Using Cultivation Theory to Analyze College Student

Attitudes about the Dating Process Following

Exposure to Romantic Films

by

Emilio Hernandez B.A

A Thesis

In

COMMUNICATION STUDIES

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Approved

Narissra Punyanunt-Carter PH.D. Committee Chair

Juliann Scholl PH.D.

Patrick Hughes PH.D.

Peggy Gordon Miller Dean of the Graduate School

May, 2012

© 2012, Emilio Hernandez

Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With esteemed pleasure I would like to thank the late Dr. Alan Koenig and Dr. Cay

Holbrook, whose hard work and dedication, expertise in the field of visual impairment & special education, and whose commitment to me and my family, forged the pathway for me to overcome educational barriers. Additionally, I would like to thank my family who has continuously supported my academic achievements with encouragement, gratitude, and love. Moreover, appreciation is due in large part to my Chairwoman Dr. Narissra

Punyanunt-Carter, and fellow committee members Drs. Juliann Scholl and Patrick

Hughes, who have guided my academic progress, and thus, who have mentored me throughout this scholarly achievement. It is with confidence I am able to take full recognition for this thesis because of my interest and extensive research on the topic of mass media and its effects on the dating process. Finally, I would like to thank my Lord

Jesus Christ, who ceaselessly continues to protect me and bless my life; Due to His mercy and grace this thesis has been able to be written.

ii Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... II

ABSTRACT ...... V

LIST OF FIGURES ...... VI

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Interpersonal Interaction ...... 1 Sexual Exploration ...... 2 Cultivation Theory Summary...... 3 Purpose of Study...... 6

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 9 Romantic Film ...... 10 Attitude Cultivation ...... 12 Romantic Idealism...... 13 Media Portrayals of Sex and Marriage...... 14 Attractiveness Stereotype – Thinness...... 16 Beauty is Power...... 18 The Dating Experience...... 18 The Hook-Up Process...... 19 Research Questions...... 21

III. METHOD ...... 24 Research Participants ...... 24 Survey Procedure...... 24 Survey Demographics...... 25 Data Analysis...... 26

IV. RESULTS ...... 28

V. DISCUSSION ...... 30 Research Implications ...... 30 Second-Order Cultivation Effect...... 30 First-Order Cultivation Effect...... 33 Mean-World Syndrome...... 34 Research Limitations...... 36 Future Research...... 37 Additional Research Alternatives...... 39 Uses and Gratification Theory...... 42 Practical Implications...... 43 Conclusion...... 45

iii Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

REFERENCES ...... 48

A. IRB EXCEPTION ...... 67

B. INFORMATION SHEET ...... 69

C. SURVEY INSTRUMENT ...... 70

D. CATELL'S TEST (SCREE PLOT) ……………………………………………….… 73

E. 2 X 2 ANOVA: NORMALIZED SCORE FOR SELF-PERCEPTION OF ROMANTIC INCLINATION BY GENDER AT TWO EXPOSURE LEVELS ...... 74

F. 2 X 2 ANOVA: NORMALIZED SCORE FOR BEAUTY AS A FORM OF POWER BY GENDER AT TWO RESONANCE LEVELS……………………...... 75

iv Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

ABSTRACT

Cultivation Theory is a theoretical approach that is concerned with establishing a connection between the amount of television a person views and viewer conceptions adopted due to televised portrayals. By addressing recent criticism, this study is focused on romantic films, as a genre-specific context that has not been previously analyzed by cultivation theory. This research study is interested in knowing if individuals who view romantic films consider themselves low or high romantics, if these individuals believe beauty is a form of power, and if these individuals feel dyadic power should be exercised in romantic relationships. First-year college students have been given a 32-item survey that deal with these questions. A factor analysis was computed on the data. Results indicate that female students as opposed to their male counterpart are inclined to be more romantic, and view romantic films more frequently. However, no significant correlation has been established when asking if viewers think beauty is a form of power. The third question has been omitted because it did not meet the standards for factor analysis.

Key words: attractiveness stereotype, beauty, cultivation theory, dating attitudes, hook- ups, love, romantic idealism, romantic films, and student attitudes.

v Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

LIST OF FIGURES

1. CATELL’S TEST SCREE/PLOT (APPENDIX D) ……………………………76

2. NORMALIZED SCORE FOR SELF PERCEPTION (APPENDIX E) .…...... 77

3. NORMALIZED SCORE OF BEAUTY (APPENDIX F) ………………………78

vi Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Love among enduring romantic relationships is responsible for determining the level of satisfaction partner’s experience (Moss & Schwebel, 1993). The three dimensions of love (commitment, intimacy, and passion) are responsible for the formation of different love experiences, which can change over time (Ahmetoglu, Swami,

& Chamorro-Premuzic, 2010). Furthermore, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and personality are additional characteristics of love that are indicative of romantic relationships (Ahmetoglu et al., 2010). Thus, intimacy among enduring relationships is defined as “the level of commitment and positive affective, cognitive, and closeness one experiences with a partner in a reciprocal relationship” (Moss & Schwebel, 1993, p. 32).

Hence, the interest concerning romance is precipitated by the indispensability of the

Internet, which is causing interpersonal interaction and sexual exploration to be domesticated pursuits that occur online (Hoffman, Novak, & Venkatesh, 2004;Lawson &

Leck, 2006;Spitzburg, 2006).

Interpersonal Interaction

The traditional method of relationship initiation and mate selection has been a long-standing practice that has only recently been abandoned for more contemporary courtship methods (Hollander, 2004;Weisberg & Appleton, 2003). Couples no longer seek approval from parents, but instead take initiative – meeting at community events or church socials, meeting informally in shops or on the street, or even being formally

1 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 introduced to prospective partners by friends (Whyte, 1992). Recently, this increased level of independence has been facilitated by technology (Lawson & Leck, 2006).

Research suggests that the Internet is preferred for match making because it minimizes moments of embarrassment, making the dating process less overwhelming for those individuals who are not as successful at dating face-to-face (FTF) (Hardey, 2002).

For this reason and a myriad of others, is why commercial dating sites give subscribers who pay for premium services the ability to create a text profile that is not limited by descriptive length (Hardey, 2004). This provides single men and women the opportunity to develop their own image of a potential partner based on the physical and social characteristics outlined in a profile they are reading (Cohen, 2001;Hardey, 2004).

Furthermore, since commercial dating sites tailor to individual interests, lifestyle choices, and sexual preferences, intervention from family or friends, coupled with the need for social venues is almost unnecessary (Hardey, 2002).

Sexual Exploration

Society’s influence on physical appearance and sexual attractiveness are just two of several reasons that contribute to sexual exploration online (Cooper, McLoughlin, &

Campbell, 2000;Parker & Wampler, 2003). For example, women who are involved in romantic relationships with men who viewed pornography, feel they are being cheated on, and perceive their partner’s behavior as a form of infidelity - using their partner’s behavior as a sign that they are no longer attractive, desirable, or intimately satisfying

(Featherstone, 2005). Therefore, in order to obtain relational intimacy, research indicates that women begin to develop a virtual attraction towards the Internet that is rooted in the

“triple-A” resource of anonymity, affordability, and access (Ross, 2005;Young, Cooper, 2 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

Shelly, O’Mara, & Buchanan, 2000). By forming computer-mediated relationships in an effort to receive appreciation and communicative interaction, women are able to escape from current relationships either socially or permanently (Grant, 2007;Young et al.,

2000). Computer-mediated relationships are any type of close relationships formed between two individuals that are initiated via the Internet (Merkle & Richardson, 2000).

Thus, it is without surprise that according to the American Academy of Matrimonial

Lawyers, 63% of marriages end in divorce as a result of online sexual exploration

(Young, 2004). This however, has not stifle the prevalence of digital dating (Kirn, 2000), remote rendezvous (Ali, Miller, Juarez, Peterson, Springen, Sulmers, Adams & Kelly

2004), and wireless weddings (Barker, 2006), as romantic contexts where interpersonal interaction and sexual exploration are influenced by the Internet. Therefore, because technology is considered to be an essential component of daily life, and a form of media that guides, shapes, and reflects attitudes and social perceptions, (Arendt, 2010;Johnson

& Holmes, 2009), is why the cultivation model is appropriate for explaining the theoretical significance for this study.

Cultivation Theory Summary.

George Gerbner, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, and Nancy Signorielli have developed cultivation theory, which analyzes the contributions made by television in an effort to understand the conceptions viewers have concerning social reality (Gerbner &

Gross, 1973;Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1984). This stems from Gerbner’s position that the industrial revolution of technology creates symbolic environments that reflect the institutions – the function and structure of the decision-making pressures, organizational forms, and power relations that disseminate particular messages (Gerbner, 3 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

1998;1999). Gerbner further posits that the mass production of messages and the rapid distribution thereof likewise contribute to the collective consciousness (shared meaning) that is formed and imposed on social relationships (Gerbner, 1998). Shared meaning refers to a unanimously-held conception individuals have about reality that is based on the amount of television a person views (West & Turner, 2007). Thus a person who views 6 or more hours of television is considered a high viewer, and as a result, frames their outlook on reality around the messages conveyed to them by television, whereas a low viewer is someone who does not let television messages influence their outlook on reality (Griffin, 2006;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010;West & turner, 2007). Thus, the investigative paradigm of cultivation theory is centered on the premise that individuals who spend a majority of their time viewing television are at a greater risk of perceiving reality through a lens of fictional programming that conveys common and recurrent messages (Gerbner, 1999). Hence, the most familiar understanding of cultivation theory posits knowledge acquired about a particular topic that shapes reality for viewers is derived from viewing messages observed on television in large doses (Morgan &

Shanahan, 2010). It is these frequent messages that serve as the infrastructure for symbolic environments that aligns with cultivation theory that is the expressive voice for culture and society (Gerbner, 1998;1999);Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Thus, it is the sharing of the institutional and social dynamics that construct symbolic environments through message dissemination, which is the outcome of the cultivation process (Morgan

& Shanahan, 2010).

Previous research indicates the television is a socially transformative device because of its ability to guide cultural and social perceptions, and unify groups of people 4 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 through message dissemination (Adams, 1992;Collins, 2010;Jackson, Brown, & Pardun,

2008;Rice, 2009). This view aligns with Gerbner’s position that suggests heavy television viewing results in inaccurate depictions of reality (initially crime and law enforcement), which creates an exaggerated perception about danger, mistrust, and victimization

(Hetsroni, 2008;2010);Morgan & Shanahan, 2010;Mutz & Nir, 2010;Signorielli &

Gerbner, 1995). Furthermore, this highlights the limitless capability of media, which grabs the attention of nations, and mobilizes the behavior of large groups of individuals – proposing the television is the “modern propaganda machine” that creates a cohesive environment of shared meaning among audiences (Gerbner, 1998;Tinker, 2008). If television is viewed for long periods of time, the symbolic environment that is created by media will likely cultivate a perception that suggests the world is how media portrays it as (Mutz & Nir, 2010). For high viewers of television, this is problematic because recurrent messages that occur frequently repeat a patterned message that increases the likelihood that these viewers will have a strong effect of cultivation (Gerbner,

1998;Hetsroni, 2010). Therefore, in order to measure the effect of cultivation on a particular viewing group, cultivation research uses a systematic process for data gathering and analysis (Signorielli & Gerbner, 1995).

First, a content analysis is conducted on the institutions that disseminate certain messages within symbolically created environments (Signorielli & Gerbner, 1995).

Second, message system analysis reviews the patterns of consistency or broad structures that exist within the messages that are produced by mass media (Signorielli & Gerbner,

1995). Third, cultivation analysis looks at the interplay among the aforementioned components as well as the public assumptions that form a particular cultivated perception 5 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

(Signorielli & Gerbner, 1995;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). In addition to this process, cultivation theory utilizes two forms of dependent variables (Rendt, 2010). The first order cultivation variable measures the effect of cultivation on social perception and judgment, whereas the second order cultivation variable measures the effect of cultivation on attitudes and values (Rendt, 2010). Most often, first order cultivation relies on reality- based estimates that align with media depictions because subconsciously individuals turn towards their memory & the media to retrieve exemplars on which to base their judgments (Hetsroni, 2010). Due to the recentness, salience, and vividness of media messages is why looking towards the media for retrieval is so appealing (Hetsroni, 2010).

Second order cultivation refers to the effect of persuasion (Hetsroni, 2010). This means that beliefs and values are guided by media messages, which enhance the rehearsal of attitudes that are adopted from media content (Hetsroni, 2010). Ultimately, it is the rehearsal of particular messages shared by media that shape attitudes and skew beliefs about reality that result in the cultivation process (Hetsroni, 2010).

Purpose of Study.

Cultivation theory has endured some criticism for failing to initially acknowledge other genre-specific contexts outside of television (Arendt, 2010;Bilandzic & Buzzell,

2008;Good, 2008). According to cultivation theory, stories that disseminate recurrent or similar messages can alter a viewer’s perception about social reality, which is why the

Narrative is considered to be one form of genre-specific context where stories are placed into categories where recurrent messages are shared that convey a common theme

(Bilandzic & Buzzell, 2008). Hence, in alignment with considering film as a narrative medium, cultivation theory posits regular exposure to a core message will overlap 6 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 regardless of the content being viewed, thus causing the viewer to believe a particular message over time (Bilandzic & Buzzell, 2008). Moreover, the intensity of the narrative experience and the lack of adequate counterarguments heightens the effectiveness of the narrative by altering viewer attitudes and beliefs (Bilandzic & Buzzell, 2008). This understanding is crucial for this study because the aim of this thesis is to determine if exposure to romantic film alters college student attitudes about dating. In addition, since frequent viewers of media content are likely to base their perceptions on programs of entertainment – holding such portrayals as enduring judgments of actuality (Mutz & Nir,

2010), is why this thesis seeks to determine what types of individuals are likely to use romantic content to base their relationships by.

In short, the literature review will explain why romantic film is appealing to viewers, show how attitudes are cultivated according to cultivation theory, illustrate how the media constructs an image of idealistic romance viewers believe to be true, and as a line of directness for this study, close this section by summarizing current research about the dating process. This chapter will end with research questions that focus on college student attitudes about dating when viewing romantic films in order to determine the effect of cultivation, while working to show how romantic conceptions can be explained by this theory. The third chapter will discuss the type of respondents fit for this study, and explain the procedures, measures, and type of data analysis selected to gather and compute the findings. The results chapter will provide a broad overview of the results, as indicated by the computations. Finally, the discussion section will close the study by answering the research questions proposed, while discussing the research implications,

7 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 and end by highlighting areas for improvement, while suggesting possible avenues for future research.

8 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The media is considered to be a dual agent of information, which in one aspect is responsible for diverting the attention of the viewer with entertaining scenes, and is otherwise responsible for disseminating information and being very persuasive (Katz,

Haas, & Gurevitch, 1973). The messages about romance and sex, increases the persuasiveness of media adolescents look towards for advice (Johnson & Holmes, 2009).

With few life experiences to compare against media content, adolescents come to believe frequently viewed programs depict cultural norms, and as a result, cultivate unrealistic expectations about romance (Johnson & Holmes, 2009). For example, prior research has gleamed that adolescents’ exposure to sexually-oriented content heavily influences their expectations about sex, peer sexual behavior, and their ideas about permissiveness – resulting in an increased perpetuation of engaging in premarital sexual activity (Bleakley,

Hennessy, & Fishbein, 2011;Bleakley, Hennessy, Fishbein, & Jordan, 2008). Additional research supports this assertion by positing that music and movies are the most influential forms of media that share messages about sexual acceptance, with little regard for the consequences of early sexual involvement (Pardun, L’Engle, & Brown, 2005). Thus, the convenience of media content and the abundance of media messages are believed to contribute to the contradictions and exposure that guide adolescents through the experiences of dating, intimacy, relationships, and sex (Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999). This is due in large part to the meaning gained from messages an individual feels will have the greatest personal utility, or by the meaning derived from a recurrent set of messages an individual is exposed to (Bachmen & Illouz, 1996). Therefore, since the media portrays 9 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 sex and romance as stereotypical interactions, it solidifies the misguided perceptions adolescent’s have about intimacy and relationships, which is troubling (Bleakley et al.,

2008;Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999). Thus, because cultivation theory posits high exposure to media content constructs a portrait of reality that viewers may adopt as their dominant world view (Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999), is why understanding how this model can be applied to college student attitudes about dating resulting from exposure to romantic films is of interest.

Romantic Film

A prevalent reason why individuals view romantic films is grounded on the emotion of love viewers experience that surface as a result of motion pictures addressing and sensationalizing issues (Grodal, 2009;Schulze, 1986). Love is an emotion that allows an. individual to establish and maintain a relationship grounded on mutuality of emotion and exclusivity (Grodal, 2004;2009);Simon, Eder, & Evans, 1992). Love is perceived to be an invincible force that triumphs over cultural & gender identity, marriage, sexuality, and social status (Abbott & Jermyn, 2009). In cinematic terms, romantic love is considered to be a “utopian force that brings together two people (usually a heterosexual couple) who are destined to be together” (Abbott & Jermyn, 2009, p. 137). Since the aim of the romantic genre focuses on guiding a couple to one another’s arms, it is conceivable to suppose that the film industry creates a mystical perception of love that is transformative and extends into reality (Abbott & Jermyn, 2009). Displaying the feeling of love onto the silver-screen, the film industry capitalizes on this emotion by suggesting this sensation is a powerful feeling a person will experience (Grodal, 2009). The film industry accomplishes this by proposing “a kiss” is able to remedy conflict, and prolong 10 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 the feeling of love because according to prior research, the feeling of love should not waver (Grodal, 2004;2009);Urang, 2006). This suggests that love is absolute because the negotiation thereof is a powerful force that can either cause unity or tragedy – highlighting the permanence and strength of love (Grodal, 2009). Furthermore, the cinematic genre of romance is appealing to viewers because romantic content is familiar and contributes to the feeling of nostalgia that allows the past to be remembered

(Hoffmann, 2004; Person, 1988). Individuals who choose this genre most often do so because this context is not contingent on novelty, but relies heavily on a near perfect prediction of a romantic outcome that satisfies a need for the viewer (Hoffman,

2004;Simon et al., 1992). In addition, romantic motion pictures are appealing because they depict a romantic journey that viewers can identify with, thus merging identity & myth together so that a film can be perceived as real and symbolic (Abbott & Jermyn,

2009). This allows the social and psychological conditions of a successful romance to be experienced without the burden of moral trappings (meeting Hollywood’s agenda of reinforcing the tenets of patriarchal sexuality), which deal with gender and sex (Ellis,

1990; Light, 1984; Simon et al., 1992). For instance, in Indian romantic films the tenet of romance is portrayed as a sanitary unproblematic environment where love and romance are a pure and perfect journey of internalization a person endures to obtain love (Abbott

& Jermyn, 2009). Within the United States, a paradox exists for the adult viewer who remembers high school as possibly depressing and dreadful, but through the romantic comedy is able to transform his or her negative experience into a fantasy that is metaphorically situated on the prom as the fulcrum for romance (Radner, 2011). This allows the adult viewer to relive their high school experience through a frame of wish

11 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 fulfillment, while understanding that pain and torment are necessary to obtain love

(Radner, 2011). Therefore, because of the comfortable suspension between realism and romance that help conjure the feeling of love is why romantic film is appealing (Grodal,

2004; Urang, 2006).

Attitude Cultivation

Cultivation theory is relevant in this case because the repetitive, highly stylized, and stereotypical messages media shares with viewers, depicts themes that are perceived as essential for socialization (Cohen & Weimann, 2000;Gerbner, 1998). By glamorizing certain social aspects of reality, the media contributes largely to attitude change among adolescent viewers (Perse, 1986). This is especially important for the collegiate demographic because research indicates that student attitudes are positively correlated by viewing media content (Cohen & Weimann, 2000). While television is just one of many sources that has the potential to shape attitudes (Morgan & Shanahan, 1997), research contends that attitudes are influenced by mediated reality (Cohen & Weimann, 2000).

Morgan and Shanahan (1997) refer to this as mainstreaming and resonance, which are two constructs of cultivation theory.

Mainstreaming is the homogenization of viewer perceptions about reality, which refers to cultivation of shared meaning among people (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010).

Resonance therefore, is the result of the cultivation effect, which is strongest when a viewer compares personal views with mainstream perceptions (Cohen & Weimann,

2000). If consistency is high, then resonance occurs and an individual’s world view is refashioned to align with media messages (Cohen & Weimann, 2000). Thus, research contends that the over-estimation of social reality is due to repeated exposure to 12 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 particular messages over time (Bumsub & Seongjung, 2010). Therefore, media exposure should influence social perception, so attitudes can be changed because first-order effects serve as the foundation by which the second-order effects are grounded (Hawkins &

Pingree, 1980). In a study of South Korean single women, research indicates that exposure to media content that positively depicts images of career women and single life has the propensity to reshape social perceptions – causing women to believe these messages (Bumsub & Seongjung, 2010). Similarly, researchers report that married couples who view media content that depict positive messages of having fewer children are more likely to conceive less, adopting a positive outlook concerning single life

(Bumsub & Seongjung, 2010). Thus, because media shares idealistic messages, which convey particular perceptions about social reality to viewers, it is possible to suppose that a strong effect of cultivation will result (Lafky, Duffy, Steinmaus, & berkowitz, 1996).

Romantic Idealism.

For some, intimate relationships are hinged on the idealistic expectations individuals believe are vital components for romance (Hefner, 2008). People that believe in this romantic paradigm generally have unprecedented access to messages that convey particular social standpoints, suggesting this form of media exposure contributes to the effect of cultivation (Bachmen & Illouz, 1996). Therefore, since messages serve as the symbolic infrastructure for culture (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010), it is possible to conclude that certain standpoints, are cultural messages that have the potential to shape individual perceptions (Bachmen & Illouz, 1996). Since perceptual change is socially contingent on viewers encoding & decoding information gathered from media (Bilandzic & Rössler,

13 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

2004), cultivation theory posits individuals begin to acquire knowledge, and start to form perceptions from stored information (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010).

Mass media focuses on the unsatisfied idealistic elements of romance people are in search of by creating a fictional image of a romantic couple (Harrington & Bielby,

1991). With the integration of the traditional components of commitment, intimacy, and trust, the media is able to acutely focus on the features of romance that are appealing to individuals (Harrington & Bielby, 1991). In this case, the media is able to focus on the

American myth of love, which is centered on the belief that two individuals who are destined for one another remain devoted to each other and withstand all odds (Harrington

& Bielby, 1991). This idealistic conception of popular romance is argued to reinforce patriarchal values by promoting heterosexuality, marriage, and monogamy as components indicative of a successful relationship (Jarvis, 1999).

Media Portrayals of Sex and Marriage.

The media promotes the conception of idealistic romance by disseminating messages that cause some viewers to perceive intimate relationships as unrealistic portrayals of reality (Alexander, 1985). Second to family and peers, adolescents often consider media a primary source for obtaining knowledge about relationship expectations

(Ward & Friedman, 2006). For instance, media content depicts courtship and dating practices as encounters that are competitive, dishonest, and manipulative interactions fueled by stereotypical messages (Ward, 1995; (Ward & Friedman, 2006). One pervasive theme that adolescents are confronted with deals with sex, which the media thoroughly covers by sharing programs that focus on this element of romance (Ward & Friedman,

2006). Research shows that adolescents are exposed to roughly 8 hours of popular 14 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 programs daily, and 83% of which focus on sexual content (Gerbner, 1998; Ward &

Friedman, 2006). This inordinate exposure to sexual content portrays sex as a recreational behavior that is motivated by physical pleasure while promoting minimal discretion for sexual responsibility (Pardun, L'Engle, & Brown, 2005;Ward & Friedman, 2006).

Cultivation theory addresses this by asserting that viewers who are exposed to high amounts of media content, in this case, sexual content, are likely to develop misguided perceptions about sex and ultimately adopt and believe the message being promoted

(Collins, Elliott, Berry, Kanouse, Kunkle, Hunter, & Miu, 2004; Gerbner, Gross, Morgan,

& Signorielli, 1994; Ward & Friedman, 2006). Moreover, the types of individuals that are likely to be susceptible to the effect of cultivation are high self-monitors (Haferkamp,

1999). These individuals are reported to be sensitive to situational cues and adjust accordingly to media messages that focus on social perceptions (Haferkamp, 1999).

Media content depicting romantic themes is significant because media perception is something that contributes to the susceptibility adolescents have in believing these messages (Zhou & Zhu, 2004). In a study that looked at college student perceptions about marriage, results indicate that young people get married believing idealistic, unrealistic, and romanticized expectations, which defy traditional conceptions of marriage by assuming disagreements are signs of destruction, profound intimacy should not require overt communication, and partners should be perfect sexually (Segrin & Nabi, 2002). For adolescents this is problematic because the propensity that these ideals will be adopted as realistic and true is likely (Segrin & Nabi, 2002). According to Bachen and Illouz (1996), high exposure to media increases the likelihood that adolescents will believe such media portrayals because they closely mirror actual relationships. Cultivation theory posits the

15 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 depiction of marriage via media offers a skewed albeit fantastic perception that focuses on the positive features such as, beauty, celebration, intimacy, passion, and love at first sight (Segrin & Nabi, 2002). Therefore, it is fair to posit that media helps mediate socialization processes by sharing messages or by broadcasting programs that communicate images of love and romance that shape attitude and behavior (Zhou & Zhu,

2004).

Attractiveness Stereotype – Thinness.

In a society where women constantly criticize and over estimate the size of their bodies, it stands to reason that the general disposition of women perceives themselves as fat (Meyers & Biocca, 1992). In this instance, the media is significant because it constantly bombards women viewers with the idea that thinness should be something desired (Hendricks, 2002; Meyers & Biocca, 1992). In fact, media messages profoundly alter perceptions about physical appearance to the point of causing men and women to conform to the unhealthy body images promoted by media in an effort to appeal to romantic partners (Fredrick & Haselton 2007;Sanchez, Good, Qwang, & Saltzman,

2008). This causes relationship contingency to be 20% less likely for women and 11% less likely for men who are over-weight, as opposed to their normal-weight counterparts

(Sanchez et al., 2008). Moreover, this partially explains why movie-goers are more inclined to select films with highly attractive actors and actresses because research contends that when economic hardship is high , people prefer to view films that depict these types of individuals because they are perceived as more desirable (Pettijohn and

Tesser, 2003;1999);Teigen, Normann, Bjørkheim, & Helland, 2000). This paves the way

16 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 for the concept of thinness to become a deeply embedded component of desirability for women (Meyers & Biocca, 1992).

Prior research aligns with this push for thinness by proposing that the cultural environment of sexual objectification causes women to condition their bodies in a manner that maximizes their good looks (Ambwani & Strauss, 2007). In a content analysis that studied the bust-to-waist ratio of photographed women movie stars, results conclude that since the 1930s a considerable shift from curvier women to thinner women is prevalent

(Meyers & Biocca, 1992). This is a motivating factor for men who view movies because while the female reaffirms masculinity, she is more implicitly regarded for her physical appearance, which places her into a role of increased value - heightening the physical pleasure associated with movie viewing, thus concluding that men have a profound interest in women who are very attractive (Hoyte & Hudson, 1981;MacKinnon, 2003).

Moreover, in a recent study that reviewed the link between media influence on physical appearance, results indicate that women are in a constant downward or upward battle of social comparison with supermodels (Chung & Bissell, 2010). Contributing to this struggle is the media’s idealistic & unrealistic portrayal of thin models who average 5’11 and weigh 117 pounds, whereas the average female is 5’4 and weighs 140 pounds

(Chung & Bissell, 2010). Additionally, prior research has looked at the social influence associated with physical appearance, which has concluded, individuals who are considered to be physically attractive are believed to be better communicators, highly educated, and possess a host of other desirable characteristics that heighten the stereotyped perceptions of physical appearance (Bassili, 1981;Lee, Adams, & Dobson,

1984). Thus, the emphasis on physical appearance has become something women focus 17 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 on, in so as much that media’s misguided portrayals have cultivated an attitude that suggests “beauty is power” (Chung & Bissell, 2010).

Beauty is Power.

Often disseminating messages that promote beauty over intelligence, the media has successfully groomed generations of individuals to believe in the power of beauty by providing female viewers of media content with an abundance of messages that promote this social value (Chung & Bissell, 2010). For females this is extremely important because mass media places great emphasis on beauty acquisition by bombarding girls and women with advertisements that promote beauty and health (Maner, Kenrick, Becker,

Delton, hofer, Wilbur & Neuberg, 2003). By relentlessly exploiting the insecurity females already have, increases the likelihood that women will use beauty products in order to meet the societal standard of perceived beauty (Ogletree, Williams, Raffeld,

Mason, & Fricke, 1990;Roedl, 2008), thus gaining power through physical appearance

(Gorn & Florsheim, 1985). For female adolescents, this is significant because research shows that female peer groups often discuss the importance of physical appearance as an element of dating (Milbrath, Ohlson, & Eyre, 2009).

The Dating Experience.

For adolescents, dating and romantic relationships are important during this period in life (Manning, Giordano, & Loangmore, 2006). Serving as an appropriate developmental context, coupled with the prevalence of sex, stifles the surprise behind early sexual activity among adolescents (Manning et al., 2006). According to Longmore,

Manning, and Giordano (2001), adolescent youth generally follow a sequence of dating before initiating sexual intercourse. In a study that looked at the prevalence of adolescent 18 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 sexual activity, results indicate that roughly 68.5% of boys and 51.8% of girls participate in casual relationships (Manning, Giordano, & Loanmore, 2000). For some adolescent girls, sexuality is documented to occur with partners who they have dated irregularly, or with partners with whom there is little history (Elo, King, & Furstenberg, 1999;Manning et al., 2000). Contributing to the increased propensity for sexual activity are the facts that show adolescents spend more time around each other while in school, have greater exposure to sexual relationships then previous generations, and as a component of youth culture, greater emphasis is placed on peer worlds (Milbrath et al., 2009). Previous research shows that peer groups are extremely important when dealing with dating, and sexual behavior associated with intimate relationships because it is within these groups where adolescents are able to observe heterosexual relationships and social practices for initiating romantic relationships (Milbrath et al., 2009). Peer groups exhibit further significance because they help predict adolescent sexual likelihood through early adolescent acceptance, which paves the way for alcohol consumption, dating, and sexual activity – all of which are social transitions into adulthood (Zimmer-Gembeck,

Siebenbrunerr, & Collins, 2004).

The Hook-Up Process.

Like previous research has indicated, traditional dating is a component of courtship initiation that is becoming less valued by adolescents and young adults

(Littleton, Tabernik, Canales, & Backstrom, 2009). . Research indicates that this is due in large part to this demographic group favoring casual relationships, which have become more common (Littleton et al., 2009;Manning et al., 2006). Casual relationships are considered to be a type of friendship that is void of commitment & intimacy, but 19 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 abounding with high sexual activity (Littleton et al., 2009). These “friends with benefits” interactions are also considered a “hook-up,” which are spontaneous sexual encounters between two people with no prior romantic involvement (Littleton et al., 2009). Similar to traditional dating, hooking-up is a process, albeit less detailed that generally involves two strangers or brief acquaintances who meet at a bar or party, show mutual interest in one another by flirting, and engage in sexual behavior ranging from kissing to sexual intercourse (Paul & hayes, 2002). For men, hooking-up is preferred because flirting makes rejection less likely, increases the likelihood for sexual activity, and cultivates positive attitudes about casual sex (Bradshaw, Kahn, & Saville, 2010). For women, hooking-up cultivates feelings of desirability and creates an atmosphere of excitement, while giving women the chance to experience sexual intimacy (Paul & Hayes, 2002).

From surveys that reviewed the prevalence of this phenomenon, results indicate that approximately 80% of college students participate in casual relationships (Paul & Hayes,

2002). According to Grello, Welsh, and Harper (2006), more then half of Canadian and

North American college students admit they have participated in some sexual act with someone of the opposite sex they had no prior relationship with. In another college student survey, results show that roughly 55% of students admit to being involved in a casual relationship at least once, thus highlighting the changing nature of the courtship process (Littleton et al., 2009).

Contributing to hook-ups is the gender imbalance found on most campuses, which results in casual relationships flourishing (Uecker & Regnerus, 2010).Gender imbalances generally are a surplus of one sex over another, thus favoring the less populated group

(Uecker & Regnerus, 2010). For example, lower virginity percentages among adolescent 20 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 girls is reported to be caused by a low population of adolescent girls and a high population of adolescent boys, broadening the dating pool for girls because there are more partners to choose from (Billy, Brewster, & Grady, 1994). However, at the collegiate level where men are few in number, men have the opportunity to have dyadic power over their romantic and sexual relationships by being less committed, perpetuating a high climate of sexual permissiveness, and treating their partners unfavorably (Uecker

& Regnerus, 2010). For women this constitutes poor romantic involvement because there are simply not enough men to date, which leads to women participating in sex in order to be involved in a romantic relationship (Uecker & Regnerus, 2010).

Research Questions.

Research indicates that people who are highly romantic are the likely candidate to already have misguided perceptions about love and relationships (Larson, 1988). This is why romantic film is significant for this study because a fantasy world is created that causes viewers to believe in happy endings, while simultaneously causing some to understand that these portrayals are highly unlikely (Meischke, 1995;Radner, 2011).

Therefore, because a parallel exists between film and television (Becker, 2009;Ruggill,

2009), and because both men and women view motion pictures (Harris, Hoekstra, Scott,

Sanborn, & Dodds, 2004), is why it is important to know if exposure to romantic film is contingent on the level of romance a person feels they have.

RQ1: Are college students who consider themselves either low or high

romantics view romantic films regularly?

According to the literature review resonance is established when mainstream messages align with personal views (Cohen & Weimann, 2000). Furthermore, research 21 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 indicates that media portrayals of romance that closely mirror actual relationships is likely to cultivate a belief among viewers that suggest the components of mediated romance are possible to obtain (Zhou & Zhu, 2004). Since romance is a central thought for most young people, research suggests that looking towards media depictions are often the most reasonable medium from which exemplars can be retrieved (Eggermont, 2004).

Therefore, since cultivation theory is the most sited model for establishing a relationship between viewer perceptions of reality and media (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli,

1980;Morgan & Signorielli, 1990), is why the following question is relevant.

RQ2: Do college students develop an attitude that perceives beauty is positively

correlated with power, and consider this to be an essential component of

the dating process if resonance is accounted for after viewing romantic

film?

In addition to the significance of the imbalance of gender, gender scripts also play an important role in dating (Geordano, Longmore, & Manning, 2006). Gender scripts are the protocol females and males use to guide their behavior through gender socialization, which for females is centered on submissiveness and subservience, and for males is centered on competition and conquest (Geordano et al., 2006). However, since young people seldom have viable experiences to base their romantic expectations by

(Eggermont, 2004), and because young people are inundated with approximately seven hours of media in an assortment of forms daily (Escobar-Chaves & Anderson, 2005) is why the following question is significant.

22 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

RQ3: Do college students develop an attitude for dyadic power reinforcement within

romantic relationships after viewing romantic film?

23 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

CHAPTER III

METHOD

Research Participants

Participants for this research study included N = 248 undergraduate students enrolled at a large southwestern university. Surveys were administered to students enrolled in an interpersonal communication course, and in a communication, civility, and ethics course. Out of the original participants, those students who selected other class designations other than first-year students were removed from the sample population.

This has reduced the total number of participants to 86 (61%) females and 54 (39%) males n = 140. The vast majority of participants 137 (97.86%) reported to be 18-24 years of age and 3 (2.1%) reported to be 17 years of age. Participants were 5 (3.6%) African-

American, 7 (5%) Asian, 5 (3.6%) Caucasian, 97 (69%) Hispanic, and 26 (19%) Native

American. Crucial for the research, questions were asked that focus on viewing habits of participants indicating a mean value of 2 hours of overall media consumption.

Survey Procedure.

Proposal approval has been sought by the Institutional Review Board and has been granted authorizing data collection (view appendix A). An oral summary behind the research was provided to professors’ to familiarize participants with the reason why their assistance was necessary. On the day of data collection, participants were provided written directions about the questionnaire before surveys were distributed. Participants were informed of their right to freely discontinue participation in the data gathering process, as well as insuring participants that all data would remain confidential.

Participants were also informed that no compensation would be given by the researcher. 24 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

The survey was given during regular class time and was completed in approximately 10 minutes. Participants were asked to complete the survey in class, and were further advised to return all surveys regardless of degree of completion to the researcher who waited at the front of the room. Appendices B and C are examples of the information sheet and survey instrument.

Survey Demographics.

In order to gather data for analysis in this study, a modification of Cobb, Larson, and Watson’s (2003) Attitudes about Romance and Mate Selection Scale was used.

Originally, the survey was developed to measure constraining beliefs about mate selection, but for the purposes of this research, the survey has been modified to measure if exposure to romantic film cultivates an attitude of romantic idealism among college students. The self-report format has been deemed appropriate for this research study because according to (Free, Boltan, & Kreps, 2000), the self-report method allows respondents to rate their attitudes, beliefs, and values, which is a reliable way to learn how people feel about a particular topic or phenomenon being measured. The survey includes five attitude beliefs college students may potentially have when viewing romantic films, which are collected from the literature and modified from the original research. The five attitudes are: cohabitation (Q8-12), beauty is power (Q13-17), dyadic power negotiation (Q18-22), idealization (Q23-27), and love (Q28-32). A seven point

Likert-type scale was used for this survey, where 1= very strongly disagree, 2 = strongly disagree, 3 = disagree, 4 = undecided, 5 = agree, 6 = strongly agree, and 7 = very strongly agree. The survey consists of 5 demographic questions that deal with age, class designation, income, sex, and race. Two questions focus on whether a respondent is a 25 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 low, medium, or high viewer of romantic film, which involves each respondent averaging their daily and weekly scores. The survey consists of 25 questions that deal with the five attitudes students have by devoting five items to each belief, as well as focusing on the research questions proposed.

Data Analysis.

In order to quantify the data gathered, factor analysis has been used. This process is significant because it has helped determine if items are measuring unidimensional or multidimensional constructs. Additionally, this process has helped determine what factors are correlated and statistically significant to one another. Therefore, as a method of replication, principle component factor analysis with varimax rotation was performed.

The number of items to rotate in order to reach the simplest interpretation has been contingent on whether the factors are interpretable, meaningful, and theoretically predictable, if the factors loaded (>.35), if at least three conceptually related items loaded high, and if the factors pass Cattell’s eigenvalue test. More specifically, each research question has been analyzed as follows:

RQ1: this question is concerned with determining if an individual perceives themselves as highly romantic when viewing romantic films, and if a significant difference exists between female and male college students. A two-way ANOVA is appropriate because this statistical measure is capable of working with an equation that has two independent variables with one dependent variable. The independent variable

(IV) for this question is sex & romantic perception, and the dependent variable (DV) is frequency of romantic film exposure. This type of problem is considered to be a 2 x 2 between-subjects design because sex is comprised of two levels (female/male), and 26 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 romantic perception is comprised of 2 levels (low/high). In order to determine the degree of significance an f-test will be calculated.

RQ2: this question is concerned with determining if individuals who view romantic film believe beauty is a positive form of power once resonance is accounted for, and if a significant difference exists between female and male college students. This question is a 2 x 2 equation, where the IV is sex (female/male) & resonance (low/high), and the DV is beauty is power belief. A one-way ANOVA will be conducted over the IV in order to obtain resonance values for respondents by calculating the “average score” for survey items 6 and 7 against the survey respectively (Q8-32). An f-test will be administered to determine the degree of significance this has on the perception of resonance respondents feel they have when viewing romantic film. A two-Way ANOVA will then be performed once this value is accounted for in order to learn if beauty is a form of power.

RQ3: this question is concerned with determining if dyadic power becomes an element of romantic relationships after viewing romantic film. For this question the IV is romantic film and the DV is dyadic power negotiation. Since there are two independent samples, an independent t-test will be performed over the data, with an f-test measuring significance.

27 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The findings concerning this research study have produced both expected and unexpected results. A factor analysis was conducted, and the Skree Plot indicates that 5 eigenvalues are significant. The factors significant to this study are: factor 1 cohabitation, factor 2 beauty is power, factor 3 love, and factor 4 cynicism towards romantic films.

Factor one accounted for 4.42529875 (0.2603%) with a difference of 2.22220961, factor two accounted for 2.20308914 (0.1296%) with a difference of 0.45103581, factor three accounted for 1.75205334 (0.1031%) with a difference of 0.27933945, factor four accounted for 1.47271389 (0.0866%) with a difference of 0.33300325, and factor five accounted for 1.13971064 (0.067%) with a difference of 0.25732688. It is important to note that the fifth factor, which focused on dyadic power negotiation, did not meet the three item criterion so this factor has been omitted from further data analysis. View appendix D for an illustration of the Skree Plot, which can be found at the end of this study.

The first research question is significant because it deals specifically with factor three, and is statistically significant F(.05, 5.87) = 4.29 and gender F(.05, 5.87) = 5.95.

This question asked participants if they consider themselves to be romantic people, and if their degree of romanticism contributes to their choice in viewing romantic films. The results indicate that a large majority of female participants consider themselves romantically inclined, and are heavy viewers of romantic films (0.4143275). Results also show that some women do not consider themselves very romantically inclined

28 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

(0.182325), whereas some male participants do consider themselves romantically inclined (0.20886). View appendix E for an illustration of the normalized Score for self- perception of romantic inclination by gender at two exposure levels, which can be found at the end of this study.

The second research question focuses on factor 2 and is statistically significant because contrary to the literature that indicates beauty is a form of power, results are inconclusive concerning this phenomenon. Results indicate that the amount of exposure to romantic films, coupled with viewer skepticism (resonance) is not an accurate indication that can be used to clearly determine if participants believe beauty is a form of power. Low exposure values for females and males respectively are -0.220798 and

0.134858.

High exposure values for females and males respectively are -0.008202 and -

0.885205. Additionally this question failed to determine if sex is a contributing element when deciding if beauty is a form of power. Low resonance values for females and males respectively are -0.217261 and 0.058936. High resonance values for females and males respectively are -0.008202 and 0.040769. In the case of exposure and gender, the F value is .043, and for sex and resonance is 0.51, which are respectively insignificant. View appendix F for an illustration of the normalized Score for beauty as a form of power by gender at two resonance levels, which can be found at the end of this study.

29 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

Research Implications

The general understanding of romanticism is rooted in the feeling of love that most people experience in their lifetime (Martin, 2010). With romance becoming a more intriguing, albeit a underrepresented area of study as it relates to mass media (Holmes,

2007), research suggests that women view romantically-oriented movies because the themes of beauty and romance are appealing (York, 2010). In a content analysis of popular movies aimed at young adults, results indicate that actors demonstrate a strong affinity for acquiring romance, which persuades viewers to select this genre-specific media (Signorielli, 1997). Furthermore, by reviewing movies predominately viewed by young adults, a content analysis reveals that love and romance are portrayed as a linear process that inexplicably leads to marriage (Pardun, 2002). Hence, like previous sections and research have illustrated, the theme of romance is a deeply imbedded message that is pervasive and has successfully saturated the mass mediums of magazines (Carpenter,

1998), television (Holmes, 2007), and film (Tanner, Haddock, Zimmerman, & Lund,

2003).

Second-Order Cultivation Effect.

The first research question did not provide surprising results when considering the outcome of the data. The results indicate that females are considered to be more romantically inclined, and as a result are heavier viewers of romantic films in general.

Since a large amount of high school students leave home to attend college - surrounded by a new environment and students, romantically-oriented content becomes a critical 30 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 guide that can shape dating perceptions for college students (Lemish, 1985). Based on a content analysis reviewing romantically-oriented content, research suggests that this type of content targets the college demographic and the relationships college students experience (Lemish, 1985). Hence, a contribution for viewer appeal in choosing romantically-oriented content is grounded on the psychological value viewers place on this form of media (Sun, Hu, & Jia, 2011). In a study that reviewed college student preferences for viewing romantic motion pictures, researchers found that 52.8% of students consider this to be a motivating factor for film viewing (Sun et al., 2011). For women this is significant because research on characteristics of femininity, indicates females are generally more interpersonally and socially comfortable at communicating and forming social bonds (Lin & Tong, 2007); resulting in women identifying with this type of media content because conversational dialogue mirrors general parlance and narratives occur in familiar settings for viewers (Greenberg & Woods, 1999).

Furthermore, this is perhaps why in a study analyzing genre preference among college students, results indicate that love and romantic media are preferred first over other forms of media content (Sun et al., 2011). In addition to this reason, vicarious interaction is another possibility why women are more inclined to view romantic content (Stern,

Russell, & Russell, 2007).

Guided empirically on assumption, vicarious interaction is a feeling viewers of motion pictures experience, which is contingent on actors having similar demographic characteristics, and confronting similar issues that the viewer is experiencing in his or her life (Mccoby, Wilson, & Burton, 1958). In retrospect to cultivation theory, this is considered an outcome of the second-order effect of cultivation because viewers tend to 31 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 attribute particular concepts or factors to individual experiences in order to make sense of real world situations (Shrum, Lee, Burroughs, & Rinfleisch, 2011). Research asserts that this reason is a possible explanation why gender is considered to be an important element for viewers who identify with certain characters because some value judgments are predicated on spontaneity as messages are encountered (McConnell, Rydell, & Leibold,

2002;Mccoby et al., 1958). Cultivation theory further establishes this possibility as a viable explanation because by asserting that when emotional resonance is accounted for

(Sun et al., 2011), in this case when viewers develop a closeness towards characters by repeatedly viewing particular forms of media content (Wang, Fink, & Kai, 2008), it is because a viewer’s world view is aligning with the message they are being exposed to – resulting in the outcome of the cultivation process (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Shrum,

Burroughs, and Rinfleisch (2005) suggest that elaboration partially facilitates this process because viewers are encoding information by viewing media content, and as a result, are devoting attention to a particular message, which cultivates value perceptions. Friend

(2010) equally contends that if fictional content elicits emotions that can be carried over into realistic situations based on the accuracy of the emotional experience, then the outcome is warranted. Furthermore, the principle tenets of romance contribute to the attraction females have in viewing romantic films because experiencing love and intimacy, and stifling loneliness are important issues when participating in the college experience (Sun et al., 2011). Moreover, when women view romantic films, research indicates that displays of dependency and tearful emotions are important signs men use to feel appreciated and valued (Harris et al., 2004;Simon et al., 1992). Thus, this is perhaps a possible reason why some men view romantically-oriented content because of their

32 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 need to apply into daily life the messages derived from romantic movies (Grodal,

2009;Harris et al., 2004). However, for those viewers who rated low on the correlate of this first research question, film scholars posit that romantic films merely offer an escape from social reality, which film viewers are able to discern, and as a result establish a sense of identity that ultimately weakens The modern conceptions of masculinity and femininity that some motion pictures reinforce (Lin & Tong, 2007;Lin, 2010). Finally, since second-order cultivation outcomes are systematically different, thus concluding that these particular viewpoints are hinged on spontaneity due to a program being viewed

(Shrum et al., 2011), it is possible to conclude that the first-order effect of cultivation is prevalent, explaining the insignificant results of the second research question.

First-Order Cultivation Effect.

Concerning the second research question, results indicate that the degree of skepticism and the amount of exposure to romantically-oriented content are poor indications that cannot definitively posit beauty is a form of power. Research indicates that viewer skepticism concerning romantically-oriented films contributes to a general disbelief of associating beauty to power because individuals are cognizant that the images on the movie screen are unrealistic messages that are believed only throughout the duration of the film in question (Holland, 2008;Shrum et al., 2011). The author asserts that the truth of an idea is measured by first comprehending the message, then determining the validity of the message on whether it is true or false (Holland, 2008).

According to Shrum (1995), when participants are asked to give estimations about a particular topic, it is at this moment where the first-order process of cultivation is used.

Viewers of media programs often retain information previously watched for long-term 33 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 use, thus recounting pieces of stored details when making inferences based on judgment

(Hitsroni & Tukachinsky, 2006). Hence, by comparing a movie theme or the behavior of characters against self-actualization, research contends viewers are likely to systematically disbelieve particular messages because when fictional messages fail to provide viewers with factual evidence, the motivation to critically analyze the message is diminished, thus inevitably causing the viewer to disbelieve what he or she is watching at the movies (Holland, 2008). This aligns directly with the first-order effect of cultivation theory, which considers this outcome to greatly weaken the effect of cultivation by viewers who use heuristics to recall information to make prevalence judgments (Shrum et al., 2005). Furthermore, additional analysis suggests no relationship could be established between gender and resonance. Indicating that knowing the sex of a person is not a clear indication that can determine whether an individual is more or less likely to believe beauty is a form of power. A possible reason why beauty and power are insignificantly correlated in this case is grounded on the mean-world syndrome, which is a postulate of cultivation theory.

Mean-World Syndrome.

One area of the cultivation process that has received little discussion is the mean- world syndrome. This concept focuses on viewer perceptions being negative – inducing fear-related attitudes about reality (Morgan & Shanahan, 1999). Research broadens this concept by suggesting the mean-world syndrome implicitly refers to negative perceptions held by viewers (Appel, 2008). For instance, women who are considered physically attractive by sociocultural standards are perceived negatively by either being adulterous or very pretentious (Kwan & Trautner, 2009). While this may be a misguided assumption 34 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 for some, judgment becomes the behavior of interest because research indicates people can make assumptions based on stereotyped perceptions centered on physical attractiveness, thus evaluating a person’s level of beauty against the characteristics of attractiveness that are perceived to be appealing by society (Kwan & Trautner, 2009). For men and women respectively, this results in diminished opportunities for socialization because in a research study that examined occurrences of interaction with others, results indicate physically less attractive people are more likely to avoid communicating with others regardless of physical appeal, whereas highly attractive individuals are more likely to communicate with others who are equally attractive, but avoid interacting with those individuals who are less attractive (Mulford, Orbell, Shatto, & Stockard, 1998). This double-standard on beauty solidifies the uneasy view individuals have concerning the privilege associated to power because while not implicit, the high standard placed on physical appeal can elicit negative feelings (Rosen, 2010). In contemporary motion pictures, for instance, beauty as a form of power is not very persuasive because women in particular, no longer participate in the beauty process to adhere to the hegemonic standards of expectation, but instead use the beauty process as a catalyst for empowerment (Scanlon, 2007). Within cinematic films women are allowed to transcend conflicting identities of patriarchal stereotypes and womanhood, and use the culture surrounding beauty to coexist with other women, and become more comfortable at taking risks for self-fulfillment (Scanlon, 2007). This is why in an analysis reviewing viewer perceptions after having watched romantically-oriented content, results indicate viewers are minimally affected by the portrayals of beauty because viewers are able to identify

35 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 with actors who exhibit good moral character, and who thus, are empowering figures

(Khattri, 2011).

Research Limitations.

A limitation to this research study is the single class of students surveyed.

Original conceptions have kept the survey limited to first-year students, but it perhaps would have been more appropriate to include all students surveyed, so as to get a more accurate depiction of how other participants would have factored in the results. This is centered on the omission of the final research question because it did not meet the minimum standard for factor analysis. Given that throughout the duration of a college student’s career, he or she is likely to have experienced more dating opportunities, and potentially be in a long-term committed relationship, it would have been interesting to observe if any change would have resulted because research indicates that coercive manipulation is frequent among more serious relationships (Waldner-Haugrud, &

Magruder, 1995). Additionally, narrowing the scope of the survey to focus on particular films of heavy romance would have been appropriate. Leaving the topic broad attributed to confusion among some participants because it was not clear if a particular film was being evaluated. It is believed that the generality of romance if narrowed could have elicited different responses because participants could have had an exemplar on which to base their responses. Cultivation researchers posit that exemplars are critical for elucidating first-order cultivation outcomes because the ease at which participants recall memory-based information is more salient when making inferences based on judgment

(Shrum et al., 2011). Moreover, research indicates that survey conditions can be a limiting factor because participants may have low incentive to answer questions 36 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 accurately or feel that time constraints are hampering (Shrum, 2007), which in this case given the slight confusion with the generality of the topic is probable. Additionally, the disposition of this study favored females in part because of the literature surrounding beauty and its affects on women. Thus, broadening the study to be more inclusive of men is appropriate. Moreover, failing to determine if income is related to RQ2 is an element that could have perhaps helped explain the insignificant results because college students generally are on limited or fixed incomes, which could have been an underlying factor that was not explored. Another limitation to this research study is the scarce information over romantic motion pictures dealing with cultivation theory, which academic scholars contend is an area that would benefit greatly from continued research.

Future Research.

By reviewing the effect romantic idealism has on college viewers of romantic content, some topics have surfaced that would benefit from further research concerning cultivation theory. Since children’s literature is reported to contribute to a child’s enculturation and child development, it is not astonishing to learn that the introduction of traditional narratives has declined and has been replaced with more contemporary methods of storytelling (Fritz & Altheid, 1987;Phillips, Leithead, & Smith, 2002). For instance, the television is a vital tool in American society because it provides viewers an assortment of messages, which focuses on the most critical concerns, deepest dilemmas, and traditional views of individuals; thus, constructing popular culture, in order to share idealistic views of a community (Levine, 1992;Newcomb & Hirsch, 1983). It is this critique that constructs a message that is shared by the audience, thus positioning the television as a guide for culture (Newcomb & Hirsch, 1983). Therefore, it is culture that 37 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 is the model that dictates the types of television programs an audience views, thus constructing reality and negotiating public thought (Newcomb & Hirsch, 1983).

However, research contends that through the production of films is where constructs of social identity are shared (Fiedler, 1990;Kizlovic, 2002). Thus, in an effort to extend the research concerning mass media and romance, it seems appropriate to review how animated motion pictures affect adolescent perceptions concerning dating because the results indicate that no relationship could be established between beauty and power among college students. Hence, it seems necessary to approximate the turning point adolescent viewers have concerning beauty and power, as a point of learning when cultivation becomes insignificant concerning this mainstream perception. Furthermore, as a vehicle for the transportation of advice, ideas, and knowledge about society (Mendoza

& Reese, 2001;Zipes, 1982), narratives have become instrumental in altering perception by teaching behavior, consequences, and expectations (Lieberman, 1972). Contemporary narratives that tell individuals what to do are televised commercials that “present an objective to be sought or to be avoided, and offer a product, service, candidate, institution, or action” (Gerbner, 1999, p. 10). Therefore, in an effort to add to the literature concerning cultivation theory and romance, it seems important to investigate if individuals who view online dating advertisements develop a cultivated perception of romantic idealism because according to rhetorical studies, the myth of science is a prevalent message advertisers use to retain new subscribers (Houran & Lange,

2004;Ihanus, 2005).

38 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

Additional Research Alternatives.

One way in which the aforementioned limitations can be remedied is by utilizing other research methods that go beyond self-report in an effort to more systematically control for the variables found in a research study. One method that has become popular in social science research is the focus group (Rodriguez, Schwartz, Lahman, & Geist,

2011). This research method allows for multivocality to occur among participants, which allows for participant influence to manifest throughout the research process (Rodriguez et al., 2011). Additionally, focus groups allow researchers the opportunity to become more involved with participants in an effort to honor participant experiences, and to create more effective research environments that are welcoming and supportive (Rodriguez et al., 2011). For instance, distinctive participant populations are essential because as a benefit to this line of research, researchers are able to bring together people who share similar demographic characteristics, experiences, and identities (Breen, 2006;Farnsworth

& Boon, 2010). Groups of individuals who have been traditionally marginalized are prime candidates for this research method (Allen, 2006;Fallon & Brown, 2002), which in the case of the current study could have shed more light on the results because more than half of the participants were female. Moreover, since further research posits female focus groups can be a source of enlightenment by raising a woman’s awareness about issues by substantiating their experiences (Madriz, 1998), it is imperative that the facilitator of a focus group know and value the stories shared because participants can quickly discern the authenticity of the researcher (Hennick, 2008). However, with the wealth of data gathered from this type of research practice, it is important to remember that focus groups can be costly, difficult to arrange, facilitate, and transcribe, which are all important

39 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 components to consider because this method is not ideal in some situations (Rodriguez et al., 2011).

Another method that is promising that was not previously considered for this research study is content analysis. Broadly, content analysis is an observational method that is used when conducting research, which allows investigators to systematically evaluate the symbolic content of communication (Kolbe & Burnett, 1991). In the case of the present research study, this method of analysis is an alternative to survey research because research indicates unobtrusiveness minimizes bias responses from participants when confronted with direct forms of data gathering (Kolbe & Burnett, 1991).

Additionally, this method for research gathering and interpretation is useful because it can measure the effects of cultural, economic, and regulatory environmental variables

(Kolbe & Burnett, 1991). Cited as a limitation in the research, one unexplored variable that would benefit from this type of analysis is culture because an overwhelming percentage of participants (n = 97 or 69%) identify with the Latino culture. Furthermore, in an effort to test for economic constraints among participants, this would have been useful because income albeit a question on the survey was not considered to be a variable of relevance when considering the low average viewer rating of all participants. Another benefit to content analysis is its ability to help explain particular communication phenomena (Kolbe, & Burnett, 1991), which when considering the inconclusive results of the second research question, would have been helpful in generating an answer for the weak correlation between beauty and power. Moreover, content analysis has been cited as a companion method when utilizing several forms of research techniques, thus, a mixed

40 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 methods approach for instance, is another data gathering alternative that has utility concerning the previously discussed limitations.

A mixed methods approach to research is a culmination of several quantitative and qualitative techniques that together, can provide another research prospective that has not been considered. For example, conducting interviews and performing a content analysis is one type of mixed method strategy (Woods, Priest, & Roberts, 2002). By initially conducting interviews with participants, researchers can later review the information gathered through an open coding process in order to establish axial codes

(Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Authors contend this method for identifying particular codes from interview transcripts allows researchers to clearly focus on the main concepts because often times communication is complex, which can subsequently address other issues and shed light on other factors not previously considered (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

Content analysis becomes significant in this case because once the analytic codes are identified, then connections can be made, allowing for thematic interpretation to occur

(Woods et al., 2002). It is at this point where the researcher begins to identify similar concepts or themes from the interview transcripts (Woods et al., 2002). This mixed methods approach is a possible research method that would allow for variables to be monitored, but more implicitly, it would provide a more reliable approach on which to base the study. The interview would be of great benefit because similar to the focus group, participants could become more involved in the research gathering process, and thus be more willing to communicate (Rodriguez et al., 2011). Furthermore, it would allow for concepts to be clearly identified, whereas with self-report concepts are inferred based on the questions asked. Moreover, introducing content analysis in this case would 41 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 also strengthen the research study by affirming or disconfirming some of the axial codes through thematic interpretation. Thus, it is clear that all of these methods respectively are approaches that would greatly strengthen the research study by addressing the limitations, and aid future investigators desiring to add to the limited research over mass media and romance. In an effort to further the discussion concerning mass media and romance, an additional theory that would contribute significantly to this line of research is the uses and gratification model (U&G).

Uses and Gratification Theory.

The U&G approach is concerned with explaining “the way in which individuals use communications, among other resources in their environment, to satisfy their needs and to achieve their goals” (Katz et al., 1973, p. 510). Developed by sociologists Elihu

Katz and Jay Blumler, U&G is interested in knowing what people do with media (Siraj,

2007). Pioneering U&G research suggests people consume an assortment of media types

(gratifications sought) such as, television, movies, books, and newspapers in order to receive particular needs (Gratifications obtained), which range from escapism, combating loneliness, seeking information, and engaging in social participation (Lazarsfeld &

Stanton, 1944). This approach relies on the belief that consumers of mass media are not passive audience members, but instead are active participants because the objective of this theory is focused on determining what types of viewers use mass media to meet particular needs, in an effort to discover what underlying motivations contribute to media use, and as a result, uncover the positive and negative consequences of an individual’s use (Haradakis & Whitmore, 2006;Ruggiero, 2000;Siraj, 2007). Thus, the selection of media content an individual views, establishes a relationship between the reasons for 42 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 selecting such media, and the social function the selected media facilitates (Katz,

1984;Haradakis & Whitmore, 2006;Ruggiero, 2000).

Repeated exposure for instance, is significant because research contends that individuals repeatedly expose themselves to familiar programs in an effort to minimize exposure to new forms of media content (Cooper & Tang, 2009). In a focus group, participants indicate that fantasy and nostalgia are two gratifications obtained when media content is viewed repeatedly (Hoffman, 2006). Furthermore, research indicates that the need for control, and the feeling of security are additional motivations viewers seek (Hoffman, 2006). Therefore, as a topic for future research, and as an effort to contribute to the literature over U&G, is gratification saturation an outcome of repeated exposure, and to what degree does gratification saturation influence viewer motives in an effort to restrict viewers from experiencing other gratifications. The U&G model posits media consumption for entertainment is used as a way to escape problems and is a justifiable pass-time (Oliver & Bartsch, 2010;Nabi, Stitt, Halford, & Finnerty, 2006).

Hence, because habitual behavior is an unconscious act that does not require guidance and program selection can be determined by behavior (Larose, 2009), does this have any influence on attitudinal conceptions viewers hold that can be used to explain why other gratifications are not sought?

Practical Implications.

Practical implications for this research study are fixed on being aware of the pitfalls associated to mass media. Within the United States, mass media is an influential medium for adolescents and young people, and is powerful in shaping attitudes and dictating behavior (Bandura, 2001). This has created a learning environment for 43 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 individuals by promoting central values through popular programs – creating a culture centered on individualism (Uhls & Greenfield, 2012). One area where this is prevalent is in the occurrence of parasocial interaction (Wang et al., 2008).

According to mass media studies research, parasocial interaction is defined as an interactive gratification that is usually one-sided and exists between a viewer of media content and the character they closely identify with (Wang et al., 2008). This is an issue because parasocial interaction is viewed as potentially unhealthy because the characters a viewer is choosing to identify with are generally considered poor role models (Stern et al., 2007). In addition to this, a pseudo-relationship can form between the viewer and the character – causing the viewer to neglect FTF interaction (Stern et al., 2007). Moreover, research indicates that the emergence of media characters being close in age to audience members is a concern because media characters have the propensity to be very charismatic (Uhls & Greenfield, 2012). Furthermore, research reports that individuals who do exhibit loneliness are generally people who have a large amount of free time to view talk shows and other reality-based programs (hall, 2007). Additionally, viewers who are classified as lonely individuals are either consciously or unconsciously reflecting their level of self-esteem through the types of programs they view (Hall, 2007). Therefore, if an individual is lonely, then proactive steps should be taken to combat this feeling because the propensity to flock to media content as an escape is very possible (Hall,

2007). U&G research indicates that escape is a form of substitute gratification, which is a social withdraw, resulting in alienation, which is satisfied by mass media (Katz &

Foulkes, 1962;Mcleod, Ward, & Tancill, 1965;Nabi et al., 2006). Thus, individuals who consider themselves lonely people should avoid consuming high amounts of media 44 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 content and find positive alternatives to fill their time. An assortment of activities outdoors is a possible solution, as well as spending time with family or friends.

Conclusion.

According to George Gerbner, who is the principle theorist of cultivation theory, culture is perceived to be a vehicle that drives change through the regulation of information, which contributes to the cultivated conceptions viewers have by disseminating media messages that move between consciousness and existence (Moon &

Parker, 2007). Cultivation theory is largely sited and firmly grounded in having solidified the postulates of mainstreaming and resonance, which are the first and second ordered effects of this theory, and for establishing the concept of the mean-world syndrome.

However, where scholarly criticism has questioned the utility of this theory is in its failure of not moving beyond the scope of analyzing the effects of television for viewers.

Thus, the current research study is significant because it allows the criticism concerning cultivation theory to be stifled, as the utility of this theory moves beyond television. For this reason is why selecting romantic motion pictures as the artifact of choice to analyze against the backdrop of cultivation theory is significant. This topic is relevant because by considering the motion picture as a medium through which a narrative is disseminated, research clearly posits that the recurrence of a particular message over a period of time will cause a viewer to believe what is being watched regardless of the content (Bilandzic & Buzzell, 2008). Hence, the purpose for this study is grounded on determining if exposure to romantic motion pictures alters college student attitudes about the dating process.

45 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

Research over this issue indicates that mass media contributes heavily in cultivating adolescent conceptions that serve as a guide into adulthood (Ward &

Rivadeneyra, 1999). Furthermore, mass media is responsible for glamorizing particular ideas about romance that are idealistic messages that promote the American myth of love

(Harrington & Bielby, 1991). The movie industry capitalizes on this conception by depicting love as unproblematic and unwavering (Abbott & Jermyn, 2009). Additional research over motion pictures indicates during high economic hardship viewers of motion pictures prefer to view highly attractive actors, thus promoting the idea that beauty is considered to be a form of power by accentuating the positive elements that are characteristic of highly attractive individuals (Bassili, 1981;Lee et al., 1984). Thus, cultivation theory is appropriate for this study because research contends that mediated reality influences attitude perceptions through mainstreaming and resonance (Cohen &

Weimann, 2000).

The research study targeted first-year college students because of their transition period into college, and because most are still likely to have idealistic conceptions about romance. Surveys were administered to students in two separate undergraduate courses.

Results indicate that females are perceived to be more romantically inclined and are frequent viewers of romantic films. This is partially contingent on romantically-oriented content aligning with feminine characteristics women can easily identify with.

Additionally, vicarious interaction describes the affinity female viewers have in viewing romantic films because the second-order effect of cultivation posits attention and elaboration concerning a particular message equally contribute to a viewer ascribing factors to real world experiences. However, when inquiring about the conception that 46 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012 suggests beauty is a form of power, results were inconclusive. This is due to the first- order effect of cultivation, which dictates memory recall is used when comparisons are needed to be made, positing that heuristics are the cognitive shortcuts individuals use to make rapid judgment decisions. Thus concluding that beauty is not perceived to be a form of power because of the mean-world syndrome that broadly implies viewers have generally negative perceptions, which in this case refers to the negative stigma associated to the concept. Hence, while inconclusive results have strengthened the cultivation model, it appears attitudes about the dating process are changing because of the insignificant results that did not determine modern viewers of romantic films believe this to be true.

47 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

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66 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

APPENDIX A

IRB EXCEPTION

October 17, 2011

Dr. Narissra Carter Communication Studies Mail Stop: 3083

Regarding: 503114 Using Cultivation Theory to Analyze College Student Attitudes about the Dating Process Following Exposure to Romantic Film

Dr. Narissra Carter:

The Texas Tech University Protection of Human Subjects Committee approved your claim for an exemption for the proposal referenced above on October 16, 2011.

Exempt research is not subject to continuing review. However, any modifications that (a) change the research in a substantial way, (b) might change the basis for exemption, or (c) might introduce any additional risk to subjects must be reported to the IRB before they are implemented.

To report such changes, you must send a new claim for exemption or a proposal for expedited or full board review to the IRB. Extension of exempt status for exempt projects that have not changed is automatic.

The IRB will send annual reminders that ask you to update the status of your research project. Once you have completed your research, you must inform the Coordinator of the Committee either by responding to the annual reminder or by notifying the Coordinator by memo or e-mail ([email protected]) so that the file for your project can be closed.

Sincerely,

Rosemary Cogan, Ph.D., ABPP Protection of Human Subjects Committee 67 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

Box 41075 | Lubbock, Texas 79409-1075 | T 806.742.3905 | F 806.742.3947 | www.vpr.ttu.edu An EEO/Affirmative Action Institution

68 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

APPENDIX B

INFORMATION SHEET

We are asking you to be a subject in a research study called “Using Cultivation Theory to Analyze College Student Attitudes about the Dating Process Following Exposure to Romantic Film.” Dr. Narissra Carter of the department of Communication Studies at Texas Tech is in charge of the study, and she can be reached at (806) 742-3273. Emilio Hernandez who will be administering the survey is also available to answer questions about the project and can be reached at (512)966-2479. This information sheet is yours to keep for future reference, so if you have questions you may contact the researchers.

The purpose for this study is to determine if viewing romantic film alters college student attitudes about dating. If you agree to be a subject, you will be given a survey that asks questions about dating. The questions will focus on certain dating perceptions that are centered around the romantic film genre. It is good for us if all questions can be answered, but if there is a question you do not want to answer, it is okay to skip it. There are 32 questions, and it will take you about 10 minutes to complete the survey. Once complete, please return the survey to Emilio, who is at the front of the room even if the survey is not completed.

Please know that all surveys are anonymous, so no connection can ever be made between the subject and survey. This is crucial for statistical analysis because all responses will be entered into a computer, so all surveys will be confidential. Finally, please know that participation is completely voluntary, grades will not be effected, and the instructor will not know who participated.

Thank you for your consideration in participating.

69 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

APPENDIX C

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

Romantic Films and Dating Attitude Scale

Directions:

The purpose of this survey is to measure if exposure to romantic films alters college student attitudes about dating. Please note that some questions may appear repetitive, but this is necessary for the research. Know there is no wrong answer, so please do your best to answer all the questions provided. (All participants and surveys will remain anonymous). This survey consists of 32 questions and should take no more then ten minutes to complete. If at any time you feel that your participation will cause you harm, or if you simply wish to no longer participate in this research, just return your survey to the researcher upon collection. Finally, your participation is voluntary and appreciated very much.

Please circle your response to the following 5 demographic questions.

1. How old are you?

17 18-24 25-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46 and older

2. What is your current class designation?

First-year (freshman) Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate/professional Non- traditional Other Please explain______

3. What is your annual income?

$0-5000 $6000-$10,000 $11,000-20,000 21,000-30,000 31,000-40,000 41,000-50,000 51,000 and above

4. What is your sex?

Female Male

5. What is your racial background?

African-American Asian Black Caucasian/white Hispanic/Latino Native American Other Please explain______

70 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

Please circle your response to the following two questions that ask how often you view romantic films, and then average your scores for both questions. This is important for later data analysis.

6. How many hours a day do you view movies that focus on romance?

0-1 hours 1-2 hours 2-3 hours 3-4 hours 4-5 hours 5-6 hours 6 or more hours

7. How many times a week do you view movies that focus on romance?

0-1 times 1-2 times 2-3 times 3-4 times 4-5 times 5-6 times 6 or more times

Please write average score here___

Please write your response in the space provided that best reflects your attitude based on your exposure to romantic films. Where 1= very strongly disagree, 2 = strongly disagree, 3 = disagree, 4 = undecided, 5 = agree, 6 = strongly agree, and 7 = very strongly agree with each statement.

8. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe it is a good idea to live with a dating partner. 9. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe living with a dating partner is a good way to test if the relationship will last. 10. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe living with a dating partner will minimize the chance for divorce. 11. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe living with a dating partner will contribute to a happy dating relationship. 12. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe sex is an acceptable component of the dating process. 13. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe that a dating partner should be very physically attractive without exception. 14. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe physical attractiveness can be used for personal gain. 15. ___After viewing romantic films, my attitude about my physical appearance is more critical. 16. ___After viewing romantic films, physical attractiveness is something I evaluate a potential dating partner by. 17. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe physical attractiveness is not important when participating in the dating process. 18. ___My attitude about dating becomes more negative after viewing romantic films. 19. ___After viewing romantic films, I develop an attitude of acceptance towards having sex when participating in the dating process.

71 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

20. ___After viewing romantic films, I am more self-confident about my physical attractiveness and use this to my advantage in the dating process. 21. ___After viewing romantic films, I develop an attitude of conquer & conquest concerning the dating process. 22. ___After viewing romantic films, I develop an attitude of submission & subservience concerning the dating process. 23. ___I consider myself to be a very romantic person. 24. ___I believe that some romantic comedies offer a realistic image of dating relationships. 25. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe that romantic happy endings can occur in real life. 26. ___After viewing romantic films, my outlook on the dating process is poor because there is no ideal partner for me. 27. ___After viewing romantic films, I have a tendency to believe the idealistic messages shared about the dating process. 28. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe the feeling of love should be enough to sustain a healthy dating relationship. 29. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe there is only one person I should be with. 30. ___After viewing romantic films, I believe love is not essential for casual dating. 31. ___I believe after viewing romantic films love is overrated and makes dating difficult. 32. ___I believe that actual love and romance should mirror romantic films.

72 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

APPENDIX D

CATELL'S TEST (SCREE PLOT)

Figure 1.

73 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

APPENDIX E

2 X 2 ANOVA: NORMALIZED SCORE FOR SELF-PERCEPTION OF ROMANTIC INCLINATION BY GENDER AT TWO EXPOSURE LEVELS

Figure 2.

74 Texas Tech University, Emilio Hernandez, May 2012

APPENDIX F

2 X 2 ANOVA: NORMALIZED SCORE FOR BEAUTY AS A FORM OF POWER BY GENDER AT TWO RESONANCE LEVELS

Figure 3

75