Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety

Edited by Victor R. Preedy Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, King's College London, London, UK

• AMSTERDAM BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS

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ELSEVIER Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Contents

Contributors xxiii Supercritical Fluid Extraction GC-MS (SFE Biography xxxi GC-MS) Involving Use of Multidimensional Preface xxxiii GC to Resolve Enantiomers for Essential Oils of Lavandula 12 Enantioselective Capillary Gas Chromatography Part I and Online Methods of Isotope Ratio Mass General Aspects Spectrometry 13 Enantioselective Capillary Gas Chromatography and Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry, 1. Essential Oils: What They Are and How Coupled Online with Capillary Gas the Terms Are Used and Defined Chromatography on an HP5 Column for Jose-Luis Rios Various Essential Oils 13 Online Gas Chromatography Pyrolysis Introduction 3 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry An Historical Overview 3 (HRGC-P-IRMS) for the Flavor Compounds Concept and Definition 3 Decanal, Linalool, Linalyl Acetate, Variability of Essential Oils 4 E-2-Hexenal, and E-2-Hexenol in Presence and Functions in the Vegetable Essential Oils 13 Kingdom 4 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Online Essential Oils 4 Obtaining Coupled with Capillary Gas Control and 5 Analyses Chromatography (GC-Py-IRMS) 14 Chemical Composition 5 Gas Chromatography-Combustion-lsotope Terpenes 6 Ratio Mass Spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS), 6 Allyl phenols in Combination with GC-MS and GC Other Constituents 7 Flame Ionization Detector (FID) for Use of Essential Oils 7 Rosa damascene Essential Oil 14 Cosmetics 8 Headspace-Solid Phase Microextraction Medicine and Pharmaceutics 8 Coupled to GC-C-IRMS for Food 9 Citrus Oils 14 References 9 Multi Dimensional Gas Chromatography (MDGC) and GC-C-IRMS for Bitter Orange 2. Methods for the Characterization, Flower Oil (or Neroli) and Lime Oils 14 and Adulteration Authentication, GC-FID and GC-MS for Zanthoxylum of Essential Oils armatum Leaf Essential Oil 15 Performance Tzi Bun Ng, Evandro Fei Fang, Alaa El-Din Ahmed Ultra-High Liquid Bekhit and Jack Ho Wong Chromatography-Time-of-Flight-Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-TOF-MS) Profiling Introduction 11 and 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Methods of Authentication 11 (NMR) Fingerprinting for Lemon Oil 15 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy for (GC-MS) for Hyssopus cuspidatus Sandalwood Oil 15 Essential Oil 11 NIR Spectroscopy for Various Determination of Enantiomeric Composition Essential Oils 15 for Essential Oils of Indian 12 Origin Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) 16

v vi Contents

Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Extraction with Supercritical Gases 32 (RAPD) Method 16 Benefits of Supercritical Fluid Extraction 33 Attentuated Total Reflectance (ATR)- Comparison of Supercritical Fluid Extraction Mid-infrared Portable Handheld Spectrometer to Conventional Methods/Factors Affecting for Peruvian Sacha Inchi Seed Oils 16 Extraction Conditions 33 Summary Points 16 Novel "Green" Extraction Methods 33 Disclaimer 16 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 33 Acknowledgment 17 Controlled Pressure Drop Process 35 References 17 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 36

Effects of Extraction Methods on Essential Oil 3. Cultivation of Essential Oils Characteristics 36 Summary Points 37 Sanjib Bhattacharya References 37 Introduction 19 Important Species for Essential Oil Cultivation 19 5. Biologically Active Essential Oils Factors Influencing Cultivation of Essential Oils 19 against Stored Product Pests Environmental Factors 19 Kaan Polatoglu and Omer Cem Karakog Harvesting-Related Factors 20 Fertilizers 21 Introduction 39 Cultivars 22 Active Essential Oils against Sitophilus granarius (L.) 39 Cultivation of Selected Essential Oil-Bearing Active Essential Oils against Sitophilus oryzae (L.) 39 24 Active Essential Oils against Sitophilus zeamais Turpentine Oil 24 Motschulsky 47 Peppermint/ Oil 24 Essential Oils as Stored Product Pest Control Oil 24 Agents 56 Oil 25 Conclusions 57 Oil 25 References 58 Ajowan Oil 25 Oil 25 6. Essential Oils for Arthropod Pest Oil 26 Management in Agricultural Orange Peel Oil 26 Production Systems Oil 26 Yong-Lak Park and Jun-Hyung Tak Oil 26

Garlic Oil 26 Introduction 61 Black Pepper Oil 27 Essential Oils as Pesticides 61 VetiverOil 27 Modes of Action of Essential Oils 62 Oil 27 Essential Oils for Arthropod Pest Management 63 Palmarosa Oil 27 Advantages and Disadvantages of Essential Citronella Oil 27 Oils as Pesticides 66 Oil 27 Ecotoxicology of Essential Oils 66 Oil 28 Nontarget Effects of Essential Oils in Pest Lemon Grass Oil 28 Management 66 Summary Points 28 Major Disadvantages of Using Essential Oils References 28 in Pest Management 67 Summary Points 68 4. Methods for Extracting Essential Oils References 68

Alexandros Ch Stratakos and 7. Use of Essential Oils in Food Anastasios Koidis Preservation Introduction 31 Oluyemisi Elizabeth Adelakun, Olusegun James Conventional Essential Oil Extraction Methods 31 Oyelade and Bosede Folake Olanipekun Cold Expression 31 Solvent Extraction 31 Introduction 71 The "Enfleurage" Method 32 Definition 71 Distillation 32 Preservative Effects of Essential Oils 71 Contents vii

Essential Oil as a Repellent for Food Antimicrobial Activity of Nanoemulsion Using Preservation 72 Essential Oils in Food Preservation 97 Essential Oils as Constituents of Antimicrobial Summary Points 100 Packaging 73 References 100

Essential Oils as Constituent of Edible Packaging 73 10. Use of Essential Oils in Poultry Points Summary 81 Production References 81 Ahmed M. Amerah and Arthur C. Ouwehand

8. Use of Essential Oils as a Preservative Introduction 101 of Meat Essential Oils Definition and Mechanisms 101 Antimicrobial Mechanisms 101 f//'ton Chivandi, Rachael Dangarembizi, Antioxidant Properties 102 Trevor T. Nyakudya and Kennedy H. Erlwanger Effect of Essential Oils on Poultry Introduction 85 Performance 102

Methods and Principles of Meat Effect of Essential Oils on Gut Health Preservation 85 in Poultry 106

Meat Preservation: An Historical Review 85 Effects of Essential Oils on Carcass Use of Essentials Oils in the Preservation Quality and Taste 107 of Meat 87 Effect of Essential Oils on Poultry Red Mite Benefits of the Use of Essential Oils in Meat (Dermanyssus gallinae) 107 Preservation 87 Regulatory Perspective 107 Specific Examples: Essentials Oils Currently Summary Points 109 Used in the Preservation of Meat 88 References 109 Mechanisms of Action of Essential Oils in the Preservation of Meat 89 11. Essential Oils as Flavorings in Preservation against Microbial Spoilage 89 Carbonated Cola and Citrus Preservation against Lipid Oxidation 89 Soft Drinks Current Challenges: EOs in Meat Preservation 89 Sunday J. Ameh and Obiageri Future Prospects of Using EOs in Meat Obodozie-Ofoegbu Preservation 90 Introduction 111 Summary Points 90 Essential and Aromatic References 91 Oils, , Plants 111

Carbonated Soft Drinks 111 9. Essential Oil-Based Nanoemulsion History of Spices and the Political Formation Low- and by High-Energy Economy of the Soda Industry Methods and Their Application in Food Worldwide 112 Preservation against Food Spoilage Industrial Production of Sodas 113 Microorganisms Essential Oils in Cola and Citrus Soda Concentrates 114 Saranya Sugumar, Vijayalakshmi Ghosh, Amitava Essential Oils as Flavorings in Sodas 114 Mukherjee and Natarajan Chandrasekaran Essential Oils Used in Cola and Citrus Introduction 93 Concentrates 114 Methods of Nanoemulsion Formation 94 Formulation of Essential Oils into Soda Low-Energy Emulsification Methods 94 Concentrates 116 Spontaneous Emulsification 94 Advanced Equipment and Techniques Phase Inversion Temperature (PIT) 95 Used in Flavor Research and Soda Phase Inversion Composition (PIC) 95 Technology 118 Emulsion Inversion Point (EIP) 95 Typical Concentrations of Essential High-Energy Methods 95 Oil Molecules in Sodas 118 High-Pressure Homogenizers 96 Conclusion 118 Microfluidizer 96 Summary Points 119 Ultrasonic Generators 96 References 120 viii Contents

12. Microencapsulation Technology and 15. Essential Oils Added to Edible Films Essential Oil Pesticides for Food Raul Avila-Sosa, Enrique Palou andAurelio Production Lopez-Malo Vera Krimer Zuzana Malesevic, Vastag, Ljiljana Introduction 149 Senka and Radulovic-Popovic, Madarev-Popovic General Aspects of Edible Films 149 Ivana Pericin-Starcevic Edible Film Formation and Functional

Introduction 123 Properties 150 Essential Oils 123 Essential Oils Used in Edible Films 150

Essential Oils as Pesticides 125 In vitro Studies 151 Summary Points 128 In vivo Studies 152 References 128 Concluding Remarks 153 Summary Points 153 13. Effect of Essential Oils on Organoleptic Acknowledgments 153 (Smell, Taste, and Texture) Properties References 153 of Food 16. Essential Oils in Food Applications: Abdalbasit Adam Mariod Australian Aspects Introduction 131 Yasmina Sultanbawa Physical and Chemical Properties of EOs 131 Effect of EOs on Food Organoleptic Introduction 155 Properties (OLP) 132 Australian Native Essential Oils 155 Summary Points 136 Antimicrobial Agents in Food Applications 155 References 136 Insect Repellents in Agriculture 157 Flavoring Agents in Food and Beverages 159 14. Use of Essential Oils in Food Packaging Issues and Challenges of Using EOs in Food Production 159 Irene Dini Summary Points 159 Introduction 139 References 159 Antimicrobial Packaging Systems 139 Systems for Delivering Antimicrobials 140 of EOs 140 Encapsulation Part II Essential Oils Combined with Paper 141 Essential Oils Combined with Edible Film 141 Named Essential Oils Essential Oil Vapor and Negative Air Ions 142 Legal Aspects of the Use of EOs in Foods 142 17. African Cardamom (Aframomum Food Packaging Projected to Extending danielli) Oils Shelf-Life of Main Food Categories 142 Gabriel Olaniran Adegoke, Felix O. Evwiehurhoma Antimicrobial Activity of EOs in Food Systems and M.O. Afolabi Proposed to Enhance Meat Quality 142 Antimicrobial Activity of EOs in Food Systems Introduction 163 Proposed to Enhance Fish Quality 143 Botanical Aspects 163 Antimicrobial Activity of EOs in Food Systems Species and Geographical Distribution 163 Proposed to Enhance Dairy Product Quality 145 Description 163 Antimicrobial Activity of EOs in Food Systems Cultivation and Harvesting 164 Proposed to Enhance Minimally Processed Usage and Applications 165 Fruit and Vegetable Quality 145 Chemical Composition 165 Antimicrobial Activity of EOs in Food Systems Usage and Applications in Food Science 166 Proposed to Enhance Juice Quality 145 Control of Foodborne Pathogens 166 Antimicrobial Activity of EOs in Food Systems Synergistic Activities 166 Proposed to Enhance Cereal-Based Antibrowning Effects 166 Food Quality 145 Food Preservation 168 Summary Points 146 Summary Points 169 References 146 References 170 Contents ix

18. Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis) Oils Insecticidal Effects 206 Major Chemical Compounds of the Essential NorAzah Mohamad Ali, Chee Bengjin Oil of Angelica glauca 206 and Mailina Jamil Major Chemical Compounds of the Essential Introduction 173 Oil of 206 Botanical Aspects 173 Summary Points 208 Usage and Applications 174 References 208 Usage and Applications in Food Science 175 178 22. Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum, Apiaceae) Wine 179 Oils Noodles and Biscuits 179 Leandro Rocha and Caio P. Fernandes Herbal Infusions and Beverages 179 Research on Agarwood by Forest Research Introduction 209 Institute Malaysia 179 Botanical Aspects 209 Summary Points 180 Usage and Applications 210 References 180 Usage and Applications in Food Science 211 Summary Points 212 19. (Trachyspermum ammi L.) Oils References 213

Nafees Sofiane Sirajudheen Anwar, Ahmed, 23. Myrtle (Syzygium anisatum) Oils Habibatni and YousefAbusamra Yasmina Sultanbawa Introduction 181 Botanical Aspects 182 Introduction 215 Usage and Application in Food Science 182 Botanical Aspects 215 and Ajwain Oil as an Antibacterial Agent 182 Usage Applications 215 and in Food Science 216 Ajwain Oil as an Antifungal 186 Usage Applications Ajwain Oil as an Antioxidant 189 Antimicrobial Properties 217 Ajwain Oil as an Antispoilage Agent 190 Flavoring Agent 217 Summary Points 190 Safety of Anise Myrtle Essential Oils 218 References 190 Summary Points 218 References 218

20. Amazon Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora 24. Annona (Annonaceae) Oils Ducke) Oils Species Suzana Vieira Rabelo, Jullyana de Sousa Jose Guilherme S. Maia and Rosa Helena V. Siqueira Quintans, Emmanoel Vilaca Costa, Mourao Jackson Roberto Guedes da Silva Almeida and Introduction 193 Lucindo Jose Quintans Junior Botanical Aspects 193 Introduction 221 Usage and Applications 195 Botanical Aspects 222 Usage and Applications in Food Science 195 Usage and Applications 223 Acknowledgment 200 Usage and Applications in Food Science 223 References 200 Annona atemoya Aubl. 224 Annona cherimolia Mill. 224 21. Angelica (Angelica glauca and Annona coriacea Mart. 224 A. archangelica) Oils Annona foetida Mart. 224 Annona glabra L. 225 Rajesh K. Joshi Annona muricata L. 225 Introduction 203 Annona pickelii (Diels) H. Rainer 225 Botanical Aspects 203 Annona reticulata L. 226 Usage and Applications 205 Annona salzmannii A. DC. 226 Usage and Applications in Food Science 206 Annona senegalensis Pers. 227 Antioxidant Activity 206 Annona squamosa L. 227 Antimicrobial Activity 206 Annona vepretorum Mart. 227 x Contents

Summary Points 228 Usage and Applications 248 Acknowledgment 228 Usage and Applications in Food Science 249 References 228 Summary Points 251 Acknowledgment 251 25. (Ocimum basilicum L.) Oils References 251

X. Li and Chiou L Qing Chang 28. Bitter Gourd (Momordica charantia) Introduction 231 Oils Botanical Aspects of Basil 231 Evandro Fei Fang and Tzi Bun Ng Extraction, Compositions and Usage of Basil Oil 232 Basil Oil Extraction 232 Introduction 253 Chemical Composition and Usage of Basil Oil 232 Botanical Aspects 253 Applications of Basil Oil in Food Science 233 Usage and Applications of Bitter Gourd 253 Culinary Flavoring 233 Usage and Applications of Bitter Gourd Oils in Food Preservation and Food Safety 233 Food Science 254 Antimicrobial Activities 234 Composition 254 Preservatives for Processed Foods 234 A Candidate in Solid Fat Application 255 Stored Grain Protection against Insect Pests 234 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 256 Postharvest Preservation of Fresh Fruits and Disclaimer 257 Vegetables 235 Acknowledgment 257 Postharvest Preservation of Grains 235 References 257 Usages of Basil Oil as Preservatives in Food Packaging and Processing 235 29. Bitter Orange {Citrus aurantium L) Oils Applications of Basil Oil and its Main Sirajudheen Anwar, Nafees Ahmed, Antonio Components to Livestock, Aquaculture, Francesco Cimino and Antonella Saija and Seafood 236 Speciale, Applications of Basil Oil as Insecticides in Introduction 259 Food Production 236 Botanical Aspects 259 Disinfection of Seeds with Basil Oil 236 Usages and Applications 260 Safety of Basil Oil Components 236 Usage and Application in Food Sciences 261 Summary Points 237 Rationale and Limits 261 References 237 Bitter Oil and Antibacterial Activity for Food Preservation 261 26. Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis) Oils Antimicrobial Action Mechanisms of Citrus Essential Oils 264 Antonio Marques, Barbara Teixeira and Maria Bitter Oil and Antifungal Activity for Food Leonor Nunes Preservation 265 Introduction 239 Bitter Oil and Antioxidant Activity for Food Botanical Aspects 239 Preservation 265 Usage and Applications 240 Bitter Oil and Food Spoilage 266 Usage and Applications in Food Science 240 Summary Points 267 Meat Products 241 References 267 Seafood Products 243 Agriculture Products 243 30. Black {) Oils Summary Points 244 Mohamed F. Ramadan References 245 Introduction 269 27. Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) Oils Botanical Aspects 269 Usage and Applications 270 Raul Avila-Sosa, Addf Rhode Navarro-Cruz, Usage and Applications in Food Science 272 Maria E. Sosa-Morales, Aurelio Lopez-Malo Antimicrobial Activity 272 and Enrique Palou Antioxidant Activity 273 Introduction 247 Summary Points 274 Botanical Aspects 247 References 274 Contents xi

31. Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L) Oils 34. Carrot (Daucus carota) Oils

Mansurah A. Abdulazeez, Ibrahim Sani, Tzi Bun Ng, Evandro Fei Fang, Xiaolin Li, Qiu Lu, Bolanle D. James andAbdulmalik S. Abdullahi Jack Ho Wong and Hongwei Guo

Introduction 277 Introduction 303 Botanical Aspects 277 Botanical Aspects 303 Historical Cultivation 279 Usage and Applications 303 Present Day Cultivation 280 Usage and Applications in Food Science 304 Usage and Applications 281 Composition 304 Historical Usage and Applications 281 Antimicrobial Activity 306 Traditional Usage and Applications 281 Metabolic Effects 306 Usage and Applications in Food Science 282 Adverse Effects of Excessive Intake Essential Oil of Black Pepper as Preservative 282 of Carrots 306 Antibacterial Activities of Essential Oil Summary Points 307 of Piper nigrum 282 Disclaimer 307 Antioxidant Activities of Essential Oil Acknowledgments 307 of Piper nigrum 283 References 307 Essential Oil of Black Pepper for Preservation of Orange Juice 283 35. Carvone (Mentha spicata L.) Oils Extraction of Essential Oil of Black Pepper 283 Caterina Morcia, Tumino, Roberta Effect of Radiation and Heat Treatment on Giorgio Ghizzoni and Valeria Terzi Composition of EO of Black Pepper 284 Summary Points 284 Introduction 309 References 284 Botanical Aspects 309 Usage and Applications 310 32. Caraway (Carum carvi L.) Essential Oils Usage and Applications in Food Science 311 Summary Points 312 Iraj Rasooli andAbdolamir Allameh References 315 Introduction 287 Botanical Aspects 287 36. Cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) Oils Usage and Applications of Caraway 288 Yoshiyuki Mizushina and Isoko Kuriyama Usage and Applications in Food Science 288 Extraction and Purification Technologies Introduction 317 for the Extraction of Essential Oils 291 Botanical Aspects 317 Safety Issues of Drying and Storage Usage and Applications 318 of Caraway Seeds 291 Usage and Applications in Food Science 318 Summary Points 292 Preparation of EOs from USBs and the References 292 Xylem Tissue of Japanese Woods 318 Suppressive Effects of EOs from Japanese 33. Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Woods on the Food Decay-Related Maton) Oils Microbial Growth 318 Effects of EOs from Japanese Wood on Farooq Anwar, Ali Abbas, Khalid M. Alkharfy in vitro DNA Polymerase Activity from and Anwar-ul-Hassan Gilani Escherichia coli 319 Introduction 295 Chemical Composition of EOs from Botanical Aspects 295 Japanese Cedar 320 Flowers and Fruit 295 Suppressive Effects of Sesquiterpenes from Uses and Applications 297 EO-USB on Escherichia coli Growth 321 Usage and Applications in Food Science 297 Inhibitory Effects of Sesquiterpenes from Essential Oil Yield and Chemical EO-USB on the Activities of the DNA Composition 298 Metabolic Enzymes in Escherichia coli 322 Summary Points 300 Summary Points 323 Acknowledgments 300 Acknowledgments 323 References 301 References 323 xii Contents

37. (Apium graveolens var. dulce 40. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) Oils (Mill.) Pers.) Oils Alam Zeb

Adam Kokotkiewicz and Maria Luczkiewicz Introduction 359 Introduction 325 Botanical Aspects 359 Botanical Aspects 325 Usage and Applications 360 Usage and Applications 326 Usage and Applications in Food Science 360 Usage and Applications in Food Science 326 Antioxidant and Food Preservation 360 Summary Points 337 Food Flavoring Agent 361 References 337 Antibacterial and Antifungal Applications 362 Summary Points 363 References 363 38. Cinnamon {Cinnamomum zeylanicum) Essential Oils 41. Costmary (Chrysanthemum balsamita) GabrielA. Cardoso-Ugarte, Aurelio Oils Lopez-Malo and Maria E. Sosa-Morales Petras Rimantas Venskutonis Introduction 339 Introduction 365 Botanical Aspects 339 Botanical Aspects 365 Usage and Applications 340 Usage and Applications 366 Usage and Applications in Food Science 343 and in Food Science 366 Antioxidant 343 Usage Applications Costmary Essential Oil Yield and Composition 366 Antifungal 344 Bioactivities of Costmary Essential Oil and Its Antibacterial 344 Main Constituents 370 Packaging 345 Conclusion 373 Summary Points 346 Summary Points 373 References 346 References 373

39. Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) Oils 42. Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) Oils Maria G. Gohi, Sara I. Roura, Alejandra G. Ponce Manisha Mandal and Shyamapada Mandal and Maria R. Moreira Introduction 377 Introduction 349 Botanical Aspects 377 Botanical 349 Aspects Usage and Applications 377 Usage and Applications 350 Usage and Applications in Food Science 378 Usage and Applications in Food Science 350 Nutritional Value 378 Effects on the Native Microflora of Organic Antispoilage Activity 379 Swiss Chard 350 Antibacterial Activity 379 inhibitory Parameters of Essential Oils to Antifungal Activity 380 Reduce Food-Borne Pathogens 351 Antioxidant Activity 380 Clove Essential Oil Application on Lettuce Cumin Chemistry 380 Seeds 351 Safety and Toxicity 381 Preharvest Application of Clove Summary Points 381 Essential Oil Solutions in References 382 Lettuce Plants 353 Different Methods for the Technological 43. Curry Leaf (Murraya koenigii) Oils Application in Lettuce Leaves 355 B.R. Rajeswara Rao Effects of Clove Oil on Escherichia coli 0157:H7 in Blanched Spinach and Introduction 385 Cooked Minced Beef 355 Botanical Aspects 385 Clove Essential Oil as Reducing Usage and Applications 386 Agent of Peroxidase Activity in Usage and Applications in Food Science 386 Leafy Vegetables 355 Summary Points 393 Summary Points 356 Acknowledgments 393 References 356 References 393 Contents xiii

44. Curry Plant (Helichrysum sp.) Oils Antifungal Activity 424 Antioxidant Activity 425 D. Ben Hassine, D. Khlifi, H. Ferhout, Chemistry 426 E. G. Raoelison and J. Bouajila Safety and Toxicity 426 Introduction 395 Summary Points 427 Botanical Aspects 395 References 428 Usage and Applications 398 Usage and Applications in Food Science 400 48. Frankincense (Boswellia) Oils Summary Points 402 Hussain, Ahmed Al-Harrasi and References 402 Hidayat Ivan R. Green

45. Dill (Anethum graveolens L) Oils Introduction 431 Botanical Aspects 431 Zahra Mohammad K. Tayarani Najaran, Usage and Applications 432 Hassanzadeh, and Maryam Nasery Seyed Usage and Applications in Food Science 432 Ahmad Emami Summary 439 Introduction 405 References 439 Botanical Aspects 405 Usage and Applications 408 49. (Allium sativum Linn.) Oils Usage and Applications in Food Science 408 J.M. Leyva, LA. Ortega-Ramirez and Dill Oil as an Antimicrobial for Food J.F. Preservation 408 Ayala-Zavala

Dill Oil as Antioxidant 410 Introduction 441 Summary Points 411 Botanical Aspects 441 References 411 Usage and Applications 442 Usage and Applications in Food Science 442 46. Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora Hook., Summary Points 445 Myrtaceae) Oils References 445

Buniyamin A. Ayinde 50. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rose.) Oils Introduction 413 Ramakrishna Pai Jakribettu, Rekha Boloor, Botanical Description of Eucalyptus 413 Harshith P. Bhat, Andrew Thaliath, Usage and Applications 414 Raghavendra Haniadka, Manoj P. Rai, Thomas Application in Food Science 415 George and Manjeshwar Shrinath Baliga Effects of Eucalyptus citriodora Oil on Plant Pathogens 416 Introduction 447 Herbicidal Effects 416 Classification 447 Storage 417 Botanical Aspects 449 Probable Applications of the Eucalyptus Usage and Applications 450 citriodora Oil in Food Processing 417 Usage and Applications in Food Science 451 Summary Points 417 Antimicrobial Properties 451 References 418 Ginger Oil Prevents Oxidative Damage of Food 452 Conclusions 453 47. Fenugreek (Trigonella Summary 453 foenum-graecum L) Oils References 453

Mandal and Manisha DebMandal Shyamapada 51. Grape Seed (Vitis vinifera) Oils Introduction 421 Tzi Bun Ng, Alaa El-Din Ahmed Bekhit, Botanical Aspects 421 Evandro Fei Fang and Jack Ho Wong Usage and Applications 422 Usage and Applications in Food Science 422 Introduction 455 Nutritional Value 423 Botanical Aspects 455 Antispoilage Activity 423 Usage and Applications 456 Antibacterial Activity 423 Molluscidal and Insecticidal Activities 456 xiv Contents

Adsorption of Mycotoxins 456 Usage and Applications 481 Cosmetic Applications 456 Usage and Applications in Food Science 482 Usage and Applications in Food Science 457 Antimicrobial Activity 482 Chemical Composition 457 Antioxidant Activity 484 Use as Replacement in Food Products 460 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils Antimicrobial Activity 460 from /. germanica 484 Use as Carrier for Essential Oils 460 Summary 485 Antioxidant Activity and Inhibitory Effects References 486 on Generation of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines during Frying of Beef Patties 460 55. Jasmine (Jasminum sambac L, Summary Points 461 Oleaceae) Oils Disclaimer 461 Nafees YousefA. Shabana Acknowledgment 461 Ahmed, Hanani, Y. References 461 Ansari and Sirajudheen Anwar

Introduction 487 52. Grapefruit (Citrus paradisii) Oils Botanical Aspects 488 and 488 Tzi Bun Ng, Alaa El-Din Ahmed Bekhit, Usage Applications Usage and in Food Evandro Fei Fang, Xiaolin Li, Qiu Lu, Applications Industries 489 hiongwei Guo and Jack Ho Wong As Antimicrobial for Food Preservation 489 Introduction 463 As Antioxidant 491 Botanical Aspects 463 As Flavoring Agent 492 Usage and Applications 463 Summary Points 493 As Gutta-perch Solvent 463 References 494 Insecticidal Activity and Antifeedant 463 Anti-elastase Activity 464 56. Juniper (Juniperus communis L) Oils Usage and Applications in Food Science 464 Composition 464 Kristina Loziene and Petras Rimantas Flavoring Agent 466 Venskutonis Antimicrobial Activity 468 Introduction 495 1,1 -Diphenyl-2-Picryl-Hydrazyl Botanical Aspects 495 Radical-scavenging Activity 468 Usage and Applications 496 Summary Points 469 Usage and Applications in Food Science 497 Disclaimer 469 Summary Points 499 Acknowledgments 469 References 499 References 469

53. Hyssop { L) Oils 57. Lavender () Oils

Asta Judientiene Lauren A.E. Erland and Soheil S. Mahmoud

Introduction 471 Introduction 501 Botanical Aspects 471 Botanical Aspects 501 Usage and Applications 472 Usage and Applications 503 Usage and Applications of Hyssop in Usage and Applications in Food Science 504 Food Science 472 Summary Points 507 Summary Points 478 References 507 References 478 58. Lemongrass ( spp.) Oils 54. Iris (Iris germanica) Oils Mansurah A. Abdulazeez, Abdulmalik S. Abdullahi Hidayat Hussain, Ahmed Al-Harrasi, and Bolanle D. James Ivan R. Green and U. Rehman Najeeb Introduction 509 Introduction 481 Botanical Description 509 Botanical Aspects 481 Usage and Application of Lemongrass 511 Contents xv

Usage and Application in Food Science 512 Usage and Applications in Food Science 540 Essential Oil of Lemongrass as a Food Isolation Methods of Essential Oil Preservative 512 and Factors Affecting the Yield 540 Extraction of Essential Oil of Lemongrass 514 Chemical Composition of Lovage Summary Points 515 Essential Oils 541 References 515 Activities of Lovage Essential Oils and Their Individual Constituents 545 59. Lemon Myrtle () Conclusion 547 Oils Summary Points 547 References 548 Yasmina Sultanbawa

Introduction 517 63. Mexican (Lippia berlandieri Botanical Aspects 517 and Poliomintha longiflora) Oils Usage and Applications 517 Teresa Soledad Cid-Perez, Guadalupe Virginia Usage and Applications in Food Science 518 Nevarez-Moorillon, Jose Vinicio Torres-Munoz, Antimicrobial Properties 518 Enrique Palou and Aurelio Lopez-Malo Flavoring Agent 519 Safety of Lemon Myrtle Essential Oils 520 Introduction 551 Summary Points 520 Botanical Aspects 551 References 520 Usage and Applications 553 Chemical Composition of Mexican 60. Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.) Oils Oregano Extracts 553 Usage and Applications in Food Science 557 A.E. Quiros-Sauceda, M. Ovando-Martmez, Antimicrobial Activity of Mexican Oregano 557 G.R. Velderrain-Rodriguez, G.A. Gonzalez-Aguilar Antioxidant Activity of Mexican Oregano 558 and J.F. Ayala-Zavala Summary Points 559 Introduction 523 Acknowledgments 559 Botanical Aspects 523 References 559 Usage and Applications 524 Usage and Application in Food Science 525 64. Mint (Mentha spicata L.) Oils and Uses in Food 529 Application Safety-Quality Om Prakash, Mahesh Chandra, A.K. Pant Points 529 Summary and D.S. Rawat References 530 Introduction 561 Botanical Aspects 561 61. Lime (Citrus aurantifolia) Oils Usage and Applications 562 M.R. Cruz-Valenzuela, M.R. Tapia-Rodriguez, Usage and Applications in Food Science 563 F.J. Vazquez-Armenta, B.A. Silva-Espinoza and Summary Points 568 J.F. Ayala-Zavala Acknowledgment 571 References 572 Introduction 531 Botanical 531 Aspects 65. (Artemisia vulgaris) Oils Usage and Applications 532 Usage and Applications in Food Science 532 Farooq Anwar, Naveed Ahmad, Khalid M. Alkharfy Summary Points 536 andAnwar-ul-Hassan Gilani References 536 Introduction 573 Botanical Aspects 573 62. Lovage (Levisticum officinale Koch.) Uses and Applications 574 Oils Uses and Applications in Food Sciences 574 Essential Oil Production 575 Petras Rimantas Venskutonis Chemical Composition of Mugwort Introduction 539 Essential Oil 575 Botanical Aspects 539 Summary Points 578 Usage and Applications 540 References 578 xvi Contents

Oils 66. Myrtle (Myrtus communis L.) Oils 69. Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) Mebrahtom Sirajudheen Anwar, Nafees Ahmed, Gomathi Periasamy, Aman Karim, Nasir Al Awwad, Shabana Y. Gibrelibanos, Gereziher Gebremedhin and Ansari and Mohamed E. Wagih Anwar-ul-Hassan Gilani

Introduction 581 Introduction 607 607 Botanical Aspects 581 Botanical Aspects 608 Usage and Applications 582 Uses and Applications in Food Sciences 608 Usage and Applications in Food Uses and Applications 611 Sciences 582 Essential Oil Production Myrtle Oil and Antibacterial Activity Chemical Composition of Nutmeg 611 for Food Preservation 582 Essential Oil 614 Myrtle Oil and Antifungal Activity Summary Points for Food Preservation 583 References 615 Myrtle Oil and Antioxidant Activity for Food Preservation 583 70. Onion (Allium cepa) Essential Oils Myrtle Oil and Food Spoilage 585 F.J. Vazquez-Armenta, M.R. Cruz-Valenzuela Summary Points 591 and J.F. Ayala-Zavala References 591 Introduction 617 67. Neem (Azadirachta indica) Oils Botanical Aspects 617 Usage and Applications 618 Ghosh, Sugumar, Vijayalakshmi Saranya Usage and Applications in Food Science 618 Amitava and Natarajan Mukherjee Summary Points 622 Chandrasekaran References 622 Introduction 593 Botanical Aspects 593 71. Oregano (Origanum spp.) Oils Usage and Applications 594 LA. Ortega-Ramirez, I. Rodriguez-Garcia, Usage and Applications in Food B.A. Silva-Espinoza and J.F. Ayala-Zavala Science 594 Antibacterial Activity 595 Introduction 625 Antibacterial Activity In Vivo 597 Botanical Aspects 625 Antifungal Activity 597 Usage and Application 625 Antioxidant Activity 598 Usage and Application in Food Science 626 Agricultural Use 598 Applications and Quality Issues 626 628 Summary Points 598 Application in Safety Issues References 598 Summary Points 629 References 629 68. Negundo Chastetree (Vitex negundo) Oils 72. Patchouli (Pogostemon Cablin Benth) Oils Cheng-jian Zheng and Lu-ping Qin Kuntal Das Introduction 601 Botanical Descriptions 601 Introduction 633 633 Usage and Applications 602 Botanical Aspects 633 Usage and Applications in Food Plant Profile Science 603 Usage and Applications 636 Chemistry of Volatile Oils 603 Usage and Applications in Food Science 637 Insecticidal Bioactivity 604 Patchouli cablin EO in Food Flavoring and 637 Antimicrobial Activity 605 Food Preservations 637 Safety 605 Patchouli cablin EO in Bakery Products Summary Points 605 Patchouli cablin EO in Alcoholic and References 605 Nonalcoholic Beverages 638 Contents xvii

Patchouli cablin EO in Seltzer, Mineral, Summary Points 664 or Carbonated Beverage 638 References 665 Patchouli cablin EO in Other Food Products 638 Summary Points 638 76. Rose Hip (Rosa canina L.) Oils References 639 Naveed Ahmad, Farooq Anwar and Anwar-ul-Hassan Cilani 73. Pune-sa (Nepeta) Oils Introduction 667 Hidayat Hussain, Ahmed Al-Harrasi Botanical Aspects 667 and Ivan R. Green Uses and Applications 667 Introduction 641 Uses and Applications in Food Sciences 670 Botanical Aspects 641 Chemical Composition of Rose Hips Usage and Applications 641 Essential Oil 673 Usage and Applications in Food Science 642 Summary Points 674 Antimicrobial Activity 642 Acknowledgment 674 Antioxidant Activity 647 References 674 Summary 647 References 647 77. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) Oils

Maria Dolores Hernandez, Jose Antonio 74. Rockroses (Cistus sp.) Oils Sotomayor, Angel Hernandez and Maria Enrique Barrajon-Catalan, Laura Tomas-Menor, Jose Jordan Aranzazu Morales-Soto, Nuria Marti Bruha, Introduction 677 Domingo Saura Lopez, Antonio Segura-Carretero Botanical Aspects 677 and Vicente Micol Usage and Applications 678 Introduction 649 Usage and Applications in Food Science 681 Botanical Aspects 649 Preservatives 681 Usage and Applications 650 Growth Promoters 683 Usage and Applications in Food Science 651 Applications in Food Matrices 683 Cistus ladanifer L 651 Meat 683 Cistus incanus L 652 Fish 685 Cistus albidus L 655 Processed Food 685 Cistus salviifolius L 655 Technological Applications 685 Cistus monspeliensis L 655 Summary 685 Cistus laurifolius L 655 References 686 Cistus libanotis L 656 Cistus parviflorus 656 78. Rose Pepper ( L.) Oils Summary Points 656 Acknowledgments 656 Maria S. Guala, Matias O. Lapissonde, References 656 Heriberto V. Elder, Catalina M. van Baren, Arnaldo L. Bandoni and Eduardo Dellacassa

x 75. Rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) Introduction 689 Essential Oils Botanical Aspects 690 Usage and Applications 691 Maryam Nasery, Mohammad K. Hassanzadeh, Usage and Applications in Food Science 691 Zahra Tayarani Najaran and Seyed Ahmad Emami In Vivo and In Vitro Assays Performed on Introduction 659 Ticks (Rhipicephalus microplus) 691 Botany 659 In Vivo Experiments Carried Out in Apiaries Usages and Applications 660 with the Oily Solution of the Essential Usage and Applications in Food Science 662 Oil of Shinus molle Against Varroa As an Antimicrobial for Food Preservation 663 {Varroa destructor) 693 As an Antioxidant 663 Summary Points 694 As Flavoring Agent 664 References 695 xviii Contents

79. Rose-Scented Geranium (Pelargonium 83. Shirazi (Zataria multiflora Boiss) sp.) Oils Oils

Ram Swaroop Verma, Rajendra Chandra Padalia Afshin Akhondzadeh Basti, Hassan Candomi, and Amit Chauhan Negin Noori and Ali Khanjari

Introduction 697 Introduction 731 Botanical Aspects 697 Botanical Aspects 732 Usage and Applications 700 Usage and Applications 732 Usage and Applications in Food Science 701 Usage and Applications in Food Science 732 Summary Points 702 Summary Points 735 Acknowledgment 703 References 735 References 703 84. Spiked Ginger Lily (Hedychium spp.) 80. Crocus (Crocus sativus) Oils Oils

Nafees Ahmed, Sirajudheen Anwar, Om Prakash, Mahesh Chandra, H. Punetha, Saeed S. Al-Sokari, Shabana Y. Ansari A.K. Pant and D.S. Rawat and Mohamed E. Wagih Botanical Aspects 737 Introduction 705 Introduction 738 Botanical Aspects 706 Usage and Applications 739 Usage and Applications 706 Usage and Applications in Food Science 739 Usage and Applications in Food Summary Points 749 Industries 707 Acknowledgment 749

Saffron Oil as an Antimicrobial for Food References 749 Preservation 708

Saffron Oil as an Antioxidant 709 85. Staranise (lllicium verum Hook) Summary Points 712 Oils References 712 Leandro Rocha and Luis Armando Candido Tietbohl 81. Sage () Oils Introduction 751 Demet Altindal and Nuket Altindal Botanical Aspects 751 Introduction 715 Usage and Applications 753 Botanical Aspects 715 Usage and Applications in Food Science 753 Botany 715 Summary Points 755 Harvesting 717 References 755 Usage and Applications 717 Usage and Applications in Food Science 718 86. Summer Savory ( hortensis L) Summary Points 720 Oils References 720 Mohammad K. Hassanzadeh, Zahra Tayarani Najaran, Maryam Nasery and 82. Sandalwood (Santalum album) Oils Seyed Ahmad Emami Kuntal Das Introduction 757 Introduction 723 Botanical Aspects 757 Botanical Aspects 723 Usage and Applications 758 Plant Profile 723 Usage and Applications in Food Science 759 Usage and Applications 726 As Antimicrobial for Food Preservation 760 Usage and Applications in Food Science 726 As an Antioxidant 762 Summary Points 729 Summary Points 763 References 729 References 763 Contents xix

87. Sweet Fennel (Ocimum gratissimum) Usage and Applications 784 Oils Chemical Composition of Sweet Orange Essential Oil 784 Mohamed M. Soumanou and S. Euloge Adjou Usage and Applications in Food

Introduction 765 Science 787 Antimicrobial 787 Botanical Aspects 765 Activity Antioxidant 788 Usage and Clinical Applications 766 Activity Points 789 Usage and Applications in Food Science 767 Summary Conclusion 771 Acknowledgements 789 References 790 Summary Points 771 References 771 90. (Tagetes minuta) Oils 88. Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) Oils Wanjala W. Cornelius and Wanzala Wycliffe Jing-Kun Miao, Rui-He Shi, Chun Li, Xiao-Wen Li Introduction 791 and Qi-Xiong Chen Botanical Aspects of Tagetes minuta L. 792 Morphology 792 Introduction 775 Ecology 792 Botanical Aspects 775 Usage and Applications of Tagetes Oil Species 775 in Food Science 793 Botany 776 Chemotypes of the Essential Oil Habitats 777 of Tagetes minuta L. 793 Range 777 General Biological Properties Propagation 777 of Tagetes minuta L. and Its Essential Oil 797 Harvesting 777 Ethnobotanic Usage and Applications Chemical Composition 777 of T. minuta L. in Food Science 798 Usage and Applications 777 Value Addition Usage and Applications Usage and Application in Food Science 778 of T. minuta L. in Food Science 798 Usage and Applications in Food Preservation 778 Usage and Applications of Essential Oil Mode of Action 778 of Tagetes minuta in Agriculture 799 Insecticidal Activity 779 Production and Market Value of Essential Contact Toxicity 779 Oil of Tagetes minuta L. 799 Repel lency Activity 779 Summary Points 801 Fumigant Toxicity 779 References 801 Antifeedant and Growth Inhibitory Effects 779 Antigonadal Activity 780 Antibacterial Activity 780 91. Tangerine (Citrus reticulata L. var.) Antifungal Activity 780 Oils Other Activity 780 Usage and Applications in Food Flavor 780 Shyamapada Mandal and Manisha Mandal 780 Safety Introduction 803 Outlook 781 Botanical Aspects 803 Summary Points 781 Usage and Applications 804 References 781 Usage and Applications in Food Science 804 Antibacterial Activity 805 89. Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis) Oils Antifungal Activity 806 Antioxidant Activity 807 Avelina Franco-Vega, Fatima Reyes-Jurado, Tangerine Chemistry and Biological Gabriel A. Cardoso-Ugarte, Maria E. Sosa-Morales, Activity 808 Enrique Palou andAurelio Lopez-Malo Safety and Toxicity 810 Introduction 783 Summary Points 810 Botanical Aspects 783 References 810 xx Contents

92. (Artemisia dracunculus L.) Oils TO in Seltzers, Mineral, or Carbonated Beverages 840 Mohammad K. Zahra Hassanzadeh, Tayarani TO in Other Food Products 840 and Ahmad Emami Najaran, Maryam Nasery Seyed TO in Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic

Introduction 813 Beverages 840 Botanical Aspects 813 Summary Points 840 Usage and Applications 813 References 840 Usage and Applications in Food Science 815 Tarrago as an Antimicrobial for Food 96. Vetiver Grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) Preservation 816 Oils Tarragon as an Antioxidant 816 Su-Tze Chou, Ying Shih and Chih-Chien Lin Summary Points 817 References 817 Introduction 843 Botanical Aspects 843 93. Tasmanian Pepper Leaf (Tasmannia Plant Profile 843 lanceolata) Oils Botany 843 Habitats and Range 844 Yasmina Sultanbawa Propagation 844 Introduction 819 Usage and Applications 844 Botanical Aspects 819 Usage and Applications in Food Science 845 Usage and Applications 819 Safety 845 Usage and Applications in Food Science 820 Chemical Composition 845 Antimicrobial Properties 820 Usage and Applications in Food Flavor 846 Flavoring Agent 822 Usage and Applications in Food Safety of Tasmanian Pepper Leaf Essential Oils 822 Preservation 847 Summary Points 822 Conclusions 848 References 823 Summary Points 848 Acknowledgment 848 94. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) Oils References 848

Shyamapada Mandal and Manisha DebMandal 97. Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.) Introduction 825 Oils Botanical Aspects 825 Asta Judzentiene Usage and Applications 826 Usage and Applications in Food Science 826 Introduction 849 Food Preservation and Antispoilage Activity 826 Botanical Aspects 849 Antibacterial Activity 827 Usage and Applications 850 Antifungal Activity 829 Usage and Applications of Wormwood in Antioxidant Activity 829 Food Science 850 Thyme Chemistry and Biological Activity 830 Summary Points 855 Safety and Toxicity 831 References 855 Summary Points 831 References 832 98. Yellow or (Sinapis alba L.) Oils 95. (Curcuma longa) Oils Athula Ekanayake, Robert J. Strife, Gerhard Kuntal Das N. Zehentbauer and Jairus R.D. David

Introduction 835 Introduction 857 Botanical Aspects 835 Botanical Aspects 857 Plant Profile 835 Usage and Applications 857 Usage and Applications 838 Characterization of WMEO 859 Usage and Applications in Food Science 838 Usage and Applications in Food Science 860 TO in Food Flavoring and Food Preservations 839 Summary Points 862 TO in Bakery Products 839 References 862 Contents xxi

99. Ylang-Ylang (Cananga odorata) Oils Usage and Application in Food Science 867 Summary Points 872 C.R. K.N. Gurudutt Mallavarapu, Acknowledgments 872 andK.V. Syamasundar References 872

Introduction 865 Botanical Aspects 865 Usage and Applications 866 Index 875