Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety Edited by Victor R. Preedy Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, King's College London, London, UK • AMSTERDAM BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO ELSEVIER Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Contents Contributors xxiii Supercritical Fluid Extraction GC-MS (SFE Biography xxxi GC-MS) Involving Use of Multidimensional Preface xxxiii GC to Resolve Enantiomers for Essential Oils of Lavandula 12 Enantioselective Capillary Gas Chromatography Part I and Online Methods of Isotope Ratio Mass General Aspects Spectrometry 13 Enantioselective Capillary Gas Chromatography and Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry, 1. Essential Oils: What They Are and How Coupled Online with Capillary Gas the Terms Are Used and Defined Chromatography on an HP5 Column for Jose-Luis Rios Various Essential Oils 13 Online Gas Chromatography Pyrolysis Introduction 3 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry An Historical Overview 3 (HRGC-P-IRMS) for the Flavor Compounds Concept and Definition 3 Decanal, Linalool, Linalyl Acetate, Variability of Essential Oils 4 E-2-Hexenal, and E-2-Hexenol in Presence and Functions in the Vegetable Essential Oils 13 Kingdom 4 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Online Essential Oils 4 Obtaining Coupled with Capillary Gas Control and 5 Analyses Chromatography (GC-Py-IRMS) 14 Chemical Composition 5 Gas Chromatography-Combustion-lsotope Terpenes 6 Ratio Mass Spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS), 6 Allyl phenols in Combination with GC-MS and GC Other Constituents 7 Flame Ionization Detector (FID) for Use of Essential Oils 7 Rosa damascene Essential Oil 14 Cosmetics 8 Headspace-Solid Phase Microextraction Medicine and Pharmaceutics 8 Coupled to GC-C-IRMS for Food 9 Citrus Oils 14 References 9 Multi Dimensional Gas Chromatography (MDGC) and GC-C-IRMS for Bitter Orange 2. Methods for the Characterization, Flower Oil (or Neroli) and Lime Oils 14 and Adulteration Authentication, GC-FID and GC-MS for Zanthoxylum of Essential Oils armatum Leaf Essential Oil 15 Performance Tzi Bun Ng, Evandro Fei Fang, Alaa El-Din Ahmed Ultra-High Liquid Bekhit and Jack Ho Wong Chromatography-Time-of-Flight-Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-TOF-MS) Profiling Introduction 11 and 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Methods of Authentication 11 (NMR) Fingerprinting for Lemon Oil 15 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy for (GC-MS) for Hyssopus cuspidatus Sandalwood Oil 15 Essential Oil 11 NIR Spectroscopy for Various Determination of Enantiomeric Composition Essential Oils 15 for Essential Oils of Indian 12 Origin Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) 16 v vi Contents Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Extraction with Supercritical Gases 32 (RAPD) Method 16 Benefits of Supercritical Fluid Extraction 33 Attentuated Total Reflectance (ATR)- Comparison of Supercritical Fluid Extraction Mid-infrared Portable Handheld Spectrometer to Conventional Methods/Factors Affecting for Peruvian Sacha Inchi Seed Oils 16 Extraction Conditions 33 Summary Points 16 Novel "Green" Extraction Methods 33 Disclaimer 16 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 33 Acknowledgment 17 Controlled Pressure Drop Process 35 References 17 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 36 Effects of Extraction Methods on Essential Oil 3. Cultivation of Essential Oils Characteristics 36 Summary Points 37 Sanjib Bhattacharya References 37 Introduction 19 Important Species for Essential Oil Cultivation 19 5. Biologically Active Essential Oils Factors Influencing Cultivation of Essential Oils 19 against Stored Product Pests Environmental Factors 19 Kaan Polatoglu and Omer Cem Karakog Harvesting-Related Factors 20 Fertilizers 21 Introduction 39 Cultivars 22 Active Essential Oils against Sitophilus granarius (L.) 39 Cultivation of Selected Essential Oil-Bearing Active Essential Oils against Sitophilus oryzae (L.) 39 Plants 24 Active Essential Oils against Sitophilus zeamais Turpentine Oil 24 Motschulsky 47 Peppermint/Mentha Oil 24 Essential Oils as Stored Product Pest Control Caraway Oil 24 Agents 56 Cardamom Oil 25 Conclusions 57 Coriander Oil 25 References 58 Ajowan Oil 25 Dill Oil 25 6. Essential Oils for Arthropod Pest Fennel Oil 26 Management in Agricultural Orange Peel Oil 26 Production Systems Nutmeg Oil 26 Yong-Lak Park and Jun-Hyung Tak Cinnamon Oil 26 Garlic Oil 26 Introduction 61 Black Pepper Oil 27 Essential Oils as Pesticides 61 VetiverOil 27 Modes of Action of Essential Oils 62 Rosemary Oil 27 Essential Oils for Arthropod Pest Management 63 Palmarosa Oil 27 Advantages and Disadvantages of Essential Citronella Oil 27 Oils as Pesticides 66 Clove Oil 27 Ecotoxicology of Essential Oils 66 Ginger Oil 28 Nontarget Effects of Essential Oils in Pest Lemon Grass Oil 28 Management 66 Summary Points 28 Major Disadvantages of Using Essential Oils References 28 in Pest Management 67 Summary Points 68 4. Methods for Extracting Essential Oils References 68 Alexandros Ch Stratakos and 7. Use of Essential Oils in Food Anastasios Koidis Preservation Introduction 31 Oluyemisi Elizabeth Adelakun, Olusegun James Conventional Essential Oil Extraction Methods 31 Oyelade and Bosede Folake Olanipekun Cold Expression 31 Solvent Extraction 31 Introduction 71 The "Enfleurage" Method 32 Definition 71 Distillation 32 Preservative Effects of Essential Oils 71 Contents vii Essential Oil as a Repellent for Food Antimicrobial Activity of Nanoemulsion Using Preservation 72 Essential Oils in Food Preservation 97 Essential Oils as Constituents of Antimicrobial Summary Points 100 Packaging 73 References 100 Essential Oils as Constituent of Edible Packaging 73 10. Use of Essential Oils in Poultry Points Summary 81 Production References 81 Ahmed M. Amerah and Arthur C. Ouwehand 8. Use of Essential Oils as a Preservative Introduction 101 of Meat Essential Oils Definition and Mechanisms 101 Antimicrobial Mechanisms 101 f//'ton Chivandi, Rachael Dangarembizi, Antioxidant Properties 102 Trevor T. Nyakudya and Kennedy H. Erlwanger Effect of Essential Oils on Poultry Introduction 85 Performance 102 Methods and Principles of Meat Effect of Essential Oils on Gut Health Preservation 85 in Poultry 106 Meat Preservation: An Historical Review 85 Effects of Essential Oils on Carcass Use of Essentials Oils in the Preservation Quality and Taste 107 of Meat 87 Effect of Essential Oils on Poultry Red Mite Benefits of the Use of Essential Oils in Meat (Dermanyssus gallinae) 107 Preservation 87 Regulatory Perspective 107 Specific Examples: Essentials Oils Currently Summary Points 109 Used in the Preservation of Meat 88 References 109 Mechanisms of Action of Essential Oils in the Preservation of Meat 89 11. Essential Oils as Flavorings in Preservation against Microbial Spoilage 89 Carbonated Cola and Citrus Preservation against Lipid Oxidation 89 Soft Drinks Current Challenges: EOs in Meat Preservation 89 Sunday J. Ameh and Obiageri Future Prospects of Using EOs in Meat Obodozie-Ofoegbu Preservation 90 Introduction 111 Summary Points 90 Essential and Aromatic References 91 Oils, Spices, Plants 111 Carbonated Soft Drinks 111 9. Essential Oil-Based Nanoemulsion History of Spices and the Political Formation Low- and by High-Energy Economy of the Soda Industry Methods and Their Application in Food Worldwide 112 Preservation against Food Spoilage Industrial Production of Sodas 113 Microorganisms Essential Oils in Cola and Citrus Soda Concentrates 114 Saranya Sugumar, Vijayalakshmi Ghosh, Amitava Essential Oils as Flavorings in Sodas 114 Mukherjee and Natarajan Chandrasekaran Essential Oils Used in Cola and Citrus Introduction 93 Concentrates 114 Methods of Nanoemulsion Formation 94 Formulation of Essential Oils into Soda Low-Energy Emulsification Methods 94 Concentrates 116 Spontaneous Emulsification 94 Advanced Equipment and Techniques Phase Inversion Temperature (PIT) 95 Used in Flavor Research and Soda Phase Inversion Composition (PIC) 95 Technology 118 Emulsion Inversion Point (EIP) 95 Typical Concentrations of Essential High-Energy Methods 95 Oil Molecules in Sodas 118 High-Pressure Homogenizers 96 Conclusion 118 Microfluidizer 96 Summary Points 119 Ultrasonic Generators 96 References 120 viii Contents 12. Microencapsulation Technology and 15. Essential Oils Added to Edible Films Essential Oil Pesticides for Food Plant Raul Avila-Sosa, Enrique Palou andAurelio Production Lopez-Malo Vera Krimer Zuzana Malesevic, Vastag, Ljiljana Introduction 149 Senka and Radulovic-Popovic, Madarev-Popovic General Aspects of Edible Films 149 Ivana Pericin-Starcevic Edible Film Formation and Functional Introduction 123 Properties 150 Essential Oils 123 Essential Oils Used in Edible Films 150 Essential Oils as Pesticides 125 In vitro Studies 151 Summary Points 128 In vivo Studies 152 References 128 Concluding Remarks 153 Summary Points 153 13. Effect of Essential Oils on Organoleptic Acknowledgments 153 (Smell, Taste, and Texture) Properties References 153 of Food 16. Essential Oils in Food Applications: Abdalbasit Adam Mariod Australian Aspects Introduction 131 Yasmina Sultanbawa Physical and Chemical Properties of EOs 131 Effect of EOs on Food Organoleptic Introduction 155 Properties (OLP) 132 Australian Native Essential Oils 155 Summary Points 136 Antimicrobial Agents in Food Applications 155 References 136 Insect Repellents in Agriculture 157 Flavoring Agents in Food and Beverages 159 14. Use of Essential Oils in Food Packaging Issues and Challenges of Using EOs in Food Production 159 Irene Dini Summary Points 159 Introduction 139 References 159 Antimicrobial Packaging