 5Cguidelines.html (accessed November will be able to live more harmo- Vermont Cooperative Fish & Research 2003). Barry, D., and M. Oelschlaeger. 1996. A science niously with nature. Unit, The Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Vermont, for survival: values and conservation biol- We welcome discussion of these Burlington VT, 05405, U.S.A. ogy. Conservation Biology 10:905–911. guidelines; an electronic gateway to Callicott, J. B., L. B. Crowder, and K. Mumford. that dialog (http://conbio.net/scb/ 1999. Current normative concepts in con- services/education/docs/conservation Julie A. Robinson servation. Conservation Biology 13:22–35. Cohen, J. E. 2003. Human population: the next literacy.cfm) is provided on the SCB Earth Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory, half century. Science 302:1172–1175. web site. We look forward to assimi- NASA Johnson Space Center, 2400 NASA Road Costanza, R. 1991. Ecological economics. lating input from the broader inter- 1, C23, Houston, TX 77058, U.S.A. Columbia University Press, New York.

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