DOCSLIB.ORG

The Necessity of Metaphysics

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Necessity of Metaphysics The Necessity of Metaphysics Tuomas E. Tahko Department of Philosophy Durham University Ph.D. Thesis January 2008 ABSTRACT The purpose of this thesis is to demonstrate that metaphysics is a necessary discipline – necessary in the sense that all areas of philosophy, all areas of science, and in fact any type of rational activity at all would be impossible without a metaphysical background or metaphysical presuppositions. Because of the extremely strong nature of this claim, it is not possible to put forward a very simple argument, although I will attempt to construct one. A crucial issue here is what metaphysics in fact is – the nature of metaphysics. The conception of metaphysics which I support could be called Aristotelian, as opposed to Kantian: metaphysics is the first philosophy and the basis of all other philosophical and scientific inquiry. I will argue that this is indeed the most plausible conception of metaphysics. The thesis consists of a brief historical introduction of certain important views concerning the nature of metaphysics, namely Aristotle's, Kant's, Carnap's and Quine's, and of a longer survey of the status of metaphysics in the context of contemporary analytic metaphysics. I make some critical observations of recent accounts by people like Hilary Putnam, Michael Dummett, Frank Jackson and Eli Hirsch before launching into a thorough analysis of the relationship between metaphysics and other philosophical and scientific disciplines. The central argument of the thesis is that our a priori capabilities, which I claim to be grounded in metaphysical modality and ultimately in essences, are necessary for rational inquiry. Detailed accounts of a priori knowledge and modality will be offered in support of this claim. In fact, my accounts of the a priori and modality are perhaps the most important contributions of the thesis, as given this basis, the 'necessary' role of metaphysics in other disciplines should be quite obvious. I also pursue topics like the metaphysical status of logic and the law of non-contradiction as well as truthmaking, the substance of metaphysical debates, and the methodology of metaphysics. There is, however, a distinct theme which connects the broad range of topics that I discuss: they are all analysed from a metaphilosophical point of view. Indeed, it could be said that this is a metametaphysical survey of the status of metaphysics. The upshot is an original account of the status of metaphysics in contemporary analytic philosophy – the conclusion that metaphysics is the core of all our rational activities, from natural science to logic, semantics and truth. Preface Preface This thesis is the culmination of a problem that has puzzled me since I was a little boy. I can finally formulate that problem accurately: what is the fundamental structure of reality and how can we reach knowledge about it? To answer this question – to even approach it – we need to turn to a discipline called metaphysics. My sympathies have always been with an Aristotelian, realist conception of metaphysics. During my philosophical career I have repeatedly tried to convince others that this is how we should understand metaphysics and this thesis is my latest effort to establish that. My Master's thesis, Grounding Metaphysics: Metaphysical Necessity and Essentialism (2005), which I did at the University of Helsinki, focused on the technical details of grounding a realist metaphysical system. In this thesis I have developed on many of the same themes, but I have taken a more metaphilosophical approach here. Some of the results in this thesis have already been shared with the philosophical community. I have presented drafts of many of the chapters at international conferences around Europe, including Italy, Greece, Czech Republic, The Netherlands, Spain and the UK. I am grateful to the organisers and audiences of these conferences. A paper presented at Metafisica 2006 in Rome in July 2006, 'Metaphysics in Natural Science', which is based on the fifth chapter of the second part of the thesis, is forthcoming in the conference proceedings. Another paper, based on the first chapter of first part, 'The Aristotelian Method and Aristotelian Metaphysics', is forthcoming in the proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Philosophy which was held in Athens in June 2007. 1 Preface A paper entitled 'The Metaphysical Status of Logic', which is based on the 11th chapter of Part II, is forthcoming in the proceedings of LOGICA 2007, held at Hejnice Monastery, Czech Republic, also in June 2007. Finally, a paper based on chapter eight of Part II, 'A New Definition of A Priori Knowledge: In Search of a Modal Basis' is forthcoming in the journal Metaphysica (Vol. 9, No. 2, April 2008 ). My greatest debt is to my supervisor E. J. Lowe. His The Possibility of Metaphysics (1998) gave me hope of defending metaphysics proper, and was in fact the main motivation behind my Master's thesis. I have been fortunate enough to work with the best possible person in regard to the project, and I am indeed very grateful. I would also like to express my gratitude to my friends and family in Finland who have supported me in many ways. The graduate community at the philosophy department in Durham deserves to be mentioned as well, I have had many insightful discussions with Lloyd Taylor, Paul Winstanley and Donnchadh O'Conaill, among others. During my time in Durham, I have received financial support from a number of sources. In 2005 I received an award from Helsingin Sanomain 100-year Foundation to fund the first year of my research. In 2007 I was accepted for a Teaching Fellowship scheme run by the Centre for Science Outreach of Durham University and funded by the County Durham Economic Partnership and the Ogden Trust. Finally, in 2007 I was awarded a prize by the Finnish Cultural Foundation for the completion of the thesis. I am most grateful to all of these institutions. 2 Contents Preface...............................................................................................................................1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................4 PART I: A Historical Survey of Metaphysics..................................................................18 1. The Aristotelian Method and Aristotelian Metaphysics..........................................19 2. Kant and the Possibility of Metaphysics.................................................................35 3. Carnap's Anti-metaphysical Project........................................................................45 4. Quine's Conception of Metaphysics.......................................................................55 5. Beyond Quine.........................................................................................................67 PART II: The Nature of Metaphysics..............................................................................70 1. Putnam's Critique of Metaphysical Realism...........................................................71 2. Metaphysical Realism: the Putnam-Dummett-Goodman Challenge......................82 3. Frank Jackson: Metaphysics as Conceptual Analysis.............................................95 4. Eli Hirsch: Watered-down Metaphysics................................................................111 5. Metaphysics and Natural Science.........................................................................120 6. The Methodology of Thought Experiments..........................................................130 7. The Relevance of Science to Metaphysics............................................................143 8. Metaphysics and the A Priori................................................................................152 9. Modality and Metaphysics....................................................................................172 10. Truth and Metaphysics........................................................................................195 11. Logic and Metaphysics.......................................................................................208 12. Semantics and Metaphysics................................................................................226 13. When are Metaphysical Debates Substantial?....................................................238 14. Towards a New Methodology.............................................................................257 15. The Necessity of Metaphysics............................................................................268 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................274 References.....................................................................................................................279 Introduction Introduction The primary purpose of this thesis is to defend a certain conception of metaphysics. According to this conception, metaphysics is a necessary discipline: whenever we engage in philosophy, science, or any rational activity whatsoever, there will be some metaphysics involved. In fact, metaphysics is a necessary precondition for all rational activities. Because of the extremely strong nature of this claim, it is not possible to put forward a very simple argument. The first question that has to be dealt with is what metaphysics is. Thus, not only will we be dealing with metaphysics, but also metaphilosophy, or, to use an emerging term, metametaphysics. Having said this,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Why Essentialism Requires Two Senses of Necessity’, Ratio 19 (2006): 77–91
    Please cite the official published version of this article: ‘Why Essentialism Requires Two Senses of Necessity’, Ratio 19 (2006): 77–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9329.2006.00310.x WHY ESSENTIALISM REQUIRES TWO SENSES OF NECESSITY1 Stephen K. McLeod Abstract I set up a dilemma, concerning metaphysical modality de re, for the essentialist opponent of a ‘two senses’ view of necessity. I focus specifically on Frank Jackson’s two- dimensional account in his From Metaphysics to Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). I set out the background to Jackson’s conception of conceptual analysis and his rejection of a two senses view. I proceed to outline two purportedly objective (as opposed to epistemic) differences between metaphysical and logical necessity. I conclude that since one of these differences must hold and since each requires the adoption of a two senses view of necessity, essentialism is not consistent with the rejection of a two senses view. I. Terminological Preliminaries The essentialist holds that some but not all of a concrete object’s properties are had necessarily and that necessary properties include properties that are, unlike the property 1 Thanks to John Divers, audiences at the Open University Regional Centre, Leeds and the University of Glasgow and an anonymous referee for comments. 2 of being such that logical and mathematical truths hold, non-trivially necessary. It is a necessary condition on a property’s being essential to an object that it is had of necessity. In the case of concrete objects, some such properties are discoverable by partly empirical means.
    [Show full text]
  • On Moral Understanding
    COMMENTTHE COLLEGE NEWSLETTER ISSUE NO 147 | MAY 2003 TOM WHIPPS On Moral Understanding DNA pioneers: The surviving members of the King’s team, who worked on the discovery of the structure of DNA 50 years ago, withDavid James Watson, K Levytheir Cambridge ‘rival’ at the time. From left Ray Gosling, Herbert Wilson, DNA at King’s: DepartmentJames Watson and of Maurice Philosophy Wilkins King’s College the continuing story University of London Prize for his contribution – and A day of celebrations their teams, but also to subse- quent generations of scientists at ver 600 guests attended a cant scientific discovery of the King’s. unique day of events celeb- 20th century,’ in the words of Four Nobel Laureates – Mau- Orating King’s role in the 50th Principal Professor Arthur Lucas, rice Wilkins, James Watson, Sid- anniversary of the discovery of the ‘and their research changed ney Altman and Tim Hunt – double helix structure of DNA on the world’. attended the event which was so 22 April. The day paid tribute not only to oversubscribed that the proceed- Scientists at King’s played a King’s DNA pioneers Rosalind ings were relayed by video link to fundamental role in this momen- Franklin and Maurice Wilkins – tous discovery – ‘the most signifi- who went onto win the Nobel continued on page 2 2 Funding news | 3 Peace Operations Review | 5 Widening participation | 8 25 years of Anglo-French law | 11 Margaret Atwood at King’s | 12 Susan Gibson wins Rosalind Franklin Award | 15 Focus: School of Law | 16 Research news | 18 Books | 19 KCLSU election results | 20 Arts abcdef U N I V E R S I T Y O F L O N D O N A C C O M M O D A T I O N O F F I C E ACCOMMODATION INFORMATION - FINDING SOMEWHERE TO LIVE IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy WARNING: Under no circumstances inshould the this University document be of taken London as providing legal advice.
    [Show full text]
  • The Synergy Between Philosophy and Science, Need of the Contemporary Society
    International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Research International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Research ISSN: 2455-2070; Impact Factor: RJIF 5.22 Received: 11-11-2019; Accepted: 12-12-2019 www.socialsciencejournal.in Volume 6; Issue 1; January 2020; Page No. 45-51 The Synergy between Philosophy and Science, need of the contemporary society Kabita Das1*, Biswaranjan Paital2 1 PG Department of Philosophy, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India 2 Redox Regulation Laboratory, Department of Zoology, College of Basic Science and Humanities, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology Bhubaneswar, India Abstract What the world will be like in the foreseeable future is a matter of concern for everyone, no matter how far removed the human is from scientific work, political struggle, or revolutionary moment. What is in store for man: the holocaust of war, or a peaceful life? What will the earth be like? Will nature survive or will it be annihilated as a result of scientific and technical progress? Will oppression and social injustice disappear from the world, or will they persist forever? These are general questions confronting each person living on society. However, is it possible to resolve above and all other social issues by only social science approaches, is the central story of this article. Social science is pre-dominated with predictable analyses while science is empirical. Humanities are academic disciplines that deal with the study on the aspects and issues of human society and culture, whereas, science is a systematic innovativeness that builds and organizes information in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universal phenomena including social issues.
    [Show full text]
  • Putnam's Theory of Natural Kinds and Their Names Is Not The
    PUTNAM’S THEORY OF NATURAL KINDS AND THEIR NAMES IS NOT THE SAME AS KRIPKE’S IAN HACKING Collège de France Abstract Philosophers have been referring to the “Kripke–Putnam” theory of natural- kind terms for over 30 years. Although there is one common starting point, the two philosophers began with different motivations and presuppositions, and developed in different ways. Putnam’s publications on the topic evolved over the decades, certainly clarifying and probably modifying his analysis, while Kripke published nothing after 1980. The result is two very different theories about natural kinds and their names. Both accept that the meaning of a natural- kind term is not given by a description or defining properties, but is specified by its referents. From then on, Putnam rejected even the label, causal theory of reference, preferring to say historical, or collective. He called his own approach indexical. His account of substance identity stops short a number of objections that were later raised, such as what is called the qua problem. He came to reject the thought that water is necessarily H2O, and to denounce the idea of metaphysical necessity that goes beyond physical necessity. Essences never had a role in his analysis; there is no sense in which he was an essentialist. He thought of hidden structures as the usual determinant of natural kinds, but always insisted that what counts as a natural kind is relative to interests. “Natural kind” itself is itself an importantly theoretical concept, he argued. The paper also notes that Putnam says a great deal about what natural kinds are, while Kripke did not.
    [Show full text]
  • On Categories and a Posteriori Necessity: a Phenomenological Echo
    © 2012 The Author Metaphilosophy © 2012 Metaphilosophy LLC and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK, and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA METAPHILOSOPHY Vol. 43, Nos. 1–2, January 2012 0026-1068 ON CATEGORIES AND A POSTERIORI NECESSITY: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL ECHO M. J. GARCIA-ENCINAS Abstract: This article argues for two related theses. First, it defends a general thesis: any kind of necessity, including metaphysical necessity, can only be known a priori. Second, however, it also argues that the sort of a priori involved in modal metaphysical knowledge is not related to imagination or any sort of so-called epistemic possibility. Imagination is neither a proof of possibility nor a limit to necessity. Rather, modal metaphysical knowledge is built on intuition of philo- sophical categories and the structures they form. Keywords: a priori, categories, intuition, metaphysical necessity. Fantasy abandoned by reason produces impossible monsters. —Francisco de Goya (1746–1828), The Caprices, plate 43, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters 1. Introduction Statements of fact are necessarily true when their truth-maker facts cannot but be the case. Statements of fact are contingently true when their truth-maker facts might not have been the case. I shall argue that modal knowledge, that is, knowledge that a (true/false) statement is necessarily/ contingently true, must be a priori knowledge, even if knowledge that the statement is true or false can be a posteriori. In particular, justified accept- ance of necessary facts requires a priori modal insight concerning some category which they instantiate. In this introduction, the first part of the article, I maintain that Kripke claimed that the knowledge that a statement has its truth-value as a matter of necessity/contingency is a priori founded—even when knowl- edge of its truth/falsehood is a posteriori.
    [Show full text]
  • Syllabus for B.H.M.S. (Degree) Course
    SYLLABUS FOR B.H.M.S. (DEGREE) COURSE As per the Homoeopathy (DEGREE Course) BHMS regulation, 1983, (as amended up to 2019) ANATOMY Instructions: I. (a) Instructions in anatomy should be so planed as to present a general working knowledge of the structure of the human body; (b) The amount of detail which a student is required to memorise should be reduced to the minimum; (c) Major emphasis should be laid on functional anatomy of the living subject rather than on the static structures of the cadaver, and on general anatomical positions and broad relations of the viscera, muscles, blood-vessels, nerves and lymphatics and study of the cadaver is the only means to achieve this; (d) Students should not be burdened with minutes anatomical details which have no clinical significance. II. Though dissection of the entire body is essential for the preparation of the student of his clinical studies, the burden of dissection can be reduced and much saving of time can be effected, if considerable reduction of the amount of topographical details is made and the following points are kept in view:- (1) Only such details as have professional or general educational value for the medical students. (2) The purpose of dissection is to give the student an understanding of the body in relation to its function, and the dissection should be designed to achieve this goal. (3) Normal radiological anatomy may also form part of practical or clinical training and the structure of the body should be presented linking functional aspects. (4) Dissection should be preceded by a course of lectures on the general structure of the organ or the system under discussion and then its function.
    [Show full text]
  • The Transience of Possibility Reina Hayaki
    Forthcoming in the European Journal of Analytic Philosophy (2006). The Transience of Possibility Reina Hayaki ABSTRACT. The standard view of metaphysical necessity is that it is truth in all possible worlds, and therefore that the correct modal logic for metaphysical necessity is S5, in models of which all worlds are accessible from each other. I argue that S5 cannot be the correct logic for metaphysical necessity because accessibility is not symmetric: there are possible worlds that are accessible from ours but from which our world is not accessible. There are (or could be) some individuals who, if they had not existed, could not have existed. Once the possibility of such individuals is lost, it is gone forever. 1. Truth in all possible worlds? It is now widely (though not universally) accepted that metaphysical necessity is to be distinguished from logical necessity. A proposition is logically necessary if it is a theorem of logic. The notion of logical necessity is not without its problems. When we say “a theorem of logic”, which logic is appropriate for this definition? Should we use mere first-order logic, or something more powerful? (Are axioms of second-order logic logically necessary truths?) What if the relevant logic is not complete, so that some true sentences are not theorems? Are all mathematical truths logically necessary? Or, given the apparent failure of efforts to reduce mathematics to logic, should we say that some 1 mathematical propositions are not logically necessary but perhaps “mathematically necessary”, relative to a particular system of mathematics? How should we adjudicate wrangling between adherents of mutually incompatible logics, such as classical and non- classical logics? Regardless of how we answer these questions, the notion of logical necessity is at heart a syntactic one.
    [Show full text]
  • The Beginnings of Formal Logic: Deduction in Aristotle's Topics Vs
    Phronesis 60 (�0�5) �67-309 brill.com/phro The Beginnings of Formal Logic: Deduction in Aristotle’s Topics vs. Prior Analytics Marko Malink Department of Philosophy, New York University, 5 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003. USA [email protected] Abstract It is widely agreed that Aristotle’s Prior Analytics, but not the Topics, marks the begin- ning of formal logic. There is less agreement as to why this is so. What are the distinctive features in virtue of which Aristotle’s discussion of deductions (syllogismoi) qualifies as formal logic in the one treatise but not in the other? To answer this question, I argue that in the Prior Analytics—unlike in the Topics—Aristotle is concerned to make fully explicit all the premisses that are necessary to derive the conclusion in a given deduction. Keywords formal logic – deduction – syllogismos – premiss – Prior Analytics – Topics 1 Introduction It is widely agreed that Aristotle’s Prior Analytics marks the beginning of formal logic.1 Aristotle’s main concern in this treatise is with deductions (syllogismoi). Deductions also play an important role in the Topics, which was written before the Prior Analytics.2 The two treatises start from the same definition of what 1 See e.g. Cornford 1935, 264; Russell 1946, 219; Ross 1949, 29; Bocheński 1956, 74; Allen 2001, 13; Ebert and Nortmann 2007, 106-7; Striker 2009, p. xi. 2 While the chronological order of Aristotle’s works cannot be determined with any certainty, scholars agree that the Topics was written before the Prior Analytics; see Brandis 1835, 252-9; Ross 1939, 251-2; Bocheński 1956, 49-51; Kneale and Kneale 1962, 23-4; Brunschwig 1967, © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���5 | doi �0.��63/�5685�84-��34��86 268 Malink a deduction is (stated in the first chapter of each).
    [Show full text]
  • 1 the Aristotelian Method and Aristotelian
    1 The Aristotelian Method and Aristotelian Metaphysics TUOMAS E. TAHKO (www.ttahko.net) Published in Patricia Hanna (Ed.), An Anthology of Philosophical Studies (Athens: ATINER), pp. 53-63, 2008. ABSTRACT In this paper I examine what exactly is ‘Aristotelian metaphysics’. My inquiry into Aristotelian metaphysics should not be understood to be so much con- cerned with the details of Aristotle's metaphysics. I am are rather concerned with his methodology of metaphysics, although a lot of the details of his meta- physics survive in contemporary discussion as well. This warrants an investigation into the methodological aspects of Aristotle's metaphysics. The key works that we will be looking at are his Physics, Meta- physics, Categories and De Interpretatione. Perhaps the most crucial features of the Aristotelian method of philosophising are the relationship between sci- ence and metaphysics, and his defence of the principle of non-contradiction (PNC). For Aristotle, natural science is the second philosophy, but this is so only because there is something more fundamental in the world, something that natural science – a science of movement – cannot study. Furthermore, Aristotle demonstrates that metaphysics enters the picture at a fundamental level, as he argues that PNC is a metaphysical rather than a logical principle. The upshot of all this is that the Aristotelian method and his metaphysics are not threatened by modern science, quite the opposite. Moreover, we have in our hands a methodology which is very rigorous indeed and worthwhile for any metaphysician to have a closer look at. 2 My conception of metaphysics is what could be called ‘Aristotelian’, as op- posed to Kantian.
    [Show full text]
  • Ither Metaphysical Necessity?
    This is a repository copy of W(h)ither Metaphysical Necessity?. White Rose Research Online URL for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/131388/ Version: Accepted Version Article: Divers, J orcid.org/0000-0002-1286-6587 (2018) W(h)ither Metaphysical Necessity? Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume, 92 (1). pp. 1-25. ISSN 0309-7013 https://doi.org/10.1093/arisup/aky008 (c) 2018 The Aristotelian Society This is a pre-copyedited, author-produced PDF of an article accepted for publication in Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume xcii following peer review. The version of record Divers, J (2018) W(h)ither Metaphysical Necessity? Aristotelean Society Supplementary Volume, 92 (1). pp. 1-25. ISSN 0309-7013 is available online at: https://doi.org/10.1093/arisup/aky008. Reuse Items deposited in White Rose Research Online are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved unless indicated otherwise. They may be downloaded and/or printed for private study, or other acts as permitted by national copyright laws. The publisher or other rights holders may allow further reproduction and re-use of the full text version. This is indicated by the licence information on the White Rose Research Online record for the item. Takedown If you consider content in White Rose Research Online to be in breach of UK law, please notify us by emailing [email protected] including the URL of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. [email protected] https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ W(H)ITHER METAPHYSICAL NECESSITY? By John Divers G20, Michael Sadler Building, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT Abstract I argue that a pragmatic scepticism about metaphysical modality is a perfectly reasonable position to maintain.
    [Show full text]
  • Metaphysics Translated by W
    Aristotle Metaphysics translated by W. D. Ross Book Α 1 All men by nature desire to know. An indication of this is the delight we take in our senses; for even apart from their usefulness they are loved for themselves; and above all others the sense of sight. For not only with a view to action, but even when we are not going to do anything, we prefer seeing (one might say) to everything else. The reason is that this, most of all the senses, makes us know and brings to light many differences between things. By nature animals are born with the faculty of sensation, and from sensation memory is produced in some of them, though not in others. And therefore the former are more intelligent and apt at learning than those which cannot remember; those which are incapable of hearing sounds are intelligent though they cannot be taught, e.g. the bee, and any other race of animals that may be like it; and those which besides memory have this sense of hearing can be taught. The animals other than man live by appearances and memories, and have but little of connected experience; but the human race lives also by art and reasonings. Now from memory experience is produced in men; for the several memories of the same thing produce finally the capacity for a single experience. And experience seems pretty much like science and art, but really science and art come to men through experience; for ‘experience made art’, as Polus says, ‘but inexperience luck.’ Now art arises when from many notions gained by experience one universal judgement about a class of objects is produced.
    [Show full text]
  • On the Fundamental Worldview of the Integral Culture Integrating Science, Religion, and Art: 2Nd Part
    Published in: World Futures. The Journal of General Evolution, 59(7): 535-556. On the Fundamental Worldview of the Integral Culture Integrating Science, Religion, and Art: 2nd Part Attila Grandpierre Konkoly Observatory H-1525 Budapest, P. O. Box 67, Hungary 4.1. The nature of philosophy and scientific worldview Dilthey (1911) recognised that the most important question of philosophy is defining the main task of philosophy itself. Actually, this main task of philosophy has not been a settled question since the ancient Greeks. Let us make now an attempt to overcome this difficulty. “Philosophy is the science searching and systemising the most general laws of nature, human society and evolution of thinking. (…) It is the life-concept, the worldview, the attitude forming a more or less coherent system of views on the outer world, on the facts and phenomena of life and their nature, aim and interpretation” (Dictionary of Hungarian Language, 1979, 817). It seems that in this definition concepts of philosophy and worldview are mixed. Plato formulated the first and most important mark of philosophy as being the study in which various special sciences are to be related together and understood as part of one system (Kneale, 1960, 756). Now if philosophy is the “cognition of the world” and if it is science that researches and systemises “the most general laws of nature, society and the evolution of thinking”, then philosophy should be based on these special sciences. Therefore, since fundamental sciences are concerned to three fundamental realms of reality, which are existence, life and consciousness (Grandpierre, 2001b), philosophy should be the unified science of the most general laws of physics, biology and psychology.
    [Show full text]