Dear Partners, Friends & Interested Readers,
Karibu 2002 - Welcome to Year 2002! As the New Year approaches we take stock of the year that has passed and look for meaning in the events that have taken place. There is no doubt that the eruption of conflict on a global scale in the aftermath of 11 September will continue to mark the lives of us all in the years to come. The events underline how vital is the promotion of the underlying principles of democracy and the fair distribution of global resources for peaceful co-existence and the ultimate survival of mankind. The conflict in the aftermath of the events in September overshadows the many other conflicts in which people are engaged all over the world. In the course of the past decade awareness of the need for actively propagating skills in conflict management and resolution has sharpened acutely. Conflict management is at the top of the agenda of many civil society organisations and at FES, too, it has our major focus. Indeed conflict management, reduction and resolution is our theme for the coming year. In 2001 Tanzania demonstrated how a violent conflict could be resolved peacefully. One of FES’ strategies is the promotion of political dialogue and we therefore warmly applaud the conflicting Zanzibari parties on having settled the Muafaka Agreement through negotiation without the help of external mediators. The handbook carries an article to mark this achievement. A significant step in Tanzania’s endeavour to ensure a peaceful and prosperous future for its people is the newly formulated National Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. We have afforded the paper detailed coverage to allow as many people as possible to become familiar with it and actively engage in its implementation. At FES we will continue to work with issues that have bearing on poverty reduction, issues such as gender, HIV/AIDS, the environment, human rights. Closely related to poverty reduction is the agreed cooperation between the ACP-states and the EU, the conditions of which are described in the Cotonou Agreement. FES will contribute by furthering a better and broader dialogue on the issues in order to attain satisfying results for Tanzania and the region. And now to a presentation of the FES political handbook/NGO calendar 2002. Once again we present a wide range of articles that discuss political, economic and social conditions in Tanzania. For readers actively engaged in the development of civil society the handbook is both a source of useful information and a toolbox to assist you in your work. We have done our best to make it as accurate and as reader-friendly as possible, but we are of course open to constructive comments and criticism. Finally, I would like to thank our many contributors for their work, with special thanks to Valéria Salles, Kate Girvan and the coordinator, Angela Ishengoma.
The staff of the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Tanzania would like to wish you and your family a healthy, prosperous and peaceful year 2002.
PETER HÄUSSLER Resident Director TABLE OF CONTENTS
CALENDAR 2002 7
1. OVERVIEW Map of Tanzania (Mainland and Zanzibar) 36 Some basic facts and figures 37 Tanzania: a political and historical overview 38 Introduction to indicators 40 Tanzania at a glance 42
2. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES Different views on globalisation 46 Tanzania and the dynamics of the contemporary global economy 48
3. REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES The East African Community: an institutional framework for regional integration 54 Origins of violent conflicts in the Great Lakes Region 57 Tanzania and the regional trade agreements 60
4. LOCAL PERSPECTIVES The Tanzania Development Vision 2025 63 The National Poverty Reduction Strategy 65 Household food security and women’s role: the case of Tanzania 69 Gender and land laws 72 Local government in Tanzania 75 Support to Tanzania by bilateral donors 76
5. CIVIL SOCIETY Impact of NGOs in development 78 Draft of the National NGO Policy 83 Theatre for change 84 Major NGOs in Tanzania 85
6. MEDIA The Media Council of Tanzania 87 Code of Ethics for Journalists 89 What is “public relations”? 90 Preparing and running a press conference 90 A press release 91 Internet and email 92 List of Internet providers 94 Kiswahili newspapers in Tanzania 95 Kiswahili newspapers registered in 2001 98 Journals in Tanzania 99 English newspapers in Tanzania 99 Newsletters in Tanzania 101 Magazines in Tanzania 103 Radio broadcasting in Tanzania 104 Television broadcasting in Tanzania 106 Cable Television Networks in Tanzania 108
7. TRADE UNIONS Trade Unions Act, 1998 110 Information on Trade Unions in Tanzania 2001 112 Tanzania’s ratification of core ILO labour standards 115
8. WOMEN AND CHILDREN Major laws relating to women’s lives 116 Some gender indicators for Tanzania 118 Education and gender 120 Gender equality and the empowerment of women through education and training 122 Training Fund for Tanzanian women 125 Constraints on girls’ education 124 Child labour in Tanzania 127 Child abuse 128 The girl rape in Kilimanjaro 129 The situation in the Remand Homes 130 Who is Anaeli? - a poem about a street child 131
9. HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS: Government policy and action 132 Major challenges in HIV/AIDS prevention and a look at the situation in some specific groups 134
10. DEMOCRACY Agenda: Participation 2000 in Tanzania 136 Milestones in the democratisation process 137 Separation of powers: the case of Tanzania 140 Reconciliation and democratic consolidation in Zanzibar 141 The Mwafaka Agreement 144 Good governance: definition and implications 148 Code of ethics and conduct for the public service - extracts 149 Conceptualising conflict and conflict resolution 152 Women in Parliament 153 The Youth Leadership Training Programme (YLTP) 154 Tanzanian cabinet and permanent secretaries 156 List of fully registered political parties 160 Major policy concerns of a selected number of political parties 161 Presidential election 2000 164
11. BUSINESS What is the “private sector”? 167 Government revenue and expenditure 168 Education and the demands of the market 170
12. ENVIRONMENT The environment: some key issues, institutions and regulations 172 The consequences of urbanisation 175 Public transport: the case of the daladalas 176 Environmental education in teaching sciences 179
13. USEFUL TOOLS Holding a workshop, seminar or conference 184 8 tips on how to successfully chair a conference 185 Holding effective internal meetings and planning sessions 186 Project outlines 188 Qualities of a moderator 189 The moderation method 190 The structure of your speech 191 Argumentation techniques 191 How to use blackboards and flipcharts 192 The checklist for good implementation of activities 193 Time management - self management 194 Twelve steps towards conflict resolution 195
14. MISCELLANEOUS Some highlights from the accounting rules of FES 196 Writing a proposal to FES 198 Guidelines for including the gender dimension in an activity 199 List of FES publications in Tanzania 200 CALENDAR OVERVIEW 2002 / 2003
JANUARY 2002 FEBRUARY 2002 MARCH 2002 APRIL 2002 MAY 2002 JUNE 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
JULY 2002 AUGUST 2002 SEPTEMBER 2002 OCTOBER 2002 NOVEMBER 2002 DECEMBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 30 31 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
JANUARY 2003 FEBRUARY 2003 MARCH 2003 APRIL 2003 MAY 2003 JUNE 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 1 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
JULY 2003 AUGUST 2003 SEPTEMBER 2003 OCTOBER 2003 NOVEMBER 2003 DECEMBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31
week DECEMBER 2001 JANUARY 2002 FEBRUARY 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1/2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 JANUARY 2002 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 1st - 13th MON 31 TUE 1 WED 2 THU 3 FRI 4 SAT 5 SUN 6
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 7 TUE 8 WED 9 THU 10 FRI 11 SAT 12 SUN 13
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
9 week DECEMBER 2001 JANUARY 2002 FEBRUARY 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 3/4 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 JANUARY 2002 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 14th - 27th
MON 14 TUE 15 WED 16 THU 17 FRI 18 SAT 19 SUN 20
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 21 TUE 22 WED 23 THU 24 FRI 25 SAT 26 SUN 27
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
10 week DECEMBER 2001 JANUARY 2002 FEBRUARY 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 5/6 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 JANUARY – FEBRUARY 2002 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 28th - 10th
MON 28 TUE 29 WED 30 THU 31 FRI 1 SAT 2 SUN 3
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 4 TUE 5 WED 6 THU 7 FRI 8 SAT 9 SUN 10
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
11 week JANUARY 2002 FEBRUARY 2002 MARCH 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 7/8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 FEBRUARY 2002 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 11th - 24th
MON 11 TUE 12 WED 13 THU 14 FRI 15 SAT 16 SUN 17
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 18 TUE 19 WED 20 THU 21 FRI 22 SAT 23 SUN 24
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
12 week JANUARY 2002 FEBRUARY 2002 MARCH 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 9/10 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 FEBRUARY – MARCH 2002 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 25th - 10th
MON 25 TUE 26 WED 27 THU 28 FRI 1 SAT 2 SUN 3
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 4 TUE 5 WED 6 THU 7 FRI 8 SAT 9 SUN 10
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
13 week FEBRUARY 2002 MARCH 2002 APRIL 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11/12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 MARCH 2002 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 11th - 24th MON 11 TUE 12 WED 13 THU 14 FRI 15 SAT 16 SUN 17
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 18 TUE 19 WED 20 THU 21 FRI 22 SAT 23 SUN 24
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
14 week FEBRUARY 2002 MARCH 2002 APRIL 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13/14 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 MARCH – APRIL 2002 25 26 27 28 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 25th - 7th MON 25 TUE 26 WED 27 THU 28 FRI 29 SAT 30 SUN 31
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 1 TUE 2 WED 3 THU 4 FRI 5 SAT 6 SUN 7
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
15 week MARCH 2002 APRIL 2002 MAY 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 15/16 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 APRIL 2002 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 8th - 21st
MON 8 TUE 9 WED 10 THU 11 FRI 12 SAT 13 SUN 14
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 15 TUE 16 WED 17 THU 18 FRI 19 SAT 20 SUN 21
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
16 week MARCH 2002 APRIL 2002 MAY 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 17/18 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 APRIL - MAY 2002 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 22nd - 5th
MON 22 TUE 23 WED 24 THU 25 FRI 26 SAT 27 SUN 28
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 29 TUE 30 WED 1 THU 2 FRI 3 SAT 4 SUN 5
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
17 week APRIL 2002 MAY 2002 JUNE 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 19/20 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 MAY 2002 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 6th - 19th MON 6 TUE 7 WED 8 THU 9 FRI 10 SAT 11 SUN 12
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 13 TUE 14 WED 15 THU 16 FRI 17 SAT 18 SUN 19
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
18 week APRIL 2002 MAY 2002 JUNE 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 21/22 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 MAY – JUNE 2002 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 20th - 2nd MON 20 TUE 21 WED 22 THU 23 FRI 24 SAT 25 SUN 26
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 27 TUE 28 WED 29 THU 30 FRI 31 SAT 1 SUN 2
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
19 week MAY 2002 JUNE 2002 JULY 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23/24 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 JUNE 2002 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 3rd - 16th MON 3 TUE 4 WED 5 THU 6 FRI 7 SAT 8 SUN 9
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 10 TUE 11 WED 12 THU 13 FRI 14 SAT 15 SUN 16
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
20 week MAY 2002 JUNE 2002 JULY 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 25/26 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 JUNE 2002 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 17th - 30th MON 17 TUE 18 WED 19 THU 20 FRI 21 SAT 22 SUN 23
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 24 TUE 25 WED 26 THU 27 FRI 28 SAT 29 SUN 30
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
21 week JUNE 2002 JULY 2002 AUGUST 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 27/28 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 JULY 2002 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 1st - 14th MON 1 TUE 2 WED 3 THU 4 FRI 5 SAT 6 SUN 7
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 8 TUE 9 WED 10 THU 11 FRI 12 SAT 13 SUN 14
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
22 week JUNE 2002 JULY 2002 AUGUST 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 29/30 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 JULY 2002 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 15th - 28th MON 15 TUE 16 WED 17 THU 18 FRI 19 SAT 20 SUN 21
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 22 TUE 23 WED 24 THU 25 FRI 26 SAT 27 SUN 28
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
23 week JUNE 2002 JULY 2002 AUGUST 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 31/32 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 JULY – AUGUST 2002 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 29th - 11th MON 29 TUE 30 WED 31 THU 1 FRI 2 SAT 3 SUN 4
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 5 TUE 6 WED 7 THU 8 FRI 9 SAT 10 SUN 11
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
24 week JULY 2002 AUGUST 2002 SEPTEMBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 30 1 33/34 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 AUGUST 2002 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 12th - 25th MON 12 TUE 13 WED 14 THU 15 FRI 16 SAT 17 SUN 18
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 19 TUE 20 WED 21 THU 22 FRI 23 SAT 24 SUN 25
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
25 week JULY 2002 AUGUST 2002 SEPTEMBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 30 1 35/36 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 AUGUST – SEPTEMBER 2002 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 26th - 8th MON 26 TUE 27 WED 28 THU 29 FRI 30 SAT 31 SUN 1
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 2 TUE 3 WED 4 THU 5 FRI 6 SAT 7 SUN 8
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
26 week AUGUST 2002 SEPTEMBER 2002 OCTOBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 37/38 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 SEPTEMBER 2002 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 9th - 22nd MON 9 TUE 10 WED 11 THU 12 FRI 13 SAT 14 SUN 15
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 16 TUE 17 WED 18 THU 19 FRI 20 SAT 21 SUN 22
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
27 week AUGUST 2002 SEPTEMBER 2002 OCTOBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 39/40 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 SEPTEMBER – OCTOBER 2002 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 23rd - 6th MON 23 TUE 24 WED 25 THU 26 FRI 27 SAT 28 SUN 29
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 30 TUE 1 WED 2 THU 3 FRI 4 SAT 5 SUN 6
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
28 week SEPTEMBER 2002 OCTOBER 2002 NOVEMBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 41/42 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 OCTOBER 2002 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 7th - 20th MON 7 TUE 8 WED 9 THU 10 FRI 11 SAT 12 SUN 13
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 14 TUE 15 WED 16 THU 17 FRI 18 SAT 19 SUN 20
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
29 week SEPTEMBER 2002 OCTOBER 2002 NOVEMBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 43/44 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 OCTOBER – NOVEMBER 2002 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 21st - 3rd MON 21 TUE 22 WED 23 THU 24 FRI 25 SAT 26 SUN 27
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 28 TUE 29 WED 30 THU 31 FRI 1 SAT 2 SUN 3
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
30 week OCTOBER 2002 NOVEMBER 2002 DECEMBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 30 31 1 45/46 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 NOVEMBER 2002 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 4th - 17th MON 4 TUE 5 WED 6 THU 7 FRI 8 SAT 9 SUN 10
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 11 TUE 12 WED 13 THU 14 FRI 15 SAT 16 SUN 17
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
31 week OCTOBER 2002 NOVEMBER 2002 DECEMBER 2002 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 30 31 1 47/48 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 NOVEMBER – DECEMBER 2002 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 18th - 1st MON 18 TUE 19 WED 20 THU 21 FRI 22 SAT 23 SUN 24
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 25 TUE 26 WED 27 THU 28 FRI 29 SAT 30 SUN 1
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
32 week NOVEMBER 2002 DECEMBER 2002 JANUARY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 49/50 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 DECEMBER 2002 25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 2nd - 15th MON 2 TUE 3 WED 4 THU 5 FRI 6 SAT 7 SUN 8
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 9 TUE 10 WED 11 THU 12 FRI 13 SAT 14 SUN 15
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
33 week NOVEMBER 2002 DECEMBER 2002 JANUARY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 51/52 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 DECEMBER 2002 25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 16th - 29th MON 16 TUE 17 WED 18 THU 19 FRI 20 SAT 21 SUN 22
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 23 TUE 24 WED 25 THU 26 FRI 27 SAT 28 SUN 29
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
34 week NOVEMBER 2002 DECEMBER 2002 JANUARY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 53/1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 DECEMBER 2002 – JANUARY 2003 25 26 27 28 29 30 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 30th - 12th MON 30 TUE 31 WED 1 THU 2 FRI 3 SAT 4 SUN 5
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
MON 6 TUE 7 WED 8 THU 9 FRI 10 SAT 11 SUN 12
MORNING
NOON
AFTERNOON
NOTES
35 1. OVERVIEW
MAP OF TANZANIA (MAINLAND & ZANZIBAR)
Source: Danida: Udvikling Nr. 10/96-1/97
36 SOME BASIC FACTS & FIGURES
Geography1 Total area 945,087 sq. km Land area 886,037 sq. km Water area 59,050 sq. km (This includes the islands of Mafia, Pemba and Zanzibar) Total land boundaries 3,402 km Coastline 1,424 km Highest point: Kilimanjaro 5,895 m Natural resources hydropower, tin, phosphates, iron ore, coal, diamonds, gemstones, gold, natural gas, nickel
Land use Arable land 3% Permanent crops 1% Permanent pastures 40% Forests and woodland 38% Other 18% (1993 estimates)
People 1996 1999 2000 Population2 (estimated) 30.5 million 32.9 million 33.7 million Population growth rate % 2.8 2.4 2.3 Population density (people per sq. km.) 34.5 37.3 38.1
Ethnic groups3 Mainland - native African 99% (of which 95% are Bantu consisting of more than 130 tribes), other 1% (consisting of Asian, European and Arab) Zanzibar - Arab, native African, mixed Arab and native African Religions Mainland - Christian 45%, Muslim 35%, indigenous beliefs 20% Zanzibar - more than 99% Muslim
1 CIA-The World Factbook - Tanzania: downloaded 30/11 01 2 Population statistics: World Development Indicators database, July 2001 3 Information on ethnic groups and religion: CIA - The World Factbook
37 TANZANIA:A POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
By Mr O.K. Temwende, Kivukoni Academy for Social Sciences
The United Republic of Tan- The later struggle for Tanganyika African Associa- zania was formed in April national freedom in Tan- tion (TAA) in 1948. In 1934 1964 by the union of Tan- ganyika was not marked by a similar African Association ganyika and the state of sharp confrontation and was formed in Zanzibar. Zanzibar, comprising the bloodshed as was the case in After the Second World islands of Zanzibar and neighbouring Kenya or other War members of the Tan- Pemba. Tanganyika had been African colonies like ganyika African Association successively a German colony, Mozambique, Angola or moved with the tide of a British administered Zimbabwe. There were two nationalism and, in 1953, League of Nations’ Mandate, main reasons for this rela- under the able and skilful a United Nations’ Trust Terri- tively peaceful struggle. One chairmanship of Julius tory under British adminis- was that there was only a Nyerere, the TAA was reor- tration, and finally independ- small body of white settlers in ganized as a political party, ent since 1961 within the Tanganyika, numbering leading directly to the forma- Commonwealth of Nations. about 20,000 in the 1950s, tion of the Tanganyika Zanzibar was a British colony and as few of them were of African National Union until 1963. British origin, there were not (TANU) in 1954, while in Africans in Tanganyika, as very strong British political Zanzibar the African Associ- was the case in other parts of and economic interests in ation was reorganized into the Africa, never reconciled Tanganyika. The other reason Afro-Shiraz Party in 1957. themselves to colonial domi- was that in 1946, after the The formation of TANU in nation. From the very begin- Second World War, Tan- 1954 marked the beginning ning, they rose and fought the ganyika became a United of the independence struggle colonial invaders. The most Nations’ Trusteeship Terri- in earnest. After seven years outstanding resistance was tory. As such it could scarcely of intense political struggle shown by the Sambaa led by be allowed to fall under settler Tanganyika won her freedom Kimweri against the Ger- control. under the auspices of the mans; by the Hehe under As in the majority of TANU, strengthened by the Mkwawa who fought a long African colonies, nationalism cooperation of the trade and bitter war against the developed in Tanganyika after unions and agricultural coop- Germans; and during the 1945. In fact the first signs of eratives. Maji Maji War under the national awareness were Two years later, in Decem- leadership of Kinjeketile, already evident shortly after ber 1963, the Islands of Mputa and Kibasila. Due to the First World War when, Zanzibar and Pemba also the lack of unity among these both on the mainland and on became independent, but early nationalists and fighters Zanzibar, African associa- under a government without for freedom, and due to the tions were formed. On the wide support. This was a superior fighting power of the mainland the African Associ- government dominated by colonial invaders, all of these ation (AA) was formed in the Sultan of Zanzibar and a early liberation struggles 1929 as a discussion group minority of land-owning local ended up in total failure and among educated persons. Arabs. Two months after great loss of life. This association became the independence in January
38 1964, the Sultan’s government ices was extended and national CUF disputed the results and was overthrown and power unity was consolidated. This boycotted the House of Rep- passed to non-Arab Afro-Shi- last aspect is seen as President resentatives. It claimed that raz Party. Nyerere’s most significant victory had been snatched out The leaderships of the achievement. of the hands of its leader, Seif newly independent Tan- Given the failure of Ujamaa Shariff Hamad, and appealed ganyika and Zanzibar and self-reliance, President to world opinion to denounce replaced parliament with the Nyerere’s successor, President the poll and introduce sanc- party as the centre of power Ali Hassan Mwinyi, made an tions against CCM. and in 1965 a change in the about turn and in 1985 he In 1997 the Common- constitution made the country negotiated an adjustment pro- wealth secretariat came in as a one-party democratic state. gramme with the Bretton mediator and, after protracted Tanganyika had inherited Woods institutions. Since negotiations, an accord was an economy torn and dilapi- 1986 the country has been made but never implemented. dated by many years of colo- involved in a series of adjust- The situation remained tense nialism. There was a very low ment programmes following up to 2000 when the second level of literacy, a poor infra- on from the first agreement multiparty elections were structure and a high rate of with the IMF. Tanzania had held. Again CCM won both disease and poverty. In effectively no choice and was in the mainland and in Zanz- response to this, in 1967, the forced to implement drastic ibar with Mr Mkapa as Presi- new leadership made the then measures in an attempt to cre- dent of the Union and Mr famous Arusha Declaration ate an environment favourable Aman Karume as President of on Socialism and Self-reliance to investment in all the eco- Zanzibar. The post 1995 elec- as the country’s development nomic sectors.The 1990s have tion scenario was repeated blueprint. The cornerstone seen an acceleration of the after the results of the 2000 was Ujamaa, a policy of “vil- reforms with considerable elections. However, this time, lagisation” whereby the rural effort going into the key pro- CCM and CUF wasted no population was grouped into gramme of decentralisation. time and entered into negotia- village communities to culti- In the early 1990s the ruling tions, reaching an accord in vate land together and be pro- party CCM sensed that the September 2001. Its imple- vided with essential services. democratic movement was mentation is expected to com- The object was that they gaining ground across Africa. mence in November 2001. ■ should be self-sufficient in It had grasped the nettle of basic needs. economic liberalisation and This project did not survive. now also managed to swim It collapsed along with social- with the tide of democratisa- ism elsewhere in the world. tion. A multiparty system was Central planning proved itself introduced in July 1992 and unable to mobilise the coun- the first multiparty elections try’s economic forces and were run in 1995. Benjamin there were too many manage- William Mkapa became Pres- ment errors, not to mention ident of the United Republic cases of embezzlement. How- of Tanzania, while Dr. Salim ever, although the economic Amour became President of performance of the period was Zanzibar. far from satisfactory, standards A difficult political situation of living did improve. Access arose after the 1995 elections. to education and health serv- The main opposition party
39 INTRODUCTION TO INDICATORS
By Mr C.M.M. Kajege, Kivukoni Academy for Social Sciences
An indicator is a measure that • Unemployment is one of expressed as a percentage of can be used to reflect progress, the key indicators of the econ- the GNP, and an assessment stagnation or deterioration in omy. Unemployment is gen- of the nation’s ability to pay it a particular phenomenon or erally defined as males and back, and how it affects the situation such as literacy, the females in the economically government capacity to pro- economy, health and poverty. active age group who are not vide services to its people. For example, a change in the in paid employment in cash or • Rate of inflation is defined literacy rate from 5% to 7% kind or self-employed on a as the percentage annual over a five year period reflects continuous basis, but who are increase in a general price an improvement in literacy in available and have taken spe- level, commonly measured by that period. cific measures to seek paid the Consumer Price Index Indicators are also used to employment or self-employ- (CPI) or some comparable compare a given situation, e.g. ment. The rate is derived price index. Inflation influ- poverty, between one individ- from the economically active ences people’s livelihood. ual and another, between one population. The employed Price increases of food and household and another, include regular employees, non-food essential items between one community and working proprietors, active means harder lives for people. another or country with business partners and unpaid another. family workers but exclude SOCIAL INDICATORS The economic and social homemakers. The following represent com- welfare of an individual, • Income distribution is the monly used indicators of household or community can proportion of the consump- social development. In gen- be measured using economic tion that the population with eral they are used in the same and social welfare indicators. the lowest consumption (low- way as the economic indica- est 20 percent) spends. This tors. ECONOMIC INDICATORS indicator can also be used to • Infant mortality rate There are a number of stan- measure the pattern of the (IMR) is the probability of dardized indicators in this standard of living. dying between birth and area, which can give a picture • The Gross Domestic exactly one year of age of a country’s economic situa- Product (GDP) is the total expressed per 1,000 line tion. These indicators are output of goods and services births. It is a very sensitive most useful when (1) com- for final use produced in an indicator, which is influenced pared with other countries in economy, by both residents by maternal care, health serv- the region, (2) put into a time and non-residents, regardless ices provided and infant care. perspective (e.g. the 1960 of the allocation to domestic Under 5 mortality rate is the Gross National Product com- and foreign claims. GDP per probability of dying between pared with that of 1980), and capita is obtained by dividing birth and exactly five years of (3) when internal variations GDP by the population. age expressed per 1,000 live are taken into consideration • The nation’s debt situa- births. It is influenced by the (e.g. how the project area tion is an estimate of the livelihood status of the family. compares to the nation as a nation’s public and private • Life expectancy is the aver- whole). sector long-term foreign debt age number of years new-
40 born children can expect to • Primary school gross for primary school e.g. 7-13 live taking into account the enrolment ratio is the total years old. However, it should mortality risks prevailing for number of children enrolled in always be remembered that the cross-section of the popu- primary school e.g. Std. I-VII the overall net enrolment rate lation at the time of birth. (whether or not they belong in is, in most cases, much lower • Literacy is defined as the the relevant age group for that due to pupils dropping out of percentage of women and level) expressed as percentage school. ■ men aged 15 and above who of the total number of chil- can read and write. dren in the relevant age group
NOTES
41 TANZANIA AT A GLANCE Source: World Development Report 2002, World Bank; Human Developement Report, 2001; UNDP &World Bank 2000, www.worldbank.org/data 1. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INDICATORS
TANZANIA SUB-SAHARAN LOW AFRICA INCOME
2000 Population, mid-year (millions) 34.0 659 2,459 GNP per capita (Atlas method, US$) 270 480 420 GNP (Atlas method, US$ billions) 9.1 313 1,030
Average annual growth, 1990-2000 Population (%) 2.8 2.6 1.9 Labour force (%) 2.6 2.6 2.4
Most recent estimate (latest year available, 1990-2000) Pover ty (% of population below national poverty line) 51 ...... Urban population (% of total population) 33 34 32 Life expectancy at birth (years) 45 47 59 Infant mortality (per 1000 live births) 152 92 77 Child malnutrition (% of children under 5) 31 ...... Access to improved water source (% of population) 54 55 76 Adult illiteracy (% of population age +15)253838 Gross primary enrollment (% of school-age population) 67 78 96 male 67 85 102 female 66 71 86
1. POVERTY AND SOCIAL 2. KEY ECONOMIC RATIOS 3. STRUCTURE OF THE AND LONG-TERM TRENDS ECONOMY
* The diamonds show four key indicators in the country (in bold) compared with its income-group average. If data are missing, the diamond will be incomplete.
42 2. KEY ECONOMIC RATIOS AND LONG-TERM TRENDS
1980 1990 1999 2000
GDP (US$ billions) ... 4.3 8.8 9.0 Gross domestic investment/GDP ... 26.1 15.3 17.7 Exports of goods and services/GDP ... 12.6 13.6 14.7 Gross domestic savings/GDP ... 1.3 3.3 8.7 Gross national savings/GDP ... 5.9 2.9 8.6 Current account balance/GDP ... -17.9 -12.3 -9.2 Interest payments/GDP ... 1.1 0.7 1.4 Total debt/GDP ... 151.2 91.9 78.7 Total debt service/exports 23.5 34.2 15.7 15.3 Present value of debt/GDP ...... 53.1 29.1 Present value of debt/exports ...... 373.5 189.2
1980-90 1990-00 1999 2000 2000-04
(Average annual growth) GDP ... 2.9 3.6 5.1 6.2 GDP per capita ... 0.1 2.4 1.3 4.0 Exports of goods and services ... 9.3 18.6 18.4 1.7
3. STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY
1980 1990 1999 2000
(% of GDP) Agriculture ... 46.0 44.8 45.1 Industry ... 17.7 15.4 15 Manufacturing ... 9.3 7.4 7.5 Services ... 36.4 39.8 40 Private Consumption ... 80.9 89.8 86 General government consumption ... 17.8 6.9 12 Imports of goods and services ... 37.5 25.6 23.8
1980-90 1990-00 1999 2000 (Average annual growth) Agriculture ... 3.2 3.1 3.4 Industry ... 3.1 6.7 7.2 Manufacturing ... 2.7 4.9 4.6 Services ... 2.7 5.4 5.8 Private Consumption ... 2.2 5.2 -0.9 General government consumption ... 2.5 -1.5 5.0 Gross domestic investment ... -1.4 -1.5 7.5 Imports of goods and services ... 0.9 8.7 0.1
Note: 2000 data are preliminary estimates
43 4. PRICES AND GOVERNMENT FINANCE
1980 1990 1999 2000
Domestic prices (% change) Consumer prices 30.2 35.8 7.9 5.9 Implicit GDP deflator ... 20.2 10.3 5.4
Government finance (% of GDP includes current grants) Current revenue ... 11.4 10.6 10.7 Current budget balance ... -1.1 0.5 -0.5 Overall surplus/deficit ... -3.8 -3.3 -5.8
TRADE (US$ millions) Total exports (fob) ... 352 541 600 Coffee ... 85 77 84 Cotton ... 75 28 38 Manufactures ... 73 22 34 Total imports (cif) ... 1297 1631 1592 Food ... 59 200 176 Fuel and energy ... 174 104 95 Capital goods ... 540 710 770
Export price index (1995=100) ... 75 84 83 Import price index (1995=100) ... 92 84 85 Ter ms of trade (1995=100) ... 82 99 98
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS (US$ millions) Exports of goods and services 673 519 1195 1327 Imports of goods and services 1221 1557 2244 2146 Resource balance -548 -1038 -1049 -819 Net income -14 -186 -66 -43 Net current transfers 22 461 34 35 Current account balance -540 -764 -1081 -827 Financing items (net) 474 748 1223 1176 Changes in net reserves 66 16 -143 -348
Memo Reserves incl. gold (US$ millions) ... 124 776 950 Conversion rate(DEC, local/US$) 8.2 195.1 744.8 800.4
44 5. EXTERNAL DEBT AND RESOURCE FLOWS
1980 1990 1999 2000
(US$ millions) Total debt outstanding and disbursed 5322 6438 8053 7104 IBRD 198 243 16 11 IDA 242 1250 2594 2593 Total debt service 161 179 196 213 IBRD 20 44 8 6 IDA 2 14 43 51 Composition of net resource flows Official grants 485 677 737 763 Official creditors 219 208 177 111 Private creditors 99 4 -13 -11 Foreign direct investment 0 0 183 193 Por tfolio equity 0 0 0 0 World Bank program Commitments 109 537 159 272 Disbursements 69 187 199 142 Principal repayments 5 32 30 37 Net flows 64 155 169 105 Interest payments 17 26 21 20 Net transfers 47 129 148 85
Source: World Bank, 2000 www.worldbank.org/data/
NOTES
45 2. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
DIFFERENT VIEWS ON GLOBALISATION
“The benefits of globalisation intensity, scope, volume and mation technology is the are obvious: faster growth, value of the international backbone of the process of higher living standards, new transactions in the areas of globalization. It is the appli- opportunities. Yet a backlash information, finance, trade cation of information tech- has begun. Why? Because and administration. In simple nology that counts in the these benefits are very terms, globalization is the free process of globalization. The unequally distributed; because movement of goods, capital most obvious expressions of the global market is not yet and information. information technology are underpinned by rules based the Internet and the elec- on shared social objectives; Dimensions of tronic media. The global and because, if all of tomor- Globalization news coverage of the CNN is row’s poor follow the same The process of globalization a case in point. path that brought today’s rich manifests itself in a number of Environmental integration to prosperity, the earth’s dimensions. The most is another dimension of the resources will soon be prominent are those in the process of globalization. exhausted...” Kofi Annan, UN areas of economics, finance, According to Scott Barret and Secretary-General, in the Daily information technology, envi- Charles S. Person “we all News, 22nd of December 2000, ronment and even in politics. share just one global climate Noble Peace Prize Winner At the economic level, global- system and a single ozone 2001 ization is responsible for inte- layer, both of which are neces- grating national economies sary for supporting life on What is Globalization? into a single world economy. earth. The climate and the While globalization may This is expressed through the ozone layer are global public mean different things to dif- merging of transnational cor- goods. Use of both by one ferent people, there is no con- porations, which are simply country does not diminish the troversy over the fact that it is defined as large commercial amount available to others the most frequently used con- enterprises which do business and no country can be cept to describe the contem- in many countries. The for- excluded from using them. porary international interac- mation of sub-regional and Emissions of pollutants that tion. regional economic organiza- change the climate and The most prominent areas tions such as the East African destroy ozone in the hemi- associated with the concept of Community, SADC, COM- sphere are global problems” globalization within the con- ESA, ECOWAS, EU, (in SAISPHERE 2000: Can temporary international NAFTA and ASEAN is yet the Environment Survive interaction are those involving another expression of the eco- Globalization?). information technology (IT) nomic dimension of the At the political level, one and the global economy. The process of globalization. political aspect of globaliza- obvious peculiar characteris- At the financial level, the tion is the spread of democ- tics of globalization related to process of globalization has racy throughout the world. information technology and integrated the financial mar- The emphasis on human the global economy are speed, kets. The dimension of infor- rights, rule of law and good
46 governance have become ization come from different sion. Existing forms of co- international concerns. perspectives and motivations. operation and solidarity are Another important political For those coming from an being dissolved; and these aspect of globalization is economic point of view, glob- must now be reestablished and national security. The process alization harms the world’s secured. of globalization raises serious poorest. Trade could hurt the We need to rethink the rela- challenges to national govern- poor by lowering, through tionship between market and ments. Information systems international competition, the state - on both national and create new vulnerabilities in a prices of what they produce. the international levels. The nation’s infrastructure, partic- Economic integration leads to inequality of worldwide devel- ularly to its electric power aggregate growth which could opments necessitates the link- grid, banking system and lead to higher inequality ing of the economic and polit- water supply. At the interna- within countries. One indus- ical spheres, otherwise the tional level, globalization trial country’s economy down- global social question will raises the question of whether turn can pull the rest of the threaten our very survival. the world is safer or more world into recession. Finally, We must take advantage of dangerous place. Due to the globalization is partly one- the opportunities of globaliza- process of globalization many sided or exclusionist. Its tion together. Dividing the nations face both new threats advantages are foremost in the world up into globalization and new vulnerabilities. rich countries and less in the winners and losers isn’t very These include poverty, dis- poor countries; or it involves helpful, at least not if we want eases, conflicts and terrorism. urban centers to the detriment to build a lasting world order. of rural areas. Growth, development and Varying perceptions on The opponents coming solidarity are going to con- Globalization from the information technol- tinue to be mutually depend- Whether the process of glob- ogy point of view worry about ent values.” Holger Boerner, alization is good or bad, or the Internet’s negative President of the Friedrich- whether its effects are positive impacts. A lone cyber terror- Ebert-Stiftung, 17th of June, or negative depend much on ist, for example, can cause 1998, Berlin. one’s perspective. Conse- havoc and disrupt millions of quently, the process of global- PCs worldwide. This fear is You can get more information ization has its proponents and related to security concerns as on globalisation via the inter- opponents. For its advocates, well, with globalization, it is net: globalization increases pro- easier for global criminal net- www.worldbank.org ductivity by offering better works to operate. There is no www.imf.org access to capital, markets for better demonstration of this www.aidc.org.za/ilrig products, lower-priced con- than the terrorist network that www.odc.org sumption items and informa- was responsible for the crimi- www.globalism.com.au/ tion about new technologies. nal events of September 11 in www.un.org/partners/civil- Economic growth, in turn, New York and Washington society/agard.htm produces new wealth that can DC. bring great improvements in Critical views: the human condition and An FES-Position www.fes.de reduce global poverty. Glob- “Globalization deepens the [email protected] alization also has the potential inequalities in our societies. www.ifbww.org of promoting civil, political Political action must thus [email protected] and economic freedoms. focus on strengthening the www.attac-netzwerk.de The activists against global- foundations of social cohe-
47 TANZANIA AND THE DYNAMICS OF THE CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL ECONOMY Role of the Private Sector, Foreign Direct Investments and International Trade
By Dr. F. A. S. T. Matambalya, Department of Marketing, University of Dar es Salaam
I. Introduction where they source such inputs Economic liberalisation is the A very important feature of as capital, labour and raw foundation of the current the contemporary global materials) and global markets global economic dynamics. economy is the increasing for goods and services (i.e., Technically, it refers to a pol- international economic inte- where they sell their products, icy stance where economic gration. There are three major including services). Interna- policies deliberately seek to channels of international eco- tional trade, which is the tra- promote international eco- nomic interaction: interna- ditional form of international nomic interaction via a freer- tional investment, interna- economic linkage, is still the market economy. tional trade and international most imperative link between Economic liberalisation is diffusion of new technologies national economies in gen- realised through the removal (Matambalya 2001, Siebert eral, and developing or reduction of direct controls and Klodt 1998). economies in particular. The of both intra-national and The private sector is con- pertinent interactions are international economic trans- sidered to be the motor for institutionalised through actions, and a shift towards economic development in a arrangements of a bilateral more reliance on price mech- liberal global economy. Fur- nature, a regional nature anism to co-ordinate eco- thermore, integration with (through regional integration nomic activities. It involves the global economy is seen as schemes), and a multilateral designing and implementing a prerequisite for competitive- nature promoted and realised specific measures to make ness and sustainable growth through the World Trade possible the shift of the econ- of any economy. Organisation (WTO). omy to a situation where there International economic Against this background, this is, inter alia (a) less direct interactions can enable devel- article discusses the roles of involvement of government oping economies to close the the private sector, FDIs and in economic production activ- gap in terms of such critical international trade in a liberal ities, and (b) less use of con- strategic resources as capital. global economy. Using simple trols (e.g., licenses, permits, Thus, in a liberal global econ- indicators, it highlights the price controls, etc., exchange omy, such resources as invest- evolution of the private sector rates, etc. (Matambalya 2001, ments can easily flow to in Tanzania, FDIs and trade. Black 1997). developing countries in the All statistical figures in this form of foreign direct invest- article are adapted from B. Empowerment of the ments (FDIs). Matambalya (2001). private sector Besides, through the trade The economic liberalisation channel, developing countries II. Fundamentals of the process is firmly founded on can in more mutually benefi- contemporary global the empowerment of the pri- cial ways, interact with other economic dynamics vate sector. Hence, the process economies on the global fac- involves the empowerment of tor markets (i.e., markets A. Economic liberalisation non-state economic units, i.e.,
48 private enterprises and house- tions. Otherwise liberalisation Stoeckl et al. 1990). holds. In Tanzania this has may lead to such undesirable involved the privatisation of practices as the formation of B. Envisioned evolution state-owned enterprises formal or informal cartels of trade from a global (SOEs). (agreement by a number of perspective Coming after the failure of firms in the industry to restrict Liberal economic policies are earlier policy attempts to competition), thus causing less expected to induce the growth empower the people through efficient economic perform- of international trade flows. collective ownership of various ance and distorting the shar- Trade trends give important properties through the state, ing of the benefits of liberali- information about economic the move to empower the pri- sation. competitiveness. The most vate sector is also seen as a common approach to assess possible way of promoting III. Envisioned evolution the role of international trade direct, and wherever possible, of investments and trade in involves measuring the trend more widely spread property a liberal global economy dimension of a given econ- ownership in society. In this omy’s integration with other spirit, shares of formerly pub- A. Envisioned evolution of economies. In its elementary lic enterprises like the Tanza- investments from a global form, this involves the explo- nia Oxygen Limited (TOL), perspective ration of various indicators of Co-operative and Rural Liberal economic policies are the contribution of interna- Development Bank (CRDB), expected to induce the growth tional trade to economic evo- Tanzania Breweries Limited of international capital flows. lution, e.g., (i) the contribu- (TBL), etc. were sold to the Trends in FDIs provide tion of trade to output, and (ii) public. important information about the growth in trade flows vis à economic competitiveness. vis growth of output, C. Regulatory framework The proxies for the pattern (Matambalya 2001, Siebert While recognising the poten- and structure of integration and Klodt 1998, Stoeckl et al. tials of liberalisation, no with the global economy can 1990). responsible government in the be gleaned from, (i) the devel- Hence, the evolution of a world has ever equated liberal- opment of a country’s capital nation’s trade as an indicator isation with full-scale laissez flows relative to its output and of its integration with the faire, i.e., a policy of complete trade flows, and (ii) the devel- global economy can be high- non-intervention by govern- opment of a country’s capital lighted by the relationships ments in the economy, leaving flows relative global capital between, (i) exports and GDP, all decisions to the market. flows. and (ii) exports and capital Instead, liberalisation In its elementary form, the flows. expresses a freer economy, in assessment of an economy which the government con- from a global perspective C. Baselines for assessing tinues to play a facilitating involves the exploration of performance in FDIs and role, by setting and managing various indicators of the con- trade a regulatory framework. tribution of international trade In the assessment of a given A conducive regulatory to economic evolution, e.g., (i) economy, it is important to framework is necessary in the relationship between FDIs know whether the economy order to promote competition and GDP, (ii) the relationship under review is, (i) falling back and create a level playing field between FDIs and exports, in relation to the global trend, for individuals, households (Matambalya 2001, Siebert (ii) keeping pace with, (iii) and enterprises participating and Klodt 1998, Grundlach (particularly for developing in various economic transac- and Nunnenkamp 1996, economies) catching up with,
49 or (iv) outpacing it. (Matam- kind of performance Tanza- 1980 to 1989 period. balya 2001, Grundlach and nia cannot be keeping pace The evidence of positive Nunnenkamp 1996). with the world, let alone trends is encouraging. How- catching up. ever, due to the absence of IV. Lessons from Though Tanzania is now consistent data to enable a Tanzania’s recent FDI attracting more FDI than in comparison with the overall performance: the past (a substantial part global trend, it is not possible selected indicators being directed at extracting its to prove whether the growths mineral wealth), overall the recorded by Tanzania and A. Contribution of FDIs performance of all the three Uganda indicate the to GDP East African Community economies are keeping pace Regarding the ratio of net (EAC) economies is bad. with the global trend, or even FDIs to GDP, the results catching up. Besides, Kenya, computed using data from B. Growth of FDIs flows Tanzania’s important eco- WB 2001b and WB 1992 are relative to growth of export nomic partner, recorded a real presented in table 1 for Tan- flows fall back, and compared to the zania, alongside her sister The relevant test of integra- 1980 to 1989 period, the ratio EAC economies. tion with the rest of the world in the period 1990 to 1998 Apparently, Tanzania is not through capital flows is declined from 1.3 percent to yet an attractive destination depicted in table 2 for Tanza- 0.75 percent. for FDIs. Although the ratio nia and the other two EAC The explicatory power of the has been increasing over the economies. For Tanzania the results is severely restrained by years, it remained extremely average FDI-to-export ratio the extremely low starting low. Hence, although avail- in the period 1990 to 1998 points of FDIs, as Tanzania able data does not allow a increased by a phenomenal recorded virtually zero FDIs global comparison, with this 900 percent compared to the during most of the 1980s.
Table 1: Integration of the EAC and selected economies in the global economy as depicted by the relationship between FDIs and export trends.
TABLE 1 NDFI GDP * 100 Year Kenya Tanzania Uganda 1. 1980 1.1 0.00 0.00
2. 1985 0.21 0.00 0.00
3. 1989 0.63 0.80 0.25 Average of 1980 - 1989 0.32 0.02 0.02
4. 1990 0.25 0.9 0.14
5. 1995 0.36 2.1 0.14 6. 1998 0.50 2.8 2.8 Average of 1990 - 1998 0.24 1.5 0.85
Average of 1980 - 1998 0.28 0.76 0.42
Source: NFDI .... net foreign direct investments, GDP... gross domestic product. Source: Matambalya 2001.
50 Table 2: Integration of the EAC and selected economies in the global economy as depicted by the relationship between FDIs and export trends.
TABLE 2 NDFI X * 100 Year Kenya Tanzania Uganda 1. 1980 3.8 0 0
2. 1985 0.8 0 0
3. 1989 0.27 7.7 6.4 Average of 1980 - 1989 1.3 0.56 0.64
4. 1990 1.0 0.79 1.92
5. 1995 1.1 9.29 0.29
6. 1998 1.4 13.22 27.3 Average of 1990 - 1998 0.75 7.4 7.6
Average of 1980 - 1998 1.03 3.6 3.9
Source: NFDI .... net foreign direct investments, direct investments, X ... exports Source: Matambalya 2001.
Table 3: The integration of the EAC and selected economies into the global economy: evidence from selected trade-related indicators.
∆(Xψ) ∆( ψ) TABLE 3 x 100 X x 100 ∆(GDPψ) ∆(Xy) 1980-90 1990-99 1980-99 1980-90 1990-99 1980-99 1. Kenya 105 18 61.5 85 6 45.5
2. Tanzania NA 306 - NA 137 -
3. Uganda 62 226 144 35 236 135.5
4. SSA 140 183 161.5 46 64 55 5. EA and Pacific 140 170 155 213 183 198
6. World 160 276 218 - - -
7. High Income 160 270 215 96 94 95
V. Lessons from Tanzania’s presented in Table 3 (Matam- that the economy is poten- recent trade performance: balya 2001). Tanzania tially catching up. selected indicators recorded a notable ratio of 137 However, these results allow percent for the period 1990 to only reserved optimism due to A. Significance of exports 1999. Compared to the high- the extremely low starting relative to global exports income countries, which point. Besides, the EAC’s only Optimistic observations are recorded 94 percent, it appears somewhat strong economy,
51 i.e., Kenya, shrank from 85 important observations with omy (through the investment percent for the 1980 to 1990 respect to the reform efforts as and trade channels) in partic- period to 6 percent for the well as economic performance ular. Although, the explana- 1990 to 1999 period. efforts related to FDIs and tory power of the results is
∆( ψ) trade. Tanzania’s net FDIs to restrained by the low starting X x 100 Notes: ∆(GDPψ) GDP ratio has been growing points of key variables of eco- over the years. Yet, the econ- nomic performance (e.g., growth of exports relative to omy is apparently still not a exports, GDPs, and FDIs, growth of GDP, computed as sufficiently attractive destina- etc.) they suggest that the average of the observation tion for FDIs as the ratio economy has firmly set off on ∆( ψ) years, X x 100 remained extremely low. the arduous path to economic ∆(Xy) Given this performance, Tan- development and modernisa- growth of country exports zania might not have man- tion. relative to growth of global aged to keep pace with the exports, computed as average global trend, let alone catch Main reference of the observation years. up with advanced economies. Matambalya, F.: “Integration of the EA ... East Asia, SSA ... As to the growth of FDIs EAC economies in a Liberal Global Sub-Saharan Africa, High flows relative to growth of Trade: Falling Behind or Catching UP?”, Dar es Salaam University Con- Income; (WB 2000: 334- export flows, the ratio vocation Journal, 2001 (forthcom- 335). Source: Matambalya 2001. increased by a 900 percent in ing). the period 1990 to 1998, B. Importance of exports compared to the 1980 to 1989 Other references in GDP period. However, the absence Black, J.: “Oxford Dictionary of Eco- On the basis of results pre- of consistent data makes a nomics”, Oxford University Press, sented in table 3 for the comparison with the overall Oxford . New York, 1997. period 1990 to 1999, Tanza- global trend impossible. Grundlach, E. and Nunnenkamp, P.: nia appears not only to be Regarding the significance “Falling Behind or Catching Up: moving forward in tandem of Tanzania’s exports relative Developing Countries in the Era of with the global trend, but also to global exports, optimistic Globalisation”, Kieler Discussion to be systematically catching trends are observed as well. Papers, No. 263, 1996. up with the more advanced From a technical perspective, economies. However, the the country appears to be Sitta, S.: “An Overview of Investment observed trends are weakened potentially catching up com- Promotion in Tanzania”, unpublished by the extremely low take-off pared to the high-income paper presented at the “Tanzania Association of Accountants”, Dar es levels. In 1980, for instance, countries. Also, Tanzania Salaam, Sept 27th, 2001. Tanzania recorded dismal appears not only to be moving GDP and exports of goods forward in tandem with the Siebert, H. and Klodt, H.: “Towards and services of US $ 4220 global trend, but also to be Global Competition: Catalysts and millions and US $ 506.4 systematically catching up Constraints”, Kieler Working Papers, (equivalent to 12 percent of with the more advanced No. 897, 1998. the GDP), respectively. The economies, regarding the comparable figures for importance of exports in Stoeckl, A., Pierce, D. and Banks, G.: “Western Trade Blocks: Game Set Uganda were US $ 4 304 and GDP. for Match for Asia-Pacific and the 301.28 (equivalent to 7 per- Overall, the results give a World Economy”, Center for Inter- cent of the GDP) respectively. degree of hope regarding national Economics, Canberra, 1990. Tanzania’s economic per- VI. Conclusions formance in general, and inte- World Bank: “African Development This article contains some gration with the global econ- Indicators 2000”, World Bank, New York, 2001a.
52 World Bank: “World Development Indicators 2000”, World Bank, New York, 2001b.
World Bank: “African Development Indicators 2000”, World Bank, New York, 1992.
NOTES
53 3. REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES
THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY: AN INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR REGIONAL INTEGRATION
By Dr M. O. Maundi, Centre for Foreign Relations
Background fields, in research and tech- Heads of State of the Partner After the conclusion of the nology, defence, security and States. Its major role is to pro- East African Community legal and judicial affairs for vide general guidance to the Mediation Agreement of their mutual benefit (Article 5 development and achieve- 1984, which followed the col- (1)). ment of the objectives of the lapse of the former East The above objectives are Community. This entails the African Community in 1977, envisaged to be realized consideration of annual the search for another viable through the establishment of progress reports, reviewing formula for regional co-oper- a Customs Union, a Com- the state of peace and secu- ation amongst the three East mon Market, subsequently a rity; and any other functions African countries began. Monetary Union and ulti- as may be conferred upon it This led the three East mately a Political Federation by the Treaty (Article 11). African countries to establish in order to strengthen and the Permanent Tripartite regulate the industrial, com- The Council Commission on 22 Novem- mercial, infrastructural, cul- The Council of Ministers ber 1991 which was to be tural, social, political and consists of the ministers responsible for identifying the other relations of the Partner responsible for regional co- areas and laying down the States in order to accelerate operation and such other institutional framework for harmonious and balanced ministers as each Partner regional cooperation. development and the sus- State may determine. It is the Now that the Treaty for the tained expansion of economic major policy organ of the Establishment of the East activities, the best of which Community. It is responsible African Community has been shall be equitably shared for directing, promoting and signed and ratified by the (Article 5 (1) ). monitoring the efficient func- three countries, the journey tioning and development of towards East African regional The Organs the Community. The Coun- integration has begun in The East African Commu- cil’s functions include initiat- earnest. nity has various organs and ing and submitting bills to the institutions responsible for Summit; making regulations; The Objectives the realization of its objec- issuing directives and making The objectives of the revived tives. These organs and insti- recommendations; consider- East African Community tutions will exercise executive, ing the budget of the com- include the development of judicial and legislative pow- munity; making staff rules; policies and programs aimed ers. There are, so far, seven submitting annual progress at widening and deepening principal organs: reports to the Summit as well co-operation among the Part- as preparing the agenda for ner States in political, eco- The Summit the Summit (Articles 13 and nomic, social and cultural The Summit consists of the 14).
54 “Push! Stop your laziness! The Eurodollar is getting away.” Source: Art in Politics, 1st E.A. competition on political caricatures and cartoons, FES 2001
The Coordination They will be responsible for the provisions of the Treaty. It Committee the preparation of compre- is empowered to determine The Coordinating Commit- hensive implementation pro- the legality of any act, regula- tee consists of the permanent grams and setting out priori- tion, directive, decision or secretaries responsible for ties for the various sectors of matter as shall have been regional cooperation and such the Community. They are referred to it by any Partner other permanent secretaries as also responsible for monitor- State, the Secretary General of each partner state may deter- ing and keeping under con- the Community or by any mine. Its functions include stant review the implementa- legal and national personalities submitting reports and re- tion of the Community’s sec- (Articles 23, 27-31). commendations to the Coun- toral programs (Article 20 and cil, implementing the deci- 21). The East African sions of the Council, receiving Legislative Assembly and considering reports of the The East African Court of The Assembly is the legisla- Sectoral Committees and any Justice tive organ of the Community. other functions conferred The Court is the judicial body It is composed of twenty- upon it by the Treaty (Articles of the Community. Its major seven elected members (9 17 and 18). responsibility is to ensure from each country) and five adherence to law in the inter- ex-officio members (the min- The Sectoral Committees pretation and application of isters responsible for regional These will be established by and compliance with the cooperation, the Secretary the Council of Ministers upon Treaty. It may also be called General and the Counsel to the recommendation of the upon to provide advice on the Community). It will liaise Coordination Committee. questions of law arising from with the national assemblies of
55 the member states on matters Secretary General. He suc- ing lays a strong foundation relating to the Community; ceeded Dr Sam Nahamya for the realization of its debate and approve the from Uganda. The other regional intergration objec- budget of the Community Deputy Secretary General is tives. The period 2001 to and discuss all matters per- Ambassador Fulgence 2005 is the actualization taining to the Community Kazaura from Tanzania. Dur- phase of the Community. It (Articles 48 and 49). ing the Summit, the Heads of will be guided by the Second State launched the Second East African Community The Secretariat East African Community Development Strategy The Secretariat is the princi- Development Strategy (2001-2005). pal executive organ of the (2001-2005). According the EAC Secre- Community. At its head is the The activities that have tariat, the actualization phase Secretary General, assisted by already been completed as is the most challenging. The Deputy Secretaries General outlined in the indicative pro- people have high expectations and a Counsel to the Com- gram of action for the imple- for tangible benefits from the munity. It is charged with the mentation of the Treaty Community. It will require strategic planning, manage- include: the mobilization of vast ment and monitoring of the • Registration of the Treaty resources, both within and Community’s programs and with the OAU/AU and the outside the region, to sustain the implementation of the United Nations. the huge and capital-intensive Council’s decisions (Articles •Determination of the rules regional development projects 66, 67-71). of procedure for the Summit, and programs. Above all, it the Council and the East will require sustained political The Current Status African Legislative Assembly. will and the involvement of The Treaty for the Establish- • Issuing of the East African the people in the regional ment of the East African passport. integration process.1 ■ Community was signed by •Formalization of more than the three Heads of State on ten Protocols on various 1 (See the Editorial of the EAC News, 30 November 1999. It was regional sectors. Issue 7 of August 2001.) ratified by the end of June 2000, it entered into force on The Third Summit of Heads 7 July 2000 and was officially of States held on 30 Novem- launched on 15 January 2001. ber 2001 in Arusha, officially During the Second Summit launched the East African of the East African Commu- Legislative Assembly and nity in Arusha, on 24 April swore in six judges of the East 2001, the Heads of State African Court of Justice. appointed Mr Nuwe Amanya Mushega from Uganda as the Prospects new Secretary General of the With the laying down of the Community. He succeeded legal and administrative Ambassador Francis Kirimi organs, the three East Muthaura of Kenya who African countries have com- served as the first Secretary pleted the creation of an insti- General from 1996 to 2001. tutional framework for The Summit also appointed regional intergration. The Dr Kipyego Cheluget from steady progress made by the Kenya as the new Deputy Community since its launch-
56 ORIGINS OF VIOLENT CONFLICTS IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION
By Prof. G. P.Mpangala, IDS, University of Dar es Salaam
The Great Lakes Region ence was on two fronts. On Kikuyu against the white set- The Great Lakes Region the one hand the nationalist tlers and colonialism as a (GLR) constitutes six coun- political parties fought against whole. tries: Tanzania, Kenya, a common enemy, the colonial Rwanda provides a typical Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi power. On the other there was example of competition and the Democratic Republic fierce in-fighting amongst the between ethnic based political of Congo (DRC). There have political parties for power at parties resulting in violent been three phases of violent independence. Where politi- conflicts between 1959 and conflict in the GLR: the cal parties were ethnically or 1961. Nationalist parties that period of nationalist struggles religiously based, competition struggled for independence for independence, the period between them led to violent were either Hutu or Tutsi par- of nation building and the ethnic or religious conflicts. ties. The consolidation of eth- period of democratization. In some cases, the nature and nicity amongst the ethnic character of colonialism groups throughout the Ger- The period of nationalist necessitated the use of armed man and later the Belgian struggles for independence struggle such as the Mau- colonies was a result of the The struggle for independ- Mau War waged by the racial ideology of these colo-
Source: Art in Politics, 1st E.A. competition on political caricatures and cartoons, FES 2001
57 nial powers and of their so- characterized by massacres, Amin government and the called civilizing mission. the biggest being in 1972 government of Tanzania grew Instigated by the Belgian when about 300,000 people from bad to worse culminat- colonialists, the violent con- were killed. The Tutsis, who ing in a war between the two flicts facilitated Hutu political were in power, segregated, countries from 1978 to 1979. parties to take over power at oppressed and marginalized Assisted by the anti-Amin independence in 1962. the majority Hutu, who in people of Uganda, Tanzania turn resisted and this led to overthrew the Amin regime. The period of nation violence. Continuous struggles for building: 1960s to 1980s In Rwanda, the Hutu power resulted in civil war Most of the violent conflicts majority were in power and from 1980 to 1986, a war that in this period were about they oppressed, marginalized brought President Museveni political power and the con- and segregated the Tutsi to power. trol of socio-economic minority. This also resulted in resources. Given the weak periodic conflict, culminating state of the economic base of in the outbreak of civil war in Conflicts during the the politicians, political power 1990. period of democratization became the means of gaining In Uganda, violent conflicts from 1990 to the present economic power. As well as erupted in 1966 as a result of With the exception of having its internal struggles friction between the govern- Uganda and Rwanda, which for power and wealth, Congo ment of President Milton have adopted the movement became a big center of inter- Obote and the Kingdom of political system, the democra- est for the big powers because Buganda. The system of tization process resulted in of its rich mineral and agri- indirect rule set up by the the establishment of multi- cultural resources. These British, had resulted in the party political systems fol- internal and external factors consolidation of strong king- lowed by multi-party elec- resulted in the assassination of doms like Buganda, Bungoro, tions. Although the building Patrice Lumumba, the first Ankole and Toro. At inde- of democracy was expected to President of independent pendence Buganda was solve the problem of conflicts, Congo. Civil war followed granted a certain level of the early stage of multi-party and brought Mobutu to autonomy with its own competition has nonetheless power. Buganda government. This given rise to violent conflicts, Frequent and serious vio- contradicted the nationalist particularly where multi- lent conflicts took place in spirit of building the united party politics assumed the Burundi after the assassina- nation of Uganda. The fric- character of ethnically based tion in 1961 of a uniting tion resulted in the overthrow politics. nationalist leader, Prince of Kabaka, the King of In Burundi, nearly all the Rwagasore. Political strug- Buganda who fled into exile political parties established in gles degenerated into ethno- in Britain. 1992 were ethnically based, centric politics. Immediately Other violent conflicts in either Tutsi or Hutu domi- after independence (1962 - Uganda began in 1971 when nated parties. Thus, when the 1966) fierce ethnic competi- Idi Amin staged a coup, over- Hutu based party, tion for power culminated in throwing the Obote govern- FRODEBU, won the elec- the overthrow of the monarch ment and establishing a mili- tions of 1993 the Tutsi, who in 1965 and the taking over of tary rule of terror lasting for had been in power since political power by the Tutsi eight years during which 1966, were threatened and minority in 1966. Between thousands of people lost their thus made coup attempts, 1966 and 1990 there were lives. In the same period the eventually assassinating the four periods of violent conflict relationship between the Hutu President Melchior
58 Ndadaye three months after parties i.e. the ruling party ization of his allies, who had he was elected. The situation CCM and the opposition assisted him in the war resulted in a civil war that has party, CUF, in connection against Mobutu, resulted in continued up to today. In with the multi-party elections the eruption of another war Rwanda, the failure of the in Zanzibar. After the elec- by rebel groups against him, Habyarimana Hutu Govern- tions of 1995 the conflict was assisted by Rwanda and ment to democratize resulted latent, but after the elections Uganda. In that war Laurent in the outbreak of a civil war of 2000 violent conflict Kabila was supported by in 1990 when refugees from erupted between CUF Zimbabwe, Namibia and Uganda attacked the regime. demonstrators and the police Angola. The assassination of The situation led to the geno- and more than 23 demonstra- Laurent Kabila brought his cide of 1994 when nearly a tors were shot dead on 26 and son, Joseph Kabila, to power, million people were massa- 27 January, 2001. In both and he is making efforts to cred. elections CUF accused CCM end the war. Violent conflicts in this of rigging and manipulating period have also taken place the elections to snatch its vic- Solution to violent con- in Kenya, Tanzania and the tory. Conflicts over land have flicts in the GLR DRC. In Kenya violent con- also taken place in some parts The continuation of violent flicts erupted in the Rift Val- of the country as in the Kilosa conflicts is detrimental to the ley Province from 1991 to District, Morogoro Region. development of the region. 1992 shortly before the first In the DRC dictator Every effort must be made to multi-party elections in 1992 Mobutu mishandled the bring about peace. Sustain- and again in 1997/98. Using democratization process by able peace requires short- the ideology of regionalism allowing the formation of term measures such as peace (majimboism) some politi- more than a hundred small negotiations that incorporate cians, opposed to and threat- and weak political parties. all the parties concerned in ened by multi-partyism, insti- This was to the advantage of the conflicts. It also requires gated the Kalenjin Ethnic the regime in power. long-term measures that Group to fight and evict the Mobutu’s regime was over- include democratization, eco- Kikuyu, the Luhya and other thrown in May 1997 after a nomic transformation and groups from the Rift Valley. military campaign launched regional integration on the More than 1,500 people were by Laurent Kabila in October basis of people-centered killed. 1996, assisted by Rwanda and democracy and people-cen- In Tanzania there have Uganda. Kabila’s failure to tered development. ■ been conflicts between the carry out democratization strong competing political and his deliberate marginal-
NOTES
59 TANZANIA AND REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS
By Dr F. A. S. T. Matambalya, Department of Marketing, University of Dar es Salaam
Policy framework of Table 1: Tanzania’s membership of regional trade protocols in Tanzania’s international Eastern and Southern Africa trade Presently Tanzania’s trade Country/Scheme EAC Trade Regime a SADC Trade Regime policies are influenced by a 1. Angola * set of partly interlinked 2. Botswana * forces, which act at various 3. DRC * levels. 4. Kenya * * At the primary level Tanza- 5. Lesotho * nia is a member of a number 6. Malawi * of trade regimes. 7. Mauritius * a) Tanzania participates in 8. Mozambique * 9. Namibia * two major regional integra- 10. RSA * tion schemes, i.e., the East 11. Seychelles * African Community (EAC) 12. Swaziland * and the Southern African 13.Tanzania * * Development Community 14. Uganda * * (SADC). Table 1 depicts 15. Zambia * Tanzania’s partners in each of 16. Zimbabwe * the two arrangements. The Notes: a ... EAC trade protocol under preparation, * denotes country membership in the country’s trade policies are scheme. therefore influenced by two sets of trade regimes, i.e., the c) Tanzania subscribes to the major trading block of the EAC and SADC trade World Trade Organisation Latin American sub-region, regimes. (WTO) and its trade policies and the North American Free b) Tanzania subscribes to the must be WTO-compatible. Trade Area (NAFTA). Cotonou Agreement which links the European Union At the secondary level, co- EAC Trade Regime (EU) and 77 African, operation between regional Article 5 of the Treaty of the Caribbean and Pacific blocks to which Tanzania sub- EAC on the Objectives of the (ACP) states. As a member scribes and other regional Community, specifies in para- of the ACP group of nations, blocks, constitutes develop- graph 3 that the Community Tanzania has to harmonise ments which affect the coun- shall ensure the strengthening trade policy with the special try’s trade policies. SADC, for and consolidation of: provisions of the Cotonou instance, has signed a co- (i) co-operation in agreed Agreement on EU-ACP operation agreement with the fields that would lead to equi- trade regime. The Cotonou Association of South East table economic development Agreement is a Framework Asian Nations (ASEAN), and within the partner states and Agreement. Detailed negoti- made initial moves to intro- which would, in turn, raise the ations of the Agreement will duce relationships with the standard of living and improve commence in September Mercado Comun del Sur the quality of life of their pop- 2002. (MERCOSUR) which is the ulations.
60 (ii) long-standing political, the result of the Maseru Sum- The WTO economic, social, cultural and mit of 1996. This Protocol, The WTO provisions provide traditional ties and associa- which technically presents a the base of international trade tions between the peoples of Framework Agreement, is an relations. The main character- the partner states so as to pro- interim arrangement, which istics of the WTO trade mote a people centred mutual should be systematically regime are tariff reduction and development of these ties and strengthened and in 2008, reciprocity in trade conces- associations. transformed into a fully- sions. The WTO also pro- The EAC is, therefore, also fledged Free Trade Area, in vides for the formation of working on the institutionali- compliance with Article closer regional co-operation. sation, at the regional level, of XXIV of the GATT, revised co-operation in trade. Maas- in 1994. Implication of the dorp and Hess (1999), in a The protocol is relatively multiplicity of trade report prepared for the EU, comprehensive, containing 39 arrangements recommends the establish- Articles and five annexes. The multiplicity of arrange- ment of an EAC Trade Proto- Being a trade protocol, all its ments is intrinsically a poten- col. articles are logically relevant tial source for overt and covert for trade. They jointly aim to friction. For instance, in con- The SADC Trade Regime systematically remove intra- junction with the overall As an integration scheme, the SADC trade barriers and turn objectives of EAC and the SADC is one of the latest the region into a free trade SADC, the EAC and SADC additions to similar initiatives area (FTA) by 2008. trade protocols may be follow- in Southern Africa. Formally, ing partly common, partly it was established in August The Cotonou Agreement conflicting goals. Both the 1992 through the Windhoek On 23 June, the EU and its EAC and the SADC are Treaty to replace the Southern ACP associates signed a New pushing for rather fast eco- African Development Co- Partnership Agreement in nomic integration. Even if the ordination Conference Cotonou, Benin. The Agree- two schemes have not become (SADCC) of which the key ment replaced the Lomé competing schemes they have objective was to lessen eco- Convention which governed certainly become duplicating nomic dependence on the EU-ACP development co- schemes. The weaknesses are apartheid RSA. operation from 1975 to 2000. camouflaged by two facts. This objective was inherited The New Partnership Agree- First, only Tanzania belongs by the SADC. Following the ment will govern EU-ACP to both regionalisation multi-ethnic election of 1994, co-operation in the next 20 schemes. Second, the SADC which paved the way for the years. trade protocol explicitly speci- dismantling of the apartheid Economic and trade co- fies in Article 24 on most system, the RSA joined the operation constitute one of favoured nation treatment SADC as its 10th member in the key pillars of the Agree- that (i) members shall accord 1994. This brought a new ment. In line with the new the most favoured nation reality to integration efforts in Agreement, EU-ACP trade (MFN) treatment to one Southern Africa, heavily will build on the so-called another and (ii) nothing in boosting the chances of the economic partnership agree- this protocol shall prevent SADC as a tool for the devel- ments (EPA), which shall member states from granting opment of the region. consist basically of free-trade or maintaining preferential The SADC trade regime is areas (FTAs) between the trade arrangements with third expressed by the SADC Trade EU and groups of ACP countries. Note also that, Protocol. The Protocol was countries. technically, a country may
61 belong to more than one significant liability. However, Matambalya, F.: „The Merits and FTA, because it does not have the rationalisation of trade Demerits of EU Policies Towards to implement a common arrangements at the same Associated Developing Countries: external tariff (CET). level, e.g. the EAC and An Empirical Analysis of EU- SADC Trade and Overall Economic The duplication has also SADC trade regimes will be Co-operation within the Framework political implications. While an advantage and should be of the Lomé Convention”, 2nd the secretariat of the EAC is considered. Tanzania should revised Edition, Peter Lang Science based in Arusha (Tanzania), work to ensure that differ- Publishers, Bern . Berlin . Frankfurt . that of the SADC in based in ences between the EAC New York . Paris Vienna, 1999. Gaborone (Botswana). This internal instruments and Matambalya, F. and Wolf S.: „The suggests that partly for strate- SADC instruments are at a Cotonou Agreement and the Chal- gic and partly for prestigious minimum. ■ lenges of Making the New EU-ACP reasons, Tanzania is exposed Trade Regime WTO Compatible” in to diplomatic pressure to Selected references Journal of World Trade, Vol. 35, No. ensure the continued exis- Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung: „The 1 February 2001. tence of both the EAC and Maseru SADC Trade Protocol”, Johannesburg, 1997. SADC: „Protocol on Trade in the the SADC. Southern African Development Maasdorp, G. and Hess, R. The Community (SADC) Region”, Conclusion Establishment of An East African SADC Secretariat, 1996. Basically, the multiplicity of Trade Regime, unpublished Report trade arrangements is not a prepared for the EU, 1999.
NOTES
62 4. LOCAL PERSPECTIVES
THE TANZANIA DEVELOPMENT VISION 2025
By Mr C. K. Tandari, Department of Poverty Eradication, Vice President’s Office
The Tanzania Development High quality livelihood society and seeks to ensure Vision 2025 projects that by Ideally, a nation’s development that its people are empowered the year 2025 Tanzanian soci- should be people centred, with the capacity to make ety will be free from poverty based on sustainable and their leaders and public ser- and will have graduated from shared growth and be free vants accountable. By 2025, the group of least developed from abject poverty. This good governance should have countries to that of middle entails the creation of wealth permeated the national socio- income countries, with a high and its equitable distribution. economic structure thereby level of human development. Society must be free from ensuring a culture of account- inequalities and all forms of ability, rewarding good per- The Concept social and political relations formance and effectively curb- Development Vision 2025 is a that inhibit empowerment ing corruption and other vices long-term development phi- and effective democratic and in society. losophy that is the articulation popular participation of all of a desirable future condition, social groups (men and A well educated and which the nation envisages it women, boys and girls, the learning society will attain, and of the plausible young and the old and the Tanzania will be a nation course of action to be taken for able-bodied and disabled per- whose people are well edu- its achievement. It seeks to sons). It is anticipated that by cated with a developmental actively mobilise the people the year 2025, racial and gen- mindset and competitive and other resources towards der imbalances will have been spirit. These attributes are the achievement of shared redressed. At the same time, critical for the nation to effec- goals. The vision is like a vehi- law, politics, employment, tively mobilise domestic cle of hope and an inspiration education, culture, will have resources to assure the provi- for motivating the people to been reformed. sion of people’s basic needs search and work harder for the and to attain competitiveness betterment of their livelihood Peace, stability, and unity in the regional and global and for prosperity. A nation should enjoy peace, economy. The Tanzania of 2025 will political stability, national To this effect Tanzania have five major attributes: unity and social cohesion in an should: • High quality livelihood. environment of democracy • attain self-reliance driven by •Peace, stability and unity. and political and social toler- the psychological liberation of • Good governance. ance. the mindset and the people’s •A well educated and sense of confidence. learning society. Good governance • be a nation whose people •A competitive economy Tanzania cherishes good gov- have a positive mindset and a capable of producing ernance and the rule of law in culture which cherishes sustainable growth and the process of creating wealth human development through shared benefits. and the sharing of benefits in hard work, professionalism,
63 entrepreneurship, creativity, through: with a substantial industrial innovativeness and ingenuity •Food self-sufficiency and sector comparable to typical and who have confidence in food security. middle-income countries. and high respect for all people • Universal primary • Macroeconomic stability irrespective of gender. education. manifested by a low • be a nation with a high •Gender equality. inflation economy and basic level of education; a nation •Access to quality primary macroeconomic balances. which produces the quantity health care for all. •A growth rate of at least 8% and quality of educated peo- •Access to quality reproduc- per annum. ple sufficiently equipped with tive health services for all •An adequate level of the requisite knowledge to individuals of appropriate physical infrastructure solve the society’s problems, age. needed to cope with the meet the challenges of devel- • Reduction in infant and requirements of the Vision opment and attain competi- maternal mortality rates by in all sectors tiveness at regional and global three quarters of current •An active and competitive levels. levels. player in the regional and • Universal access to safe world markets, with the A strong and competitive econ- water. capacity to articulate and omy capable of producing sus- • Life expectancy comparable promote national interests tainable growth and shared to the level attained by and to adjust quickly to benefits typical middle-income regional and global market Tanzania should have created countries. shifts. a strong, diversified, resilient •Absence of abject poverty. and competitive economy Driving forces for the real- which can effectively cope Good governance and the rule of isation of the Vision with the challenges of devel- law The major strengths, which opment and which can also Tanzanian society will be Tanzanians must capitalise easily and confidently adapt characterised by: on, are national unity, social to the changing market and •Desirable moral and cohesion, peace and stability. technological conditions in cultural uprightness. The following three key then regional and global •Strong adherence to and driving forces need to be pro- economy. respect for the rule of law. moted and utilised: • Absence of corruption and •A development mindset Impediments to the reali- other vices. imbued with confidence, sation of past visions •A learning society, which is commitment and •Donor dependency syn confident, learns from its empowering cultural values. drome. own development •Competence and a spirit of •A weak capacity for experience and that of competitiveness. economic management. others and owns and • Good governance and the •Failures in good determines its own rule of law. governance. development agenda. •Ineffective implementation For more details on the driv- syndrome. A strong and competitive ing forces for the realization economy of the vision and for the The targets of the VISION The economy is expected to means by which the vision 2025 have the following character- will be implemented, go to High quality livelihood istics: the Tanzania Government A high quality livelihood for •A diversified and semi- website: all Tanzanian will be attained industrialised economy http://www.tanzania.go.tz/vision.htm
64 THE NATIONAL POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGY
By Mr C. K. Tandari, Department of Poverty Eradication, Vice President’s Office
What is poverty? parameters. These include about 50% of the population According to the United malnutrition, ignorance, lives below the poverty line. In Nations (1995) “absolute prevalence of diseases, squalid other words about 15-17 mil- poverty” is a condition charac- surroundings, high infant, lion people out of a total of terised by the severe depriva- child and maternal mortality, 30-34 million people live tion of basic human needs, low life expectancy, low per below the poverty line. including food, safe drinking capita income, poor quality In 1997 the National water, sanitation facilities, housing, inadequate clothing, Poverty Eradication Strategy health, shelter, education and low technological utilisation, (NPES) was adopted with the information. It depends not environmental degradation, aim of eradicating abject only on income but also on unemployment, rural urban poverty and achieving a access to social services. migration and poor commu- poverty free society with In the Tanzanian context, nication (NPES, 1997)1. improved social conditions poverty at its broadest level is and general welfare by the year defined as a state of depriva- Government commitment 2025. tion prohibitive of decent Since gaining independence Recently, the Government human life. This is caused by in 1961, the Government of prepared a Poverty Reduction the lack of resources and Tanzania has had poverty Strategy Paper (PRSP) as one capacities to acquire basic eradication as its main long- of the means of fighting human needs as seen in many, term policy goal. However, poverty. The PRSP is a key but often mutually reinforcing despite all the efforts done, requirement of the debt relief
Source: Hakikazi Catalyst. Cartoon by Masoud (Kipanya) 2001
65 programme of HIPC (the ordinating framework and the •Complete school mapping highly indebted poor coun- commitment of all the stake- and micro plans for the tries initiative). The goal of holders. remaining districts. HIPC is to attack deep The public sector through •Strengthen community poverty, raise growth, enhance various ministries has been capacities in managing pri- the participation of the poor formulating policies, design- mary schools. and allow for extra resources ing strategies and actions to • Expand secondary educa- to be earmarked for and allo- fight poverty. Some social tion by strengthening existing cated to the reduction of safety net programmes like government secondary schools poverty in the highest impact the Tanzania Social Action and constructing new schools. areas. Fund (TASAF) have been •Raise level of literacy from The PRSP includes the fol- put in place. This programme the present 68% to about lowing: requires the communities to 90%. • Baseline data on poverty identify projects. 20% of the •Attain equality of opportu- and developed a national costs must be covered by the nity between men and poverty line. communities themselves, women in school enrolment • Medium-term poverty while the TASAF contributes at all levels. reduction targets, including 80%. • Improve the quality of edu- indicators to enable the mon- The public sector has also cation. itoring the attainment of come up with a micro finance main poverty objectives that project called Small Entrepre- (ii) Water can be achieved within one to neurs Loan Facility (SELF), • Increase access to water to ten years. These indicators implemented by the Vice 90 % coverage within a dis- will at the minimum cover President’s Office in collabo- tance of 400 metres. income poverty and essential ration with micro finance • Increase access to sanitary human development. institutions (MFIs). The services particularly to urban •Poverty reduction targets intention is to reach out to dwellers by at least 50% of for each of the priority sectors, people in rural areas and help current status. including primary education them reduce poverty by • Expand rural water supply and primary health, rural extending them credits that services to low income con- roads, water, and research & will empower them to sumers. extension services in agricul- increase their income generat- •Develop new water sources ture. ing activities. for urban and rural areas. • Encourage construction of Linkages between Public Policy statements shallow and deep wells. Policy and Poverty Some of the major policy • Enhance water resources Reduction statements that have been management. The linkage is strong. Good adopted in relation to rural public policies that are well development and poverty (iii) Health implemented by all stake- reduction are, that the gov- • Reduce the incidence of holders through a participa- ernment will: disease and deaths and tory approach normally stand increase life expectancy by a better chance of reducing (i) Education providing health services to poverty. Policies that are not • Expand enrolment in pri- mothers and children; treat pro-poor tend to accelerate mary schools so as to achieve and prevent communicable poverty. Good policies have Universal Primary Education. diseases. strategies in place, action • Improve efficiency in the • Reduce by half the current plans, budgets, a good co- provision of education. maternal mortality rate of
66 200-400 per 100,000. (v) Agriculture (vii) Environmental • Increase access to health • Enhance agro-industries. Protection centres and reduce the average •Promote agro-processing of •Promote environmentally distance to health facilities. agricultural produce. friendly economic and natural • Increase the allocation of • Agriculture will remain the resources management prac- resources for the health sector main source of economic tices. development. development and poverty •Review sector policies to • Increase resource allocation eradication. take into account environ- to preventive health services. • Give priority to food secu- mental concerns. •HIV/AIDS and other rity at household and national •Review the legislative communicable diseases shall level for purposes of poverty framework for environmental continue receiving priority in eradication. management. health sector programs. •Provide demand driven • Implement the National • Reduce severe malnutrition research and crop extension Action Programme to combat among children under 5 years services. desertification. from 6% to less than 2%, and • Improve surveillance sys- • Implement the National moderate malnutrition from tem to control pests and dis- Action Programme to combat 44% to 22%. eases. pollution in urban areas and • Encourage community par- •Review and harmonise liquid and solid waste man- ticipation in financing health taxes, levies, and fees on agri- agement. services. culture and livestock produce. • Implement the National • Reduce malaria related • Encourage the ongoing Action Programme to combat fatality. efforts by NGOs and local overgrazing, poor farming •Promote the participation banks to provide credit, train- practices, deforestation, etc. of the private sector and civil ing and other forms of sup- society involvement in the port to the informal sector as (viii) HIV/AIDS delivery of public health serv- well as small and medium •Reduce the spread of ices. scale enterprises. HIV/AIDS. •Promote behaviour change (iv) Rural roads (vi) The Judiciary across the board. • Make the existing roads •Continue cherishing the • Ensure blood safety in all passable throughout the year. rule of law. blood transfusion sites. •Strengthen district and •Promote the strong adher- • Introduce HIV/AIDS edu- rural roads. ence to and respect for the cation in all schools. • Improve all road networks rule of law. •Provide care for focusing on potential agricul- •Uphold desirable moral and HIV/AIDS patients, both tural productive areas. cultural uprightness. home and hospital based. • Improve cross border road •Speed up court decisions. •Provide nation-wide volun- networks to enable easy • Empower people with the tary counselling and testing movement of goods and serv- capacity to make their leaders facilities. ices. and public servants account- •Promote use of condoms. • Build capacity at the district able. •Strengthen the Tanzania level to manage road rehabili- • Ensure a culture of account- Commission for AIDS tation and maintenance. ability and transparency. (TACAIDS). • Increase capacity of local •Reward good performance. contractors to handle the ear- • Effectively curb corruption (ix) Gender marked road network. and other vices in society. •Attain gender equality.
67 • Mainstream gender into • Enhance competitiveness of communication. sectoral policies, programmes, of primary societies. 13. Establishing food preser- projects and decision-making. • Ensure adequate financial vation at district and house- • Empower women in all services for societies through hold level. socio - economic and political enhancing their capital base. 14. Encouraging people to relations and culture. establish co-operatives. • Increase access to quality Strategies 15. Encouraging private sec- reproductive health services Some of the major strategies tor participation in develop- for all individuals of appropri- are: ing and implementing water ate age. 1. Facilitating and encourag- and sanitation programmes. ing private sector and NGO 16. Ensuring that through the (x) Employment participation in the promo- services of extension workers • Reduce the general level of tion of education. and change agents, public unemployment to less than 2. Increasing government awareness is created about 10%. resource allocation to the edu- poverty and its causes and the • Men and women will have cation sector. resources available to eradi- equal opportunities for 3. Introducing family life edu- cate it. employment. cation in school curriculum in 17. Setting realistic and meas- •Every Tanzanian capable of primary and secondary urable goals in order to facili- working should work. schools. tate the monitoring and eval- •Development programmes 4. Strengthening local gov- uation of programmes. undertaken by the govern- ernment capacity to assess, 18. Increasing social sector ment, private sector, NGOs, plan and implement health investment. individuals will emphasise programmes. 19. Promoting and protecting creation of jobs. 5. Strengthening institutional existing fauna and flora by •Provide effective guidance capacity to implement health expanding biodiversity pro- for the employment sector. sector programmes, particu- grammes. • Ensure availability of credit larly primary health care. 20. Ensuring equality of for micro-enterprises. 6. Increasing training of access to and control of land health workers in rural areas. between men and women. (xi) Protection of the vul- 7. Expanding outreach pro- 21. Empowering individuals nerable and provision of grammes. and households to mobilise social safety nets 8. Expanding and strengthen- resources for poverty eradica- • Increase coverage of vulner- ing health programmes tar- tion. able groups. geted at the needy such as •Promote safety nets pro- HIV/AIDS and TB victims. Targets to be met by PRSP grammes. 9. Increasing the number of by the year 2003 •Promote growth of urban health facilities in rural areas. The programme will have: informal and micro-enter- 10. Expanding programmes •Reduced the proportion of prises. for both water supply and the population below Poverty sanitation services in urban Line from 48% to 42%. (xii) Marketing and and rural areas. •Reduced the proportion of co-operatives 11. Promoting community rural poor by 7.5%. •Strengthen primary co- efforts in implementing water •Reduced the proportion of operatives and foster owner- and sanitation programmes. food poor by 3.5%. ship by farmers. 12. Identifying and increasing • Achieved gender equality in •Control theft and embez- access to new farm land by primary and secondary zlement in primary societies. farmers and improving means schools.
68 • Increased the provision of • Improved the public service’s • Increased net primary adequate, safe and clean water capacity, motivation and per- school enrolment from 57 % in rural areas from 48.5% in formance. to 70 %. 2000 to 55%. • Improved budget manage- • Increased the number of stu- • Reduced the infant mortal- ment at central and lower lev- dents passing at specified ity rate from 99 per 1000 to els. mark in the Standard 7 exam- 85 per 1000. ination from 20% to 50%. • Reduced the under five Intermediate indicators • Increased secondary enrol- mortality rate by half from • Overall GDP growth of 6%. ment from 5% to 7%. 158 per 1000 to 127 per 1000. • Expanded investment. • Consumer price inflation of • Reduced the prevalence of • Improved investment pro- 4.0 % by end of June 2003. stunting from 43.4% to 20%. ductivity. • Sustainable current account • Reduced the prevalence of • Growth of agriculture by at balance. wasting from 7.2 % to 2 %. least 5% . • Reserves sufficient to • Reduced maternal mortality • Developed private sector finance four months of from 529 per 100,000 (1996) strategy. imports. live births to 450. • Rehabilitated 4,500 km of • Improved Child feeding • Reduced malaria case fatal- rural roads under the Urgent practices and full implemen- ity for children under five Roads Rehabilitation Pro- tation of malaria control pro- from 12.8 % to 10 %. gramme (URRP). gramme and IMCI. • Attained an inflation rate at • Undertaken routine and • Established database for the par with trading partners. periodic maintenance vulnerable groups. • Maintained fiscal balances. promptly on all rural road • Promoted the production of • Reduced the spread and networks. drought resistant crops in all magnitude of corruption. • Increased gross enrolment to drought prone areas. • A governance system in 85%. • Promoted community man- place that is efficiently and • Increased transition rate of aged irrigation schemes in all effectively decentralised. primary to secondary level potential irrigation areas by • Strengthened professional from 15% to 21 %. 2003. ■ and cost effectiveness of the • Reduced drop-outs from 6.6 public service system. % to 3 %. 1 National Poverty Eradication Strategy
HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY AND WOMEN’S ROLE: THE CASE OF TANZANIA
By Dr B. Koda, Institute of Development Studies, UDSM
The issue of food security goes closely related to gender roles. there was a clear division hand in hand with questions Women form a majority of between women and men on on who produces what, who the world’s agricultural pro- who was expected to produce buys what, and who decides ducers, especially in the food the so-called “cash/export” what is to be produced and sector, producing an estimated and “food” crops. Both the what is to be bought. In amount of more than 50% of colonial policies and legal Africa, as is the case in most of the food (FAO, 1995 a). frameworks supported this the world, food matters are In Africa in the colonial era gendered division of labour.
69 Women, who were tradition- hoe, apply no modern inputs, again very conspicuous. This ally expected to cook food for hardly get enough time for is one area where the proposi- their family members, were the farm activities (due to dis- tion made by Engels and assigned the role of taking proportionate work burdens) quoted by Kapunda et al care of food crop production and rarely use improved tech- (1996), which says that the while men, who had to pay nology in food transporting, percentage of total expendi- tax directly to the colonial preservation and processing ture (income) spent on food government, were assigned (Rural Food Security Group tends to increase with poverty, the role of cash crop produc- 2000, UDSM, Chachage et applies. Female-headed tion. Hence the development al 2001). households, which tend to be of new concepts such as The gender division of poorer than male-headed “women’s crops”, meaning labour in food matters is households, are said to spend crops produced for subsis- greatly responsible for food more of their income on food tence and “men’s crops”, insecurity in Tanzania. About than male-headed house- which were essentially sold in 6.6 million Tanzanians face holds. Using the 1991/92 the world market. chronic food insecurity, with National Household Budget The patriarchal ideology the elderly poor, women and survey data, it is demonstrated which dictated what women children, especially orphans, that male-headed households and men should do with being the most affected. spend 67% of total household respect to food production in (Koda & Mukangara 1997). expenditure on food com- colonial times also came to While maize is a predomi- pared to 74% for female- bear in the strategies devel- nant cereal used as food by headed households. Knowing oped for food security after most Tanzanians, its produc- that food consumption is independence. Up to this day tion tends to remain below related to health and nutrition women continue to be custo- the required amount as testi- status, one is tempted to dians of their families’ food fied by the figures for assume that women whose needs either by producing it 1999/2000 where there was a households spend more or by struggling to earn an shortfall of about 301,512 income on food are better off income which is ultimately tons (MAFS 2001). Reduced health-wise. Yet, this is not used for food purchase. Given production is partly the case. The gender dynam- the marginal position accounted for by the failure of ics continue to dictate who assigned to women at house- producers to apply fertilizer, eats what at the household hold and community levels on the cost of which is no longer level. The culture of Tanzan- matters of decision-making subsidized by the government ian communities makes it and resource allocation and after the adoption of the clear that normally men eat control, the food sector falls Structural Adjustment Pro- the best food and the larger victim to under-resourcing as grammes of the 1980s. Other share, hence they are suppos- is the case in Tanzania to date. factors include drought, edly healthier than women. In the agricultural sector, excessive rains (El Nino), soil Of course other factors are where more than 90% of the infertility and the use of poor also at play in that men are rural-based women are seeds. All these factors culmi- also the first to seek medical engaged in the food crop pro- nate in the general poverty of care when the need arises duction sub-sector, extension both the households and the because they control the services, modern technology, country, thus making food wealth of the household and credit and user-friendly trans- insecurity both a cause and the power to allocate such port facilities are scarce. Most effect of poverty. wealth. The marginalized women and other poor Regarding food consump- position of women economi- groups work with the hand tion, the gender disparity is cally, politically and socially
70 limits their freedom to seek framework which addresses in isolation from other devel- treatment in case of illness, the issue of food security in its opmental and social issues. ■ hence their health is generally multi-dimensional context. poorer than that of men. Fac- The policy focus should be on References tors like food insecurity, over- poverty eradication and gen- Chachage et al (2001): Location Spe- work, undernourishment and der equity. Specific compo- cific Poverty Alleviation in Songea frequent births, all of which nents of such a policy should and Mbulu District: A Research give rise to illness among include issues on moderniz- Report (unpublished) October, 2001 FAO (1995a): A Fair Future for women, compound this gen- ing agriculture; promoting Rural Women, Rome: FAO der imbalance. off-farm income generating Despite all these limitations activities; expanding the for- Kapunda et al (1996): “Household, women have adopted a num- mal and informal labour mar- Food Security of Female-headed ber of coping strategies.These ket; increasing wages, salaries Households in Tanzania”. RAPOA include efforts to empower and producer prices; improv- Research Report Dar es Salaam, themselves economically ing extension services, educa- April, 1996. through engagement in small tion, water and health; Koda B. & Mukangara F. (1997): and micro enterprises, and improving communication BEYOND INEQUALITIES self-organizing in economic infrastructure, and democra- Women in Tanzania. SARDC & and social groups. However, tizing the development Tanzania Gender Networking Pro- the very poor women and process. Besides the issue of gramme (TGNP), 1997 Dar es men tend to remain isolated the policy content, the policy- Salaam, Tanzania. and unorganized. This is even making process is equally per- reflected in the coping strat- tinent. The challenge there- MAFS (2001): Food Security in Tan- egy these people adopt in fore remains how such a zania, the way forward. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Dar addressing food insecurity, process can be democratized. es Salaam. where they normally sell their The experience gathered by labour power as casual labour- the RFS group from the ‘pol- RFSG (2000): Policy Review ers. This strategy is not only icy reviews’ initiative jointly Processes at the Grassroots Level. unsustainable but also unreli- taken with the villagers, the Case of Shinyanga Rural, Ngoron- able. Other strategies include civil society and government goro and Njombe Districts. Dar es skipping some meals, or send- representatives from the three Salaam, 2000. ing some of their children to districts of Shinyanga Rural, work in other households as Ngorongoro and Njombe is domestic workers. Neverthe- worth noting. The exciting less, the challenge still and most illuminating com- remains for development ponent of this initiative is how practitioners and social mobi- the policy making process can lizers to reach this cluster of be demystified and started people and involve them from the bottom, and how democratically. communication can be improved between the gov- Conclusion ernment, civil society and the Food security is a political grassroots on matters related issue. Its relationship to to policy formulation, strategy poverty and gender makes it development for implementa- even more political. There is tion, monitoring and evalua- need therefore to have a pol- tion. All in all, issues of food icy accompanied by a legal security cannot be addressed
71 GENDER AND LAND LAWS
Compiled by Mr K. A. K. Mkumbo, University of Dar es Salaam
There are two major land laws ing property on behalf of a •An association. in Tanzania: the Village Land beneficiary. In this case the •A primary co-operative Act No. 5 of 1999 and the beneficiaries are the villagers society. Land Act No. 4 of 1999, and other persons residing in • Any other body recognized which came into force on 1 the village. by any law. May, 2001. The Land Acts of In the management of vil- •A group of people who are 1999 have provisions which lage land, the Village Council not residents in the village. categorically state the rights should not allocate land or of women as well as men in grant Customary Right of An application for a Custom- land ownership. These Occupancy without the prior ary Right of Occupancy must include provisions aimed at approval of the Village be submitted to the Village protecting the land rights of Assembly. Council: women, prohibiting discrimi- a) On a prescribed form. nation against women, and Customary Right of b) Accompanied by the pre- ensuring the participation of Occupancy scribed fee. women in making decisions A Customary Right of Occu- c) Accompanied by a declara- concerning land matters. pancy means a right to occupy tion indicating whether the village land on agreed terms applicant holds any other Application of the funda- and conditions. Where the land. mental principles of the Village Council grants any d) Accompanied by any other national land policy applicant a Customary Right information that is required The fundamental principles of Occupancy, the village by the Village Council. of National Land Policy must council issues a certificate of e) Signed by the applicant(s) be considered by all persons Customary Right of Occu- as provided in the prescribed exercising power, applying or pancy to that applicant. form. interpreting the Land Acts, which include the equal treat- Application procedures for Determination of applica- ment of both adult women Customary Right of tion for Customary Right and men in acquiring, hold- Occupancy of village land of Occupancy ing, using and dealing with The following person(s) may In determining whether to land. apply provided that they are grant a Customary Right of villagers and citizens: Occupancy or not, the Village Administration •A person. Council must have special The Village Council is •A family unit. regards in respect of the responsible for the manage- •A married person who has equality of all persons, includ- ment of all village land, while been divorced. ing: the Commissioner for Land •A married person whose • Treating an application from deals with land other than the spouse, who was a villager, a woman or a group of village land. has left for not less than women equally to an applica- The Village Council must two years from the village. tion from a man, a group of exercise the functions of man- •A group of persons recog- men or a mixed group of men agement as a trustee, manag- nized under customary law. and women.
72 • Applying non-discrimina- an undivided share in the labour to have acquired an inter- tive practices or attitudes whole. est in that land in the nature of toward any woman who has b) On the death of an occupier an occupancy in common of that applied for a Customary his/her heirs shall inherit his land. Right of Occupancy. share. Disposition and surrender Mortgages Creation of joint occupancy and A spouse holding land or a A mortgage of a matrimonial occupancy in common dwelling house for a right of home, is valid only if: • Joint occupancy must be cre- occupancy in his or her name • it is signed by a spouse(s) liv- ated with permission of a alone must not undertake dis- ing in that matrimonial home court. position by way of transfer, • it is assented to by the bor- • No permission from the mortgage, sale, gift, lease or rower and any spouse of the court is required to create joint otherwise of that land or borrower living in that matri- occupancy for spouses. dwelling house without a con- monial home. • No permission from the sent of the other spouse(s). court is required to create NOTE: Customary mortgage occupancy in common. NOTE: Where it is proved of land should be in accordance • The Registrar of Land must that the other spouse has not con- with the customary law applica- register all types of occupancy. sented to the aforesaid disposi- ble to the mortgaged land. tion, that disposition shall be Co-occupancy of land and void. Co-occupancy spouses’ rights Co-occupancy means the It is presumed that where a Surrender of Customary Right occupation of land held for a spouse obtains land under a of Occupancy to a village right of occupancy or a lease right of occupancy for the use Any person(s) holding a Cus- by two or more undivided of both spouses, the spouses tomary Right of Occupancy shares and may be either joint will hold the land under occu- may at any time surrender the occupancy or occupancy in pancy in common. Customary Right of Occu- common. pancy to the Village Council. A spouse who does not wish The surrender of land held Right of occupiers under joint to create co-occupancy should under a Customary Right of occupancy clearly state in the Certificate Occupancy, which is made a) Disposition may be made of Occupancy or Certificate of with a purpose of depriving or only by all the joint occupiers. Customary Occupancy that placing of impediments in the b) On the death of a joint he or she is taking the right of way of a woman from occupy- occupier, his interest shall be occupancy in his or her name ing land that she would be vested in the surviving occu- only. entitled to occupy under cus- pier or occupiers jointly. tomary law or otherwise, shall c) A joint occupier may trans- NOTE: Where land is regis- be inoperative. fer his interest to all the other tered under Certificate of Occu- occupiers but not to another pancy or Customary Certificate Re-grant of surrendered person and any attempt to of Occupancy in the name of one Customary Right of transfer this interest to any spouse only, but the other spouse Occupancy other person shall be void. or spouses contribute by their Where the person who has labour to the productivity, surrendered a Customary Rights of occupiers under occu- upkeep and improvement of the Right of Occupancy has pancy in common land, that spouse or those spouses dependants or is married, a) Each occupier is entitled to shall be deemed by virtue of that before publicizing that the
73 land is available to be granted vided that they are in accor- mittee must treat the rights of to any villager the Village dance with fundamental prin- women and the rights of pas- Council shall first offer the ciples of the National Land toralists to occupy or use or have land to the following persons Policy and of any other writ- interest in land as equal as the in order: ten law. rights of men or agriculturalists a) Where the person who has to occupy or use or have interests surrendered the customary NOTE: Any rule of custom- in land. right of occupancy is a man: ary law and any decision in 1) His wife, wives in order of respect of land held under cus- A Village Adjudication Com- seniority. tomary tenure which denies mittee shall consist of 2) His dependants. women, children or persons with between six and nine person, disability lawful access to own- of whom three or more per- b) Where the person who has ership, occupation or use of any sons must be women. surrendered the customary such land is void in operative. right of occupancy is a Village Land Council woman: The participation of Every village must establish a 1) Her husband. women in the settlement of Village Land Council to 2) Her dependants. disputes mediate between and assist Village Adjudication parties in arriving at a mutu- Land applicable to Customary Committee ally acceptable solution on any Right of Occupancy In the village there will be a matter concerning village Customary law will be Village Adjudication Com- land. applied to all matters relating mittee responsible for deter- Village Land Council must to administration and man- mining the boundaries and consist of seven persons, of agement of land that is not interest in land, setting aside whom three must be women provided in the Land Acts or demarcating rights of path- who are nominated by the 1999 or any other laws. way. The committee is also Village Council; and Any rule of customary law responsible for safeguarding approved by the Village and any decision taken in the interest of women, absent Assembly. The quorum of a respect of land held under persons, minors and persons meeting of the Village Land customary tenure must have with disabilities. Council must be four persons, regard to the customs, tradi- of which at least two must be tions, and practices of the NOTE: In making decisions women. ■ community concerned pro- the Village Adjudication Com-
NOTES
74 LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN TANZANIA
By Mr G. Chale, the Think-Tank
Short history democracy to facilitate the • Any other committees the Local Government authori- expeditious and faster council may feel will facilitate ties were established under development of the people. the performance of the council. Article 145 (1) of the Consti- tution of the United Republic The new local government The local government’s of Tanzania: system relations with the central “There shall be established This is based on political government Local Government authori- devolution and the decentrali- The old system where the ties in each Region, District sation of functions and central sent commands to the Urban Area and Village in the finances within the frame- local government has been United Republic.” work of the unitary state. abolished. The new system is The purpose for the establish- Local Government consists of based on consultation and ment of the Local Govern- unitary government systems negotiation. The directive ment authorities is stated in all over the country based on power of the central govern- Article 146 (2) of the Consti- elected councillors, operating ment is restricted to legal mat- tution of 1977 as amended by under committees together ters. Local councils decisions Act 15 of 1984: “The Local with administrative staff. must comply with the laws of Government authorities exist the country. for the purpose of consolidat- Basic structures of local ing and giving more power to government The main features of cen- the people.” In the rural areas there are tral and local government The Local Government District Councils and Village relations authorities shall be competent Councils while in urban areas The central government has and shall be entitled to partic- (small and larger towns) there the following instruments to ipate and involve the people in are Town Councils. guide and direct national the planning and implemen- Councillors represent wards development through local tation of development pro- and are elected to all of these government: grammes within their respec- councils by the citizens living • The power to make tive areas of authority in the areas of their jurisdic- national registrations affecting throughout the country. tion. local government. The councillors elect mayors • The power to issue regula- Article 146 (1) says that every or council chairmen from tions. Local Authority shall be con- amongst themselves for a • The issuing of policy guide- cerned with: period of five years. lines and national standards • the maintenance of law The work of a council takes including minimum standards and order of its area of juris- place in committees. The for the delivery of services. diction. number of committees varies •Negotiation and consulta- • the collection of revenue according to the size of the tion. for the provision of services council. These are: •Training and capacity to its citizens. • The finance and planning building. • enhancing the democratic committee. • Information and advocacy. process within its area of • The education committee. •Financing (grand mecha- jurisdiction and applying • The health committee. nism).
75 •Appellate powers. and are not subject to nego- Impact and prospects • The power to audit, inspect tiation. Here are some of The objective of local govern- and monitor. them: ment is to improve service • The power to interview - Primary education. delivery under a democratic where the local government - Road maintenance. system where the citizens par- operates illegally. - Refuse collection. ticipate in the planning, The permissive functions are implementation and moni- Tasks to be performed by those the council may feel it toring of these objectives. local government necessary to implement for A “think-tank” has run a The Local Government Acts the welfare of its own popula- number of seminars in order 7,8,9,10,11 stipulate two tion e.g. the building of a wel- to compile a training manual types of responsibilities: fare centre for recreation. In for councillors. It will soon be - Obligatory functions. performing these tasks local made public and will form the - Permissive functions. governments use sub-com- basis of councillor training in The obligatory functions mittees that meet three or the future. ■ are imposed on the councils four times a year.
SUPPORT TO TANZANIA BY BILATERAL DONORS 1999 (USD 000) Energy Economic Management Human Resources Area Development DONOR Industry Development Management Natural Resources Agriculture
Japan 44,280 7,460 750 8,720
UK 36,987 13,929 3,035 4,251 1,258 533 160
Netherlands 19,512 9,253 604 9,210 3,275 10,647 Denmark 7,197 3,109 1,673 6,477 3,108 5,902 4,145
Sweden 4,655 8,388 5,090 7,442 158 1,661 7,903
Norway 851 11,457 4,625 6,256 75 12 547 10,867
Switzerland 14,843 542 1,306
Belgium 250 13,200 2,112 1,906 1,999 370 Germany 431 2,343 1,309 2,313 959 484 Ireland 164 4,237 708 838 333 1,593
USA 579 818 1,609 946
Finalnd 35 2,375 425 1,727 2,061
Italy 150 190 45 210
Spain 13 56
France 307 58 101
TOTAL 85,073 108,531 21,313 26,333 21,930 9,124 31,736 754
76 ansport Communication Humanitarian International Trade DONOR Health Disasters Domestic Trade Tr TOTAL Social Development
Japan 15,430 4,390 81,030
UK 19 1,066 1,075 997 8,148 3,216 520 75,194
Netherlands 735 995 3,635 221 4,596 62,683 Denmark 13,242 2,358 14,538 61,749
Sweden 3,430 6,145 3,261 48,133
Norway 5,180 851 1,689 42,410
Switzerland 5,852 244 4,975 335 28,097
Belgium 1,314 2,287 2,142 372 25,952 Germany 936 874 2,276 11,952 Ireland 447 13 1,426 9,759
USA 1,110 3,351 51 136 8,600
Finalnd 1,236 197 8,056
Italy 500 800 1,895
Spain 533 267 869
France 17 63 546
TOTAL 754 2,508 49,010 5734 11,963 44,174 3,267 10,081 466,898
Source: Tanzania Development Co-operation Report 1999, UNDP
NOTES
77 5. CIVIL SOCIETY
THE IMPACT OF NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT
By Mr R. G. Mutakyahwa, Eastern and Southern African Universities’ Research Programme (ESAURP) ntroduction hinder their effectiveness. area that requires further Civil society1 as a concept is research and action. experiencing global revival The Images, Perceptions According to a recent study both in the overburdened and Impact of NGOs carried out by the author of welfare states of Western Despite all the efforts made this article, NGOs participate Europe and, significantly, in by the NGO sector there are in thirteen different pro- the demise of the one party people and some institu- grammes. What follows is a state in Africa. The regional tions/organisations who are brief of only a few pro- transition from authoritarian not satisfied with the current grammes. Examples of rule to multi-partyism has state of affairs. They have not impact as a result of NGO created a vacuum of experi- been able to see what socio- interventions are cited. ence in ensuring the compre- economic contributions have hensive embodiment of dem- been made by NGOs to the Poverty alleviation ocratic values and practices in development of the people. Tanzania is the seventh poor- the region. Civil society Not only are these contribu- est country in the world with organisations (CSOs) have tions not visible to the public, a GNP per capita of $2104 taken on the role of promot- but they are not visible to the and half of the population liv- ing and consolidating democ- sector itself. ing below the poverty line (i.e. ratisation processes and NGOs have been chal- $180 per year)5. Recently, the human rights. In Tanzania lenged by different authorities government formulated a CSOs have also emerged to including the World Bank to strategy on the reduction of fill the gap caused by the demonstrate whether or not poverty resulting in the gradual withdrawal of the their interventions in sup- Poverty Reduction Strategy government in providing its porting local institutions have Paper (PRSP). NGOs partic- citizens with basic services. had an impact on the lives of ipated in the development of However, in Tanzania, per- the people. It has not been the strategy and are expected sistent poverty, the absence of easy to find clear evidence to to take an active role in mon- a viable middle class and a draw any conclusion on this itoring and evaluation during poor knowledge base, restricts matter. This is because, in the implementation of PRSP. the realisation of the potential most cases, NGOs have not The NGO sector has been capacity of civil society. Thus, been asking this question and recognised as one of the main despite the phenomenal have had no baseline database actors in the country’s strug- growth of NGOs2 in the before making any interven- gle to overcome poverty. country3, they all operate tion. At times, there are no Poverty in Tanzania is charac- under structural, material, monitoring and evaluation terised by an insufficient food financial and organisational systems from which an assess- supply; insufficient access to capacity constraints which ment can be made. This is an health, education and water;
78 discrimination against women Chama cha Maendeleo Viji- million to 60 Risk Manage- and aid dependency. Other jini Tanzania (CHAMAVITA) ment and Profit Sharing poverty characteristics include are other NGOs that support (RMPS) projects in the coun- lack of access to credit facili- the community in this area. try. In addition to employ- ties, low prices for farm pro- ment creation, these projects duce and poor access to infor- Economic and enhance gender balance as mation. NGO poverty allevia- micro-financing activities they generate employment for tion programmes are designed These involve financial, mate- women too. to tackle these issues. rial and manpower support to small and medium enterprises Human rights and Agriculture (SMEs) and income genera- governance This sector has been given tion projects (IGPs). Most of Mbilinyi (1996)8 calls NGOs priority for two main reasons. the NGOs taking part in eco- “schools of democracy” and One, agriculture is the back- nomic and other poverty alle- the majority of NGOs work bone of the country’s econ- viation initiatives boast of cre- in this area. The programme omy, accounting for half of the ating jobs for the people and involves raising awareness on GDP and 75% of exports, as thus improving their liveli- peoples’ rights (human, legal, well as employment and hoods. By 1999, projects car- child, women rights, land and incomes for most Tanzanians6. ried out by Social Action property rights) and obliga- Two, the poor are concen- Trust Fund (SATF) had cre- tions. Campaigns against trated in subsistence agricul- ated employment opportuni- abuse of power, domestic and ture. Farmers and livestock ties for 988 people of which gender-based violence have keepers are provided with 57% (i.e. 562) were women. been conducted throughout modern and appropriate These projects, which are the country. Through advo- knowledge and skills imparted intended to raise the incomes cacy and lobbying, TAMWA, through training workshops, of poor people, also include TAWLA, TGNP, PAS and including Land Use Manage- training in relevant business WAT 9 have managed to influ- ment, Farmers Networking skills and production tech- ence the formulation of vari- and Leadership Training, niques. It is expected that, ous bills such as those on sex- Marketing, Indigenous through training, the manage- ual violence and land. The Knowledge and Women ment of economic resources civic and voter education pro- Training. It is estimated that will be improved and thus lead gramme has increased people’s for the period 1997 - 2000 to increased incomes and the knowledge about how their INADES Formation a total of well being of the people. country is governed and about 4,640 farmers participated in NGOs come to the assistance citizen’s rights and obligations its two training projects. of the most needy who cannot in the election of leaders. For Other services provided get financial help from the the October 2000 elections in include the provision of agri- formal finance institutions Tanzania, about 68% of 41 cultural inputs and other (FFIs) such as the commercial institutions involved in civic resources. Through NGO banks. NGOs that are provid- education activities were support, we expect increased ing savings and credit facilities NGOs10.By their nature, agricultural production in include Women Advance- NGOs and CSOs have a general, and food security in ment Trust, Poverty Africa, potentially transformative role particular, which will in turn Caritas Tanzania, Youth Self- to play in strengthening civil lead to an increase in people’s Employment Foundation society, providing space for incomes. ADP7 Mbozi Trust (YOSEFO), SATF and women, youths, the poor and Fund, Isangati Trust Fund, PRIDE Africa. In 1999 other disadvantaged groups to Rural Resource Centre and SATF provided Tshs. 807 organise themselves around
79 their own concerns and chal- (CSSC) are involved in reha- vii. Women and gender lenge the status quo. HAWA- bilitation of infrastructures. Women have been margin- CODA and ENVIRO- Preventive measures are given alised and discriminated in CARE11 are conducting cam- priority. Training projects almost every sphere of society, paigns against female genital include reproductive health yet women contribute greatly mutilation (FGM) in addi- and primary health care to the socio-economic devel- tion to awareness pro- (PHC). opment of the country but get grammes on human and With regard to the very little share when it comes women’s rights. HIV/AIDS epidemic, the to wealth, property and other With the assistance of NGO sector provides services resources. Gender based vio- NGOs, the voices of the such as: lence, such as sexual harass- voiceless and marginalised • Caring and supporting ment, battery and FGM, are groups (children, the disabled AIDS orphans: in 2000 rampant. NGOs have played and women) have started to SATF supported the educa- an important role in empow- be heard and actions have tion of 10,621 at primary ering women economically been taken by appropriate schools in 12 regions of Tan- and politically. Self-confi- authorities and bodies to take zania mainland. dence has been developed and care of the interests of these • Infected and affected per- strengthened. There are good groups. The government too sons are provided with relief indications that progress is has taken protective and affir- supplies, medical and health being made towards gender mative actions e.g. the inclu- facilities. WAMATA12 pro- equality and gender equity. sion of women in various vides home-based care serv- decision-making bodies (Par- ices. Education liament, District leadership • Faraja Trust Fund has Mufindi Education Trust and legal bodies). Through increased its assistance to Fund, for example, has campaigns, training and orphans in Morogoro from increased student enrolment counselling activities, these 618 to 1,028 within a period in its seven secondary schools marginalised people have also of one year. by about ten times between become aware of their rights Through such initiatives 1984 and 1993. The primary- and started to take active roles some people living with secondary progression rate where appropriate to demand AIDS have lived with confi- has increased to about 30% their rights. Women and chil- dence while others have man- from 2% in 1984. More dren, for example, have had aged to live longer and sup- schools at secondary and ter- audiences with the President port their families. tiary levels have been con- of the United Republic of structed. As a result, skills and Tanzania. Water and sanitation knowledge have been NGOs are involved in the acquired and the beneficiaries Health and HIV/AIDS provision of reliable, clean and have better living conditions. Life expectancy in Tanzania safe water through the protec- has declined to about 50 years tion of traditional water Operational Constraints while infant and maternal sources, the drilling of shallow and Problems mortality rates are on the wells and the piping of water. Despite these apparent suc- increase. NGOs provide This is to improve people’s cesses the NGO sector has health and medical care/serv- health and to reduce the bur- realised that it has operational ices, supply drugs and other den of women and girls, the problems and other weak- working tools. Some organi- main water carriers/drawers. nesses which hamper its per- sations such as the Christian formance. The main con- Social Services Commission straints are related to: man-
80 agement, personnel, financial on very limited sources. (Over this sector. In order to have management and non-finan- 76% of NGOs are donor more impact, the NGO sec- cial resources. dependent and over 80% of tor has to take positive steps their budgets come from in some areas. • The NGO sector is new and overseas. This raises the issue there have been no formal of sustainability in the event • A quick analysis shows that management training pro- that the donor money ceases.) NGO operations are concen- grammes. As a result there is Problems also arise from the trated in the wealthiest widespread weak manage- untimely and delayed dis- regions of Dar es Salaam, Kil- ment which manifests itself in bursement of funds by donors imanjaro, Arusha and various ways, e.g. the low par- which might be the result of Mwanza. Very few NGOs ticipation of the beneficiaries late or lacking financial and work in the poorest and mar- in most of the project cycles; narrative reports from the ginalised regions of Kagera, the non-accountability of recipient NGOs to donors. Kigoma and Lindi. There is funds by those who had Financial management is a need for NGOs to prioritise received them. common problem to this sec- the poorest regions of the Board members are often tor since most NGOs have country. inactive due to lack of com- not put in place effective mitment and pre-occupation accounting systems and pro- • NGOs need to build and in other activities. cedures for smooth opera- strengthen a culture of involv- The sector puts less emphasis tions. ing key stakeholders in their on the most deprived regions planning, implementation of Kagera, Kigoma, Mtwara • Lack of proper working and evaluation processes. and Lindi. premises has led some NGOs Members and working per- to be termed “Briefcase” sonnel, for example, have to • The lack of or shortage of NGOs. Lack of or outdated take part in the formulation of working staff leads to (a) over office equipment (loss of vision and mission state- stretching the available staff; time, energy, unable to service ments. They have to be (b) jobs are carried out by the minimum targeted num- accountable to their mem- unqualified people or people ber of clients during a given bers, the general public, are engaged on part time or period, ineffective Manage- donors as well as to the gov- voluntary basis; (c) low quality ment Information Systems ernment. services and products; and (d) (MIS)) has also been a hin- lack of data/information for drance to timely decision- • The introduction of a com- decision-making including making. petitive environment in Tan- financial records and reports. zania will have an effect on The inadequacy of staff also Conclusion the place of this sector. NGOs leads to the inability to There is no doubt that NGOs are now competing for con- respond to needs immediately have a role to play in the tracts to undertake service especially in emergency cases improvement of the liveli- provision. This could under- and effective staff develop- hoods of the Tanzanians. The mine the independence of the ment programmes are not continuing growing demand sector, which could in turn easy to implement. for NGO services, the interest lead NGOs to compromise shown by the government their role in advocacy and • Financial problems can and the general public and support for the grassroots. result from inadequate funds continued donor support is an NGOs have to be cautious and over-dependency on for- indication that there has been about this matter. This is a eign donors and sometimes satisfactory performance of challenge to the NGO sector.
81 • There is a great need for the • There is a need for them to 3 There were over 1,000 of them in 1995 ■ and are now estimated at 4,000. intensification of the training be broadly based. 4 1997 estimates; World Development for CSOs in Tanzania. The Report, 1998/99. government and donors 1 Civil society has been defined as, “.... an 5 The National Poverty Eradication Stra- arena where manifold social movements should help and provide tegy, Vice President’s Office, URT 1998. and civic organisations from all classes ... 6 DFID, 1999. CSOs with financial and attempt to constitute themselves in an 7 ADP: Agricultural Development Pro- material support so as to con- ensemble of arrangements so that they can gramme. duct training and workshops express themselves and advance their 8 ESAURP, Tanzania’s Tomorrow, Tema interests” (Bratton, 1990:417). It refers to Publishers Company Ltd, Dar es Salaam. on issues which are of impor- that sphere of more or less autonomous 9 Tanzania Media Women Association; tance for the CSOs’ develop- social organisations, which lie between Tanzania Women Lawyers’ Association; ment. These would include family and the state. Tanzania Gender Network Programme; CSO management, OD, 2 The NGO definition used in this article Paralegal Aid Scheme for Women; is according to the 5th Draft of the Women’s Advancement Trust. M&E, good governance and National Policy on NGOs: 10 Records of the Elections 2000 Basket issues of finance. a voluntary grouping of individuals or Fund at the Royal Danish Embassy, Dar organisations which is autonomous, non- es Salaam. political and not-for-profit sharing, organ- • There is a need to empower 11 Hanang Women Counselling and ised locally at the grassroots level, nation- Development Association; Environmen- them to be accountable, trans- ally or internationally for the purpose of tal, Human Rights Care and Gender parent, and sufficient in com- enhancing the legitimate economic, social Organisation. munication and media skills and/or cultural development or lobbying 12 Walio Katika Mapambano na AIDS or advocating on issues of public interest Tanzania. for lobbying and advocacy. or interest of a group of individuals or organisations.
Source: Hakikazi Catalyst 2001, cartoon by Ali Masoud (Kipanya)
82 DRAFT OF THE NATIONAL NGO POLICY
Source: The East African, November 19-25, 2001, by Apolinari Tairo
The Policy proposes legislation to monitor, control and regulate NGOs
The government has endorsed Tanzania’s final draft of the national policy on non-governmental organizations, five years after a committee started working on it.
The idea of a national NGO policy was mooted in November 1996, when a number of NGOs held a consultative meeting in Dar es Salaam. The forum appointed a national steering commit- tee on NGO policy, which consisted of members from NGOs, community-based organizations, religious organizations and government officials.
The Policy will allow NGOs to play a crucial role in the provision of social and economic wel- fare services and in enhancing democratic reforms. The policy also proposes legislation to monitor, control and regulate NGOs. It gives the govern- ment more powers to control their registration and operations through the Vice President’s Office.
A director of NGOs has been appointed to monitor their activities, which observers feel is a ploy by the government to limit their numbers and monitor their financial sources.
The policy also proposes the formation of a national NGO board to facilitate and coordinate NGO activities. It wants the government, in collaboration with NGO national bodies, to pub- lish and update NGO directories in order to facilitate networking and the exchange of informa- tion.
The government shall provide information relevant to NGO activities so as to promote a fair information exchange between the two sides. While previously national and international NGOs were registered under five different pieces of legislation, the envisaged changes will centralize the registration of all NGOs.
NGOs are currently registered under the National Sports Council Act No 12, 1967 under the Ministry of Education that registers sports associations; the Societies Ordinance of 1954 under the Ministry of Home Affairs; and the Trustee Incorporation Ordinance of 1956, under the Ministry of Justice (Administrator General). Others are the Companies ordinance of 1935 under the Ministry of Industries and Commerce, and, in Zanzibar, Act No 6 of 1995 of Zan- zibar under the Chief Minister’s Office.
83 THEATRE FOR CHANGE
By Mrs F. Massoy, Morogoro Paralegal Centre
nection with feasibility stud- ies. While the play is going on, the audience’s reactions - such as when people shout, “ It is true”, “It has just happened” - can reveal the needs, problems and behavior of the society concerned. The theatre performances conducted in Zanzibar and Pemba during the Zanzibar International Film Festival (ZIFF) by the Tanga Paralegal Aid Scheme for Women and the Morogoro Paralegal Cen- tre thrilled the hearts of the people, especially the part where one performer fainted after receiving a letter from her aunt informing her that a man with whom she was hav- Morogoro Paralegal Unit theatre group performing during ZIFF, 2001 ing a love affair had just died of Aids complications. Theatre is a method of com- Theatre performances bring Then the Aids virus appeared municating which can be used together people of different in a funny costume to describe to bring about change. ages, sex, status, beliefs and how it can kill many people if Theatre is entertaining. It even ideologies. This mixture they don’t take care and use can make people become of spectators makes theater an preventive measures, and at excited, feel sympathetic, cry, effective learning institution, this stage the adults were laugh, shout. In fact it can which does not discriminate quiet. The young children bring about all sorts of feelings against any group in society. were shouting in fear of the in people, depending on how Well-prepared and well- Aids Virus and I also think the performers reveal the mes- performed theatre can bring those who really knew what sage concerned, on the cos- about behavioral change. The AIDS is and the hazards it tumes used and on other action used by the performers causes had different feelings equipment such as flutes, can thrill the heart of an indi- and maybe some of them drums, spears, gourds and vidual to the extent that it decided to change their life even loud shouting. The way paves the way for new life styles to avoid this killer. performers dress can make a skills and a new vision, and Such is the contribution of very big impression on the thereby a better life for the theatre to development. ■ audience and it can stick in individual. their minds and not be easy to Theatre performance as a forget. method can be used in con-
84 MAJOR NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS (NGOs) IN TANZANIA
UMBRELLA NGOS Dar es Salaam Agape Trust Foundation Contact: Secretary Location: Ilala Tanzania Association of Address: P. O. Box 6096, Non-Government The Mwalimu Nyerere Dar es Salaam Organizations - TANGO Foundation MNF Contact: Secretary Location: Kijitonyama Location: 6 Sokoine Drive Address: P. O. Box 1372, Address: P. O. Box 71000, NGO Technical AIDS Dar es Salaam Dar es Salaam Committee Tel. 235215 Fax: 235216 Tel. 2118354 Fax: 2119216 Location: SIDO Hostel, Bibi Contact: Secretary Email: Titi Moh’d Rd., Ground Tanzania Council of Social [email protected] Floor Room 2B Development Contact: Executive Director Address: P. O. Box 11318, TACOSODE Dar es Salaam Location: Makumbusho Tanzania Media Women Tel. 2153075/80 Address: P. O. Box 63196, Association TAMWA Fax: 2150568 Dar es Salaam Location: Kisutu Rd. Email: Tel. 2760166/2760170 Address: P. O. Box 6143, [email protected] Fax: 2760170 Dar es Salaam Contact: Secretary General Email: Tel. 2129089/2115277 [email protected] Contact: Executive Director Walio Katika Mapambano Contact: Executive Secretary na Ukimwi Tanzania Jumuia ya Wahandisi WAMATA Association of Zanzibar Location: Mikocheni B Non-Governmental Location: Zanzibar Address: P. O. Box 68219, Organizations of Zanzibar Address: P. O. Box 467, Dar es Salaam ANGOZA Zanzibar Tel. 275275 Location: Mwanakwerere Contact: Secretary General Contact: Executive Director Address: P. O. Box 4686, Zanzibar HEALTH & HIV/AIDS SOCIAL Contact: Executive Director Association of Private DEVELOPMENT Hospitals in Tanzania Tanzania Gender EDUCATION Location: Upanga Rd. Networking Programme Journalist Environment Address: P. O. Box 65300, TGNP Association of Tanzania Dar es Salaam Location: Mabibo JET Tel. 272180/274324 Address: P. O. Box 8921, Location: Contact: Secretary Dar es Salaam Address: P. O. Box 65466, Tel. 2443286/2443205 Dar es Salaam Zanzibar NGO Cluster for Email: [email protected] Tel. 249039 HIV/AIDS Prevention Contact: Secretary General Contact: Secretary Location: Mpendae Plot No. 3518 Equal Opportunity Children’s Book Project of Address: P. O. Box 1610, for All Trust Fund Tanzania CBP Zanzibar Location: Luthuli Rd. Location: Dar es Salaam Tel/Fax 024-230195 Address: P. O. Box 78262, Address: P. O. Box 1457, Contact: Secretary Dar es Salaam
85 Tel. 2114512 Fax 2114793 African Charitable Environmental and Email: [email protected] Development Fund Human Rights Care Contact: Location: Mwanakwerekwe Organisation Executive Chairman Address: P. O. Box 336 ENVIROCARE Zanzibar Location: University Rd. Community Development Contact: Chairman Address: P. O. Box 9824, Trust Fund CDTF Dar es Salaam Location: Samora/Ohio St. Zanzibar Development Tel. 2775592 Address: P. O. Box 9421, and Social Development Email: Dar es Salaam Location: Kikwajuni [email protected] Tel. 2314711 Fax: 2138026 Address: P. O. Box 1455, Contact: Executive Director Contact: Secretary Zanzibar Contact: Secretary The Gender and Human Economic and Social Rights Research Foundation Zanzibar Youth Location: Umati Building ESRF Entrepreneurial Fund Address: P. O. Box 1372, Location: Uporoto St. ZYEDF Dar es Salaam Address: P. O. Box 31266, Location: Shangani Contact: Secretary Dar es Salaam Address: P. O. Box 772, Tel. 2760260 Zanzibar The Tanganyika Law Email: [email protected] Contact: Secretary Society Contact: Executive Director Location: IPS Building International Film Address: P. O. Box 4103, Research on Poverty Festival Dar es Salaam Alleviation REPOA Location: Karume Hse Tel. 2111721 Location: University Rd. Address: P. O. Box 314, Contact: Secretary Address: P. O. Box 33223, Zanzibar Dar es Salaam Contact: Executive Director Zanzibar Legal Tel. 2700083 Fax: 275738 Services Centre Email: [email protected] HUMAN RIGHTS Location: Vuga Area Contact: Executive Director Address: P. O. Box 3360 Legal and Human Rights Tel. 2233784 Centre LHRC Hakikazi Catalyst Contact: Secretary General Location: Arusha Location: Upanga Address: P. O. Box 75254, Address: P. O. Box 781, Zanzibar Law Society Dar es Salaam Arusha Location: Shangani Tel. 2118353 Fax: 2113177 Tel. 027-2509860 Address: P. O. Box 3186, Email: [email protected] Email: Zanzibar Contact: Secretary [email protected] Contact: Secretary General Contact: Executive Director Tanzania Women Lawyers Association TAWLA Source: Vice President’s Office Tanzania Social and United Republic of Tanzania, Economic Trust TASOET Location: Avalon Building Directory of Tanzania Non- Location: Arusha Address: P.O. Box 9480, Governmental Organizations 2000 Address: P. O. Box 38, Dar es Salaam Arusha Tel. 2110758 Tel. 027 2504289 Contact: Executive Director Email: [email protected] Contact: Executive Director
86 6. MEDIA
THE MEDIA COUNCIL OF TANZANIA
By A. Ngaiza, Media Council of Tanzania ntroduction • To maintain a register of associations The Media Council of Tanza- developments likely to restrict (d) Press clubs nia is a voluntary, independent the supply of information of and non-statutory organisa- public interest and impor- Associate members tion. The Tanzania media tance; keep a review of the The status of associate mem- practitioners believe that their same; and investigate the con- bership shall be accorded to cardinal duty is to serve the duct and attitude of persons, any professional association truth, guided by the principle corporations and governmen- the aims and objectives of of the public’s right to infor- tal bodies at all levels, towards which complement, support mation. The duty and respon- the media, and make public or relate to the Council’s sibility of the Council is to reports on such investigations. objectives. ensure, enhance and defend • To involve members of the the freedom of the press, public in the work of the Organs of the Council guided strictly by the profes- Council by granting them The principal organs of the sional principles of accuracy, membership of the Council Media Council of Tanzania objectivity, honesty, fairness, and constantly and reasonably are the National General decency and independence. keeping the public informed Convention (NGC); the of the Council’s operations, Governing Board; the Ethics Objectives of the Council views and decisions. Committee and the Finance • To assist, safeguard and • To promote and defend the and Administration Commit- maintain the freedom of the interests of readers, viewers, tee. The NGC may establish media in the United Republic and listeners. any other committee or com- of Tanzania. • To promote gender sensitiv- mittees whenever it deems • To oversee that journalists, ity, equality and balance. necessary. editors, broadcasters, produc- • To do such other things as ers, directors, proprietors and may be in the interest of the The Governing Board all those involved in the media Council, the media and the 1. The Governing Board shall industry in Tanzania adhere to public in order to achieve consist of a President, a Vice- the highest professional and these objectives. President, an Executive Secre- ethical standards. tary, seven media representa- • To consider, and adjudicate Membership of the tives and four public represen- upon, complaints from the Council tatives, two (2) of them being public and amongst the media The membership of the lawyers; PROVIDED that a inter se against alleged Council shall consist of the minimum of one third (1/3) of infringements of the code of following: the board members are ethics. (a) Media outlets women. • To encourage the develop- (b) Journalists’ training 2. With the exception of the ment of the media profession institutions Executive Secretary, who shall in Tanzania. (c) Professional journalists be an ex-officio member of
87 the Board and shall assume and shall chair all meetings of implement the MCT objec- office on the basis of a special the Board and shall have a tives. contract of service with the casting vote. Board, and the Vice-Presi- 10. The Governing Board, in Terms of office dent who shall be elected by matters requiring expert All members and their alter- members of the Board from advice, shall be at liberty to nates may hold office for two amongst themselves, the rest invite experts to render con- years but shall not serve for of the Board members shall sultative services to it. more than two-year consecu- be elected after every two tive terms on the Council. years by the NGC. 11. The Board from amongst its members shall elect the 3. Media Representatives Complaints procedure Vice-President. shall be persons who at the If you have a complaint time of election are actively 12. Except as otherwise against a newspaper, radio or engaged in publishing or expressly provided by the television you should first take other media activities in an Constitution or by any regu- it up with the editor or administrative, editorial or lation made under the Con- another higher authority of journalistic capacity. They stitution, the Governing the concerned institution. If shall be elected by the NGC Board may exercise all the the complaint is not resolved by secret ballot. powers of the General Con- to your satisfaction, you may vention and no regulation refer it to the Media Council 4. Public representatives shall made under the Constitution of Tanzania. A complaint be persons who at the time of shall invalidate any prior act must be specific, in writing appointment are not engaged of the Governing Board and accompanied by a cutting in publishing or other media which would have been valid or clear photograph or activities in an administrative, if such regulation had not recorded cassette of the mat- editorial or journalistic capac- been made. ter complained of, with sup- ity. porting documents of evi- 13. The Governing Board 5. Jurists of high standing dence, if any. may from time to time Complaints must be lodged shall be persons who are not appoint sub-committees con- employed as civil servants or within 12 weeks of publica- sisting of members of the tion or broadcast. The Coun- in military service of the Board, and may, except as United Republic of Tanzania. cil will not hear a complaint otherwise expressly provided subject to legal action or, in 6. All members of the Gov- by the Constitution or by any the Council’s view, possible erning Board shall be elected regulations made under the legal action unless the com- at the National General Con- Constitution, delegate to any plainant is willing to sign a vention. such sub-committee all or any waiver of the right to such of the powers of the Board. action. 7. No media organ, institution Where do you direct your or organization shall have 14. The procedure of the complaint? more than one representative Board and of every sub-com- on the Governing Board. mittee appointed as aforesaid The Executive Secretary, shall be as may be prescribed Media Council of Tanzania, 8. The President shall be an by the Board from time to P. O. Box 10160, eminent citizen of impeccable time. Dar es Salaam. integrity and proven intellec- Tel: 2775728/2771947 tual ability. 15. The Governing Board shall among other functions Fax: 2775728/27003720 9. The President shall be the given to it by the constitution, Email: head of the Governing Board enforce the Ethical Code and [email protected]
88 CODE OF ETHICS FOR JOURNALISTS
Extracts compiled by Mr A. Ngaiza, Media Council of Tanzania
Article 1 (a) A journalist should avoid always draw a clear line The Right to Truth violation of individual between comment, (a) Every journalist has a privacy and human dignity conjecture and fact. duty to tell, adhere to, adore unless such violation is done (b) A journalist should not and faithfully defend the for a provable public plagiarise, and where other’s truth. interest. material is used credit (b) A journalist should (b) A journalist should should be given to the make adequate inquiries, do guard against libel, slander source. cross-checking of facts in and defamation in general. Article 9 order to provide the public (c) A journalist should Sensationalism with unbiased, accurate, respect and consistently Sensationalism is mainly balanced comprehensive work for attainment of inherent in stories but a information/news. human rights and fuller journalist must guard freedom. Article 2 against highlighting Professional Integrity Article 6 incidents out of context, A journalist should not Discrimination either in headlines or in solicit, nor accept bribes or A journalist should not reportage/narration. any form of inducement engage in publication Article 10 meant to bend or influence directly or indirectly or by Correction and Right of professional performance. implication, or stories, Reply information, photos that Article 3 (a) Any warranted injure, or discriminate corrections must be done Non-Disclosure of against anybody for his/her Sources promptly and with due colour, religion, origin or prominence. A journalist should not sex. disclose sources or (b) Apologies should be information given in Article 7 published whereever confidence. Identity and the appropriate and accorded Underdog due prominence. Article 4 (a) A journalist should not (c) An individual, group or Social Responsibility ridicule the underdog organisation who disputes a A journalist shall, in including minors, the old, published report should be collecting and disseminating the bereaved and any other given an opportunity to information, bear in mind underprivileged persons or reply. his/her responsibility to the communities. public which means to Article 11 (b) A journalist should Working Together educate citizens and others avoid identifying victims of on matters affecting them Journalist should work sexual assault unless the together in safeguarding this and their surroundings, and victim is dead and until a consistently strive to put Code of Ethics which is journalist secures consent applicable to members in ahead of others, matters of from a living victim. public and national interest. the state-owned media, private media and to local Article 5 Article 8 freelance journalists. Respect for Human Facts and Comments Dignity (a) A journalist should
89 WHAT IS PUBLIC RELATIONS?
Public Relations (PR) is about relations between an organisation - be it a business enterprise, a political party or an NGO - and the public. Such relations exist, whether we want them to or not. It is therefore wise to consider what image you wish the public to have of your organisa- tion and to work consciously on the promotion of that image.
An organisation manifests itself to the public in many ways. It can be through its propagated political aims, the behaviour of its representatives and members, its public statements and activ- ities, the atmosphere at its public meetings and press conferences, its transparency and its accountability. The traditional “tools” of a public relations officer are: • press conferences • publications • leaflets • posters • press releases • public events
These tools must be used carefully. A public meeting held without being well prepared or a badly designed and written publication may do more harm than good!
PREPARING AND RUNNING A PRESS CONFERENCE
A press conference is an event to which members of the press are invited for a briefing by the host organisation or personality. The briefing is followed by an opportunity for the journalists to ask questions.
Often press conferences are held when the subject matter is intricate and further questions from journalists are expected and desired. If the information/news to be given at the press conference is not sufficiently interesting, rele- vant or “meaty” for the invited media’s readers/viewers, then it is likely that the journalists will not show up.
Preparation • Are the objectives clear and is the topic well defined? • Which media are to be invited? Remember, TV & radio may have special needs. • Is the time/date well chosen and convenient for journalists? Does it allow them to meet their deadlines? Does it coincide with other important events? • Who will chair the conference? • Who will act as the organisation’s spokesperson/s? • Is the opening statement well prepared? • Are the major arguments well supported in the written handouts? • Check the venue: make sure that there are enough chairs, tables and lights. • Have handouts ready, e.g. press release. You might prepare a press folder that includes the most important statements, a report and background material.
Invitation • The headline must clearly indicate the host organisation, the name of the person responsible
90 and how to contact him/her. • State the subject matter clearly. (Who did/does what, when, where, why and how.) • Give information about the speakers. • Give details on venue, time and date. • Send out/deliver the invitation at least a week in advance. • Send out a reminder one or two days before the event.
Running it • Ask journalists to note their names and which media institution they represent on a prepared list. This is useful information for making follow-ups. • Make written the handouts available for journalists when they arrive. • The chairperson opens the conference and introduces the speakers and subject. • The key presenter makes his/her statement clearly and concisely, and relates them to the handouts. • The chairperson moderates the question and answer session. • Answers must be brief, clear and concise. It is good to give practical examples to illustrate the message you want to give. • Speakers must remain relaxed, friendly and forthcoming even when provoked.
A PRESS RELEASE
This is one of the most useful mediums through which an organisation can make itself and its views known to the public. The contents might be: • Statements on pertaining issues. • Reports on activities or events you have organised. • Announcements of forthcoming events. • Reactions to statements made by others.
PROS AND CONS Issuing a press release is a relatively cheap way of creating awareness about one’s stand. However, badly written press releases, and those that deal with unimportant issues, will annoy the recipients and may create negative feelings towards your organisation.
HOW TO WRITE IT • The headline must state clearly the name of the organisation issuing the release and the subject matter. • State the most important themes first. • Make clear why you are issuing the press release at this particular point in time. • The journalist must be able to pick out relevant information easily and quickly. • Use a typewriter or word processor, double-space and use only one side of the page. • Give information about how to contact the person responsible: name, address, telephone, e-mail address.
91 INTERNET AND E-MAIL
The Internet make it accessible on the web. chose as the most important This is a computer network Internet users must therefore ones. Here is the secret: what that joins other networks approach websites with a very sort of key words should you together e.g. those of aca- critical mind. use, and how to combine demic and government insti- A web is distinguished by them? tutions, schools, libraries and the prefix http:// in its corporations, making them address, which you should 1. Be specific seem to be just one network write on top of the page of The more specific your search to the user, who sits in front of your “browser” software (e.g. is, the more likely you will her/his computer at home, in Netscape, Internet Explorer). find what you want. For the office or at an “internet Each website has a unique example if you want to know café”. The Internet provides address, known as URL. The how many international access to information stored FES Tanzania address is treaties Tanzania has signed, in different computers all over http://tanzania.fes-interna- you should write “Tanzania the world and it also provides tional.de international treaties signato- the opportunity to engage in Take care when writing a ries” or you even write “how discussions and to share ideas web addresses for they are many international treaties and research with people con- sensitive to punctuation and Tanzania has signed?” You’ll nected to the network. spaces (there are no spaces in be surprised at how often this To access the Internet you electronic addresses), and are works! need a computer with the normally written in lower adequate software, a tele- case. 2. Use the symbol + to add phone-line and a modem If you want to be sure that the (modem = contraction of Search engines and pages you will find contain modulator/demodulator) to websites not only one or another word link your computer with the When you are looking for you typed, but all of them, you telephone. You also need to information you might should use the symbol +. For subscribe to an “internet already know the website to instance, you want to find provider”, (see our list of look in and its address. If you pages where there are refer- major internet providers in do not know where to look, ences to President Mkapa Tanzania). then you will have to use a together with references to search engine. A search Mwalimu Nyerere. You World Wide Web (www) engine helps you find infor- should then type: Through the Internet, you mation. To access the search +Mkapa+Nyerere. You can can access the WWW.This is engine you write http://www. narrow down your search by the name given to the appar- and the name of the search adding more specific words. ently seamless “web” of many engine, e.g. www.google.com geographically separate OR www.altavista.com OR 3. Use the symbol - to subtract sources of information. The www.yahoo.com. These addr- If you want all the pages mass of data available is over- esses open the websites of related to those key words but whelming. There is no guar- Google, Altavista and Yahoo. not the ones referring to a antee that it is accurate, up- When you access a search specific subject, you can use to-date or even meant to be engine, you will have to type the symbol -. Using the above helpful. Anyone with access some key words in the space example, you want references to the internet can publish provided. The search will be to President Mkapa and his/her own material and based on those words you Nyerere, but do not want ref-
92 erences to Ujamaa, you can engines for Africa are: tronic address and will send type: +Mpaka+Nyerere-Uja- • Mosaique.com your message to another maa. • ClickAfrica.com address. If you have a connec- •Orientation Tanzania tion to an internet provider 4. Use quotation marks to keep •Woyaa.com you will receive an address expressions together •Ananzi.com which is composed of two If you want to find references •Zebra.co.za parts: your-login-name + the to a special combination of •Siftthru.com symbol @ + the name of the words, you will have to write •Searchenginewatch.com internet provider. FES Tanza- those words in quotation •Fishhoo.com. nia’s electronic address is marks. For example, if you [email protected] type+President+Mkapa, you’ll E-mail get sites that make references This refers to electronic mail Chatting and conferencing to those words together or as opposed to airmail or sur- The Internet provides the separated. But if you write face mail (today popularly possibility of communicating “President Mkapa”, you’ll get known as “snail mail”). You directly with others “on-line”. only the references where both can send messages to anyone In other words the people of the words appear in that with an Internet account, and chatting or holding a confer- same order. it can include not only text, ence are at their computers but also pictures and spread- and are on the Internet at the 5. Combining all of it sheets. Incoming messages are same time. ■ Try to use the different signs stored in your mail-box on to be specific. For example: your internet provider until +“President Mkapa” + “Mwal- you access it. E-mail is deliv- NOTES imu Nyerere” + development - ered very fast, in a matter of “international cooperation” seconds or a few hours. This depends amongst other things Here are the names of a few on the amount of data being search engines: transferred and the quality of • Google (www.google.com) telephone lines and that of • Altavista your modem. The cost of (www.altavista.com) sending e-mail depends on •Yahoo the amount of data and there- •Lycos fore the length of time it takes •WebCrawler to send it from your computer • HotBot to the local server. It is rela- •Fast tively cheap: sending e-mail to • InfoSeek the other side of the globe is • Dogpile not more expensive than • MSN sending one to a computer •LookSmart. next door. To send and receive e-mails You can also enter a search you will need a dedicated pro- engine and search for specific gram, such as Outlook search engines, for example, Express, Microsoft Outlook, +“search engines”+Africa. Eudora, Pegasus and others. Some of the specific search You will have your own elec-
93 LIST OF INTERNET PROVIDERS
Source: Tanzania Communication Commission, 2001
Tanzania Posts Green Growth R&D Ltd. Faxsav Ltd. Corporation Tel. 022 - 2700962 Tel. 022 - 2775616 Tel. 022 -2118280 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] ET Communications (T) Rcl l café Internet Africa Ltd. Tel. 022 - 2139818 Tel. 022 - 2119038/7 P. O. Box 63358 E-mail: [email protected] Fax 022 - 2119039 Dar es Salaam E-mail: info@int/africa.com Fax 022 - 2128180 OTHERS Planetel Communication Computers & Telecoms University Computing Ltd. Systems Ltd. (CATS) Centre Ltd. P. O. Box 76393 Tel. 022 - 2111382 E-mail: [email protected] Dar es Salaam E-mail: [email protected] Raha.com Simunet Company Ltd. Africa Online Tel. 022 - 2119514-6 P. O. Box 9070 Tel. 022 - 2116090 E-mail: [email protected] Dar es Salaam Fax 022 - 2116089 E-mail: Zanzibar Net Co. Ltd Star Telecom [email protected] Tel. 024 - 2236711 P. O. Box 12933 Fax 024 - 2239014 Dar es Salaam JR Electronics Ltd E-mail: [email protected] Tel. 027-2508902 COSBI Systems Ltd. E-mail: [email protected] Simbanet (T)Ltd. Dar es Salaam Tel. 022 - 212000/2116863 Cyber Twiga Fax 022 - 2115571 Arusha Node Marie Tel. 022 - 2118291 P. O. Box 1215 Fax 022 - 2127162 Arusha E-mail: [email protected]
NOTES
94 KISWAHILI NEWSPAPERS IN TANZANIA
Source: Registrar of Newspapers, November 2001
KEY D Daily W Weekly M Monthly BA Bi-Annual BM Bi-Monthly BW Bi-Weekly Q Quarterly * Information not available
NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS
Africa Leo Upendo Publishers & Distributors Box 19705, Dar es Salaam MR.Mkumbukwa
Ajira National Printing Co. Ltd. Box 2320, Dar es Salaam W J.B. Hokororo
Alasiri The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam DV.Urassa
Aluwatan Business Times Limited Box 71439, Dar es Salaam W
An-Nuur Islamic Propagation Centre Box 55105, Dar es Salaam WK.Charo
Baahari The Tribune Press Agency Box 3192, Dar es Salaam WY.R. Kachelele
Dar Leo Dar Leo Publications Box 71439, Dar es Salaam DS.Mkilla
Dhamira Majambo Publications Limited Box 50557, Dar es Salaam BW G. Mhando
Dimba Salva Rweyemamu Box 7277, Dar es Salaam WJ.Mbwambo
Ehabi AFREDA (Action for Relief & Development Box 10014, Dar es Salaam Q Assistance) R. Andusamile
Heko Heko Publishers Ltd Box 7072, Dar es Salaam DB.Mtobwa
Imara Tanzania Association for Mentally Box 70236, Dar es Salaam Q Handicapped N. Jabir
Johari Salim A.M. Kitojo Box 6494, Dar es Salaam M
Kalamu S.A.B. Investment Co. Ltd. Box 25178, Dar es Salaam WO.A.Bawazir
Kalulu Ben R. Mtobwa Box 7072, Dar es Salaam M
95 NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS
Kasheshe The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam DO.Angetile Kiongozi Catholic Publishers Box 9400, Dar es Salaam BM Father Paul Haule Lete Raha The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam WV.Urassa
Madaraka Madaraka Publication Ltd. Box 63066, Dar es Salaam BW H. A. Kimwanga
Majira Business Times Limited Box 71439, Dar es Salaam D Maguezi Magege General Enterprises Box 16234, Dar es Salaam BW B. J. Msimbe
Mbeya Leo Mbeya Press Club Box 1761, Mbeya BW L.. M. Ndaga
Mchumi Lasix Ltd. Box 77139, Dar es Salaam BM D.F.TengoChikoko
Mfanyakazi Organisation of Tanzanian Trade Unions Box 25039, Dar es Salaam BW (OTTU)
Mizani Sherman Publishers Box 16450, Dar es Salaam WK.M.H. Mohamed
Mnara Yasin M. Kachechele Box 32253, Dar es Salaam W
Msanii Afrika Sahara Communication & Box 1962, Mwanza BM Publishing Co. Ltd.
Msema Kweli WAPO Box 7740, Dar es Salaam MP.Dismas
Mtanzania Habari Corporation Ltd. Box 4793, Dar es Salaam DJ.Bwure
Muelimishaji AMREF - TZ Box 2773, Dar es Salaam QE.Binagi
Mwadeta AFREDA (Action for Relief & Development Box 10014, Dar es Salaam Q Assistance) D.W
Mwandishi Horizon Publications Ltd. Box 33772, Dar es Salaam WL.Mbwona
Mzalendo Uhuru Publications Ltd. Box 922, Dar es Salaam WS.Rweyemamu
Mzawa Kwimba Comm. & Publishing Ltd. Box 10773, Mwanza BW J. Nhende
Nasaha Tanzania Muslims Professionals Ass. Ltd. Box 72045, Dar es Salaam W I.M. Mtuwa
96 NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS
Nipashe The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam D Nyundo Eddy Francis Box 16474, Dar es Salaam W Mwaipopo, S. Polly
Rai Rai Publications Ltd. Box 4793, Dar es Salaam WS.Rweyemuma
Safari Majira Comm. Ltd. Box 71439, Dar es Salaam WS.Makilla Safina BAKWATA Box 21422, Dar es Salaam M general secretary
Sanifu Majira Comm. Ltd. Box 71439, Dar es Salaam WT.Tehenan
Sauti Ya Wakulime KCU (1990) Ltd. Box 5, Bukoba QN.Rwehabura
Shangwe Tamba General Ent. Box 25214, Dar es Salaam WY.M.Kachchele
Shaba Oliprint Ltd. Box 22595, Dar es Salaam WN.Lushazi
Spoti Dar Leo Publications Ltd. Box 71439, Dar es Salaam W
Taifa Letu The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam WV.Urassa
Tangaza Leo Majembe Auction Mart Ltd. Box 70708, Dar es Salaam BW W. M. Sambaya
Tanzania Leo Tanzania Leo Ltd. Box 826, Dar es Salaam WJ.B.Mgandilwa
Uhuru Uhuru Publications Box 9221, Dar es Salaam D
Ukweli na Uwazi Safe Guard Ltd. Box 7534, Dar es Salaam W
Ushindi wa Ajabu Board of Trustees of Christian Revival Box 4828, Dar es Salaam Q Mission / J. Mkinga
Vijana Wetu AMREF Box 2773, Dar es Salaam MC.W.Makoba
Wasaa B. Mbungo/Soho Box 15147, Dar es Salaam BM
97 KISWAHILI NEWSPAPERS REGISTERED IN 2001
NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS
Afrika Mashariki The Guardian Limited Box 32042, Dar es Salaam BW V.C. Mlay Burudisho la Wiki A. Abbas & H. Kapesula Box 20969, Dar es Salaam W Athumani Mwabombo Fimbo Global Publisher & General Enterprises Ltd. Box 7534, Dar es Salaam W Oliver Kato Hamu International Publishing Agency Ltd. Box 2765, Dar es Salaam W Sammy Polly
Harambee Tanzania Volunteer Service Movement Box 55132, Dar es Salaam Nakoli S. Kawongo Ijumaa Safeguard Ltd. Box 7534, Dar es Salaam W Kamtu Kamtu Ltd. Box 71896, Dar es Salaam BM G. Ndyetabula
Kidedea PR Communications Company Ltd. Box 25165, Dar es Salaam W Victor Joseph Muhanika
Kiu ya Jibu Kiu Publisher & General Enterprises Ltd. Box 72690, Dar es Salaam W Hemed Kimwanga Kwetu Great Lakes Research Trust Fund Box 21118, Dar es Salaam WM.Kuhenga Mipasho Emanuel Protas Box 71747, Dar es Salaam Athumani Mwabombo Mtandao Amanus Ltd. Box 32597, Dar es Salaam WR.Mkumbukwa
Mwambao Tanga Press Clubs Box 1450, Dar es Salaam Charles Kifunta Mwanaspoti Media Communications Ltd. Box 455, Dar es Salaam WR.Makaranga
Nyakati Ayubu E. Mwakang’ata Box 31423, Dar es Salaam Arnold Victor Msuya
Nyasa Business Times Ltd. Box 2117, Dar es Salaam Jonas Edward Mwasumbi Ta a Mwanza Press Club Box 2516, Dar es Salaam Nathan Rwehabula Tausi DSM Stock Exchange Box 70422, Dar es Salaam W Theo Mushi Tefa Sikio ELCT, Box 837, Dar es Salaam W Elizabeth Lobulu Tunda Tunu (T) Limited Box 77444, Dar es Salaam WCatherine Nyokas Newa Utamu H. Abas, A.A. Kapesula & H. Kapaya Box 20969, Dar es Salaam W Athumani Mwabombo
98 JOURNALS IN TANZANIA
NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS
Journal of Building and Land Ardhi Institute Editorial Board Box 35176, Dar es Salaam Development Q Materials Management National Board of Materials Box 5993, Dar es Salaam Journal Management Q Tanzania Christian Medical Tanzania Christian Medical Association Box 1949, Dar es Salaam Association Journal Prof. P.H. Shao Q Tushirikiane Journal Co-operative College Moshi Box 5474, Dar es Salaam QL.Donge
University of DSM UDSM Library Box 85092, Dar es Salaam Library Journal O. C. Mascrentias BA
ENGLISH NEWSPAPERS IN TANZANIA Source: Registrar of Newspapers, November 2001
NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS
African Travel Maryvonne Pool, Nafeesa Jan Mohamed Box 6090, Dar es Salaam Review P. Valap 6x year Bargains Meadows Promotions Ltd. Box 1702, Dar es Salaam WN.Jabir Business Prom. Amani E.Temu (A&H Comm.) Box 70831, Dar es Salaam WW.Makamba Business Times Business Times Limited Box 71439, Dar es Salaam WB.B.Palela Buy & Sell Tanzania Wilson International Company Ltd. Box 10658, Dar es Salaam BM Gayle Wilson CSSC News Christian Social Services Commission Box 9433, Dar es Salaam BA Germanus Joseph Kyafla Daily News Tanganyika Standard Newspapers Box 9033, Dar es Salaam D Destination Destination Cruisers & Pathfinders Ltd. Box 3788, Dar es Salaam Tanzania M W. Mbunga Family Mirror General Publications Ltd. Box 6804, Dar es Salaam M Financial Times The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam WT.Mushi
99 NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS
Foto Genic Kisa Investments Limited Box 35175, Dar es Salaam WW.Mbunga
In and Out Sheraton Dar es Salaam Hotel Box 791, Dar es Salaam M. S. Madanga Mama Africa International Commerce Services Ltd. Box 70229, Dar es Salaam ME.Ndajembi Mwanza Mwanza Press Club Box 2814, Mwanza Environment J. Kambili (Mazingira) M Renewable Energy TATEDO Box 32794, Dar es Salaam & Environment Z. Ubwani News BA Rockers Fortune Media Ltd. Box 75352, Dar es Salaam MA.N.Nsenembo
Sportscene Tanganyika Standard Newspapers Box 9033, Dar es Salaam M
Sunday Nation Nation Newspapers Ltd. Box 8100, Dar es Salaam W
Sunday News Tanganyika Standard Newspapers Box 9033, Dar es Salaam WS.Kamuhanda
Sunday Observer The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam WV.Urassa Sunday Times Business Times Limited Box 71439, Dar es Salaam WI.Kakiziba
Sunset The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam DW.Mauyo Tanzania Guide Joe Rugarabamu Box 14190, Dar es Salaam BM F. Kaiza Tanzania Science Tanzania Commission for Science & Box 4302, Dar es Salaam & Technology Technology/ T.E. Mlaki News Q
The Arusha Times F.M. Arusha Limited Box 212, Arusha WW.Lobubu The Citizen Media Communications Ltd. Box 32597, Dar es Salaam Theophil Makunga
The Democrat Aliyas Investments Limited Box 21122, Dar es Salaam WS.Mwalfisi The Democratic New Equatorial Publishers Ltd. Box 40951, Dar es Salaam WJ.Hokororo The East African Nation Newspapers Limited Box 8101, Dar es Salaam W The Express Media Holdings Box 20588, Dar es Salaam W The Guardian The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam D
100 NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS
The Insurer Institute of Insurance Tanzania (ITT) Box 4977, Dar es Salaam MJ.C.Kulekana
The Tribune Kassim Mpenda Box 7652, Dar es Salaam W Weekly Nation M/S Sumanda ya Ntuzu General Box 5544, Dar es Salaam WTraders, A.Tairo The Daily Mail The Guardian Limited Box 31042, Dar es Salaam DM.Tesani What’s Happening Hakuna Matata Travels Ltd. Box 33259, Dar es Salaam in DSM Christine Wolff M
NEWSLETTERS IN TANZANIA Source: Registrar, November 2001
AGENDA CUT NEWS HABARI ZA KIBAHA Owner: Business Care Owner: Cooperative Union Owner: National Spiritual Service Agenda Initiative of Tanzania Assembly Editor: Theo Tunga Editor: Christopher W. Editor: Mrs. Q. Razi P. O. Box 71439 Dsm Ngibbombi P. O. Box 585 Dsm P. O. Box 2567 Dsm Tel: 023 21173 AMANI Owner: AMC Royal DRUG INFORMATION HABARI ZA MALI HAI Insurance Agency Ltd BULLETIN Owner: Mali Hai Club of Editor: Nyambona Masamba Owner: Pharmacy Board Tanzania P. O. Box 5560 Dsm Editor: Rose Dhiji/ Mwasha Editor: Peter Ottaru P. O. Box 9083 Dsm P. O. Box 1541 Dsm AMUA Owner: Population Services ELIMU YA AFYA HABARI ZA RELI International Owner: Muhimbili Health Owner: Tanzania Railways Editor: Semkae Kilonzo Education Division Corporation P. O. Box 7099 Dsm Editor: Kiluvia/Nchimbi Editor: Winston Makamba Phone: 2139765 P. O. Box 65291 Dsm P. O. Box 468 Dsm 0741-612623, Tel: 2129753 Tel: 2126241 E-mail [email protected] FAHARI HABARI ZA WAKULIMA ANNOUNCER Owner: Tai Publishers Ltd Owner: Global 2000 under Owner: Tanzania Bureau Editor: Fred Jim Mdoe the Ministry of Agriculture of Standards P. O. Box 21582 Dsm Editor: William Lubuli Editor: I. Manambi Circulation: 10,000 copies P. O. Box 212 Dsm P. O. Box 9524 Dsm FEDERATION HAM BUNGE NEWS SAMACHAR Owner: Ministry of Health Owner: Clerk of The Owner: Khoji Shia Ithnashari Editor: Phares Masaule National Assembly Editor: Habib Mulfi/F. P. O. Box 9083 Dsm Editor: R. F. Msaki Hameer P. O. Box 941 Dodoma P. O. Box 6710 Dsm FRONTLINER Tel: 2120468/2122807 Owner: Tanzania News
101 Agency (SHIHATA) JENGA LEA MWANA Editor: Director, SHIHATA Owner: National Owner: Zebesco Company P. O. Box 4755 Dsm Development Corporation Limited Editor: Erastus Damas Editor: Ms. Hilda Kundya GAZETI LA HESAWA P. O. Box 2669 Dsm P. O. Box 32553 Dsm Owner: HESAWA Tel: 2126271 Editor: E. E. Mahawi THE TANZANIA P. O. Box 199 Dsm HUDUMA ZA JOURNALIST MAOMBAZI NEWSLETTER HABARI MAALUMU YA Owner: Mariam Faith Owner: Association of UZIMA TELE Healing Centre Journalists and Media Owner: Pentecostal Church Editor: Ernest Zulu Workers (AJM) Editor: Marco Kisanji P. O . B o x 1 Dsm Editor: Lawrence Kilimwiko P. O. Box 222 Tabora P. O. Box 33772 Dsm Tel: 026 2132 ITAJAMII Owner: Pentecostal Churches TUMAINI HILL HABARI ZA BENKI Association in Tanzania Owner: Tumaini University, Owner: National Bank of P. O. Box 30 Bukene, Tabora Iringa University College Commerce (NBC) Tel: 026 37584 Editor: Naam Mkemwa Editor: Editorial Committee P. O. Box 200 Iringa P. O. Box 1163 Dsm I.E.T. NEWSLETTER Phone 026 720900 Owner: Institute of Fax 026 720904 INVESTORS PLANNER Engineers of Tanzania E-mail [email protected] Owner: Altemius Milinga Editor: Publications Editor: Naomi Mbwiliza Committee C.B.E. NEWSLETTER P. O. Box 10272 Dsm P. O. Box 29381 Dsm Owner: College of Business Tel: 2129236 Education INTERNATIONAL Editor: Deodatus Peter DIPLOMACY IJA WEBONERE Waijaha Owner: Centre for Foreign Owner: ELCT North- P. O. Box 1968 Dsm Relations Western-Diocese Editor: Dr. Omari Editor: Amos Ngambeki ED SDP P. O. Box 2824 Dsm P. O. Box 98 Bukoba Owner: Ministry of Tel: 028 2220263 Education & Culture JARIDA LA Editor: E. Lobulu KICHUNGAJI JIENDELEZE P. O. Box 9121 Dsm Owner: Lutheran Owner: Ministry of Theological College Education and Culture QUARTERLY UPDATE Makumira Editor: Beati Mgulube Owner: DSM Stock Editor: Rev. Dr. L. F. P. O. Box 1077 Dsm Exchange Bahendwa Editor: Theo Mushi P. O . B o x 25 Usa River JUHUDI P. O. Box 70081 Dsm Tel: 34 Usa River Owner: C.M.M Editor: SHIHATA Regional THE CRANE KUMEKUCHA Bureau Owner: Tz Internation KILIMANJARO P. O. Box 158 Dsm Container Terminal Sev. Owner: D. Ndesamburo/N. Editor: H. M. Mageta Lyimo KILIMANJARO LEO P. O. Box 13412 Dsm Editor: N. Lyimo Owner: CCM Kilimanjaro P. O. Box 933 Moshi Editor: Patrick Makomu P. O. Box 541 Dsm Phone: 027 4726
102 IT VISION THE ACCOUNTANT VODA VOICE Owner: Digit Africa Owner: NBAA Owner: Media Editor: L. R. Rweyemamu Editor: L.S.L. Utuoh Communications Ltd. P. O. Box 9983 Dsm P. O. Box 5128 Dsm Editor: Isaack Mruma P. O. Box 32597 Dsm
MAGAZINES IN TANZANIA Source: Registrar, November 2001
ALAT MAGAZINE (Q) Owner: Faith Centre and P. O. Box 14150 Dsm Owner: Association of local Missions Phone: 0741 333516 Authorities of Tanzania Editor: Jackson Kisonda 0741 777621 Editor: Iluninata Maliwaya P. O. Box 13196, Dsm P. O. Box 7912 Dsm FUNSTER (M) Phone 2123551/7 FEMINA MAGAZINE Owner: Panache Publications Owner: East African Tanzania Ltd AMBHA (M) Movies Ltd. Editor: Mrs. Rita Patini Owner: Amri Mbwana Bawji Editor: Saidi Ibrahim P. O. Box 21718 Dsm Editor: Amri Mbwana Bawji P. O. Box 7429 Dsm P. O. Box 12979 Dsm Phone 2121472/3, 2111529 THE IMAGE Fax 2111529 Owner: Images and BONGO (M) E-mail: [email protected] Communications Ltd Owner: J. S. Commodities Editor: Richard Mgazija Editor: Sabbi Masanja MEKA (M) P. O. Box 420 Dsm P. O. Box 77444 Dsm Owner: Meca Comics Co- Phone: 2181531 operative Society Ltd INSURANCE Editor: Ayub Rioba MONITOR (M) CHANGE P. O. Box 1333 Mwanza Owner: Financial Bureau Owner: Change Publications (|T) Ltd Ltd MWENGE (M) Editor: John Kulekana Editor: Abdul Mtemvu Owner: Benedine Abbey P. O. Box 32598 Dsm P. O. Box 3206 Dsm Peramiho Circulation: 500 copies Editor: Domian Nditi CONTACTMAGAZINE P. O . B o x 41 Dsm JUA (Q) Owner: National Insurance Owner: John Bosco Bahinda Corporation (NIC) NCHI YETU (M) Aloys Mihigo P. O. Box 9262 Dsm Owner: Tanzania Phone: 2126561/7 Information Services Editor: Leonida Leonidas Editor: Director of Mbele DAR ES SALAAM Information Services P. O. Box 5334, Morogoro GUIDE (BM) P. O. Box 9142 Dsm Owner: East African Movies Phone: 2122771/3 KINGO (M) Ltd Owner: Goba Ltd Editor: Michael Lanfrey NGAO (Q) Editor: James Gayo Mpuya P. O. Box 7429 Dsm Owner: National Insurance P. O. Box 15083 Dsm Phone 2121472/3 Fax Corporation 2111529 Address: 2126561/7 SANI (M) E-mail [email protected] Owner: Saidi Bawji/Nico PASUA (BM) Mbajo FAITHMAGAZINE Owner: Kimwaga R. Stika Editor: Jabir R. Omari/Yusuf - YESU NIJUBU (M) Editor: Simon Mkina Ahmed
103 P. O. Box 5370 Dsm TABASAMU (M) UKULIMA WA KISASA Phone: 2180877 Owner: Paunu Enterprises Owner: Ministry of Circulation: 30,000 copies Company Ltd Agriculture Editor: Ramadhani Editor: Cleophas SAUTI YA SITI (Q) Mkumbukwa Rwechungura Owner: Tanzania Media P. O. Box 868 Iringa P. O. Box 2308 Dsm Women Association Phone: 0742 762618 Phone: 2129047 (TAMWA) Editor: Leila Sheik Hashim P. O. Box 6143 Dsm
RADIO BROADCASTING IN TANZANIA Source: Tanzania Broadcasting Commission, 2001
LUTHERAN RADIO Mwanza RADIO MARIA CENTRE (RADIO SAUTI YA Year it became operational P. O. Box 152, Songea INJILI) 28th September 1995 Tel.: 025-2525 P. O. Box 777, Moshi Date of Licence Issue Fax: 025-2593 Tel: 027 2752772 6th September 1996 Owner Owner Frequencies Catholic Archdiocese - Tanzania Evangelical FM 89.8 MHz - Mwanza Songea Lutheran Church 98.6 MHz - Mbezi - DSM Location (Kanisa la Kiinjili la 94.1 MHz - Karagwe St. Joseph Building, Songea Kilutheri Tanzania) 94.5 MHz - Shinyanga Year it became operational Location 89.0 MHz - Arusha April 1996 Moshi Municipality - 95.3 MHz - Bukoba Date of licence issue Off Arusha Road 92.9 MHz - Mwanza 3rd May 1996 Date of licence issue MW: 1377 KHz - Mwanza Frequencies 29th January 1996 Average time on air per day FM 89.1 MHz - Songea Year it became operational 24 hours November 1994 RADIO ONE Frequencies RADIO KWIZERA P. O. Box 4374 FM 97.2 MHz - Moshi Ngara Field Office Dar es Salaam 92.2 MHz - Kidia P. O. Box 154, Ngara Tel.: 022 73980, 73357 97.5 MHz - Nsiga Hill Tel: 028 23679 73334 Average time on air per day Owner Fax: 022 75841 12 hours Jesuits Refugee Service Telex: 41517 Diocese of Rulenge Owners RADIO FREE AFRICA (RFA) UNHCR-Sub Office - Reginald Mengi P. O. Box 1732, Mwanza Ngara Agapitus Nguma Tel: 028-40538, 503262, Location Location 560516 Ngara Mikocheni Industrial Area Mobile: 0741-530174, Year it became operational (Off Bagamoyo Road) 530075 12th August 1995 Dar es Salaam Fax: 068-500713, 561890 Date of licence issue Year it became operational Telex: 46124 28th December 1995 1994 Owners Frequencies Date of licence issue Anthony M. Dialo, S. 93.6 MHz - Kakonko 3rd February 1994 Nyalla 97.9 MHz - Ngara Frequencies Location FM 87.8 MHz, 101.4, CPLC Building, Ilemela - 89.5 MHz - Dar es Salaam
104 100.8 MHz - Dodoma day/week TANZANITE RADIO FM 102.7 MHz - Mwanza 19 hours per day - 133 P. O. Box 6200, Arusha 95.3 MHz - Arusha hours per week Tel: 027 253430, 254449 MW 1440 KHz - Dar es Owners Salaam RADIO TUMAINI Wilfred Muruve, Athman 1323 KHz - Moshi P. O. Box 9916 Majengo Dar es Salaam Location RADIO TANZANIA DAR ES Tel: 231074, 0742-780887 ARC Building, Arusha SALAAM (RTD) Owner Year it became operational Nyerere Road Catholic Archdiocese Dar es 12th July 1997 P. O. Box 9191 Salaam Date of licence issue Dar es Salaam Location 12th July 1997 Tel: 2860760-5, 2865580 1 Bridge Street, Frequencies Fax: 2865577 Dar es Salaam FM 96.1 MHz - Arusha Owner Date of licence issue The Government of the 3rd January 1994 CLOUDS United Republic of Frequencies ENTERTAINMENT RADIO Tanzania FM 96.3 MHz - Dar es (CER) Location Salaam P. O. Box 32513 Nyerere Road, 91.4 MHz - Kibaha Dar es Salaam Dar es Salaam Tel: 022 2412060 Date of licence issue RADIO 5 ARUSHA Fax: 022 2112435 1st January 1994 P. O. Box 11843, Arusha Owner Frequencies Tel: 027-254216-7, Joseph Kusaga FM 90.0 MHz - Dar es 027-258052 Location Salaam Owner NIC House, Dar es Salaam 92.3 MHz - Kisarawe Didas D. Kavishe Date of licence issue 94.6 MHz - Dar es Salaam Location 12th December 1998 107.1 MHz - Lindi CCM Building, Arusha Frequencies 93.5 MHz - Lindi Language FM 88.4 MHz 92.3 MHz - Masasi Swahili Dar es Salaam 105.9 MHz - Masasi Year it became operational CLASSIC FM 103.1 RADIO 98.7 MHz - Songea 26th November 1996 Cable Vision Network 88.4 MHz - Kigoma Date of licence issue P. O. Box 8983 87.7 MHz - Dodoma 26th November 1999 Dar es Salaam 92.3 MHz - Mbeya Frequencies Tel: 022 2180406, MW 531 KHz - FM 105.7 MHz - Arusha 2185240-1 Dar es Salaam e-mail: 603 KHz - Dodoma UNITED RADIO SERVICES CTN@Simbaglocom. 621 KHz - Mbeya (URS) Owner 648 KHz - Nachingwea P. O. Box 2582, Arusha Cable Vision Africa Ltd 657 KHz - Dar es Salaam Tel: 027-258550 (M. Mawji - Director) 711 KHz - Kigoma Fax: 027-258550 Location 720 KHz - Mwanza Owners Lumumba Street Roof Flr 837 KHz - Dar es Salaam Elisario Urio, A. Co-operative Building 990 KHz - Songea Location Dar es Salaam 1035 KHz - Dar es Salaam Global Concert Mission Date of licence issue 1215 KHz - Arusha Sakina Hill Area - Arusha 20th February 1999 SW (in KHz, all for Dar es Date of licence issue Frequencies Salaam): 9785, 5050, 5985, 29th August 1995 FM 103.1 MHz 6105, 7165, 7280, 9550, Frequencies Dar es Salaam 9685, 9750 and 15435 FM 98.6 MHz - Arusha Average time on air per
105 RADIO UHURU CHEMICHEMI RADIO P. O. Box 640, Morogoro P. O. Box 9221, SUMBAWANGA Tel: 056 4820, 3340 Dar es Salaam Diocese of Sumbawanga Tel: 022 2182224, 2182234 P. O. Box 34, Sumbawanga BUSINESS TIMES LTD. 2181700, Telex: 41239 Tel: 2275, 2178 Mr. R. Nyaula & Mr. R. e-mail: [email protected] Location Muguni Owner Sumbawanga, Plot 506 P. O. Box 71439, Dar es Uhuru Publications Ltd. Block N Salaam Location Date of licence issue Tel: 2150967, Fax: 2150987 Lumumba Street 19th May 2000 Plot No. 70 Frequencies Date of licence issue FM 92.2 MHz 2nd February 2000 Frequencies RADIO SHALOM FM 95.2 MHz - Dar es The Catholic Diocese of Salaam Morogoro
TELEVISION BROADCASTING IN TANZANIA Source: Tanzania Broadcasting Commission, 2001
COASTAL TELEVISION Tel: 022 2116341/8 Mikocheni Industrial Area NETWORK (CTN) Fax: 2113112 or 2118648 (Off Bagamoyo Road) P. O. Box 8983 Owners Dar es Salaam Dar es Salaam Sabbir Dewji, Murtaza Year it became operational Tel: 022 2180406, 2185240, Dewji Franco Tramontano - 1994 2185241 (Managing Director) Date of licence issue Email: Location 17th January 1994 CTN@CTN-Simbaglocom. Jamhuri/Zaramo Street Frequencies Owners Dar es Salaam Channel 24, 26, 11 Shabbir Abji, Jayesh Shah, Year it became operational Dar es Salaam Ramesh Patel, Girish 1994 Channel 6 - Arusha Chande, Bud Kassam and Date of licence issue Channel 9 - Moshi Mahmood Mawji 20th May 1994 Channel 10 - Mwanza Location Frequencies Channel 11 - Dodoma Roof Floor Co-operative Channel 58, 53, 56, 64, 40 - Building, Dar es Salaam Dar es Salaam CABLE ENTERTAINMENT Year it became operational Channel 57 - Dodoma NETWORK (CEN) 1994 Channel 54 - Mwanza P. O. Box 4454 Date of licence issue Channel 63 - Tanga Dar es Salaam 14th February 1994 Channel 42 - Arusha Tel: 2153345/6, 0741- Frequencies 326931 Channel 7 and 28 INDEPENDENT Fax: 2113148 Dar es Salaam TELEVISION (ITV) Owners Channel 68 - Mwanza P. O. Box 4374 Jitendra P. Ganatra, Ramesh MMDS Channel, Dar es Salaam V. Savajiani (Channel 2, 5, 8, 11, 14) Tel: 022 95414/6, 73980, Location Telex: 41517 Plot No. 649, Mathuradas DAR ES SALAAM Owners Street, Dar es Salaam TELEVISION (DTV) Reginald Mengi, Agapitus Date of licence issue P. O. Box 21122 Nguma 7th January 1997 Dar es Salaam Location Frequencies
106 Channel 6 (791.25 MHz) - Owner Mbeya Dar es Salaam Government of the United Owner Republic of Tanzania Rungwe District Council SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF Location AGRICULTURE TELEVISION Kijitonyama, off Bagamoyo MBEYA MUNICIPAL (SUA - TV) Road COUNCIL TV P. O. Box 3236, Morogoro Date of licence issue P. O. Box 149, Mbeya Tel.: 023 3236, 3718 10th March 2000 Tel: 065 50 2372, 502572 Owner Frequencies Fax: 065 4390 SUA VHF 175.25 MHz Owner Location Channel 5 Mbeya Municipal Council SUA-Administration Block, Morogoro STAR TV IRINGA TOWN COUNCIL Date of licence issue P. O. Box 1732, Mwanza P. O. Box 162, Iringa 21st April 1995 Tel: 068 40781 Tel: 061 702647, 70201-3, Frequencies Fax: 068 50713 2701944 Channel 6 (182.25 MHz) - Owner Fax: 061 702203 Morogoro Diallo Family Co. Ltd. Owner Iringa Town Council ABOOD TELEVISION (ATV ) SONGEA TOWN COUNCIL P. O. Box 127, Morogoro P. O. Box 14, Songea NJOMBE DISTRICT Tel: 023-3231, 3529 Tel: 065 602970 COUNCIL Fax: 023-3039 Fax: 065 602970 P. O. Box 547, Iringa Owner Owner Tel: 061 782111, 782027 Aziz M. Abood Local Government Tanzania Fax: 061 782062 Location Owner Msamvu, Morogoro TV BURUDANI Njombe District Council Date of licence issue P. O. Box 1528, Arusha 17th October 1998 Owner MASASI DISTRICT Frequencies Didas D. Kavishe COUNCIL Channel 34 (575.25 MHz) P. O . B o x 60, Mtwara Morogoro MBOZI DISTRICT Tel: 059 510031, 570013, COUNCIL 510045-8 TELEVISION YA TAIFA P. O. Box 3, Mbozi, Mbeya Fax: 059 510013, 510215 (TVT) Owner Owner P. O. Box 31519 Mbozi District Council Masasi District Council Dar es Salaam Tel: 2700011, 2700061-3 RUNGWE DISTRICT Cable COUNCIL Vielelezo P. O. Box 148, Tukuyu,
NOTES
107 CABLE TELEVISION NETWORKS IN TANZANIA
Source: Tanzania Broadcasting Commission, 2001
CABLE TELEVISION Rizwani Kanji (Director) MILLAN VIDEO CENTRE NETWORK (CTV) Hino/Moihin Barmeda P. O. Box 10367, Arusha P. O. Box 3774 Location Tel: 027 506471 Dar es Salaam Nkomo Street, Mwanza Owners Tel: 225431, 232357 Year it became operational Sudha Millan (Director) Fax: 2229515, 231462 1994 Millan T. Majithia Owners Date of licence issue Mohamed Hassan Hitesh Tanna (Director) 8th February 1994 Location Bhasker Rughan (AICC staff house) Plot No. Harold Mgone AYOUB CABLE TELEVISION 112, Aman Road, Arusha Location CO. LTD. Date of licence issue Sewa Street, Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 333, Shinyanga 29th January 1994 Date of licence issue Tel.: 762013 13th June 1995 Owner TELEVISION BURUDANI Ayoub Aziz (Director) (WIRELESS CABLE TV) STAR CABLE TELEVISION Location P. O. Box 1528, Arusha LTD. Shinyanga Town Tel: 011-510-545 P. O. Box 1468 Date of licence issue Fax: 027-8572 Dar es Salaam 24th August 1996 Owner Tel: 2151768, 0742-781837 Didas D. Kavishe (Director) Owners TABORA TELEVISION Location Jahagir Hassan Dalvi BROADCASTING CO. LTD. Kijenge (Impala Hotel), Plot (Director) Karim A. Ladha P. O. Box 506, Tabora No.8,Moshi Road, Arusha Hassan S. Khan Tel: 026-2855 Date of licence issue Location Owners 6th March 1999 Mfaume Road, Upanga Shashikant M. Patel West, Dar es Salaam (Director), Jagdish M. Patel INTERNATIONAL Date of licence issue Location ENTERTAINMENT CABLE 15th December 1995 Tabora Township TELEVISION NETWORK Year it became operational P. O. Box 757, Moshi BHARAT VIDEO CENTRE 1996 Tel: 027 2752307, 2752478 P. O. Box 2768 Date of licence issue Owner Mwanza 23rd January 1996 Shobhag D. Shah (Director) Tel.: 028 42475, 42200 Average time on air per day Location Owners 19 hours Mwanza Road 45 F Section Bharat Unadkati (Director) 3, Moshi Location SPACE SATELLITE CABLE Date of licence issue Corner Gurio and TELEVISION NETWORK 15th July 1996 Nkurumah Roads, Mwanza P. O. Box 946, Musoma Tel: 0675-2480 BAHMAN SATELLITE MWANZA SATELLITE Owner CABLE COMMUNICATION LTD. Geoffrey Kajanja (Director) P. O. Box 52444, Tanga (MSCTN) Location Tel: 026 42911, P. O. Box 647, Mwanza Plot No. 36, Mkendo Street, Fax: 026 47041 Tel: 028 42550, 2502187 Musoma Owners Fax: 028 2500713 Date of licence issue Ally H. Said, Owners 27th July 1997 Ahmed H. Said
108 Location Patel Owner Bandari House, Tanga Location Abdi Abdulrasul (Director) Date of licence issue Church Road, Morogoro Location 11th May 1996 Year it became operational Golionder Road, Arusha 22nd July 1997 Date of licence issue DODOMA CABLE Date of licence issue 13th June 1996 TELEVISION 15th April 1998 CABLE TELEVISION P. O. Box 86, Dodoma NETWORK (CTN) Tel: 21694, 24616, 23293 DHANDHO CABLE P. O. Box 88, Tanga Owner NETWORK Owners Alkarim Sadrudin Jaffer P. O. Box 161, Mbeya Hitesh Tanna, B.S. Rughan, (Director) Tel: 4479, 4329, 3453 H. Mgore Location Fax: 4079 Date of licence issue Plot No. 22, Block M, Owner 1st June 1999 Mtendeni Av., Dodoma Karim Dharsi (Director) Date of licence issue Location GHANA CABLE TV 31st December 1996 Mbalizi Road, Mbeya P. O. Box 10213, Mwanza Date of licence issue Tel: 028 2561016 MOROGORO CABLE 3rd January 1997 Fax.: 028 2507702 NETWORK Ref. File Owner P. O. Box 385, Morogoro PMO/TBC/A.20/48 Patrick Pius & Youssef Tel: 023 4660 Kassim Owner ARUSHA CABLE Mrs. Datta Pandya, K. A. TELEVISION (ACTV) Adam P. O. Box 7043, Arusha Directors Tel: 027 2506937, 2502284 Naresh D. Patel, Jagidish M. Fax.: 027 2502284
NOTES
109 7.TRADE UNIONS
TRADE UNIONS ACT OF 1998
By Ms D. M. Uiso, Office of the Registrar of Trade Unions
Background trades e.g.The Tanzania Rail- employees and employers are Tanzanian trade union his- ways Workers’ Unions, now free to form the trade tory has passed through two (TRAWU), the Tanzania unions of their choice. major phases since the 1950s. Industrial and Commercial The first workers’ movement Workers Union (TUICO) The registrar was the Tanganyika Federa- and the Tanzania Union of The Registrar of Trade tion of Labour (TFL) estab- Government and Health Unions is vested with the lished in 1955. In the struggle Employees (TUGHE). Such functions of the overall for independence it worked unions were, however, not administration of the Trade hand in hand with what was registered in their own right Unions Act. to become the ruling party but as affiliates of OTTU. (TANU). The latest development is Registration In 1964 the TLF was dis- The Trade Unions Act No. 10 Every trade union should be banded and the National of 1998 that accommodates registered with the Registrar Union of Tanganyika Work- the demand for multi-trade in order to acquire legitimacy ers (NUTA) took its place. unions. The Act became within a month of its being Just like TFL, NUTA’s main operational on 1 July 2000. established. A trade union for objective was to promote the employees must have at least policies of TANU. The Act twenty members, while a Political changes in the The Act makes provisions trade union for employers country brought with them for the establishment of the must consist of four or more the need to have a trade union Office of the Registrar of employers. Registration can that would cater for the whole Trade Unions (Part II), the be cancelled for reasons elab- country. Jumuiya ya modalities of the registration orated under section 15 of the Wafanyakazi Tanzania of trade unions, the power of Act. The right of appeal is (JUWATA) was established the registrar, the require- guaranteed by section 16 of in 1979 and, as a mass organ- ments for unions to be regis- the Act to the High Court of ization of the new ruling tered and appeal procedures Tanzania. party (CCM), it had to prop- by aggrieved parties (Part II), agate party policies. the formation of a federation Membership of a trade union With the demand for mul- of trade unions and consulta- By law members must be tiparty democracy, JUWATA tive bodies (Part IV and V), above the apparent age of 14 was replaced in 1991 by the and the management of years. Organization of Tanzania trade union funds (Part VI, Trade Unions (OTTU). IX and XI), rights and liabil- Legal personality of During the OTTU era some ities (part VII). It is impor- a trade union employees were able to tant to note that in the new Once a trade union or federa- organize within their own Trade Unions Act both tion is registered it acquires
110 legal personality capable of Federation of Trade (CHODAWU) suing and being sued, owning Unions and consultative Tanzania Railways Workers’ property etc. bodies Union (TRAWU) An important event that took Tanzania Local Government Expenditure of trade place since the Act became Workers’ Union (TALGWU) union funds effective is the formation of By law such funds are for the Trade Unions’ Congress of Conclusion strictly trade union matters Tanzania (TUCTA) as a fed- Trade union leaders are urged only, e.g. payment of salaries, eration replacing OTTU. to be proactive and innovative legal consultancy, affiliation TUCTA was registered on 18 in handling grievances and fees and service charges. May 2001. disputes with their employers Two or more trade unions so as to promote good indus- Inspection of accounts may form a federation. Fur- trial relations at the work- The law allows any member thermore, a trade union with place. of a trade union, including the the consent of its members Despite the fact that Registrar, to inspect the may affiliate with a registered employers have not registered account books. Any obstruc- federation and notice thereof their unions yet, they are tion or impediment is a crim- must be given to the Registrar. urged to respect trade union inal offence. A trade union may also affili- rights like other basic human ate with consultative bodies rights, taking into account Clients under this law registered within or outside that the fundamental objec- Any employed person even Tanzania with the approval of tive of trade unions is to from the Government Ser- members and notification ensure the development of the vice, save for members of the thereof must be given to the social and economic well- military forces, police force Registrar within sixty days. being of both workers and and prisons are clients under Members of TUCTA are: employers. ■ this law. These categories are Tanzania Union of Industrial exempted probably due to and Commercial Workers NOTES security reasons. (TUICO) Tanzania Plantation and Offences Agricultural Workers’ Union All offences mentioned in this (TPAWU) Act can be tried in the court of Teachers Trade Union a resident magistrate. Some (CWT) of the offences include, failure Tanzania Seamen’s Union to register a trade union or (TASU) operating while not regis- Researches and Academicians tered, or when the certificate Workers’ Union (RAAWU) of registration is cancelled. Trade Union of Government and Health Employees Tanzania and the ILO (TUGHE) As a member of International Communication and Trans- Labour Organization (ILO) port Workers’ Union Tanzania has ratified Con- (COTWU) vention No. 87. The provi- Tanzania Mining Workers’ sions of the Trade Unions Act Union (TAMICO) are in line with this conven- Conservation Hotels and tion. Domestic Workers’ Union
111 INFORMATION ON TRADE UNIONS IN TANZANIA 2001 Source: Compiled by Mr. D. M. Uiso, Office of the Registrar of Trade Unions in Tanzania, November 2001.
UNION ADDRESS LEADERSHIP MEMBERSHIP STATUS AS AT 31ST NOV. 2001
TANZANIA P.O. BOX 5680 Chairperson Mr. D. Kavishe 34,120 REGISTERED UNION OF D’Salaam Secretary General INDUSTRIAL Tel: 2151730/1 Mr. B.Y.Nkakatisi AND 2866910 Ass. General COMMERCIAL Secretary Ms. Jane Mbezi WORKERS Ilala Shariff Mr. Hassan (TUICO) Shamba Tamimu Salehe
TANZANIA P.O. BOX 6097 Chairperson F.M. Musita 43,093 REGISTERED LOCAL D’ Salaam General Secretary GOVERNMENT Tel: 2121380 Mr. J.S. Makongwa WORKERS 2185633 Ass. General UNION Lindi/UWT St. Secretary Mr. Kimei (TALGWU)
TANZANIA P.O. BOX 2196 Chairperson Mrs. Sitta 117,000 REGISTERED TEACHERS D’ Salaam General Secretary UNION Tel: 1182272 Mr. J.S. Makongwa (CWT) Fax: 118272 Ass. General KIivukoni Rd. Secretary Mr. Kimei
RESEARCHERS P.O. BOX 22532 Chairperson 10,253 REGISTERED ACADEMICIANS D’ Salaam Mr. N.O Masaki AND ALLIED Tel: 2138114 General Secretary WORKERS Lindi/UWT St.Mrs. Mgaya UNION (RAAWU) Deputy General Secretary A. Mgaya
TANZANIA P.O. BOX 75034 Chairperson 12,642 REGISTERED SEAMEN’S UNION D’ Salaam Nassoro B. Mtupa (TASU) Tel: 180036 General Secretary Cell: 0741-327162 Mchafu Chakoma Aggrey/Sikukuu St. Ass. General Secretary G. R. Kimbute
TANZANIA Chairperson S. El-Mazrui 2,481 REGISTERED FISHING AND General Secretary ALLIED WORKERS Shehe Sheffa UNION Ass.Vice Chairperson (WAMEUTA) Ambari Kapilima Ass. General Secretary Waziri Mbwana
CONSERVATION P.O. BOX 15549 Chairperson 22,459 REGISTERED
112 UNION ADDRESS LEADERSHIP MEMBERSHIP STATUS AS AT 30TH NOV. 2001
HOTELS D’Salaam Ms. M.C. Castico DOMESTIC AND Tel: 2110559, General Secretary ALLIED WORKERS 2110823 Mr. S.S Wamba UNION Lindi/UWT St Ass. General (CHODAWU) Secretary Mr. Mansur
TANZANIA P.O. BOX 78459 Chairperson 10,340 REGISTERED RAILWAYS D’Salaam Mr. J.J. Mbogo WORKERS Tel: 2114847 General Secretary UNION Cell: 0741-618509 G.N. Machengo (TRAWU) Fax: 2110559 Ass. General Lindi/UWT St Secretary Mr. Mihayo, G. Makula
TANZANIA P.O. BOX 13920 Chairperson 12,494 REGISTERED COMMUNICATION D’Salaam Mr. Misanga AND TRANSPORT Tel: 2118154/5, General Secretary WORKERS UNION 2118271 C.M Samang’ombe (COTWU) (T) Cell: 0742-763185 Cell: 0742-763185 Fax: 2111170 Ass. General Lindi/UWT St Secretary Mr. Mjema Mr. Robert Akili
TANZANIA UNION P.O. BOX 4669 Chairperson 31,142 REGISTERED OF GOVERNMENT D’Salaam Dr. Diwani Mrutu AND HEALTH Tel: 2118152, Deputy Chairperson EMPLOYEES 2118271 Ms. Maclean Chitete (TUGHE) Cell: 0742-782206 General Secretary Lindi/UWT St Mr. J.S Rutatina Ass. General Secretary Mrs. Kaganda Laurent Mr. X.K. Msaliboko
TANZANIA P.O. BOX 77420 Chairperson 50,642 REGISTERED PLANTATION AND D’Salaam Mr. K.N. Kabengwe AGRICULTURAL Tel: 2182496/7 General Secretary WORKERS UNION 2184848/9 Mr. G.P Nyindo (TPAWU) Cell: 0741-132211 Ass. General Aggrey/Sikukuu St Secretary Mr. H.M Issa
TANAZANIA MINES P.O. BOX 72136 Chairperson 14,526 REGISTERED AND D’Salaam Mr. F. M. Masasi CONSTRUCTION Tel: 2119200, General Secretary WORKERS UNION 2110569/70, Mr. Makwaya Pingu (TAMICO) 2115524 Ass. General Cell: 0741-616732 Secretary Lindi/UWT St Mr. Kasian
113 UNION ADDRESS LEADERSHIP MEMBERSHIP STATUS AS AT 30TH NOV. 2001
INDUSTRIAL & P.O. BOX 72170 Chairperson 143 GENERAL D’Salaam Ms. Sarah Wanyancha WORKERS UNION Tel: 0744 370503 Vice Chairperson TANZANIA Mr. S.K. Makongoro (IGWUTA) General Secretary Mr. S.S. Marenda Ass. General Secretary Mr. Kasian
TANZANIA P.O. BOX 7151 Chairperson SOCIAL D’Salaam Mr. S.K. Kikule INDUSTRIAL General Secretary WORKERS’ UNION Mr. S. Chaila (TASIWU)
TANZANIA UNION P.O. BOX Chairperson 80 OF JOURNALISTS Mr. J. Kwayu (TUJ) General Secretary Mr. P.Tindwa
FEDERATIONS UNDER THE TRADE UNIONS ACT 1998
UNION ADDRESS LEADERSHIP MEMBERSHIP STATUS AS AT 30TH NOV. 2001
TRADE UINION P.O. BOX 15359 Chairperson 350,000 CONGRESS OF D’Salaam Ms. M. Sitta TANZANIA Tel: 2130036 General Secretary (TUCTA) Telex: 41205 Mr. N.K. Ngulla Fax: 2130036 Deputy General Secretary Hassan Raha
NOTES
114 TANZANIA’S RATIFICATION OF CORE ILO LABOUR STANDARDS Compiled by Mr C. M. M. Kajege, Kivukoni Academy of Social Sciences
Tanzania, like other members • The elimination of (1973), the Minimum Age of ILO, has been in the discrimination in respect of Convention. Also Conven- process of ratifying core ILO employment and tion No. 182 (1999), the worst labour standards, which are occupation. Forms of Child Labour was intended to establish a ratified in October 2000. friendly relationship between The conventions are: the Government, business • Freedom of Association Tanzania has yet to ratify the community and the labour and Rights to Collective Discrimination and Equal force. The move is in line with Bargaining.Convention No. Remuneration,ILO Conven- the commitments Tanzania 98 (1949), the Right to Orga- tion No. 100 (1951), and ILO accepted in Singapore in 1996 nize and to Collective Bar- Convention No. 111 (1958). and Geneva in 1998 in the gaining Convention I 1962. WTO Ministerial Declara- On February 2000, the Parlia- tion and in the ILO Declara- ment of Tanzania ratified ILO Sources 1. International Confederation of Free tion on Fundamental Princi- Convention No. 87 (1948), Trade Unions (ICFTU) (2000): Report ples and Rights at work the Freedom of Association for the WTO General Council: Review adopted in June 1998. and Protection of the Right to of the Trade Policies of Tanzania (March These core international Organize Convention. 2000). labour standards fall into 4 • Forced labour 2. Strengthening Labour Relations in categories: In 1962, Tanzania ratified East Africa (SLARCA): ILO Project • Freedom of association and ILO Convention No. 29 RFA/OO/M50/USA- INT/OO/MOS/USA, Dar es Salaam, the effective recognition of (1930); the Forced Labour May 2001. the right to collective Convention and ILO Con- bargaining. vention No. 105 (1957); the • The elimination of all forms Abolition of Forced Labour of forced compulsory Convention. labour. • Child Labour • The effective abolition of In 1998, Tanzania ratified child labour. ILO Convention No. 138
NOTES
115 8.WOMEN AND CHILDREN
MAJOR LAWS RELATING TO WOMEN’S LIVES
By Ms H. Kijo-Bisimba, Legal and Human Rights Centre
Closing of a two days seminar for Dodoma Rural District leaders on Women’s Land Rights in 2000 co-organised by FES and WAT
Women are citizens of the nance and custody, land and where there is no father, then country in their own right and employment. the mother. Marriage for girls they are therefore covered by below 15 years but not below all of the laws of the land. The Law of Marriage Act 14 years can be permitted by There are, however, laws that Number 5 of 1971 court order. specifically affect women and • Two types of marriage are This has been challenged as women are vulnerable, if they recognized: monogamous and discriminatory towards girls do not know about these laws. polygamous. The ceremonies and as a violation of the Reports from legal aid clinics can be religious, civil or tradi- Rights of the Child. in Dar es Salaam (WLAC, tional. • A husband is obliged to LHRC and TAWLA) show • The age of marriage is 18 maintain his family i.e. wife that the realms where women years and above. Girls, how- and children. Where a hus- have most frequent legal ever, can be below 18 years band is not able to do so for problems are: inheritance, but not below 15 years with reasons beyond his control matrimony, child mainte- the consent of the father and then a wife is supposed to
116 maintain the family. ciples is “The right of every of one spouse only but the • Each party in the marriage woman to acquire, hold, use other spouse/s contribute by can have his/her own property and deal with land shall to the their labour to the productiv- and can enter into contracts same extent and subject to the ity, upkeep and improvement etc. same restriction be treated as of the land that spouse/those • The law prohibits the inflic- the right of any man”. (Part II spouses shall be deemed by tion of corporal punishment Section 3(2)) virtue of that labour to have on a spouse. The law recognizes two acquired an interest in that • Where a man dies before his types of land ownership: “per- land in the nature of an occu- wife, the wife has the right to sonal occupancy” and “co- pancy in common. stay in the matrimonial home. occupancy”. The law makes it a duty to a • The law recognizes “a pre- lender, in case of a mortgage, sumption of marriage” when a Co-occupancy can be: or to an assignee or transferee couple have lived together as (a) Occupancy in common where in case of assignment or trans- wife and husband for more in the case of the death of one fer of land, to make inquiries than two years and people of the co-occupiers his/her as to whether the spouse or around them have recognized shares goes to his/her heirs. spouses have consented to that their relationship. They have (b) Joint occupancy where in the assignment, transfer or mort- all the rights of a married cou- case of the death of one occu- gage in accordance with Sec- ple. pier the other party has the tion 59 of the Law of Mar- • Divorce can only be granted right of survivorship - mean- riage Act 1971. by a Court of Law and the ing the property goes to court must be satisfied that the him/her. Sexual Offenses Special marriage in question has bro- The law stipulates that only Provisions Act 1998 ken down beyond repair. A matrimonial joint occupancy (SOSPA) couple cannot go to court for can be created without leave of This is a law which amends divorce before going to a rec- a court. several written laws and makes onciliation board. Under co-occupancy each special provisions in those laws Accepted reasons for the break co-occupier will be given a with regard to sexual and down of a marriage beyond certificate of the right of occu- other offences, to further safe- repair, are: adultery, brutality, pancy. The land in question guard the personal integrity, desertion, separation for more cannot be given or sold to dignity, liberty and security of then 3 years, sodomy, irre- another person before both women and children. Under sponsibility, being jailed for occupiers agree to do so. this law sexual offences against more than 5 years etc. Where spouses have co-occu- women and children have It is presumed that a child pancy they both have to agree been elaborated and sentences under seven years has to live before their title to land can be have been broadened to pro- with his/her mother unless surrendered to another per- tect women and children. good reasons are given that son. Rape, for example, has been this should not to be so. The law specifies that where defined to cover children one spouse in a marriage has below 18 without consent The Land Law of 1999 acquired land for the use of being material in the defense. The Land Act No.4 of the couple or of the spouse The offence of trafficking in 1999 & The Village Land there will be a presumption women is provided for. Act No.5 of 1999 that the couple are occupiers in Female Genital mutilation has The new law came into oper- common. been criminalized where it is ation on 1 May 2001. One of Where land held for right of performed to children under the most significant new prin- occupancy is held in the name the age of 18.
117 The law provides for compen- desirable in the interest of the amount of maintenance needs sation in cases of sexual employee’s health. to be revised as it is too little to offences. Post-natal leave of 42 days support a child and the bur- commencing on the day of den for maintaining the child The Employment delivery. is therefore on the mother. Ordinance Maternity leave is with full Amongst other things the pay at the expense of the The Inheritance Laws Employment Ordinance gives employer. There are three laws relating women the right to maternity Restrictions can be found in to inheritance in the country: benefits: Section 25 (k) and 25 (B) & Islamic Customary Laws, Pre-natal maternity leave of (C). Customary Inheritance Laws 42 days to be taken at any time and the Indian Succession after the completion of the The Affiliation Ordinance Act, which is a civil law. seventh month of pregnancy This is a law that provides for There is a major debate on and before delivery or before children born out of wedlock. harmonising these laws in the the completion of the seventh The mother of the child can interest of women as most of month of pregnancy, if a med- make an application for the them are discriminative ical officer recommends that maintenance of the child from towards women. ■ such leave is necessary or the putative father. The
SOME GENDER INDICATORS FOR TANZANIA
By Ms G. Akilimali, Tanzania Gender Networking Programme
1. Gender participation in small productive activities tive and productive work, and productive work can be which do not pay much, like also that done as unpaid measured by: petty businesses of selling labour by marginalized poor - counting hours per day spent food, charcoal, snacks. Some men and youths is not recog- by different groups in produc- are improving their entrepre- nized and not included in the tive work. neurship skills especially in national revenue. As a conse- E.g. the number of hours per textiles. Men engage them- quence the budget does not day women spend collecting selves more in paid jobs. address these gender issues. water, fuel and in reproductive Employed women are also still and household management. fully involved in household 2. Participation in the - comparing the time women management and other repro- labour force: and men spend on different ductive work. Women some- Unemployment tasks. times work for more than 16 The unemployment rate has - totalling hours per day on all hours a day but their pay does gone up tremendously with tasks. not reflect that. the Structural Adjustment In Tanzania, women spend so The pattern for boys and girls Programme. By 2000, a total much of their time in repro- is similar to that of adults. number of 309 parastatals had ductive and household man- Girls spend more time in already been divested. These agement that they have little household work than boys. had been employing a large time for income generating The contribution made by number of personnel. The work. The majority of the women to the national rev- most affected are the lower women engage themselves in enue through this reproduc- cadre personnel who have low
118 level of education. The major- decisions are men - who gen- resources are therefore used to ity are women, and the rest are erally have no impetus to be service the welfare of the fam- youths from poor families and gender sensitive - gender ily. Nonetheless it has been poor men. issues are never considered. proven that women, despite The majority of women, being badly paid and being Labour force youth and low educated men kept out of powerful positions, participation rates have little space in such a hier- are the best managers of The number of women in the archy. However, even within resources. “employed” sector is very low, the group of those left out, less but in the informal sector, like educated men are still more Access to credit agriculture, women form 84% advantaged as they are likely It is the already well-to-do of the labour force. to get promotion or be given people, men or women, who responsibilities, ahead of a have easy access to credits. Wage discrimination well educated woman, regard- However women constitute a People doing the same jobs in less of the low level of their small number of the people offices are paid equally, how- education. with accrued wealth.The con- ever men are promoted much ditions set for access to credit more quickly than women. 3. Capital Assets: desegregate the poor whether With promotion comes an Comparison of capital and women or men, because most increase in responsibilities and assets owned by different of the credit schemes require benefits which in turn leads to groups in society some sort of surety, i.e. the higher salaries. With promo- Most women fail to own person who seeks credit needs tion too come the powers of assets because women are to own something before- decision-making. As the expected to meet all the needs hand. ■ majority of those making of the household and their
GENDER PROFILE FOR TANZANIA
1980 1985 1990 1999
Population Total (millions) 18.6 21.8 25.5 32.9 Females as % of total 50.8 50.7 50.6 50.5 Life expectancy at birth (years) Male 48 49 49 44 Female 52 53 52 46 Adult illiteracy rate (% of people aged 15+) Male 33 28 23 16 Female 66 57 49 34 Labour force participation Total labour force (millions) 10 11 13 17 Female labour force 50 50 50 49 Health and nutrition Total fertility rate (births per woman) 6.7 6.5 6.3 5.4 Contraceptive prevalence (% of women aged 15-49) 10 25 Birth attended by skilled health staff (% of total) 58 60 35
Source: World Bank, gender statistics, downloaded December 2001 Data in italics refer to the most recent data available within the two years of the year indicated.
119 EDUCATION AND GENDER By Ms P.Okeyo, Education Office, Kinondoni Municipality
Background VII), and usually starts when secondary and higher educa- Traditionally women were a child is seven years old. It tion has the same impact. not expected to go to school. aims at giving pupils a perma- This has long-term implica- The school system of the nent ability in literacy and tions since the lack of educa- colonial period allowed few numeric knowledge. tion is both a cause and effect girls to enrol in schools. The of women’s low status. little education they received Secondary education was to confine them to the Secondary education is termi- The impact of science kitchen or to white-collar jobs nal and it aims at equipping and technology on at shop floor level. This cre- students with skills, knowl- women’s lives ated a gender gap between edge and attitudes that will Gender stereotyping in our boys and girls. The majority enable them to pursue further society is so strong that the of Tanzanian women remain studies and work independ- achievements, aspirations and illiterate. ently for the service of their interests of girls are condi- After independence, a community. tioned by how society views number of measures were The number of female stu- men and women’s activities. introduced to improve the dents who enrol at this level is Tanzanian women, irrespec- educational system. The Edu- less than the number of their tive of their intellectual apti- cational Ordinance of 1961 male counterparts. Further- tude, tend to shy away from was the starting point for more, women tend to concen- science and technology as equal opportunities for girls trate on arts subjects, leaving these fields are seen to be and boys, women and men. science subjects for men. reserved for men. ■ Major changes came with the Arusha Declaration and the Higher education Musoma Resolution on Uni- Female enrolment in higher versal Primary Education institutes of learning is lower (UPE). The Education Act than that of men. Nonethe- No.25 of 1978 emphasises less the enrolment of women that every citizen has the right at this level is increasing. to receive education to the best of her/his ability. The effects of Structural Adjustment Programs Current situation (SAPs) Primary education SAPs have had effects on the Primary education is compul- quality and availability of edu- sory and universal. Enrolment cation. Enrolment in primary in primary schools for female schools for both sexes has and male pupils reached par- dropped since 1987. The ity in 1977 after the introduc- reduction in public spending tion of UPE. Primary educa- on primary education tends to tion covers the first seven affect girls more adversely years of schooling (Std. I- than boys. Cost sharing in
120 FEMALE ENROLMENT AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ENROLMENT
EDUCATION 1982 1987 1992 1997 2000 LEVEL
Primary Education STD I 50.1 48.5 48.6 48.9 48.5 STD VII 44.5 50.4 49.3 50.4 50.5 STD I-VII 48.3 49.8 49.1 49.6 49.5 Secondary Education Form I 36.8 42.2 45.6 46.6 47.9 Public 33.8 37.6 43.3 47.9 47.8 Private 40.1 45.5 47.2 45.2 48.0
Form IV 33.3 39.3 42.8 42.9 45.7 Public 31.1 33.8 40.0 41.3 46.4 Private 35.8 43.5 45.2 44.4 44.9
Form V 22.2 19.4 27.3 35.4 33.7 Public 22.7 19.7 29.2 39.0 36.7 Private 18.8 18.4 23.6 28.8 30.3
Form VI 23.2 20.8 24.3 41.6 33.3 Public 23.2 21.6 26.0 37.8 34.8 Private 24.3 18.4 20.4 47.2 31.6
Form I - VI 34.5 39.6 43.2 44.5 45.9 Public 31.7 34.4 40.7 44.6 46.2 Private 38.0 43.7 45.6 44.4 45.5
Sources: FES Political Handbook and NGO Calendar 2000 & Basic Statistics in Education 1996 - 2000. The Ministry of Education and Culture, Dar es Salaam, June 2001
FEMALE ENROLMENT AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ENROLMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION
INSTITUTION 1997/98 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/2001
University of Dar es Salaam 16 18 26 27 Muhimbili College of Health Sciences 29 24 29 28 University College of Lands and Architectural Studies 13 13 13 11 Sokoine University of Agriculture 24 22 22 22 Institute of Technology, Dar es Salaam & Technical Colleges,Arusha & Mbeya 68710 Post graduate studies in public universities 21 25 27 31
Source: Some Basic Statistics on Higher Learning Institutions in Tanzania 1997/98-2000/2001, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. Dar es Salaam, July 2001
121 GENDER EQUALITY AND THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Extracts from the speech made by Hon. Dr A. Migiro (MP), Minister for Community Development, Women’s Affairs and Children, 19 November 2001, at TFTW Alumni Workshop, Karimjee Hall, Dar es Salaam
“Gender equality means the doubt that societies where means to attaining gender equal visibility, empowerment there are gender equality equality. and participation of both development indications have Generally speaking em- sexes in all spheres of public a better record. powerment is an element of and private life”. It has now A World Bank study con- development. It has been been empirically proved that ducted in 2000 clearly showed defined as a process by which gender equality is a develop- that addressing gender issues people take control and action ment imperative. If develop- is an important strategy in in order to overcome obsta- ment means the improved stimulating development, in cles. It especially means col- well-being of people and the alleviating poverty and lective action by the oppressed process by which this well- strengthening good gover- and deprived to overcome the being is achieved, then gender nance. It is for these reasons obstacles of structural equality becomes an impor- that gender equality is now on inequality which have previ- tant variable of development. the agenda in many countries ously put them in a disadvan- The main reason is that of the World especially devel- taged position. development can only be sus- oping ones. Women’s empowerment is tainable where material bene- a necessary process to enable fits (of development) are fairly How can gender equality women to overcome obsta- distributed, especially to the be attained? cles, which have led to the cir- most in need - the disadvan- There are obviously many cumstances of being disad- taged and the most vulnera- ways but for the purpose of vantaged or marginalized. ble. Women fall in one or this workshop I wish to talk Education and training is both of these categories. about women’s empowerment one way through which Studies have shown beyond and affirmative action as a women can be empowered.
POSITION OF WOMEN SEATS IN PARLIAMENT (1985-2000)
Election year Total Total no. Total no. % Women % Women’s % Women’s no. MPs women women MPs vs.total constituency constituency MPs MPs in no. MPs seats vs. seats vs. constituencies total women’s total no. MPs seats
1985 244 26 5 10.7 19.2 2.0
1990 255 28 5 11.0 17.9 2.0
1995 275 45 8 16.4 17.8 2.9
2000 295 63 12 21.4 19.0 4.1
122 The Training Fund for Tanza- Now that we know which authorities. There is a dire nia Women (TFTW) has way to go in education and need to “educate” and “train” been providing education & training, has not the time society in general as well as training to women so that, come to “attack” other struc- other authorities that are key once qualified, “they would tures that would give these in deciding what affirmative occupy decision making posi- “trained, education and quali- action should be taken, how tions in both the private and fied” women real, and not the- and for how long. public sectors, in order to oretical, opportunity to take influence development strate- part meaningfully in decision Source: Ministry of Community Develop- gies and long term policy making bodies? Let’s debate ment Women’s Affairs and Children, Gender Equality and the Empowerment planning issues”. this point. of Women through Education and Train- As part of women’s empow- ing. Affirmative action as erment we might also wish to another way of bringing focus our attention on those NOTES about gender equality women who are already in The Government of the leadership positions. How do United Republic of Tanzania we give them training, which has so far done well in this. It is relevant to the positions has done so in Parliament as they currently occupy? well as in local government Women MPs did have a very authorities. useful course recently on par- Looking at these statistics liamentary procedures and one can only realize that had it practices. I think that is one not been for affirmative action practical way of empowering women’s representation in women, which shows affirma- Parliament would be very, very tive action as a strategy that marginal. Even though we has to go hand in hand with have had affirmative action in other empowering activities. If various forms either as a spe- I may once again quote the cific number or as percentage, National Assembly clack, hav- that alone has not worked as a ing a big number of women is catalyst to bring women into desirable, but having them leadership and decision mak- empowered through training ing positions. It is a well- is even crucial. I have used the known fact that a good num- Parliament as an example, but ber of women MPs have been similar steps have to be taken doing well, but that does not in respect of women leaders in seem to have convinced the the village. rest of society that given equal On the other hand, even if opportunity women have been women are educated and and can be very good leaders. trained, that alone will not Thus, even though we have suffice to ensure that gender had affirmative action for inequality is done away with. twenty years now, only affir- That alone is not enough to mative action has been able to ensure that they have equal guarantee women’s participa- access to leadership positions tion in Parliament and local or representative bodies like government authorities. Parliament, councils or village
123 TRAINING FUND FOR TANZANIAN WOMEN
The Training Fund for Tanzanian Women is a bi-lateral international project of the Gov- ernments of Tanzania and Canada, funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).
The project started in 1990 and the present phase (II) will end in March 2003. So far approximately 2000 women have been trained in the fields of: Management & Adminis- tration, Law, Planning, and Science & Technology.
Who is eligible? •Key Tanzanian women, not more than 45 years old. They include women with community responsibilities, women who disseminate knowledge and skills, women who have responsibility for decisions affecting other women, researchers, course developers and women who can influence others on matters of development.
Where does training take place? The Training Fund for Tanzanian Women supports individual training opportunities in Tanzania, in SADC/PTA countries and a very limited number in Canada. All group-train- ing programs take place in Tanzania.
For further details contact: The Project Director TFTW, MCDWAC P. O. Box 8006 Dar es Salaam Tel. 022 - 2132647 & 2138525 Fax. 022 - 2138527 e-mail: [email protected]
124 CONSTRAINTS ON GIRLS’ EDUCATION
Socio-cultural constraints ing on investment on girls’ • Female role models are lack- • School is sometimes seen as education. ing. an alienating force that under- • Traditional practices, e.g. • School management prac- mines cultural values. early marriage and initiation tices discriminate against girls. • Traditional attitudes towards rites, interfere more with the marriage view investment in education of girls than that of Policy constraints girls’ education as “watering boys. • Policies exclude pregnant another man’s garden” - any schoolgirls and adolescent benefits will go to another School constraints mothers. family! • Inadequacy of facilities in • Policies do not articulate • Socialization patterns school hinders access, particu- goals for achieving gender assume that girls should be larly in rural areas and arid and equity. docile and passive, while boys semi-arid lands. • Policies support, or do not are aggressive, adventurous • Gender bias pervades the prevent, inequitable practices and outgoing. This is to the curriculum - teachers, syl- in resource allocation. disadvantage of girls when labuses, textbooks and delivery • Policies are gender blind in they have to share facilities systems. the selection and posting of and equipment with boys. • Education is of low quality teachers. Girls are also expected to sup- and lacks relevance and practi- • Policies for monitoring gen- press their brilliance or be sub- cal application. der equity in education are jected to ridicule. • A hostile learning environ- inadequate. • The social status of women ment is characterised by lack Source: Gachukia, Eddah “Accelerating in society, and negative atti- of sanitary facilities, exploita- the Education of Girls and Women in tudes to women as subordi- tion of girls’ labour and sexual Sub-Saharan Africa”, FAWE News, nates, influence decision mak- harassment. Vol.7, No.2, 1999.
Source: Art in Politics, 1st E.A. competition on political caricatures & cartoons, FES 2001 Cartoon by Ali Masoud (Kipanya)
125 TANZANIA’S EDUCATION AND TRAINING POLICY: GIRLS’ EDUCATION
The Ministry of Education and Culture writes: In order to raise the participation rates of women, the following policies will be implemented: • Primary education shall be universal and compulsory to all children at the age of 7 years until they complete this cycle of education. • The establishment of coeducational and girls’ secondary schools shall be promoted and encou- raged. • Government shall not de-board existing girls’ government boarding secondary schools. • Government shall establish girls’ day streams in existing government schools in communities where girls’ secondary education is severely adversely affected. • Government shall establish special educational financial support schemes for girls and women in education and training institutions. • Adult education programmes shall be designed to encourage and promote the enrolment and attendance of women. • The school curriculum shall be reviewed in order to strengthen and encourage participation and achievement of girls in mathematics and science subjects. • Education and school systems shall eliminate gender stereotyping through the curricula, text books and classroom practices. • Special in-service training programmes shall be designed and implemented for women teachers. • Government shall encourage the construction of hostel/boarding accommodation for girls in day secondary schools.
126 CHILD LABOUR IN TANZANIA
By Dr H. Rwegoshora, National Social Welfare Training Institute
Child labour is prohibited in such as domestic service and hours, under pressure and in virtually all countries, yet it this is often overlooked. almost total isolation from the continues to flourish. Accord- family and friends. They are ing to ILO 32% of working Subsistence and subject to physical and sexual children are to be found in commercial farming abuse. Most of the child Africa. It is estimated that in This is the mainstay of the domestic workers are believed Tanzania 350,000 - 400,000 Tanzanian economy and the to come from Iringa, Singida, children below the age of 15 majority of children are Morogoro, Ruvuma and years work in various sectors engaged in subsistence agri- Dodoma. of the economy: in agriculture, culture. Some children are mining and in domestic serv- employed on tobacco and Orphans ice. sugar estates with the promise A new and emerging group of The deteriorating living of handsome incomes. There working children is orphans. conditions in rural areas have they are often overworked and When the extended family prompted a large influx of at the end of the season they system fails to accept orphans youth and children to the are again left to fend for or fails to provide them with urban areas. Urban families, themselves. adequate care after the death too, find it hard to make ends of their parents, orphaned meet and children contribute Mining and quarrying children are forced to move to urban household eco- Child labour is rampant in onto the streets where they nomies through their work. small mining sites where chil- have to work in order to sur- Children below 15 constitute dren work in opencast and in vive. They perform a wide about half of the workforce in underground mines. Condi- range of activities. The work the urban informal sector. tions in the mines are ranges from one hour a day for Many parents are unable to extremely dangerous. car washers to about twelve meet the costs of keeping their hours a day for street vendors children at school. About 45% Commercial sex work and restaurant workers. Daily children of school age do not Child prostitution is described earnings might be from 50 to attend school. It is believed as one of the worst forms of 1000 shillings. that school dropouts engage child labour. It is growing in in some form of labour either high-density urban areas. The International on a full time or a part time Young girls are recruited from Programme for the basis. Other children have the rural areas with the prom- Elimination of Child jobs after school hours, at ise of good jobs, but once they Labour (IPEC)1 weekends and in the holidays. arrive they are held captive The ILO introduced this pro- The children have no choice. and forced into prostitution. gramme in Tanzania in 1994. If they do not work their fam- Tanzania ratifies the ILO ilies will have no food. Domestic labour Minimum Age Convention It seems that more boys A large number of children, in 1998 and is now imple- than girls work. However, mostly girls, work in domestic menting its provisions using girls have more commonly less service mainly in the urban IPEC-trained labour inspec- visible forms of employment areas. They work very long tors. The IPEC- supported
127 programme in Tanzania approached in areas where to provide children with alter- addresses the dangers of they congregate in their free native opportunities by estab- entering domestic service time, such as parks and lishing sustainable projects while also taking into consid- churches and support is geared to helping children eration the fact that remain- offered. move away from work and ing at home implies abuse and Government, social part- into schools and rehabilitation a strong likelihood of educa- ners and NGOs are working centres. ■ tion being withheld. Girls in to prohibit, restrict and regu- domestic service are late child labour. They strive 1 Source: www.ilo.org, November 2001
CHILD ABUSE
By H. Kijo-Bisimba, LHRC
The main source of information for this article is a survey of incidents reported in Tanzanian newspapers from January 1996 - June 1997. The types of abuse reported were shocking: defile- ment, sodomy, rape, dumping, abandonment, child labour and even the stealing of children. Child abuse has been singled out since LHRC started talking about human rights. A child who has not enjoyed human rights cannot be expected as an adult to observe the human rights of others. The incidents reported in the newspaper are those that were reported to the police or the courts. It is significant that very few cases involving genital mutilation, incest and parental cru- elty are reported. Such practices exist, but are widely accepted. For example, there are societies in Arusha, Dodoma and Mara regions that take pride in the practise of genital mutilation and it only becomes an issue when a child dies from bleeding. With regard to such practices what is reported is only the tip of the iceberg. If we really want to talk of a culture based on human rights, then the public must address the issue of child abuse. The protection of human rights must begin with the protection of the rights of our children. Therefore the awareness of the general public must be raised so that ordinary people understand how important it is to report incidents of child abuse whenever they come across them. People must not look away when they see a parent mistreating his or her child. Chil- dren’s matters should be of concern to all. LHRC commends the efforts made by different groups in the area of children’s rights, groups such as KULEANA in Mwanza, The DOGODOGO CENTRE in Dar es Salaam and the UMATI YOUTH CENTRES1. Tanzania has ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. This obliges both the government and the people to look into ways of assuring that children enjoy their rights as described in the convention. LHRC would very much appreciate any information on cases of human rights abuse. Our address is: Legal and Human Rights Centre P. O. Box 75254, Dar es Salaam Tel./Fax: 022 - 2113 177 e-mail: [email protected] Office: Tanzania Ocean Road, Tulyer House, 2nd floor.
1 We add the Kwetu-Mbagala Girls’ Home which opened in December 2000 in Mbagala, Dar es Salaam. This is the first home catering for street girls.
128 MEASURES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT ON CHILD ABUSE
• The Ministry of Community Development, Women's Affairs and Children has estab- lished a particular section to deal with child abuse issues. • The Ministry of Labour has established a special unit that deals with the worst forms of child labour. • The Government has issued the Child Development Policy (Sera ya maendeleo ya mtoto) which in principle has a special focus on child abuse. •Various laws have been passed to defend children from abuse: -Sexual Offences Bill of 1999 (which amongst other things is to protect girls and young women from genital mutilation). - Sexual Offences against Minors. - Corporal Punishment Regulations of 1979. - Marriage laws on the issues of forced marriages and the minimum age for marriage. (These are still in the process of being developed.)
Source: Kuleana, Mwanza, November 2001
THE GIRL RAPE IN KILIMANJARO
By Mr R. Lindboe and Ms A. Bertelsen, MS Tanzania
Sometimes there are stories you wonder whether should be told or not. This story is one of that kind: the unspeakable act of a father, afraid of having caught AIDS, molesting his six year old daughter. She screamed. Screamed and called for her mother. Her shouts drifted out of the dark hut and were swallowed up by the banana trees and the palms surrounding the home before they could roll down the slopes of the mountain. But she kept screaming and crying while her father took abuse of her. Only six years of age, Bahati had never experienced a horror like this. Why was her own father causing her this unknown form for pain? Had she misbehaved and had to be punished? Bahati’s mother, buried among the palms just a few days earlier, could do nothing to help her daughter. Tears trickled down her cheeks as her father finished his deed and returned to his bed. The unspeakable act committed against the girl Bahati is not an isolated incident in Tanzania today. No official statistics tell of this terror that the government has done little to stop or even to shed light on. A newspaper survey by the Legal and Human Rights Centre in Dar es Salaam recorded 12 cases of child rape nationwide during a six-month period in 1997. The actual figure is suspected to be much, much higher. The girl, Bahati, was raped by her own father, who heeded the ill advice of the local witch doctor. The father was trying to rid himself of HIV - the disease inflicting, and ultimately killing, more and more Tanzanians. The advice was to have sex with a virgin.
FES thanks MS Tanzania for permission to publish this extract. The full story is in HABARI ZA TANZANIA, MS Tanzania Newsletter, issue No.1/2001
129 THE SITUATION IN THE REMAND HOMES
By Mrs M. Njimba and Mr F. S. Ntiruhungwa, Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of Labour, Youth Development and Sports
Definition of a Remand • To be the custodian of chil- Remand Home is headed by Home dren/young persons who are social workers and other civil- A Remand Home is defined in transit to Approved ians whose task it is to make under section 7(1) of the “ School. the institution look like a Children and Young Persons • To provide a conducive envi- home per se. Ordinance Chapter 13 as a fit ronment for children/young To date the Department of institution where children persons in such a way that Social Welfare runs 5 and young persons under the they feel that they are at Remand Homes, in Arusha, age of 16 years, who are home. Moshi, Tanga, Mbeya and charged with some offences • To provide children/young Dar es Salaam. Plans are and who have been unable to persons with social coun- underway to establish one in be released on bail, are kept in selling as part of their behav- Mwanza. care and custody while await- iour modification. ing their verdict in the court Offences of law. The duration of the Services rendered Children and young persons, stay at the home depends on Children/young persons at like adults, are accused of var- how fast or slow the court the Remand Home have the ious offences ranging from proceedings are carried out. right to good food, medical petty theft to murder. Stealing care,conducive shelter (bed, and related offences are the Objectives mattress with the necessary most frequent crimes com- A Remand Home as a fit bedding), recreational activi- mitted by children and young institution is expected to ties and training in life skills. persons. In 1998 132 out of achieve the following objec- The government provides 257 children remanded at the tives: these services to the best of its DSM Remand Home were • To offer safe custody to chil- capacity. For some time, how- brought to court for stealing, dren/young persons facing ever, services rendered have 100 out of 209 in 1999 and criminal charges in the court been below standard because 104 out of 208 in 2000. Steal- of law. of the financial constraints ing can be attributed to the • To ensure that children/ faced by the government in problem of poverty facing young persons are not sent to the past few decades. their families and society in remand prisons in order to Tanzania in general. For protect them from learning Management street children stealing is one bad behaviour from adult The Ministry of Labour, of many strategies for sur- inmates and minimize the Youth Development and vival. risk of their being abused by Sports and specifically the adult prisoners/adults on Department of Social Wel- Problems faced remand. fare, is the sector legally sanc- • Periodical crowding, espe- • To protect children/young tioned to deal with the cially in the DSM Remand persons who have committed administration of juvenile jus- Home. The homes were what seem to be “serious” tice. Thus it is not the established at a time when the criminal offences from possi- responsibility of the Prison or population of the country was ble vengeful complainants. Police Departments. A much smaller, as was the
130 number of children in conflict the running of the home. This with the law. The same homes support not only enables the WHO IS have had to cater for a larger Social Welfare Department to ANAELI? number of children in the past fulfil its objectives as far as the few years while the Social children are concerned, but it Welfare Department has gives the local community Anaeli has no home lacked the funds to extend the necessary insight into the Anaeli has no bed homes and renew their facili- plight of children in conflict Anaeli is alone ties. with the law in order to bring Anaeli is small • The slowness of the courts to about change in the attitudes Anaeli is hungry process the children’s cases. and behaviour of adults Anaeli feels cold • Pressure on the social welfare towards children. With the Anaeli is scared system is increasing rapidly as assistance of local and interna- families disintegrate as a result tional organisations, individu- Anaeli has wounds of HIV/AIDS. als and the Remand Home Anaeli has pain. • The negative attitude of the Support Group, the children general public towards chil- of the DSM Remand Home Who takes care of dren in difficult circum- are now enjoying services of a Anaeli? stances, especially those in high standard. Who gives food to conflict with the law. Today the social workers Anaeli? cooperate with a professional Who takes Anaeli to the Strategies to curb the teacher who is employed by doctor? problems the project to assure that chil- To improve services the dren at the Remand Home Who consoles Anaeli? Department of Social Welfare are counselled and kept busy Who sends Anaeli to has prepared a programme improving their education and school? aimed at providing the chil- their understanding of what is Who hugs Anaeli? dren with education and right and wrong. Voluntary training. This is to satisfy teachers give regular classes, a People say: their basic educational needs medical team is being estab- Street-children are dirty and to ensure that they learn lished to serve the home, the they are little thieves, about the values and behav- Bahari Rotary Club provides they stink, ioural norms of society. The material and financial support programme also aims to for medical services and the and they are lazy enable staff to acquire an Remand Home Support they are garbage understanding of the prob- Group plays an important role just useless. lems facing such children and in funding and supporting the You may do with them their rights, and to improve pilot project. There is close what you want their professional skills in cooperation with various chil- nobody bothers assisting inmates to reform. dren’s projects, particularly A pilot project has been organisations working for Anaeli is alone introduced at the DSM street children. The exchange Remand Home to start the of experience and skills in implementation of the pro- handling children is consid- gramme. It was inaugurated ered to be vital for the staff of Published with the kind permission on 1 June 2001 and it is all these organisations in their of the author, Mrs Nasrin Siege. designed to integrate the sup- work for the well-being of the port of the local community in children. ■
131 9. HIV/AIDS
HIV AND AIDS:GOVERNMENT POLICY AND ACTION
By M.G.S. Masaure, WAMATA
The HIV epidemic in Tanza- ered to be a very serious concern. Apart from having nia is well established all over health problem only and declared HIV/ AIDS a the country. In less than two therefore a challenge to the national disaster, hence put- decades since the first 3 cases medical profession. The onus ting it among its top priori- were reported in 1983, cases was on the Ministry of ties, the government has fully have multiplied to hundreds Health and other ministries endorsed the National Multi- of thousands. The social and played only a subsidiary role. Sectoral Guidelines. economic impact of the epi- MTP - III (1998 - 2002) is The long awaited National demic is being felt every- a more elaborate and strategic Policy on AIDS has at last where, and by literally every- national response to HIV/ been enacted. It provides the body. AIDS/STIs1. The plan pro- general framework for the In the past, attempts to vides the framework and collective and individual address HIV and AIDS identifies the intermediate response of all Tanzanians to issues were not very effective. steps to be taken in order to the pandemic. In it, amongst The approach was not partic- change the current situation other things, the roles of the ularly systematic for there was and obtain the stated goals various sectors, the ethics and no well-designed policy and objectives. The plan is principles to be used in HIV framework to give guidance. multisectorial, multidiscipli- counselling and testing, the The reason was probably that nary and community ori- rights of those living with the extent of the epidemic ented. It calls for expanding HIV/AIDS and the mandate was underestimated. partnerships and collabora- and function of the Tanzania Institutional efforts to con- tion; increasing geographic Commissioner for AIDS trol the spread of HIV in and demographic coverage of (TACAIDS) are enshrined. Tanzania started in the early services; increasing the utilisa- TACAIDS has been estab- eighties. In 1985, a Short tion of existing opportunities; lished as a quasi-autonomous Term Plan (STP) was pre- the optimal utilisation of agency to co-ordinate all pared by the Ministry of scarce resources; increasing interventions related to Health (MOH) for 1985 - coverage of vulnerable popu- HIV/AIDS, including the 1986. This was followed by lations; and integrating HIV mobilisation of resources the First Medium Plan and AIDS/STIs prevention from domestic and external (MTP-I) implemented in the and control in routine services sources. Other responsibilities years 1987 - 1991 and then and socio-economic develop- of TACAIDS are policy for- came MTP-II for 1992 - ment. mulation, strategic planning, 1996. An Interim Plan for So, indeed, Tanzania is advocacy, monitoring and 1996 - 1997 had as its major doubling her efforts in the evaluation, and the dissemi- task the preparation of MTP fight against the epidemic. nation of information on - III. The top-most leadership of HIV/AIDS to the public. Up to this point the Government has shown The Government has allo- HIV/AIDS had been consid- clear commitment and special cated a total of Tshs 7.2 bil-
132 lion (about US$ 8 million) for Best practices NOTES HIV/AIDS in the 2001/2002 The MTP-III Plan the fiscal year. National Policy includes a The Government has number of “best practices” in established an NGO fund in the fight against HIV/AIDS: order to enable more NGOs in rural districts to get • The provision of nation wide involved in HIV/AIDS activ- Voluntary Counselling and ities thereby strengthening Testing (VCT) services national response to the epi- demic. • Ensuring the availability of safe blood at all transfusion A summary of the sites achievements so far • The National Policy on • The provision of adequate AIDS has been enacted. education in all schools on HIV/AIDS and STI. • TACAIDS has been estab- lished and enacted in Parlia- • The activation of public edu- ment. cation programmes and strengthening of co-ordina- • HIV/AIDS is top of the tion for a multi-sectoral agenda in the Donor AID response to the epidemic, Co-ordination (DAC) meet- including donor support to all ings and a special DAC districts with active commu- HIV/AIDS group has been nity based HIV/AIDS pro- formed to work with govern- grammes. ment to address HIV/AIDS issues. VCT service centres have been set up in only about 20 • HIV/AIDS/STI surveil- districts out of more than a lance is carried out and hundred and forty districts in reported annually. Mainland Tanzania. This is a drop of blood in an ocean. • HIV/AIDS activities have There is as yet no provision been mainstreamed in the for the setting up of support budgets of all sectors. centres at community level to provide services or to act as • Monitoring the trend of the centres for awareness cam- epidemic and the implemen- paigns. tation of the plan is a high pri- ority. 1 Sexually transmitted infections
• Priority areas of HIV/AIDS interventions have been selected and costed.
133 MAJOR CHALLENGES IN HIV/AIDS PREVENTION AND A LOOK AT THE SITUATION IN SOME SPECIFIC GROUPS by Rev. C. J. Mabina, NGOTAC
General Overview rural communities. Males 50% the beds are occupied by Over two-thirds of all the and females were equally patients with HIV/AIDS people in the world now liv- affected, but the peak number related illnesses. ing with HIV - nearly 21 mil- of AIDS cases in females was lion men, women and chil- at the age 25-29 years while Children dren - live in Africa south of most affected males were in Children make up the most the Sahara, and 83% of the the age group 30-34 years. vulnerable group. The HIV world’s AIDS deaths have Generally, the data indicate infection progresses quickly to been in this region. Since the that females acquire the HIV AIDS in children. Most of start of the epidemic, HIV in infection at an earlier age than the close to 3 million children sub-Saharan Africa has males. Most acquire it during under 15 who have been mostly spread through sex late adolescence. infected since the start of the between men and women. Heterosexual transmission epidemic have developed An even higher proportion accounts for 77.2% of all AIDS and most of these have of the children living with cases. Of all cases diagnosed died. Further, of the 1.5 mil- HIV in the world are in during the year, 44.2% were lion people who died of Africa - an estimated 87%, married people while 24.2% AIDS in 1996, 350,000 were (UNAIDS Report on the were single individuals. [The children under the age of 18. global HIV/AIDS Epidemic remaining cases were: Even more relevant is the of June 1998). divorced (6.6%), separated estimate that by mid-1996, (4.2%), cohabiting (1.9%), about 9 million children Situation in Tanzania widow (1.3%) and marital under 15 had lost their moth- HIV/AIDS is a major devel- status not stated (12.6%).] ers to AIDS, and more than opment crisis that affects peo- Mortality data from several 90% of these children live in ple in all walks of life, particu- regions in the country indi- Sub-Saharan African coun- larly women and men cate that less than 40% of all tries. In Tanzania, the between the ages of 20 and 49 adult deaths occur in hospi- National AIDS Control Pro- years. tals. Some AIDS patients are gramme (NACP) estimated The first AIDS cases were not reported as they die in 1995 that there were reported in 1983. Initially the before the diagnosis is made. 200,000 children orphaned disease was limited to popula- NACP estimates the true by AIDS, with projections for tions living in urban areas and number of cases in Tanzania the year 2000 of 800,000. along highways. By 1986 all to be about 5 times the num- the regions in Tanzania main- ber reported. Some diseases Youth land had reported AIDS such as TB, which had been If HIV/AIDS were capable cases. The NACP previously under control some of standing trial in the Inter- HIV/AIDS/STD surveil- years back, are on the national Criminal Court, it lance report Number 11 of increase. AIDS is now among would be guilty of conspiring 1996 confirmed that the dis- the top 4 killers in many hos- to wipe out youth as a distinct ease was spreading rapidly in pitals. In some hospitals up to social group. No age group
134 These factors have HIV infection. These include compromised commercial sex workers, women’s reproduc- truckers, sailors and construc- tive freedom and tion workers. The big chal- health and they lenge is the promotion of impinge on the non-discriminating attitudes intervention/ pre- among health care providers vention strategies of in order to encourage such HIV/AIDS. groups to attend clinics for early diagnosis. Refugees When civil war Conclusion broke out in the The impact of HIV/AIDS on spring of 1994, hun- Tanzania is enormous: dreds of thousands • There are increasing of Rwandans fled, number of orphans to be and HIV inevitably taken care of. followed them into • More and more the hastily con- HIV/AIDS victims occupy structed refugee hospital space. camps in Tanzania. • Life expectancy is expected The conditions of to fall from 52 to 47 years refugee life greatly by the year 2010. increase the risk of • Losses in economic exposure to HIV production are and other sexually overwhelming. transmitted diseases (STDs). The HIV/AIDS is a challenge to has suffered more from destruction of families, deteri- every one: politicians, plan- HIV/AIDS than youth. Not oration of social structures and ners, economists, religious only are young people the unravelling of social mores, leaders, businessmen, etc. most sexually active members loss of homes and incomes, The fight against HIV/ of society, but also the most crowding and the commercial AIDS requires the joint energetic and productive. This sex trade within refugee efforts of all stakeholders. ■ is a threat to the very existence camps are just some of the of humanity. factors that lead to increased References risk-taking behaviour and sus- • UNAIDS Report on the global HIV/ Women AIDS epidemic, June 1998 ceptibility. Women and ado- • Gender and HIV/ AIDS: Taking Stock Despite constitutional guar- lescent refugees, vulnerable to of research and Programmes; by antees of equality between violence, rape and coercive UNAIDS sexes and affirmative action in • The Strategic Framework for the Third sex, are at especially high risk. Medium Term plan (MTP III) for Pre- favour of women, the position vention and control of of women has remained Truck Drivers and HIV/AIDS/STDs, 1998-2002 unchanged because of cultural Commercial Sex Workers • NACP HIV/ AIDS/ STI Surveillance beliefs and practices, poor Unprotected sexual behaviour Report, January- December 2000 education, economic disem- among mobile population powerment, polygamy, concu- groups with multiple partners binage and prostitution. makes them vulnerable to
135 10. DEMOCRACY
AGENDA:PARTICIPATION 2000 IN TANZANIA TEN PRINCIPLES FOR A DEMOCRATIC CULTURE
Short on informing and educating The focus is on the experience background to the citizens of Tanzania. It of conflict in the transition to the program includes experiences taken a plural democratic system: The current proj- from policies of the govern- conflict between and within ect arises from the ment and of selected NGO political parties, conflict successful implementation of groups, as well as experiences between the state and civil the project: Agenda Participa- of outstanding public figures, society, gender and social class tion 2000 for Free and Fair opinion leaders and generally based conflict, conflict within Elections. The evaluation of accepted personalities of Tan- generations and conflicts that project spurred the zanian society. between and within religious launching of a similar project The underlying concern of groups. to enhance the realization of the project on a Code of Con- democracy in the country. duct for Democratic Culture is Activities Participation 2000 focuses CONFLICT REDUCTION. The Agenda Participation
Source: Caricatures & Cartoons, E.A. 1st Exhibition, by G. Mwampembwa, Kenya 1999
136 2000 on the Code of Conduct and party activists, potential cation program is undertaken for Democratic Culture will candidates and their support- via a network of groups in be implemented through two ers order to reach a wider audi- mutually reinforcing activities: • Youth leaders, student lead- ence. Such a network includes a set of promotional activities ers from selected schools opinion leaders from political based on the Ten Principles • Leaders of civil society parties, trade unions, journal- and a Civic Education Pro- • Leaders of academic institu- ists, religious institutions and gram. tions other partner NGOs, • Policy makers, researchers (women, human rights, The principles • Public figures youths), on the mainland and • Participation, Consensus, • Grassroots groups on Zanzibar. Transparency, Rule of Law, Human Rights, Truthfulness, The Civic Education NGO framework Culture of Competition, Civic Program includes: The whole program is now competence, Integrity, Equal • Workshops on “Democratic coordinated and carried out Opportunity. Culture and Conflict under the auspices of the Reduction” newly formed NGO: Agenda The public is required to sign • Media initiatives Participation 2000. All activi- a memorandum on Ten Prin- •Expert hearings ties will be conducted in close ciples for a Democratic Cul- •“Theatre for Democracy” collaboration with the ture to demonstrate their con- • Manuals and booklets Friedrich-Ebert Foundation sent, support and commit- and the Swiss Agency for ment to conflict reduction and The civic education activities Development and Co-opera- the realization of a democratic promote political and civic tion. The management of the culture. awareness on the need for NGO is responsible for conflict reduction and the fundraising, management and Major target groups for realization of a democratic implementation of its activi- the promotional activities culture. The dissemination of ties. ■ • Leaders of political parties the contents of the civic edu-
MILESTONES IN THE DEMOCRATISATION PROCESS IN TANZANIA
By Dr M. Mmuya, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of DSM
Background: benchmarks The following are some of the such as the Tanganyika Feder- in the ascendance of the key benchmarks in the process. ation of Labour, and the sub- one party system sequent creation of the state 26 APRIL 1964 sponsored National Union of The present efforts of building The union between Tan- Tanzania Workers, an affiliate a democratic society in Tanza- ganyika and Zanzibar forming body of the Tanganyika nia have to be seen against the The United Republic of Tan- African National Union backdrop of the stages of build- zania. (TANU). ing a controlled society around 1964 1965 the notable, but not exclusive, The disbanding of the free 10 July, the One Party Interim institution of a single party. and autonomous trade unions, Constitution of the United
137 Republic of Tanzania made grams (SAP) and Economic the democratisation process. provision of one party rule in Recovery Programs (ERP) JANUARY 1992 Tanzania, which for Zanzibar that underlined a market- The Nyalali Commission was defined as the Afro-Shi- based economy. submits its final report. razi Party (ASP) and for the 1987 FEBRUARY 1992 mainland as TANU. The Zanzibar Revisions of An extraordinary National Act No. 49 of 1965 grants the Tanzania’s Socialism - a pre- Conference of CCM national executive of TANU cursor to political liberalisa- endorses the Nyalali Com- powers to summon witness tion in Tanzania. Private mission’s recommendations. and call papers similar to ownership of capital and hir- All CCM branches in the armed powers granted to parliament. ing of labour is now allowed. forces, the civil service and pub- 5 FEBRUARY 1967 1989-91 lic institutions are disbanded. Formal declaration of Uja- Economic and social reforms FEBRUARY 1994 maa, Tanzania’s brand of and the start of private indi- The first country wide civic socialism as the country’s vidual initiatives. elections at village level take basis for social, economic and place under the multi-party political development. Political movements system. 1968 and processes OCTOBER 1994 The disbanding of the volun- A second round of civic elec- tary and autonomous cooper- 1989-1991 tions for councillors takes ative societies. The emergence of civic place. 1975 organisations (proto political OCTOBER 1995 March, the resolution by the parties) in both Zanzibar and General elections for the National Executive Commit- mainland Tanzania. Union Presidency and Parlia- tee of the only party that the 27 FEBRUARY 1991 ment take place countrywide. party was supreme over all Formation of the Presidential 1996 institutions. 3 June, Parlia- Commission under Chief Post-election slackening of ment amends the constitution Justice Francis Nyalali (The activities in a majority of the to provide for the Party Nyalali Commission) to col- opposition parties on main- Supremacy Resolution. lect views on whether or not land Tanzania. 1976 Tanzania should adopt the The government disbands the The Newspapers Act No. multi-party system. elected City Council of Dar 3/1976 controls the publica- 21-22 JUNE 1991 es Salaam and replaces it with tion and distribution of news- Political reform seminar an appointed City Commis- papers. organised by a committee of sion for one year. 5 FEBRUARY 1977 civic organisations. The 1997 The formal merger of ASP National Committee for The opposition gains two and TANU into Chama cha Construction and Constitu- seats in the Union Parliament Mapinduzi (CCM). CCM tional Reform (NCCR) to following bye-elections. inherits the Supremacy of the discuss political reforms in Pressure mounts on the gov- Party. Tanzania. ernment to draw up a new 1986 11 DECEMBER 1991 constitution. The beginnings of economic Nyalali submits a draft report The government extends the and social reforms under the with the recommendation mandate of the Dar es Salaam World Bank program - a that Tanzania should go City Commission for a fur- prelude to political reforms. multi-party and disband 40 ther two years. Notable programs were the laws that the commission Nationwide civic elections are Structural Adjustment Pro- considers to be obstacles to rescheduled to 1999.
138 ment seats are reserved for for women in Parliament is Constitutional and legal women. raised from 15% to 20-30%. reforms towards 1995 29 OCTOBER 2000 multi-party democracy Act no.3 & 4 establishing the The second multi-party elec- local government system in tions are held for Union Pres- APRIL/MAY 1992 Zanzibar. ident, members of parliament The Union Parliament enacts 1996 and councillors. legislation providing for The government disbands an 14 NOVEMBER 2000 multi-party politics in Tanza- elected city commission for A new parliament of predom- nia and the nullification of one year. inantly CCM MPs is sworn single party rule and its 1997 in after the October elections. supremacy. Continued pressure mounts JULY 1992 on the government for the The aftermath of the 2000 A Political Parties Act drawing up of a new constitu- general elections points to a becomes operational allowing tion. number of developments in the formation of opposition The government extends the the democratisation process parties in Tanzania and pre- mandate of the Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. It demonstrates scribes conditions for their City Commission for a fur- both progress and decline. registration. ther two years. The Amendment of Parlia- Nationwide civic elections are Progress mentary Election Laws 1985 rescheduled. provides for multi-party elec- 1998 10 OCTOBER 2001 tions for local government in The government launches a Following the impasse after Tanzania. White Paper on Constitu- the elections in Zanzibar, Change of the local govern- tional Revisions for public CCM and CUF signed a ment structure: village, district debate. Subsequently a presi- peace accord to end animosity and urban councils are to dential Committee to coordi- between their parties. In con- include opposition members. nate public views on the white trast to the Commonwealth DECEMBER 1992 paper is appointed. brokered accord of 10 June Parliament can impeach the 4 SEPTEMBER 1999 1999, the October peace President in the event of The Presidential Committee accord was negotiated by the his/her breaching the consti- presents its report on the two parties themselves, with- tution or conducting white paper to the President. out an external mediator. him/herself in a manner con- 14 OCTOBER 1999 NOVEMBER 2001 trary to the office. The founder and father of the Two new political parties Parliament can propose a Tanzanian Nation Mwalimu received permanent registra- motion of no confidence in Julius Kambarage Nyerere tion certificates during the the Prime Minister. dies at St. Thomas Hospital second week of November. The President can now only in London. These are CHAUSTA dissolve parliament during 8 APRIL 2000 (Chama cha Ustawi Tanza- the last year of his 5 year term. President Mkapa approves nia) led by the founder and The Union President can no Act no. 3 of 2000 to make the one time chairman of the longer nominate members to 13th Amendment to the Civic United Front (CUF), parliament or bring his Union Constitution. Some of James Mapalala, and Chama appointees (ex-officio) into the highlights are: cha Demokrasia Makini led parliament. The Union President is to be by a professor of mathematics 15% of the total parliamen- elected by a simple majority. and one time member of the tary and 20% of local govern- The number of special seats Executive Committee of the
139 National Convention for they founded to join the unauthorised demonstration Constitutional Reform incumbent party. This has on 27 January 2001 (NCCR-Mageuzi).This naturally been followed by While CCM and CUF on 10 means that Tanzania has now massive shifts of their follow- October 2001 did reach a a total of 15 fully registered ers from their parties to alter- self-brokered accord, under- political parties. native political parties, espe- lying it was the widely recog- cially towards the incumbent nised lack of tolerance and the Decline party, CCM. Besides the culture of competition that above general trend, with the had led to conflict between A reversal to a de facto exception of five of the more the party in government and one party system than 115 district and munici- the main opposition party in Following the conclusion of pal councils, the organs of Zanzibar, CUF. The conflict the 2000 elections, there has popular representation at degenerated into confronta- been a general decline of both territorial and district tion in an unauthorised rally interest in and for the opposi- levels are dominated by the between the police and CUF tion movement and parties. incumbent party CCM, a sit- followers on 27 January 2001, Amongst other things this uation that restricts debate in a confrontation that resulted has been demonstrated by the organs. in at least 23 deaths in Zanz- leaders of the opposition par- The waning of a culture of ibar and the forcing out of ties abandoning the parties tolerance and competition: the about 2.000 exiles to Kenya. ■
SEPARATION OF POWERS:THE CASE OF TANZANIA
By Dr M. Mmuya, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of DSM
Up to 1992, before the intro- judiciary as well as civil ser- removes the monopoly the duction of the multiparty vants were required to sign a single party had over political democratic system, state statement of allegiance to the processes in the country. power was wholly integrated party leadership code. In sum, Secondly, the state consti- under the overall control of under the single party system, tution has separated the three the political party, Chama cha there was unification of power branches of government and Mapinduzi. Various regula- under the party rather than a spells out the roles of each one tions, conventions and politi- separation of powers. of them as follows: cal decisions influenced the Following the introduction the government’s executive way individual officers of the of the multi-party system, powers; the parliament’s leg- three branches of state were Tanzania is on the way to islative powers; and the judi- appointed and discharged adopting the principles of ciary’s adjudicative powers. form their duties. The Presi- separation of powers follow- Thirdly, under the ongoing dent of the United Republic ing the British model. Civil and Judiciary Service had to be a member of the Firstly, political control of Review Programmes an only party in order to run for the bureaucratic affairs of attempt is being made to cre- president. After his election government has been ate independent service com- he went on to form a cabinet removed through the consti- missions that will be responsi- from parliamentarians of the tutional amendments that ble for the appointment and only party or his personal provide for the multi-party removal of respective appointees. Members of the system. This provision also branches of government as
140 the means of developing the zania is in a process of change, immediate future that the autonomy of each branch. the direction of that change members of the judiciary will Fourthly, the parliamentary on the question of the separa- have access to privileges that rules and regulations are being tion of powers will generate give them protection from amended to give parliament the same issues raised above, government interference as more autonomy from the notably that the executive enjoyed by their English executive branch and under- branch is part of and not sep- counterparts. line its supremacy over the arate from parliament. This is However, as the reform other branches of govern- due to the adoption of the process takes its course, there ment. English model. For example, is every reason to expect that cabinet ministers (members arrangements will be in place Issues in the principle of the executive branch) are whereby power will no longer of separation of powers obtained from parliament. be monopolised by a single Apart from the fact that the In addition to that limita- branch or be subjected to entire political system in Tan- tion, it is less likely in the undue political influence. ■
RECONCILIATION AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION IN ZANZIBAR
By Dr M. O. Maundi, Centre for Foreign Relations
The process of democratic accepted the rules of the dem- to the fact that political con- consolidation differs from that ocratic process and have flict within the state will be of democratic transition in applied them repetitively. resolved according to the that the former is longer com- This is in consonance with established norms, and that pared to the latter. Zanzibar’s Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan’s violations of these norms are democratic transition started definition of consolidated likely to be both destructive in 1992 when it was formally democracy which combines and costly. In essence, demo- legislated that the island behavioral, attitudinal and cratic consolidation is the evo- would henceforth follow a constitutional dimensions.1 lution of a democratic culture multi-party system of democ- Behaviourally democracy on the basis of which compet- racy. The transitional process becomes consolidated when itive politics are carried was complete by 1995 when no significant political group through a set of established the first general elections were seriously attempts to over- and observed norms. held under the new multi- throw the democratic regime. party system. Attitudinally, democracy The Zanzibar Experience Zanzibar’s democratic con- becomes consolidated when It is obvious that Zanzibar’s solidation began after the the overwhelming majority of democratic transition and 1995 elections and continues the people believe that any consolidation started on a up to now. A country can be further political change must wrong footing. The demo- said to have consolidated its emerge from within the cratic transition was seriously democracy when the demo- parameters of the democratic affected during the first multi- cratic structures have been processes. Constitutionally, party elections in October institutionalized and formal- democracy becomes consoli- 1995 when its results were bit- ized, and the major political dated when all of the actors in terly contested by the Civic actors have genuinely the polity become habituated United Front (CUF). CUF
141 accused the Chama cha The 2000 General the presidential and legislative Mapinduzi (CCM) of rigging Elections and the elections, this time by a big the presidential elections and political impasse margin. As expected, and as rejected the official results on Zanzibar’s democratic conso- in 1995, CUF refused to the grounds that it had won lidation depended principally accept the results and to rec- more votes in the municipal on the Isles’ ability to conduct ognize the government. The and legislative elections. free and fair elections in political impasse reached its CUF, they argued, could not October 2000. Unfortu- climax on 27 January 2001 therefore have received fewer nately, these elections were when CUF decided to votes in the presidential elec- not free of controversy. The demonstrate peacefully in tions. The CCM incumbent Isles went into its second order to press for three princi- presidential candidate had multi-party elections before pal demands: first, a repeat of obtained 50.2% of the votes the Commonwealth-bro- the whole general election in while the CUF candidate got kered Agreement was fully Zanzibar; second, the re-writ- 49.8%. In the legislative elec- implemented. The major ing of the Union and Zanz- tions, CCM obtained 26 out contenders were the same, ibar constitutions with a of the total of the 50 seats that is, CCM and CUF. wider participation; and third, while CUF got 24 seats. While Seif Sharrif Hamad the reconstitution of the Following the rejection of was the presidential candidate Union Electoral Commission the results, CUF boycotted for CUF, Amani Abeid (NEC) and the Zanzibar the House of Representatives Karume, the son of the first Electoral Commission and refused to recognize the president, was the candidate (ZEC) in order to make them legitimacy of the government. for CCM. This was due to independent. The demon- The relations between the two the fact that the incumbent strations turned violent in parties further deteriorated president, Dr. Salmin Amour Zanzibar and Pemba, result- during a legislative by-election could not run because he had ing in more than twenty in November 1997 when 18 already served his two terms. deaths and the “first crop” of CUF members were arrested On Election Day, 29 October, the Tanzanian political and charged with treason fol- sixteen constituencies in refugees. lowing CUF’s victory in the Unguja did not vote because by-election. Following the of logistical problems. A re- Efforts towards Commonwealth - brokered run was arranged for a week political reconciliation Agreement of June 1999, later. CUF’s position was that The political impasse and the there was hope that the polit- it would take part only if the events of January 27 obviously ical deadlock would abate. electoral process was repeated hurt Tanzania’s pride and tar- The agreement had pro- in all of the Zanzibar con- nished its image as an island posed the establishment of an stituencies and not just in the of peace. They threatened the Inter-Party Committee sixteen constituencies. It country’s political stability (IPC) to work out the modal- threatened not to recognize and peace. It was on this ities of implementing the the election results if its background that CCM and agreement that, among other demands were not met. The CUF initiated direct talks in things, had provided for con- Zanzibar Electoral Commis- February 2001, aimed at find- stitutional, judicial and elec- sion (ZEC) stuck to its guns, ing a lasting solution to the toral laws reforms. Following and the re-run was held only political crisis. The talks cul- the signing of the agreement, in the sixteen constituencies. minated in a reconciliation CUF’s boycott of the House When the results were agreement that was officially of the Representatives was announced, CCM had once signed on 10 October 2001 finally called off. more defeated CUF in both by the two political parties.
142 The following are some of the mentation of the accord, the be guaranteed by sustained highlights of the reconcilia- two parties have agreed on the efforts to resolve their under- tion accord: formation of a Joint Presiden- lying political differences tial Supervisory Committee through peaceful and reconcil- • Making changes to the (JPC). The JPC will be con- iatory politics rather than Zanzibar Electoral Commis- stituted by an Act of Law. through political violence. sion to ensure the institution’s After the implementation of Thirdly, the accord was nego- autonomy is in line with stan- the accord, when an atmos- tiated not only in an atmos- dards applicable in other phere of understanding and phere of confidence, trust and Commonwealth countries. trust is adequately realized, understanding, but was it was by-elections will be held in the also negotiated without the • Setting up of a permanent un-represented constituencies assistance of outside interme- voters’ register and a review of in Zanzibar. diaries. Fourthly, unlike the the Zanzibar Constitution 1999 accord, the current and election laws to make Implementability accord has legal backing. them conform to multi-party of the Accord Lastly, history will condemn democracy. In the face of the half-hearted whoever will be responsible implementation of the 1999 for undermining the accord. • Reforming the state-owned accord, some pessimists doubt The fear of condemnation will media institutions to end whether the second accord motivate both parties to play favoritism in publicizing activ- will be implemented. There positive roles in implementing ities of political parties. are a number of indicators to the accord. ■ suggest that the accord will be • Reforming the judiciary in implemented. The first is that Zanzibar to enhance its free- both parties have recognized 1 Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan “Toward dom, professionalism and its that the political impasse was Consolidated Democracies”. Journal of dignity in the eyes of the soci- a threat to peace and political Democracy (April,1996) pg. 14-15. See ety. stability. Secondly, they both also M.O. Maundi “An Optimistic view of Africa’s Democratic Transition” recognize that durable peace (Sunday Observer, Issue No.260 of To ensure the earnest imple- and political stability can only Sept.10, 2000) pg. 7.
NOTES
143 MWAFAKA:THE POLITICALLY AGREED MEMORANDUM BETWEEN CHAMA CHA MAPINDUZI (CCM) AND THE CIVIC UNITED FRONT (CUF)
Translated by Mr C.M.M. Kajege, Kivukoni Academy of Social Sciences
THE PREVAILING that there is a need to imple- tions which have been CONFLICT ment the agreements reached, reached in this Memorandum Chama cha Mapinduzi otherwise citizens lose confi- of Agreement. (CCM) and Civic United dence in negotiation as the Front (CUF) agree in princi- right way of resolving con- • That the main agenda in ple: flicts in a society. our negotiations is as agreed by our Party Secretary Gene- • That there has been a polit- • That the main purpose and rals during their meeting of ical conflict in the country objectives of reaching this 17 March 2001. whose root cause is the Gen- agreement is to forget the past eral Elections of 1995 and and to implement, purposely, This Agenda is which carried on during the our agreements in order to 1. Implementation of the General Elections of 2000 up build up a true democracy and CCM and CUF Agreed to the events of 26 and 27 therefore to bring economic Memorandum January 2001 causing some development and social wel- 2. The Zanzibar General people to lose their lives and fare in our country Elections 2000 some to sustain injuries. 3. The events of 26 and 27 • That in the cause of reach- January 2001 • That both our parties agree ing agreements that aim at 4. Tanzanians who fled to that those events have finding a lasting solution to Kenya brought a great shame to our the political conflict existing nation. in our country, our two parties Therefore, will be guided by national Our two parties of CCM and • That the aim and objective interests which uphold CUF agree to implement the of both our parties is to National Unity, Peace and following issues that have the resolve this conflict through Tranquility, Peoples’ Deve- aim of resolving completely dialogue and negotiations. lopment in Freedom and the political conflict in the Democracy and the Rule of country and to build a new • That our parties have Law and Rights. political culture. entered these negotiations with the purpose of removing • That CCM and CUF rec- STEPS TO RESOLVE enmity, hatred and suspicion ognize and appreciate the CONFLICT between CCM and CUF contribution of the Joint Dec- Implementation of the members in the country and laration of March 2001 as the agreed Memorandum to create a conducive environ- preparation of the environ- between CCM and CUF ment for political competition ment which enabled the of 9 June, 1999 and trust. restoration of tranquility and that, that Declaration is the 1. Our two parties certify the • That our parties have learnt key and vision of the negotia- Agreed Memorandum be-
144 tween CCM and CUF which tribalism amongst people. implementation of the Agreed was signed on 9 June, 1999 Memorandum whereby con- and are determined purposely 2. Our two parties agree that ducive environment of recon- to implement the following presence of the implementa- ciliation and trust would be issues: tion procedures of item 1 (a) enhanced, a by-election for (a) The review of the Zanzibar to (i) above will be according Members of Parliament and Electoral Commission and to the agreements reached the House of Representatives establishment of an Indepen- between CCM and CUF as will be conducted in vacant dent Commission in accor- stipulated in Attachment I constituencies in Zanzibar dance with the system that is and Attachment II which are and thereafter CCM and acceptable in the Common- the Agreed Memorandum CUF will continue to negoti- wealth Countries. and Recommendations of ate with the aim of opening- (b) The establishment of a IPC of 1999 as reviewed by up various new opportunities permanent Voters’ Registra- the committee of our Partys’ of cooperation, including the tion Book Secretary Generals which need to form a coalition gov- (c) The review the Zanzibar becomes part of this Agree- ernment which will include Constitution and Electoral ment Memorandum. those parties and to start a dia- Laws in order to meet the logue on the political plight requirements for multi-party The Zanzibar General and democracy in Zanzibar. democracy. Elections Year 2000 (d) The reform of the Gov- 3. Considering the problems 6. With the aim of strength- ernment News Media in order which occurred during the ening the conducive environ- to make them abstain from General Elections of the year ment of reconciliation and favoritism in airing political 2000 and due to failure to trust, our parties have agreed party activities implement effectively the that the Government will (e) The ensuring of the free- Agreement to Memorandum include political parties in dom of political parties to exe- of 1999, CCM and CUF governance issues such as: cute their activities without believe that a joint organ for (a) The Joint Presidential harassments. the implementation of these Supervisory Commission to (f ) Zanzibar courts to be agreements is the only one the House of Representatives. reformed in order to increase that will solve all the problems (b) Appointments to the Par- their freedom and expertise that occurred in that election liament and membership to and the respect of society. and any other to follow. the House of Representatives. (g) The investigation of claims (c) Appointments to various by students, workers and citi- 4. In order to ensure the boards of parastatals and insti- zens who were affected and proper implementation of the tutions of both governments. finding of ways to compensate Agreements contained in this (d) Appointments to various them. Agreed Memorandum, CCM leadership positions in Tan- (h) Former leaders in the and CUF agree on the estab- zanian Embassies abroad. Government to be given lishment of a Joint Presiden- (e) To be included in official respect and equal rights after tial Supervisory Commission government entourage. retirement. which will bear the composi- (i) Political parties to respect tion and responsibilities as Before any appointment or the national Constitution and stipulated in Attachment III decision is made in respect of Laws and abstain from using and IV which forms part of the implementation of those language that might incite this Agreed Memorandum. issues mentioned under items hatred between political par- (b), (c) and (d), the President ties, enmity, intolerance or 5. Soon after the complete of the United Republic of
145 Tanzania and the President of cute before the courts of law country, the Report of the Zanzibar will have first to policemen/women who Committee to be established consult with the national oppress them, according to to inquire into these events, leadership of the concerned the law. will be respected and fully party. implemented by concerned The Events of 26 and 27 institutions. Government January 2001 Institutions in Elections 8. Since there are different Tanzanians who fled 7. For the purpose of ensuring explanations between the two to Kenya that Government Institutions opposing parties on the 12. CCM and CUF recog- are executing their duties pro- source, reason and outcome of nized that following the out- fessionally and are led by the the events of 26 and 27 Janu- come of the events of 26 and code of conduct for their ary 2001, CCM and CUF 27 January 2001, several Tan- duties in the multi-party parties agree to form an Inde- zanians from Zanzibar fled to democratic systems whereby pendent Commission of Shimoni in Mombasa, Kenya all political parties have the Inquiry that will investigate in search of asylum out of fear right to be treated equally, the issue. for their lives. Although the CCM and CUF have agreed government has delivered an to propose to the Govern- 9. Our two parties, also agree official statement requesting ment to make sure that the that, on humanitarian those refugees to return, with following steps are taken: grounds, the Government of the assurance that their secu- (a) Police must undergo United Republic of Tanzania rity is guaranteed and that retraining on their role and and the Revolutionary Gov- they will not be prosecuted responsibilities in the multi- ernment of Zanzibar must nor humiliated in any way on party politics. assist those who lost their rel- their return. Despite the fact (b) Police must not get atives, those who sustained that many refugees have come involved in party-politics injuries, and those who were back, there are some Tanzan- (non-partisan). affected in one way or ian refugees who have not (c) Laws and Regulation another, which can be ascer- agreed to do so and continue which govern the execution of tained. to live in camps in Daadab, duties by police should be Northern Kenya. Those Tan- observed strictly and those 10. As one step of normaliz- zanian refugees remain a who violate them should be ing political and social life in black spot and a continuous punished without being pro- the country following those reminder of the shame of Jan- tected. events, CCM and CUF agree uary 26 and 27 2001 which (d) Recruitment Policy and that the Government should happened in this country. Practice should be reviewed nullify all cases and accusa- to ensure that there is no tions against those people 13. Political Parties of CCM political favoritism or any who were accused in associa- and CUF reiterate their other form of favoritism. tion with the events of 26 and request to those Tanzanians Likewise, those people who 27 January 2001 and also to to return home and save Tan- are not defined in the recruit- free all those being held in zania from fame and shame of ment policy and practice of custody in connection with having refugees, by looking at police, such as Shehas those events. this step as a way forward, a (Masheha), should be way of opening a new chapter involved. 11. As a lesson to others and of reconciliation in the build- (e) Citizens should be edu- to ensure that such events do ing of a new Zanzibar and cated on their right to prose- not happen again in this Tanzania.
146 WAYS TO BUILD PEACE antors of the implementation which will be permanent and 14. Our two parties agree that and execution of our agree- will include all national party in order to ensure that this ments. leaders in the country in a sys- very important agreement in tem to be decided by the con- enhancing national unity, 16. Our two parties are satis- cerned parties later on. This peace and tranquility in the fied that the negotiations held committee will be the stage country, and the development between them and the attain- for the exchange of views and of the people in freedom and ment of these agreements is an opinions and the building of democracy together with the indication of the ability of understanding on important rule of law, is implemented Tanzanians to addressing issues for our country. wholeheartedly, the responsi- erupting conflicts in the coun- bility for implementing it try and chart out the appropri- 18. CCM and CUF ensure must be with a national organ ate solution. These two parties each other that each party on which is accepted and which insist on, and emphasize, the her own side and jointly will will be established by both need to continue with the work together with a clear parties after the signing of this process of reconciliation and purpose and confidence in Agreement Memorandum. national understanding on the implementing all that has basis of negotiations and con- been agreed on in this Agreed 15. In recognition that this fidence building among the Memorandum according to Agreed Memorandum is the political parties in the country. the implementation schedule result of negotiations between as stipulated in attachment V CCM and CUF whose prin- 17. In order to accomplish this which forms part of this ciple is the belief that the intent of having permanent Agreed Memorandum. ■ national leadership of those consultations among political two parties are true and reli- party leaders, CCM and CUF Source: Muafaka wa Siasa Baina ya Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) na able representatives of their have agreed that there is a Chama Cha Wananchi (CUF) wa Kumal- parties, the national leadership need to put in place a joint iza Mgogoro wa Kisiasa Zanzibar. of these parties together with consultative committee of Zanzibar 10 Oktoba 2001. the government are the guar- political parties in the country
NOTES
147 GOOD GOVERNANCE:DEFINITION AND IMPLICATIONS
By Dr P.J. Kabudi, Faculty of Law, University of Dar es Salaam
Good governance, in as much in business. Sustainable devel- to be accepted as democratic as it is relatively new in polit- opment, especially in relation they must be free and fair. ical and development dis- to the utilization of natural Good governance deals course, has become part of the resources and environmental with the nature and limits of common shared principles management, is also part of it. state power. The doctrine of and virtues of different coun- To be effective and sustain- the separation of powers is tries in the world. It has able good governance must be therefore relevant in defining attained universality as an anchored in a vigorous work- and establishing whether a indicator in the measurement ing democracy, respect of the country has a political system of adherence to democracy rule of law, a free press, ener- that is responsive to good and rule of law. With the fall getic civil society organiza- governance. The doctrine of of communism in Eastern tions and effective and inde- the separation of powers is Europe and the disbandment pendent public bodies such as based on the acceptance that of the one-party political sys- the Commission for Human there are three categories of tem, good governance gained Rights and Good Gover- government: Legislative, priority in replacing authori- nance, Prevention of Corrup- Executive, and Judicial. Cor- tarian political systems and tion Bureau and the Fair responding to that there are corrupt regimes. It was during Trade Commission. The also three main organs of gov- that period of change that Commission is important in ernment - the Legislature, the good governance became part ensuring the promotion and Executive and the Judiciary. of the development aid. protection of human rights The doctrine insists that these There is a danger that good but also in ensuring both three powers and functions of governance has become a transparency and accountabil- government in a free democ- catchword and that few ity on the part of the govern- racy must be kept separate. bother to consider its implica- ment and the various govern- What is important today is tions. Good governance is ment agencies. not the separation of powers given a broad definition, cov- At the political level demo- strictu sensu, but checks and ering an array of aspects of the cratic practices include trans- balances. sociopolitical and economic parency in policy-making and It is one of the functions of order of a country, such as the administration. This implies a the Parliament to check the effective government policies pluralistic political system Executive. This is done by and administration, respect that allows the existence of various means, including the for the rule of law, the protec- diversity in political and ideo- authorisation of the budget, tion of human rights and an logical opinions. No wonder scrutiny of government effective civil society. that good governance is said expenditure and questioning It is imperative to point out, to be better achieved and the Government in Parlia- however, that it is not con- guaranteed in a multi-party ment to account for its fined only to political and system than in a mono-party actions. social issues but also includes system. It also means the It is the duty of the Judi- proper management of the holding of regular elections ciary to protect the Constitu- economy as well as trans- applying the principle of uni- tion by seeing to it that the parency and fair competition versal franchise. For elections laws of the country are not
148 contrary to the Constitution. the judiciary extends to exam- Rights Commission is com- The Judiciary stands between ining the validity of even an mendable and long overdue. the citizens and the State as a amendment to the Constitu- However, there is a need to balance against executive tion as it has been repeatedly seize the opportunity, despite excesses or abuse of power, held that no constitutional the inherent problems result- transgression of constitutional amendment can be sustained ing from the Constitution and or legal limitations by the which violates the basic struc- the Act, to advance further the Executive as well as the Legis- ture of the Constitution. The protection and promotion of lature. This is why the Judi- structure of the Constitution human rights in Tanzania. ciary as the custodian of the includes separation of powers. Currently, the issue of good Constitution is empowered to Another equally important governance is widely regarded declare an Act of Parliament part of good governance is the as one of the key ingredients as unconstitutional and there- promotion and protection of for poverty reduction and sus- fore null and void. It also has human rights. For this to be tainable development. This the power of finding govern- effective, the rights and free- can be achieved in an enabling ment action to be an infringe- doms must be enshrined in economic environment ment of the constitution. This the Constitution. This covers responsive to the basic needs has been brought about by the political and civil rights and of the people. It requires incorporation of fundamental they range from the right to sound economic management freedoms and rights of the life, to freedom of expression. and sustainable use of individual popularly known as The courts of law should be resources as well as the pro- Bill of Rights in the constitu- independent to be able to motion of economic and social tion. This has resulted in the enforce the rights of the indi- rights. ■ Constitution being supreme vidual vis-à-vis the state. The to the extent that the power of establishment of the Human
CODE OF ETHICS AND CONDUCT FOR THE PUBLIC SERVICE IN TANZANIA - EXTRACTS
Issued by Civil Service Department, June 1999
A Code of Ethics and Con- lic servants to participate fully poverty in the 21st Century. duct for the Public Service is in fulfilling the mission of the The Code of Ethics and being issued for the first time public service, which is to Conduct will apply to all those since our independence in deliver quality service to the serving in the Public Service 1961. During colonial rule a people of Tanzania efficiently, but who are not covered by the code of ethics and conduct effectively and with the high- Public Leadership Code of was inherent in different laws est standard of courtesy and Ethics Act. No.13 of 1995. and regulations and this integrity. The interpretation of public approach continued even after In so doing public employ- servant is as stipulated in the independence. Since these ees will be effecting the vision Public Service Act. laws and regulations were not of transforming the Public easily available to all public Service into an institution I. Ethical conduct employees, people were gener- which will be pivotal in and behavior ally unaware of expected ethi- achieving sustainable eco- Public Servants must behave cal conduct. nomic growth and prosperity and conduct themselves in a The Code will enable pub- in Tanzania and eradicate manner as stipulated below:
149 1. Respect all human rights employee will do so with clar- consideration to official views and be courteous. ity and promptness. submitted by fellow employ- 2. Perform diligently and in a 5. A Public Servant will ees and subordinates. disciplined manner. respect other employees, their iii) Ensuring that subordi- 3. Promote teamwork. rights, as well as their right to nates clearly understand the 4. Pursue excellence in ser- privacy especially when han- scope of their work and vice. dling private and personal encourage them to enhance 5. Exercise responsibility and information. their competence and skills. good stewardship. 6. A Public Servant shall iv) Giving credit to an 6. Promote transparency and refrain from having sexual employee with outstanding accountability. relationships at the work performance and not seeking 7. Discharge duties with place. Likewise he/she will personal credit at the integrity. avoid all types of conduct employee’s expense. 8. Maintain political neutral- which may constitute sexual v) Avoiding malicious actions ity. harassment which include: or words intended to ridicule i) Pressure for sexual activity either subordinate or superi- II. Respect of human or sexual favors with a fellow ors. rights and being courteous employee. vi) Reporting on his/her sub- 1. A Public Servant has the ii) Rape, sexual battery and ordinates is to be done fairly right to be a member of any molestation or any sexual and without any fear. political party and can vote assault. both for his/her political party iii) Intentional physical con- VII. Transparency and and in general elections. duct which is sexual in nature accountability 2. A Public Servant can such as unwelcome touching, 1. A Public Servant will become a member of any reli- pinching, patting, grabbing adhere to and practise meri- gious sect provided that and or brushing against tocratic principles in appoint- he/she doesn’t contravene the another employee’s body, hair ments, promotions and while existing laws. However, since or clothes. delivering any service. He/she the government has no reli- iv) Sexual innuendoes, ges- will be accountable both for gion, religious beliefs should ture, noises, jokes, comments actions and inaction through not be advocated in public or remarks to another person the normal tiers of authority. services offices. about one’s sexuality or body. 2. (i) A Public Servant shall 3. A Public Servant should v) Offering or receiving pref- conduct meetings for the pur- not discriminate or harass a erential treatment, promises pose of promoting efficiency member of the public or a fel- or rewards and offering or and shall not use meetings as low employee on grounds of submitting to sexual favors. a way of avoiding being sex, tribe, religion, nationality, responsible for the decision ethnicity, marital status or III. Teamwork he/she is supposed to have disability. A Public Servant will strive to made on her/his own. 4. A Public Servant shall be promote teamwork by offer- (ii) A Public Servant shall not courteous to senior and fellow ing help to co-employees engage in unofficial activities employees as well as to all whenever the need so arises. or projects during official clients and particularly the Teamwork will be achieved hours or conduct such activi- clients being served. If a pub- by public servants observing ties or projects within the lic servant is requested to clar- the following: office premises or by using ify or to provide directions on i) Giving instructions which public property. issues arising from laws, regu- are clear and undistorted. (iii) A Public Servant shall be lations and procedures, the ii) Giving due weight and ready to declare his/her prop-
150 erty or that of his/her spouse iii) A Public Servant will iii) shall not provide services when required to do so. return to the donor any gift or with bias due to his/her polit- 3. A Public Servant shall be hand them over to the govern- ical affiliation. loyal to the duly constituted ment, in which case a receipt iv) shall not pass information government of the day and will be issued. or documents availed through will therefore implement poli- 4. A Public Servant shall per- his/her position in the service cies and decisions given by the form his/her duties honestly to his/her political party. minister or any other govern- and impartially to avoid cir- 2. Although public servants ment leader. cumstances that may lead to have a right to communicate conflict of interest. If conflict with their political representa- VIII. Discharge duties of interest arises he/she shall tives they: with integrity inform his/her superiors who i) shall not use such influence 1. A Public Servant shall not will decide upon the course of to intervene on matters affect- fear to abide to laws, regula- action to resolve it. ing him/her which are in dis- tions and procedures when 5. A Public Servant shall not pute between the Govern- discharging his/her duties. borrow to the extent of not ment and him/her. 2. A Public Servant shall not being able to repay the debts ii) shall not use such influence solicit, force or accept bribes as this will discredit the public for furthering personal ends from a person whom he/she is service as well as affect his/her which are not part of the Gov- serving, has served or will be ability to make unbiased deci- ernment policy. serving either by doing so in sions. person or by using another X. Conclusion person. IX. Political Neutrality The code of Ethics and Con- 3. i) A Public Servant or any 1. A public servant can partic- duct has been issued pursuant member of his/her family shall ipate in politics provided that to the Public Service Act. A not receive presents in the when so doing he/she: breach of the Code will be form of money, entertain- i) shall not engage him/herself dealt with under the Public ments or any service from a in political activities during Service Act, National Security person that may be geared official hours or at work prem- Act, Prevention of Corruption towards compromising ises. Act, or any other relevant law. his/her integrity. ii) shall not take part in politi- ii) A Public Servant may cal activity which will com- accept or give nominal gifts promise or be seen to compro- such as pens, calendars and mise his/her loyalty to the diaries in small amount. Government.
NOTES
151 CONCEPTUALISING CONFLICT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION By Dr M.O. Maundi, Centre for Foreign Relations
Conflict order to neutralize the other’s, tration. Governments and A conflict is a dispute or by separating the parties in intergovernmental organisa- between parties on specific space and time. Conflict tions can perform this role issues. It arises from differ- management by use of force is (“Track One Diplomacy”) ences in outlook, opinions referred to as using the “mili- and it can also be done by and values with regard to tary track”. individuals (“Track Two those specific issues. The Diplomacy”). issues themselves can be cul- Conflict resolution tural, social, political or eco- A conflict is not resolved until Confidence building nomic. They can be at indi- its root causes are eliminated. measures vidual, community, national This is done through negotia- They are important ingredi- or international level. tion with the mutual consent ents of conflict prevention of the parties involved. Effec- and resolution. They are Conflict prevention tive and sustainable conflict aimed at eliminating mistrust, Popularly known as “preven- resolution initiatives should suspicion and misunderstand- tive diplomacy”, this is a com- be taken within a framework ing. Such measures support bination of efforts and actions of “layered responsibility”, in peace, political stability and directed at containing, man- other words from local to security. aging and resolving disputes national, from national to before they become violent. sub-regional, from sub- TANZANIA AS AN The major underlying regional to regional and ulti- AGENT OF CONFLICT assumptions are that early mately to the international RESOLUTION intervention, both political level. Since its independence Tan- and humanitarian, can save zania has been active as an lives and avoid disaster; and Negotiation agent of conflict management that if action is taken early This is a peaceful procedure and resolution within the enough, human tragedies can through which the involved Southern African, East be avoided with little cost or parties explicitly try to resolve African and Great Lakes risk. their conflicting interests. regions. This is a reflection of Negotiation, or the use of the the usefulness of the proxim- Conflict management “diplomatic track”, can be ity approach in conflict reso- This is preventing a dispute done by the parties them- lution. from erupting into a violent selves or indirectly through a The support given to the crisis or cooling a crisis that third party. armed liberation struggles has already turned violent by was indicative of Tanzania’s eliminating, neutralizing or A third party or intermediary involvement in conflict man- controlling the means of pur- Often direct negotiations are agement through the military suing the conflict with vio- impossible because of the track. This was equally true of lence. This can be done by intensity of the hostilities. Tanzania’s war with the dicta- denying the parties the means The role of the intermediary tor Idd Amin Dada of of combat, or by increasing can vary: it can include medi- Uganda when he invaded the means of one party in ation, conciliation and arbi- Tanzania in the late 70s.
152 Tanzania’s support of the flict resolution through the in August 1993. negotiations that finally diplomatic track has been in In the Burundi case Tanza- brought independence to the resolution of the violent nia played an informal inter- Angola, Zimbabawe, Namibia conflicts in Rwanda and mediary role (Track Two and ended apartheid in South Burundi. Diplomacy) by supporting the Africa was indicative of its Tanzania played a formal former president, the late participation in conflict reso- intermediary role (Track One Mwalimu Julius Nyerere in his lution through the diplomatic Diplomacy) as the facilitator efforts of mediating the track. of the Arusha peace negotia- Arusha peace negotiations for Tanzania’s most active and tions that culminated in a Burundi. ■ effective participation in con- peace agreement for Rwanda
WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT
By S. Kassim, Centre for Foreign Relations, Dar es Salaam
The importance and necessity the Beijing 4th World equality, development and of women’s participation in Women’s Conference which peace could not be achieved. decision making for sustain- included women’s participa- Thus it proposed that the gov- able development has been tion in decision-making as ernments should commit echoed in many circles. All the one among its 12 areas of con- themselves to establish gender conferences on gender, cern in the Global Platform balance in governmental bod- women and human rights for Action (GPA). The GPA ies and committees. have time and time again pointed out that without Under the mono-party sys- deliberated on the matter. women’s participation in deci- tem, women’s participation One of such gatherings was sion-making, the goals of was minimal. This prompted
WOMEN CONTESTANTS IN THE CONSTITUENCIES FOR THE UNION PARLIAMENTARY SEATS: 2000 ELECTIONS
PARTYWOMEN ELECTED PARTY WOMEN ELECTED CONTESTANTS CONTESTANTS UDP 5 0 TLP 3 0 PONA 4 0 TPP 2 0 NCCR-M 7 0 UMD 1 0 TADEA 1 0 CCM 22 10 UPDP 2 0 CHADEMA 2 0 CUF 7 0 NLD - - NRA - - - - - TOTAL - --56 10
Source: Newspapers: RAI, Novemba 2-8, 2000; RAI, Oktoba 26-Novemba, 2000; Alasiri, Novemba 2, 2000; Mtanzania, Novemba 1, 2000 and Mwananchi Novemba 5, 2000.
153 the ruling party SPECIAL SEATS/AFFIRMATIVE SEATS: 2000 ELECTIONS and the government to set aside affirmative seats in par- PARTY UNION HOUSE OFTOTAL liament for women. PARLIAMENT REP. ZANZIBAR Categories of representation CCM 40 6 46 In Tanzania, members of par- CUF 4 3 7 liament comprise the follow- TLP 1 1 ing: UDP 1 1 (a) members elected to repre- NCCR -M sent constituencies TPP NRA (b) women members not less CHADEMA 1 1 than 20% of the elected repre- UMD sentatives from the con- NLP stituencies UPDP (c) 5 members elected from PONA the House of Representative TADEA members (d) The Attorney General TOTAL 47 9 56 (e) 10 Members of Parliament nominated by the President. Source: Mtanzania, November 11, 2000
THE YOUTH LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAMME (YLTP) “Good Leaders are made, not born”
Youth is the future of every The program’s main objec- knowledge within a wide nation. It is therefore impor- tives are: range of topics in politics, tant to enhance the capacity • To discuss and determine economics and allied social and moral standing of youths moral and social indicators of sciences as well as to train so that they become capable a good leader together with participants in practical skills and reliable leaders in the the participants related to the challenges faced future. • To contribute to the efforts by leaders in contemporary The Youth Leadership being made towards the cre- times. Training Program (YLTP) ation of good governance run by the FES and its local nationally and within institu- The Trainees partner organizations, is a tions Trainees for the program have project aimed at contributing • To create a network of col- been drawn from institutions to the building of a cadre of laborators among the youth that deal with youth matters. committed and responsible and future leaders from dif- These include political par- leaders in Tanzania. ferent sectors of society. ties, government ministries The YLTP was launched and commissions, and some on 23 November 2000 and is To realize those objectives, non-governmental organiza- planned to go on for a period the program conducts one tions. of 18 months, until June monthly session. The course The selection procedure 2002. is designed to enhance consisted of a written exam,
154 Trainees and trainers of the Youth Leadership Training Programme during their excursion to Zanzibar with the Zanzibar Chief Minister, 2001 an essay by each applicant and Training Methods objectives. an interview. The participatory method Also included are excur- The current program has 17 whereby trainers initiate the sions that offer the possibility trainees who were nominated process and the trainees bring for the trainees to experience by their institutions from both in input from their own expe- the challenges they themselves mainland Tanzania and Zan- rience on the subject under will face as leaders. One of the zibar. They are between 21 consideration is fundamental. highlights of the program was and 35 years old. Female Sessions include perceptive the very much appreciated applicants have been pro- presentations by representa- excursion to Zanzibar in moted in order to achieve tives of civil society, the state, August 2001. Meetings with gender balance and to support and of the disciplines of eco- the Chief Minister and the and encourage women to nomics and of the political Speaker of the Zanzibar become future leaders. and social sciences. Other House of Representatives methods used are group work, increased the trainees’ knowl- The Trainers plenary and group discussions, edge about Zanzibar’s histori- The program is conducted by case studies and presentations cal background and the a core panel of trainers who by the trainees. The trainees island’s political reality. come from various institutions are challenged to take part in A similar excursion to the of high learning such as the the sessions in an active and Parliament in Dodoma is University of Dar es Salaam, committed way. envisaged. the Center for Foreign Rela- The regular activities are The curriculum is the result tions, the Economic and punctuated by the visits of of a participatory develop- Social Research Foundation public officials for their contri- ment process involving the (ESRF) and the Tanzania butions are important for the trainers, the FES collaborators School of Journalism. realization of the programs and the participating organi-
155 zations. The trainees’ opinion ment and organization. In ongoing and systematic col- is taken as an important voice order to apply their new skills, lection of all lessons learned in in the discussion of the curric- the trainees organized and the implementation of this ula. planned one of the sessions on first program. their own. At the end of the program, Focus is on three the trainees themselves will be main areas • Ethics in leadership where evaluated and both comple- • Basic knowledge on a variety personality and behavioral tion and performance awards of topics: politics, economics, issues fitting of the leader are will be presented to the grad- administration, social sci- addressed. Trainees deal with uates. ences, human rights, gender different leader profiles and The creation of the project’s etc. The objective is to estab- have discussions on a code of own website is in progress. It lish a common base from conduct for a good leader. will serve to present informa- which the trainees can move tion on the program, its on to address more specific In order to improve the ongo- objectives and its results. The areas. ing program, there is an eval- website is also meant to be a uation at the end of every ses- forum for the trainees to pres- • Techniques and instruments sion both from the side of the ent themselves and to for effective leadership trainees and the trainers. It is exchange their ideas and including computer training also important for the future experiences. ■ and instruments of manage- of the project that there is an
TANZANIAN CABINET AND PERMANENT SECRETARIES Source: Tanzania Information Services, November 2001 & up-dated 11/12 2001 & 04/01/2002
THE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE CIVIL SERVICE Minister of State P. O. Box 9120 DEPARTMENT Hon. Brig. Gen. Hassan Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 2438 Ngwilizi, (MP) Tel. 2116900, 2116898/9 Tel. 2118531/4 Dodoma President Minister of State Tel. 2141603 H.E. Benjamin William (Civil Service) Dar es Salaam Mkapa Hon. Mary Nagu, (MP) Tel. 2124326 Chief Secretary Tel. 2116999 Deputy Minister Marten Lumbanga Fax. 113084 Hon. Mizengo K.P. Pinda, Tel. 2116679 Permanent Secretary (MP) Minister of State J. Rugumyamheto Dodoma (Good Governance) Tel. 2130122 Tel. 2141606 Hon. Wilson Masilingi, Dar es Salaam (MP) REGIONAL Tel. 2120120 Tel. 2114240 ADMINISTRATION AND Permanent Secretary Permanent Secretary, LOCALGOVERNMENT D.M.S. Mmari State House P. O. Box 1923 Dodoma Vacant Dodoma Tel. 2141607 Tel. 2110932 Tel. 2142848 Dar es Salaam Tel. 2128105
156 VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE Affairs) Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 9120 Hon. Ramadhani Omar Tel. 2111937-41 Dar es Salaam Mapuri, (MP) Fax 2141197 Tel. 2110614 Tel. 2112849 Minister Fax 2110614 Permanent Secretary Hon. Jakaya Mrisho The Vice President Raphael Mollel Kikwete, (MP) Hon. Dr Ali Mohamed Tel. 2137250 Tel. 2112851 Shein Fax 2112850 Deputy Minister Tel. 2116919 Deputy Permanent Hon. Dr Abdulkader Sha- Minister of State Secretary reef, (MP) (Poverty Alleviation) Eliseta Kwayu Permanent Secretary Hon. Daniel N. Yona, (MP) Tel. 2113713 Hassan Gumbo Kibelloh Tel. 2112849, 116964 Tel. 2112853 Minister of State DEFENSE AND NATIONAL (Environment) SERVICE COMMUNICATION AND Hon. Arcado Ntangazwa, P. O. Box 9544 TRANSPORT (MP) Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 9423 Permanent Secretary Tel. 2151197/2150556- Dar es Salaam Abu-Bakar Rajabu 9/2150588, 2150690 Tel. 2116704 Tel. 2116995 Tlx. 2141721 Minister Minister Hon. Prof. Mark PLANNING AND Hon. Prof. Philemon Mwandosya, (MP) PRIVATISATION Sarungi, (MP) Tel. 2112857 P. O. Box 9242 Tel. 2152697 Deputy Minister Dar es Salaam Permanent Secretary Hon. Dr. Maua Daftari, Tel. 2112681/4 Vincent Mrisho (MP) Tlx. 2141516 Tel. 2110690 Tel. 2116704 Minister of State Permanent Secretary Hon. Dr Abdallah Kigoda, INDUSTRIES AND Salum Msoma (MP) COMMERCE Tel. 2112858 Tel. 2112746 P. O. Box 9503 Permanent Secretary Dar es Salaam LABOUR, YOUTH Prof. Joshua Doriye Tel. 2180049, 2180075 DEVELOPMENT AND Tel. 2110411 Minister SPORTS Hon. Dr Juma Ngasongwa, P. O. Box 1422 PRIME MINISTER’S OFFICE (MP) Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 3021 Tel. 2181398 Tel. 2112506, 25411-5 Tel. 2117249/55 Deputy Minister Minister Prime Minister Hon. Ritta Mlaki, (MP) Hon. Prof. Juma Kapuya, Hon. Frederick Tluway Tel. 2181398 (MP) Sumaye, (MP) Permanent Secretary Tel. 2112510 Tel. 2112847, 2117264 Charles Mutalemwa Deputy Minister Minister of State (Policy Issues Tel. 2181397 Hon. Mudhihir M. & Chief Whip) Mudhihir, (MP) Hon. William Lukuvi, (MP) FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND Tel. 2110876 Tel. 2110365 INTERNATIONAL Permanent Secretary Minister of State COOPERATION Rose Lugembe (Information and Political P. O. Box 9000 Tel. 2110877
157 FINANCE Deputy Minister ENERGY AND MINERALS P. O. Box 9111 Hon. Zabein M. Mhita, P. O. Box 2000 Dar es Salaam (MP) Tel. 2126557, 2124170 Tel. 2111175-6 Permanent Secretary Tlx. 2137138 Minister Alfred Chale Minister Hon. Basil P. Mramba, (MP) Tel. 2116669 Hon. Edgar D. Tel. 2112854 Maokola-Majogo, (MP) Deputy Minister AGRICULTURE AND Tel. 2112791 Hon. Abdisalaam Issa FOOD SECURITY Deputy Minister Khatibu, (MP) P. O. Box 9192 Hon. Dr. Ibrahim Msabaha, Tel. 2112855 Dar es Salaam (MP) Deputy Minister Tel. 2862480/4 Tel. 2110426 Hon. Dr Festus Limbu (MP) Minister Permanent Secretary Permanent Secretary Hon. Charles Keenja, (MP) Patrick Rutabanzibwa Peter Ngumbullu Tel. 2862065 Tel. 2112793 Tel. 2112856 Deputy Minister Deputy Permanent Hon. Prof. Pius Mbawala HEALTH Secretary Permanent Secretary P. O. Box 9123 G. S. Mgonja Wilfred Ngira Dar es Salaam Tel. 2113334 Tel. 2862064 Tel. 2120261/4 Deputy Permanent Minister Secretary NATURAL RESOURCES Hon. Anna Abdallah, (MP) P. L y m o AND TOURISM Tel. 2116683 Tel. 2111025 P. O. Box 9352 Deputy Minister Dar es Salaam Hon. Dr. Hussein A. EDUCATION AND CULTURE Tel. 2114373 Mwinyi, (MP) P. O. Box 9121 Minister Tel. 2112883 Dar es Salaam Hon. Zakia H. Meghji, Permanent Secretary Tel. 2110146 (MP) Mariam Mwafisi Minister Tel. 2116681 Tel. 2116684 Hon. Joseph J. Mungai, Permanent Secretary (MP) Philemon Luhanjo HOME AFFAIRS Tel. 2113134 Tel. 2116682 P. O. Box 9223 Deputy Minister Tel. 2112034/9 Hon. Bujiku Sakila, (MP) WORKS Tlx. 2412034 Tel. 2127535 P. O. Box 9423 Minister Permanent Secretary Dar es Salaam Hon. Mohammed Seif Mrs. Mwantumu Malale Tel. 2111553/9 Khatib, (MP) Tel: 2113139 Minister Tel. 2117108 Hon. John P. Magufuri (MP) Deputy Minister SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY Tel. 2116663 Hon. Capt. John Chiligati, AND HIGHER EDUCATION Deputy Minister (MP) P. O. Box 2645 Hon. Mwenegoha Hamza Tel. 2113753 Dar es Salaam Abdallah, (MP) Permanent Secretary Tel. 2117118, 2116531 Tel. 2117116 Bernard Mchomvu Minister Permanent Secretary Tel. 2119050 Dr.Pius Y. Ng’wandu, MP Solomon Odunga Tel. 2116531 Tel. 2110263
158 COMMUNITY Deputy Minister Tel. 026-2322619/620/621 DEVELOPMENT WOMEN Hon. Tatu Ntimizi, (MP) Minister AND CHILDREN Tel. 2116517 Hon. Edward Lowassa, (MP) P. O. Box 3448 Permanent Secretary Tel. 026-2322600 Dar es Salaam Salome Sijaona Deputy Minister Tel. 213256, 2127159 Tel. 2113165 Hon. Anthony Diallo, (MP) Minister Tel. 026-2322601 Hon. Dr. Asha-Rose Migiro, CO-OPERATIVES AND Permanent Secretary (MP) MARKETING Prof. Idrisa Mtulia Tel. 2132057 P. O. Box 9192 Tel. 026-2322602 Deputy Minister Dar es Salaam Hon. Shamim Khan, (MP) Tel. 2862480/1 JUSTICE AND Permanent Secretary Minister CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS Mary Mushi Hon. Clement George P. O. Box 9050 Tel. 2115074 Kahama Dar es Salaam Tel. 2862066 Tel. 2111895 LANDS AND HUMAN Deputy Minister Minister SETTLEMENT Hon. Hezekiah Chibulunje Hon. Bakari Mwapachu DEVELOPMENT Permanent Secretary Tel. 2113234 P. O. Box 9132 Dr. C. Komba Attorney General Tel. 2121241/9 Hon. Andrew Chenge Minister WATER AND LIVESTOCK Tel. 2113236 Hon. Gideon A. Cheyo, DEVELOPMENT Permanent Secretary (MP) P. O . B o x 426 Kulwa Masaba Tel. 2113164 Dodoma Tel. 2113243
NOTES
159 SUMMARY LIST OF FULLY REGISTERED POLITICAL PARTIES IN TANZANIA Source: Registrar of Political Parties in Tanzania, November 2001
CERTIFICATE OF NAME OF CHAIRMAN SECRETARY GENERAL LOCATION AND FULL REGISTRATION POLITICAL PARTY ADDRESS OF HEAD NUMBER AND DATE OFFICE OF ISSUE
001/92 of 1/7/92 Chama Cha H.E. B.W. Mkapa P.Mangula P.O. Box 50 Mapinduzi (CCM)Dodoma
002/93 of 21/1/93 Civic United Prof. Ibrahim Seif Sharrif Hamad Mtendeni Street Front (CUF) Chama Lipumba P.O. Box 3637 Cha Wananchi Zanzibar
003/93 of 21/1/93 Chama Cha Bob N. Makani Hon.W. A. Kaborou Kisutu Street Demokrasia na P.O. Box 5330 Maendeleo (CHADEMA) Dar es Salaam 004/93 of 21/1/93 The Union for Salum S. Ally Hassan Y. Hussein Kisutu Street Multiparty P.O. Box 2985 Democracy (UMD) Dar es Salaam 005/93 of 21/1/93 National Convention James F. Mbatia Mwaiseje S. Polisya Ilala for Construction P.O. Box 72444 & Reform (NCCR)Dar es Salaam
006/93 of 21/1/93 National League Dr.Emanuel J. E. Vacant Sinza D/73 for Democracy Makaidi P.O. Box 352 (NLD)Dar es Salaam
007/93 of 21/1/93 Tanzania People’s Vacant Greven Lyimo P.O. Box 60847 Party (TPP)Dar es Salaam
008/93 of 4/2/93 United People’s Fahmi Nassoro Abdullah Nassoro P.O. Box 11746 Democratic Party Dar es Salaam (UPDP)
009/93 of 8/2/93 National Vacant Ulotu A. Ulotu Mvita Street Reconstruction P.O. Box 16542 Alliance (NRA) Dar es Salaam 010/93 of 8/2/93 Popular National Vacant Vacant Party (PONA)
011/93 of 5/4/93 Tanzania Democratic Vacant Vacant Alliance Party (TADEA)
012/93 of 24/11/93 Tanzania Labour A. L. Mrema Harold Jaffu P.O. Box 7273 Party (TLP) Dar es Salaam
013/94 of 24/3/94 United Democratic Hon. J. M. Cheyo Mussa Hussein P.O. Box 5918 Party (UDP)A.Kwikima Dar es Salaam
PJ 2000 Chama cha Godfrey Hicheka Dominic Lyamchay No. 00000053 Demokrasia Makini (MAKINI) PJ 2000 Movement for James Mapalala Rodvick Bazigiza No. 00000053 Justice & Prosperity (CHAUSTA)
160 MAJOR POLICY CONCERNS OF A SELECTED NUMBER OF POLITICAL PARTIES Compiled by Patrick Kisembo
POLICY CCM TLP UDP CUF NCCR MAGEUZI
POLITICS • Multiparty •Social democracy •Have accountable •Pluralistic multi- democratic system •Pluralistic multi- government party democratic 1. The political • Promote good party system system system system governance •Believes in good •Social democracy administration and •Mixed economy the rule of law
2. Ideology •Still follows Ujamaa •Freedom and •Medium capitalist and self reliance richness (capitalism) and socialist but presently it is •Love forever and ideologies directed towards together •As approved by capitalism the 1995 policy, it accepts the 1964 Zanzibar revolution
3. Constitution •New constitution: •That which gives •The supreme law three governments citizens freedom of the land has to for Tanganyika, of choice be followed Zanzibar and •Equal rights to Union the people of Tanganyika and Zanzibar
4. Government •Union Government • Private ownership •Three •Believes in three System with two govern- of the economy governments of governments for ments i.e. Union Tanganyika, the Union, Government of Zanzibar and the Tanganyika and Tanzania and Union Zanzibar Revolutionary •Promote popular •Believes in the Government of local division of powers Zanzibar governments among government, •The Union Govern- parliament and ment believes in judicial system the 1964 Zanzibar Revolution and commits itself to defend it
ECONOMY •Promote •Government to be •Promote the use of •Build strong •Liberal economic modernization responsible for big natural resources economy which system around projects particularly land will promote personal initiatives, and wild animals employment the government •Land to be owned may participate by indigenous where necessary people •Promote private •Encourage sector investors through free market. •Reduce govern- ment expenditure
1. Privatization •Continues •Encourage privati- •Promote private zation and invest sector ment activities. •Privatization of co - •Investors to build operatives
161 POLICY CCM TLP UDP CUF NCCR MAGEUZI
new industries •Big part of and hotels economy to be owned by indige- nous people
2. Co - operatives •Reconstruct and •Economic activities •Privatized paras- •Promote private regulate co - to be done under tatal organizations enterprises operative societies co-operatives to be returned to •Promote the citizens co-operatives
3. Land and Agri- •Land to be owned •Use of natural •Licenced land to •Focus on food and •Free hold system culture by the government resources be owned by cash crops by indigenous •Farmers to •Search for indigenous people production citizens increase production markets and not by the •Use of science •The land owned •Farmers to build •Prices of products government and technology by the govern- their co-operatives will depend on the •More animal •Government and ment is the pro- •Introduce new cost of production husbandry and financial institutions perty of the nation technology on the •Agricultural exten- search for their to help •Non-citizens to use of oxen and sion officers to be market farmers/peasants. own land under tractors given training •Government to •To enhance agri- planned •Promote research •Dip services for pay farmers on cultural research programs on agriculture domestic animals the spot (no cash •Reduce tax on •Indigenous land to be built - no crops) agricultural rights to be co - operatively products and enhanced other duties •Remove all taxes on agricultural inputs
4.Tourism •Tourism services to •Increase tourists’ •Promote this be promoted attractions sector by building •Attractions to •No tax on domes- more tourists should go tic animals. infrastructures hand in hand with •To stop illegal •External investors environmental care activities in fishing to cooperate •Tanzanians to and forestry with indigenous participate in people tourism services
5.Taxation •Every Tanzanian •Efficient tax •Cancel other taxes •Reduce tax will pay according collection to be like development depending on the to what he earns used for educa- levy type of business a •Remove develop- tion, health, water •Effective tax person carries ment levy and and roads collection •Tax education to remain with •Cancel school •Local governments businessmen and income tax fees and health to search for women contributions other sources of •Lower income tax tax to investors on primary industries
6. Industry & •Enhance and •Need for external •Commercial •Invite investors Commerce promote Industrial aid competition to be •Indigenous citizens infrastructure •Emphasis on how given first priority to be involved in •Promote research aid is being building industries and development used effectively •Industry research institutions institute to be •Inventions especially introduced on local industries •Enhance •Against illegal commerce in and business outside the country
162 POLICY CCM TLP UDP CUF NCCR MAGEUZI
SOCIAL •Education will be •Remove corrup- •Primary school •Promote educa- •Promote science based on creativity tion on education education free to tion from primary and technology 1. Education through the use of system all school to science and •Increase educa- university where technology tional budget internet and •Budget will focus •Free education computer on increasing from Standard one services will be partnership with to Form four provided those who can •Educate parents •Remove all un- help like the on the importance necessary expe- NGOs of education to nditure on govern- •Contribution of their children ment education costs by •25% of the budget parents will to be used for continue education espe- cially in secondary schools
2. Health •Promote public •Mother/child •Train more health health paid by health to be experts private and public spread all over the •To construct and agencies country maintain new •Fight AIDS •Fight AIDS hospitals, health centres and dispensaries •Fight AIDS
OTHER •Promote progress •Equal rights of women through to women and 1.Women many aspects like men regulation of laws •No harassment of that segregate women them •Participation on political, adminis- trative systems, leadership and emphasis on being educated
2. Infrastructure •Maintenance on all •No privatization of •Emphasis on •Build and infrastructures like railway, harbours, infrastructure, administrate roads, airports, airports, but it will particularly roads infrastructures harbors etc. allow investors to especially roads, participate railways, electricity, •Promote infra- water, telephone structural services services •Take care of environment
Source: Compiled from Newspapers and political parties’ manifestos 2000.
163 Source: Caricatures & Cartoons, E.A. 1st Exhibition, by G. Mwampembwa, Kenya 1999
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION 2000 Total number of people who registered 10,088,484 Number of people who voted 7,341,057 = 72.77% Votes that were spoiled 341,246 = 3.38% Legal votes 6,999,811 = 69.38%
PARTYCANDIDATE NUMBER PERCENTAGE OF VOTES
CCM B.W. Mkapa 5,863,201 71.7 CUF/CHADEMA Ibrahim Lipumba 1,329,077 16.3 TLP A. L. Mrema 637,115 7.8 UDP John M. Cheyo 342,891 4.2
Source: NEC, November 2000
164 ELECTION RESULTS FOR THE UNION PARLIAMENT 2000
PARTY NUMBER OF PROPORTION OF NOMI- TOTAL SEATS WON WOMEN SEATS NATED
CCM 198 40 (10) 238 CUF 18 4* - 22 TLP 4 1 - 5 UDP 3 1 - 4 CHADEMA 4 1 - 5 NCCR-M 1 - 1 TOTAL 228 47 (10) 285
• Elections did not take place in three constituencies: - Dodoma Urban, Kwela & Kasulu East * (4) CUF has been given 4 reserved seats for women, but it has not presented its nominations to the NEC. * (10) Presidential nominated MPs. • Opposition parties have 14 constituencies for the mainland Tanzania and CUF has 16 constituencies in Zanzibar totaling 30. •CCM has 87% of the Union Parliament seats and the opposition has 13% Source: Mtanzania no. 1650, November 7, 2000, The Guardian No. 1852 November 7, 2000
THE ZANZIBAR PRESIDENCY 2000
Total number of people who registered 446,112 Number of people who voted 366,333 = 82.12% Votes that were spoiled 12,259 = 2.75% Legal votes 354,074 = 79.37%
The results for the Zanzibar presidency election stood as follows PARTYCANDIDATE NUMBER OF VOTES PERCENTAGE
CCM Amani A. Karume 248,095 67 CUF Seif Sharrif Hamad 122,000 33
Source: NEC, November 2000
165 THE ELECTION RESULTS FOR THE ZANZIBAR HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 2000
PARTY SEATS WON NOMINATED RESERVED EX-OFFICIO TOTAL FOR WOMEN
CCM 34 6 (out of 10) 6 (6) 52 CUF 16 - 3 - 19 TOTAL506 (out of 10) 9 (out of 10) (6) 71
Source: Mtanzania no. 1650, November 7, 2000, The Guardian No. 1852 November 7, 2000
4 more members of the House of Representatives have to be nominated to make a total of 75 members. At present there are 71 members. Six ex-officio: extra seats for CCM: 5 Regional Commissioners, 1 Attorney General
Source: Majira Newspaper, 11.11.2000
166 11. BUSINESS
WHAT IS THE PRIVATE SECTOR? By Ms G. Sembuche Shayo, Department of Economic Studies, Kivukoni Academy of Social Sciences
Broadly speaking, the econ- inject capital when there is a which respect exchange rates, omy can be seen as operating crisis.The result is that there is wage rates, trade policy, within two sectors: the public no struggle for survival. The employment policy etc. and the private. The private future of the enterprise and • The government must safe- sector is that part of the econ- the jobs is secure, so there are guard competition through omy that is owned by private few external forces that make anti-monopoly and anti- individuals and private com- efficient production necessary. restrictive practices legislation, panies while the public sector The arguments for a strong the setting up of competitive is government owned. private sector economy have enterprises in the public sec- Whether the economy of a been winning the day tor, trade liberalisation, etc. nation should be driven by throughout the world and this • The government can inter- state run enterprises or by pri- is also the case in Tanzania. vene in processes of price for- vate enterprises in a free mar- They have been strongly pro- mation, production and ket is a question of ideology. moted by The World Bank finance in ways that make The former has been fast los- and market-friendly govern- markets work better for all. ing terrain and recent devel- ment interventions have been • The government has a spe- opments in Tanzania are a made a condition in the grant- cial role to play in case in point. ing of World Bank loans. The - developing human resources One of the arguments for ideology seems to be that the - improving the national private enterprise is that it is free market is neutral with infrastructure thought to be more efficient regard to the welfare of the - designing and strengthening than public enterprise because people: it neither works for institutions (e.g. land reform, it has to be profitable to sur- good nor for evil. credit support etc.) vive. Costs are therefore kept low and competition with A regulated private sector President Benjamin Mkapa of other producers, it is argued, In fact unregulated markets Tanzania puts it this way: also keeps down prices. Fur- can both be inefficient and “Government has with- thermore the struggle for sur- cruel. So under what condi- drawn from business. The tax vival is a strong incentive for tions can markets work effi- system has been simplified innovation. All this leads to ciently and at the same time and strengthen, public spend- higher quality products and benefit the people? ing reorganised, inflation low- better services for the con- There are several ways: ered and the exchange rate sumer. • The government should pro- stabilized... In a state run economy with vide the legal framework and Privatisation is a powerful state owned enterprises and maintain law and order, form of partnership. It makes no free market there is little or including the enforcement of governments free to govern no competition. Bankruptcy is contracts, property rights etc. and managers free to manage. not seen as a risk because the • The government should pur- Our goal to which we are national treasury is there to sue macro-economic policies moving rapidly is to make
167 Tanzania the most investor- ating an environment where friendly country in Africa. ...” the private sector and the The Tanzanian Govern- market can operate efficiently ment is in the process of cre- for the benefit of the people.
GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE
By Mr M. L. Naluyaga, USAID
The Tanzanian government is In the years 1995-2000 the Through a consultative currently putting in place government took measures to approach the Nation is creat- short term mechanisms restructure, revive and build a ing new drive within every aimed at expanding the gov- new market led economy. sector. Particular emphasis is ernment’s revenue base, This resulted in a consistent placed on agriculture as the reducing government expen- annual growth rate of 4.2% lead sector for the creation of diture, reducing bank borrow- for the period. Preliminary employment and income. ing, containing inflation, data indicate that real GDP reforming parastatals, liqui- grew by 4.9% in 2000 com- Government revenue dating external and domestic pared to 4.7% in 1999. and expenditure debt, creating an enabling If Tanzania is to see The total revenue as a per- environment for local and changes in the lives of her centage of GDP continued its foreign investors, fighting people everywhere, the econ- decline from its peak of corruption and embezzle- omy needs to grow by 8-10% 13.5% in the financial year ment of public funds, envi- in the period 2001-2005. (FY) 97, to 12.0% in FY 98, ronmental degradation and Economic growth must to 11.5% in FY 99. In FY poverty and instituting good exceed the anticipated popu- 2000 revenue declined further governance. lation growth rate of 2.8%. to 11.2% of GDP. Tax re-
Table 1: Government Revenue and External Grants FY 98 - FY 00 as % of GDP
Central Government Operations FY95 FY96 FY97 FY98 FY99 FY001
Total revenue 12.5 13.2 13.5 12.0 11.5 11.2
Tax revenue 11.3 11.3 11.9 11.0 10.3 9.9
Tax on imports and exports 3.4 3.6 3.8 3.5 3.6
Sales & excise taxes on local goods 2.7 2.85 3.1 2.7 2.7
Income taxes 3.3 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.7
Other taxes 1.9 1.9 2.1 1.8 1.2
Non tax revenue 1.25 1.9 1.6 1.0 1.2 1.2
Source: IMF, Tanzania authorities 1 Likely outturn
168 Table 2: Government expenditure FY 95 - FY 99 as % of GDP
Central government operations FY 95 FY 96 FY 97 FY 98 FY 99 FY 002
Total expenditure & net lending 18.3 17.6 15.1 14.8 14.9 15.9
Recurrent expenditure 15.1 14.0 12.5 11.0 10.9 12.0
Wages and salaries 4.2 4.6 4.7 4.2 3.7 4.2
Interest payments 3.4 3.3 2.6 2.2 1.6 1.6 Domestic 2.2 2.3 1.7 1.0 0.6 1.1 Foreign 1.2 1.0 0.9 1.3 1.0 0.5
Other goods & services & transfers 7.5 6.1 5.1 4.5 5.7 6.2
Development expenditure 3.2 3.6 2.6 3.8 4.0 3.9 & net lending
O/w expenditure financed 0.8 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 domestically
Source: IMF, Tanzania authorities 2 Likely outturn venue in FY 99 was only their effects on the various was again significantly below 10.3% of GDP and non-tax expenditure items. the budgeted amounts. revenue was 1.2%. As a result of the positive Because of the low growth Government spending sta- developments with regard to rate of the agricultural sector, bilized at 14.9% of GDP in resource availability and the which contributes about 50% FY 98, having declined containment of first claim to the GDP. the targeted steadily from 18.3% in FY 95. expenditures within the limits growth rates have not been In FY 00 expenditure provided by the national funds achieved. Nonetheless pro- increased by 1% of GDP. flow, available resources for ductive sectors have been Although there was little expenditure on account of growing at encouraging rates change in recurrent expendi- “other charges” and for since 1996. In the period ture from FY 98 - 99, there domestic development expen- 1996-2000 mining grew by was a significant shift from diture was 7% higher than 15.4%, construction by 8.6%, wages and salaries to expendi- estimated in the national allo- public utilities by 5.5% indus- ture on other goods and serv- cations. The higher resource try by 5.2%, trade and tourism ices. availability translated directly by 5.1%, communications and The unpredictability of into higher spending on transport by 4.8% and finance resource flows from the Trea- goods and services (14% by 4.5%. ■ sury to spending units has a above budget) and domesti- direct impact on the opera- cally funded development tional efficiency of the wealth expenditure (88% above distribution. At the aggregate budget). As in previous years, level it is instructive to analyse the total development expen- the sources of shocks to gov- diture funded from both ernment revenue and to trace domestic and foreign sources
169 EDUCATION AND THE DEMANDS OF THE MARKET
By Mr J. R. Kashaija, College of Business Studies, DSM
The provision of education in Chief characteristics institutes in the power, Tanzania is emerging from an Much of the curriculum is cement, sugar and bank sec- era of total government dom- modelled on conventional tors, to name but a few. This inance to one where the pri- education programmes inher- shortfall has since been vate sector plays an active role ited from the British system. acknowledged by the govern- and costs are shared by the Education has been provided ment and in 1999 a policy beneficiaries. For political and for its own sake and the out- document was drawn up to economic reasons the govern- put and quality has been left make higher education ment has abandoned its long to the whims of the providers. responsive to the needs of the practice of guaranteeing There has been no coordina- new liberalised economy and employment to secondary tion with the private and pub- to global developments in sci- and tertiary institution gradu- lic sectors except in connec- ence and technology. ates, leaving them to rely on tion with examinations and market forces. certificates where there are Adjustments in the The education provided has bodies for particular trades wake of new challenges two major weaknesses: it has and professions. To make training for the pri- limited relevance to the The inadequacies of the vate sector more effective the demands of the labour mar- system is demonstrated by the government has introduced ket; its effectiveness is limited fact that several organisations cost sharing in training insti- because of poor funding and set up their own institutions tutions and has encouraged poor facilities. to train people. There are private sector participation in
Source: Hakikazi Catalyst, cartoon by Ali MAsoud (Kipanya) 2001
170 the provision of education. together the government, the Business Development Stud- According to the National business community, voca- ies (CIBDS) which offers Higher Education Policy of tional education providers and training and consultancy serv- 1999 the government is to other stakeholders to develop ices to local business people to coordinate higher education a demand driven vocational improve their skills in export and improve the enrolment training system. By law the trading and the penetration of ratio for subjects with rele- business sector, NGOs, trade markets. vance to science and technol- unions and other stakeholders Colleges offering business ogy. must be represented on the subjects are reforming their Noteworthy in the endeav- central and regional VETA curricula to better address the our to develop partnership boards. Employers with a needs of business. Education between the private sector and workforce of four or more now focuses more on market- training institutions is the must contribute to a special ing than on simple trading establishment of the Voca- fund that supports vocational and distribution. All major tional Education and Training training education. institutions offer evening Authority (VETA). VETA The College of Business classes to assist business peo- was set up in 1994 after a con- (CBE) in Dar es Salaam hosts ple improve their skills. ■ sultative process that brought the Centre for International
NOTES
171 12. ENVIRONMENT
THE ENVIRONMENT:SOME KEY ISSUES,INSTITUTIONS AND REGULATIONS IN TANZANIA
The Tanzanian environmen- sense, and not just the natural Agriculture and Livestock tal policy was formalized in resources. Thus, an activity Key issues3 December 1997 by the Vice- which would raise noise levels • Poor agricultural techniques President’s Office. In 1999 a near a hospital or school or (failure to conserve soil and process was initiated to which can affect the human- water) such as cultivation in develop and finalise legally made environment such as marginal and sensitive areas binding guidelines and the archaeological sites, historic like hillsides, hilltops, river- framework for Environmen- towns, monuments and arti- banks, roadsides, deserts, wet- tal Impact and Assessment in facts or relics, may also be lands, etc. the country. When these subjected to environmental • Large-scale farming, guidelines become legally impact assessment. Such employing irrigation, fertil- binding, as is expected by the assessment forms the basis for ization and fumigation tech- end of 2001, they will form the refusal of permission to niques that are environmen- the pillar for environmental undertake a particular activity tally unfriendly management in the country. or the granting of permission • Small-scale farms that over- with conditions necessary to use pesticides, herbicides, Environmental minimise the effect on the fungicides and fertilizers Impact Assessment environment. • Livestock ranching impacts One of the most effective pol- on land fertility from over- icy instruments for the Key environmental issues stocking achievement of sustainable When the word “environ- • Urban agriculture with development is the require- ment” is mentioned, often a improper disposal of animal ment that environmental vision of farmers planting wastes, over-grazing of public impact assessment (EIA) trees comes to mind. How- areas, etc. shall be undertaken for all ever, “environment” has a proposed activities that are broader meaning. It encom- INSTITUTIONS likely to have significant passes such diverse issues as National Land Use Planning adverse impact on the envi- worker health and safety in Commission ronment and which are sub- factories and appropriate uses Local Governments ject to a decision of a compe- of pesticides and export of live Ministry of Agriculture tent national authority.1 The animals. Environment should Ministry of Water, Energy National Environmental be viewed as the whole of the and Minerals Action Plan perceives the natural and the human envi- Tropical Pesticides Research objective of EIA as “allowing ronment. What follows is a Institute maximisation of long-term look at key environmental Director of Public Prosecu- benefits of development while issues in important sectors of tions maintaining the natural the Tanzanian economy, at Ministry of Lands resource base.”2 However, institutions that are responsi- Ngorongoro Conservation the objectives of EIA are ble for overseeing them and Area Authority broader as they seek to protect laws relating to the environ- the environment in the wider ment.
172 Laws and Subsidiary on human health and the Wildlife Utilization Legislation environment Key issues Local Government • Over-hunting and non-sus- (District Authorities) Act INSTITUTIONS tainable hunting methods not Tropical Pesticides Research Ministry of Tourism and Nat- based on reliable data regard- Institute Act ural Resources ing reproduction or over-all Town and Country Planning Divisions of Forestry, Fish- survival of species Ordinance eries and Wildlife • Over-capture and non-sus- National Land Use Planning Ministry of Lands tainable capture of live ani- Commission Act District or Local Government mals for export Water Laws Ministry of Energy and Min- • Poor export conditions in Penal Code erals holding companies or with Range Development Man- Tropical Pesticides Research intermediate traders agement Act Institute • Illegal hunting Cattle Grazing Ordinance Ministry of Foreign Affairs Grass Fires Control Ordi- Director of Public Prosecu- INSTITUTIONS nance tions Tanzania Wildlife Corpora- Land Ordinance Ngorongoro Conservation tion (TAWICO) Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority Ministry of Tourism, Natural Area Ordinance TANAPA Resources and Environment, Ministry of Water Division of Wildlife Forestry and Marine/ TANAPA Fisheries Resources Laws and Subsidiary Ngorongoro Conservation Key issues Legislation Area Authority Forests sector Forests Ordinance 1. Over or mis-exploitation of National Parks Ordinance Laws and Subsidiary forests resulting in: Ngorongoro Conservation Legislation • degradation of water sources Area Ordinance Wildlife Conservation Act with impacts on human Wildlife Conservation Act National Parks Ordinance health, wildlife and fisheries, Protected Places and Areas Ngorongoro Conservation water supply to towns, etc. Act Area Ordinance • degradation of wildlife habi- Public Land (Preserved Areas) Marine Parks Act tat Ordinance • depletion of fuel wood and Local Government Acts Industry other forest produce supplies Mining Act Key issues with resulting consequences Land Ordinance • Water pollution from indus- for rural, wood-dependent Fisheries Act trial processes Tanzanians Business Licensing Act • Hazardous and toxic waste • effects of global warming Explosives Act from industrial processes • loss of biodiversity Tropical Pesticides Research • Land degradation and pollu- 2. Over or mis-exploitation of Institute Act tion from industrial processes fisheries and marine resources Penal Code • Waste by-products from use resulting in: Territorial Sea and Exclusive of industrial products • loss of fish and fisheries Economic Zone Act products for fisheries-depend- Town and Country Planning INSTITUTIONS ent Tanzanians Ordinance Commercial Law, Registra- • loss of biodiversity Water Laws tion and Industrial Licensing • loss of critical coral reef habi- Department, Ministry of tat and shoreline protection Trade and Industries • water pollution with impact Tropical Pesticides Research
173 Institute Institute Act Ministry of Water, Energy Penal Code (offensive trades, NGOS DEALING WITH and Minerals fouling of water and air, pre- ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Tanzania Bureau of vention of common nuisance, Lawyers Environment Asso- Standards negligent spreading of dis- ciation of Tanzania (LEAT) Local Governments (District ease) Journalist Environment and Municipal Authorities) Fair Trade Practices Act Association of Tanzania National Urban Water Land Ordinance (JET) Authority Food Control of Quality Act Wildlife Conservation Investment Promotion Cen- Dairy Industry Act Society (TWCS) tre, President’s Office Petroleum Conservation Act Frontiers (T) Ltd. Factories Inspectorate, Min- WWF Tanzania istry of Labour (For detailed information about INFORBRIDGE Principal Water Officer or other sectors and about the laws Capacity Building for Regional Water Engineer and legal requirements, see: Environmental Management Pharmacy Board Environmental Law Hand- of Lake Victoria National Land Use Planning book for Businesses, LEAT Pub- Tanzania Gender Network Commission lications: www.leat.or.tz.) Programme (TGNP) Director of Public Prosecu- Jane Goodall Institute tions Public Participation (JGI - TACARE) National Food Control Com- Recognition that public par- Tanzania Women in mission ticipation is necessary for any Agriculture and Environment Dairy Board environmental protection 4H Clubs of Tanga strategy to succeed is increas- Leadership for Environment Laws and Subsidiary ing. Both the Rio Declara- and Development (T) Legislation tion4 and the Tanzanian (LEAD) Local Government (District National Environmental Abantu Film (Environment) and Urban Authorities) Acts Action Plan5 admit that envi- Producers Town and Country Planning ronmental issues are best han- Ordinance dled with the participation of National Land Use Planning all citizens. Sources: Commission Act Public participation in gov- Article by Anne Maembe, National Environment Management Council in Water Utilization ernment decision making FES Handbook 2001; (Control and Regulation) Act pertaining to environment Environmental Law Handbook for Busi- Waterworks Ordinance requires access by the people nesses, LEAT Publications National Urban Water to all relevant information Supply Act and the institution of a 1 See Principle 17 of the Rio Declaration 2 NEAP, p. 3, para 8(a). Public Health (Sewerage and process of notification on pro- 3 From National Conservation Strategy Drainage) Ordinance posed activities, option to for Sustainable Development, GoT,1995, National Industries (Licens- comment, representation in and National Environmental Action ing and Registration) Act the relevant decision making Plan, GoT, 1994. 4 Rio Declaration on Environment and Protection from Radiation bodies, and effective access to Development. Act judicial bodies as well as 5 See paragraph 8(3), relevant level. Explosives Act administrative disputes settle- Tanzania Bureau of Stan- ment bodies. dards Act The National Environ- Factories Ordinance mental Management Council Investment Promotion Act has a library open to the pub- Pharmaceuticals and Poisons lic Monday - Friday 8.00- Act 16.00. Tel. 022 - 2127817, e- Tropical Pesticides Research mail: [email protected]
174 THE CONSEQUENCES OF URBANISATION
Adapted from an article by Ms P.Okeyo, Education Office, Kinondoni Municipality
The migration of people from and the illegal occupation of waste is from legal or illegal the rural to urban areas is a marginal and ecologically sources. In principle it is the global phenomenon. In ideal fragile land. The result is fur- local authorities that are circumstances authorities can ther environmental degrada- responsible for its disposal. cope with urban growth by tion which in turn aggravates The Local Government good planning and the strin- the unhealthy living condi- Urban Authorities Act of gent administration of good tions of economically vulnera- 1982 states that it is the environmental legislation. In ble groups. responsibility of urban author- reality this, however, is rarely In Mwanza city, for exam- ities “to remove refuse and the case. ple, illegal settlements have filth from public or private In Tanzania urban areas are been put up in hazardous areas places”. growing very fast. The esti- where rock and landslides are In practice most residents mated total population regular occurrences. In Dar es discharge their waste onto the growth rate for 2001 is Salaam, in the Msimbazi val- streets, open spaces and into 2.61%1. The growth rate of ley and keko, there have been the drains. The city of Dar es the urban population was massive encroachments by Salaam has been confronted 5.1% in 1998-1999.2 In 2000 settlers on the river valleys, the with growing volumes of solid the urban population was river catchments area, the waste for many years without 32.9% of the total population springs and forest area. There having adequate provisions for which is estimated to be 33.7 are no provisions for liquid its collection and final treat- million.3 and solid waste disposal in ment. The City Council By- In urban areas various these areas and the untreated laws of 1993 allow for the pri- stakeholders compete for land. waste pollutes the very envi- vatisation of the refuse collec- Land is needed for a multi- ronment that the settlements tion service and today there tude of purposes: housing, are built on, which in turn are a number of contractors industry, commerce, institu- makes them even more who clean and collect waste in tions, social activities, recre- unhealthy and dangerous to various areas of the city in col- ational activities, infrastruc- live in. laboration with the municipal ture, services, to name some of councils. them. Available urban land is Waste management Kinondoni Municipality is becoming scarce and this is Waste management is a prior- estimated to generate 1000 leading to chaotic develop- ity issue for all Tanzanian tons of solid waste per day, ment, with land speculation municipalities whether the while the average for Temeke
Municipality Collected Collected Total amount Collected Collected Total amount by municipality by contractors collected by municipality by contractors collected 19995 1999 1999 2000 2000 2000
Kinondoni 34,175 16,607 50,782 35,658 10,228 45,886
Temeke 13,238 7,843 21,081 15,468 11,148 26,616
Source: Kinondoni MWMO-November 2001, Temeke MWMO-November 2001
175 Municipality is 500-600 tons. 1 CIA - The World Factbook - Tanza- nia:www.odci.gov/cia/publicatoins/fact- Only about 30% of the total book/geos/tz.html, Dec. 2001 amount generated in Dar es 2 The World Bank Group. Compare this Salaam is collected and dis- rate with the rate for all developing coun- posed of at an approved refuse tries which is 2.6% in same period. 3 The World Bank Group: World Devel- dump. In Kinondoni Munici- opment Indicators database, July 2001 pality it was only 12.5% in 4 Source: Kinondoni MWMO-Novem- 2000!4 ber 2001, Temeke MWMO-November 2001 5 In tons
PUBLIC TRANSPORT:THE CASE OF THE DALADALAS By Mr F. S. Ninalwo, National Institute of Transport
Introduction Salaam was provided by the old buses which could not Public transport is one of the Dar es Salaam Bus Company operate on upcountry routes. most important factors for the (DBC), a subsidiary of the They had no fixed routes. economic and social develop- Overseas Transport Corpora- They changed routes during ment of a city. Good public tion. As part of the imple- the day depending on the transport enables the urban mentation of the Arusha traffic flow of the moment. population to have easy access Declaration the DBC was Sometimes they caused to markets, industries, public nationalized and renamed inconvenience to the passen- offices, health and social cen- Shirika la Usafiri Dar es gers by cutting short the ters. However, if public trans- Salaam (UDA). In the 1980s routes and to UDA which port is not properly planned UDA could not cope with the was the official operator of the and controlled it has a nega- increased demand for public Dar es Salaam commuter tive environmental impact on transport in Dar es Salaam services. a city by creating air pollution, due to poor vehicle availabil- When the daladala opera- congestion, accidents, and ity. In areas where UDA tions started they were toler- economic and social incon- could not provide sufficient ated because UDA was not venience. service private bus operators able to cope with the trans- In Tanzanian cities and unofficially provided trans- port demand in Dar es towns public transport is pro- port services by using old Salaam and the Government vided by small buses, popu- buses and pickups. was taking steps to improve larly known as daladalas. Dal- The daladala operators were UDA operations. In 1983 the adalas are owned by small charging five shillings a trip. Prime Minister, the late Hon. transport operators. The newly introduced five Edward Moringe Sokoine, This article looks at the shilling coin was popularly directed the National Trans- environmental impact of the called a ‘dala’. That was the port Corporation to register operation of daladalas partic- origin of the name daladala. daladala operators and issue ularly in the city of Dar es them route licenses so that Salaam. The operating system of they could operate orderly in daladalas harmony with UDA sched- Historical background As already mentioned dal- ules. At Independence public adala operators were using Official recognition of dal- transport in the city of Dar es various types of pickups and adala operations stimulated
176 the increase of operators and Economic speed is when there are about 7,000 buses on some operators ordered sec- the time taken by a vehicle to their register. ond-hand buses and travel from one terminal or The study on Dar es Salaam minibuses from overseas. The stop to another is in accor- Urban Passenger Transport increase of daladala operators dance with the approved carried out by Wilbur Smith improved the vehicle availabil- schedules and timetables. Associates in February 1991 ity, increased competition To fulfill the standards of estimated that passenger traf- between daladala operators tidiness the operator shall fic in 2000 would have been and UDA and among the dal- maintain the cleanliness of 3,500,000 people. A total of adala operators themselves. both the outside and inside of 1629 standard single deck the vehicles, and provide sit- buses with a capacity of 110 Quality of public transport ting and standing arrange- passengers, including Public transport operators are ments that are appropriate, standees, would have been normally obliged to meet taking into consideration the enough to satisfy the demand. quality standards to ensure requirement of specific types If this is the case it is obvious that their operations do not of passengers i.e. invalids and that Dar es Salaam has 5371 cause adverse environmental elderly persons. excess buses. If the public impact. The quality of trans- transport service in DSM port is determined by depend- The environmental impact were provided with the appro- ability, safety, good speed and of daladala operations priate type of buses, exhaust tidiness. Air pollution fumes from these excess buses In order to be considered Large diesel buses that carry would be avoided. dependable the operator shall about 100 passengers, includ- The management of the provide the appropriate trans- ing standees, per trip are ideal daladalas is left in the hands of port capacity to meet the vol- for operation in urban areas the drivers. One of the conse- ume of traffic and frequency where there are many passen- quences is that vehicles are demanded by customers. In gers. One of the reasons for technically not properly main- urban transport the operators recommending this size of bus tained. Most of the daladalas must have the appropriate is to reduce the total number emit excessive exhaust fumes type and number of buses to of vehicles in urban centers which increase air pollution. meet the schedules and and thereby control the vol- Some operators cannot afford timetables stipulated by public ume of exhaust fumes which to send their vehicles to proper authorities. pollute the air. workshops for maintenance To be considered safe the Most of the buses operated and repair. Vehicles are operator shall maintain the in Tanzanian urban areas are repaired on the roadside or at vehicles in good technical minibuses. A study carried various makeshift garages in conditions to avoid roadside out by the National Institute residential areas. This also breakdowns and excessive of Transport and the Ministry causes soil pollution by oils exhaust fumes. of Communications and from defective engines. These “Good speed” has two ele- Transport in 1999, shows that makeshift garages in residen- ments: technical and eco- buses with a seating capacity tial areas are not only an eye- nomic speed. Technical speed of between 10 and 25 consti- sore but they also pose a fire is when the speed of the vehi- tute 63.5% while those with a hazard. cle in kilometers per hour is capacity of between 26 and 65 good, taking into considera- capacity constitute 36.5%. Traffic accidents tion the condition of the road According to the Chairman of The increase in the number of and convenience of other road the Dar es Salaam Transport daladalas has increased com- users. Licensing Authority (DRTLA) petition for passengers. Dri-
177 vers drive very fast and dan- buses alone causes traffic con- tion, traffic accidents, conges- gerously to beat other drivers. gestion. tion and untidiness. This causes frequent traffic The operations are not The excess number of buses accidents resulting in death scheduled and there are no and the poor technical condi- and injury to passengers and timetables. A timetable con- tions of vehicles result in the other road users. trols the movement of buses excessive emission of exhaust The research carried out by to avoid bunching i.e. having fumes which pollute the air. J. O. Haule of the National a number of buses going to Roadside repairs to vehicles Institute of Transport on the the same destination leaving and the location of makeshift gravity of accidents in Dar es or passing through a particu- garages in residential areas Salaam found out that lar bus stop at the same time. cause soil pollution by oils between 1995 and 1997 about The absence of timetables from defective engines. 20.5% of all accidents in the gives drivers and conductors Irreparable vehicles left in city involved minibuses while the freedom to determine various places are also an eye- 42.5% involved private cars. their own movement. sore. Since the number of private Bunching is common at many The reckless driving of dal- cars is higher than that of bus stops. Daladala drivers adalas increases traffic acci- minibuses, then the ratio of block each other and some dents resulting in the loss of accidents per vehicle for stop on the road instead of the lives and in injury to passen- minibuses is higher than for bus lay-bys. This causes seri- gers and other road users. private cars. The study also ous traffic congestion, partic- The lack of timetables found out that 23.6% of fatal ularly at peak hours. results in bunching at some accidents were caused by bus stops, causing serious traf- minibuses. Hence, minibuses Untidiness fic congestion on city roads. are dangerous to the lives of Minibuses are very dirty out- The untidiness of daladalas, urban residents. side as well as inside. Drivers their drivers and conductors is and conductors are equally not only an eyesore but poses Traffic congestion dirty. The lack of timetables a health hazard. Traffic congestion arises when makes passengers crowd In short, daladalas are pro- the volume of traffic on a par- themselves in the first avail- viding transport service of ticular road is higher than the able bus. Crowding in these very poor quality. It is impor- road capacity can accommo- dirty minibuses is a health tant that the government date at a particular time. Traf- hazard. It is easy to spread reviews the urban transport fic congestion causes delays to infectious disease like TB. policy to ensure that appro- vehicles and passengers The Dar es Salaam Regional priate types of vehicles are thereby reducing the technical Commissioner and the chair- used to provide good quality and economic speed of devel- man of DRTLA seem to be commuter services in cities opment. The labour time lost fighting a very difficult battle and towns. ■ has an adverse effect on pro- to impose standards for clean- ductivity and the provision of liness and tidiness on daladala social services in various sec- operators. tors. As we have seen there are Conclusion more buses in the city than The increase of daladala oper- would have been needed if the ators improved vehicle avail- appropriate type of buses were ability but it has an adverse used to provide public trans- environmental impact in the port. This excess number of form of increased air pollu-
178 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN TEACHING SCIENCE
By Dr C. J. Sawio, Department of Geography, University of Dar es Salaam
Concept of Environmental Education “Environmental Education (EE) is a process aimed at developing a population that is aware of, and concerned about the total environment and its associated problems, and which has the knowl- edge, skills, motivation and commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems and the prevention of new ones” (Belgrade/Tbilisi).
The Teaching of EE in Tanzania Earlier EE in Tanzania was seen simply as a minor addition to existing mainstream school cur- ricula. Attitudes have changed. EE is now an essential component to be incorporated into the pri- mary, secondary and tertiary curricula in Tanzania.1
BIOLOGY CIVICS RELIGIOUS STUDIES
PHYSICS GEOGRAPHY
CHEMISTRY ENVIRO. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION HOME ECONOMICS AGRICULTURE
ECONOMICS HISTORY KISWAHILI ENGLISH
Fig. 1: The Multidisciplinary Approach in EE (Adopted from Mwinuka, S.M, 1999)
After a serious review (1996-97), the Tanzania Institute of Education overhauled the syllabi at all levels: pre-primary, primary, secondary (O & A Levels), Teacher Training Colleges and Vocational Training to ensure that EE was incorporated. This was a milestone. EE cannot stand alone, but must be infused in the existing subjects through a multidisciplinary approach (Fig. 1). The 1995 Education and Training Policy stipulates that EE must be incorporated into the sci- ence subjects syllabi because one of the education’s goal is to enable the rational use, management
179 and conservation of our environment.
Teaching EE in Science in Tanzania We will here focus on secondary education.
Table 1: Selected EE components in science subjects taught in secondary schools, Forms 1-1V.
SUBJECT TOPIC / THEME EE RELATED COMPONENTS
Physics Energy and Power • Natural sources of energy from waves, wind, water, solar, biogas and geysers. • Promotion of renewable energy • Law of energy conservation from rural energy sources • Use efficient and inefficient energy stoves: energy waste and conservation • Alternative sources of energy Frequency, wave & motion • Energy crisis and dam construction • Concept of noise pollution Degrading Environment • Effect of noise pollution and control • Pollution, radiation, dynamites users (stone blasting) warfare and discarded machinery Heat & Thermodynamics • Concept of radiation and environmental spectra • Ozone layer depletion & effects • Global warning & greenhouse effects with examples from Tanzania
Chemistry Soil Chemistry • Origin, Composition, Acidity, Alka- linity, Trace elements. Pollution • Pollutants of soil (industrial and nuclear waste, smog, dust, and oil spill on soil, acidification of soil, use of fertilizer pesticides, insecticides & fungicides. • Acid rain, global warming, green house effect, air pollution
Biology Energy flow and nutrient • Concept of food contamination, food Circulation in ecosystems webs/ chains; national parks, lake reserves and biomass consumption. • Irreversibility of food chains Population growth & control • Loss of biodiversity. • Habitat niche (national parks, lakes, marine parks)
180 Biology • Impact of pollution • The halophytes, xerophytes, environ mental quantity, growth & distribu- tion and extinction of plants due to use of irrigation and chemicals. Natural Resources • Aquatic, forest and wildlife resources • Differences between living and non- living things • Extinction of plants and animals (poaching and environmental degra- dation).
Maths Handling data, ratios, function • Resources as linked to population of numbers and interpretation • Loss of bio-diversity and what it means over time to the environment • Explanations and predictions of what is taking place now on the environ- ment • Interpreting environmental statistics • Learning how to solve problems using environmental examples • Estimating environmental projections and probabilities in various events.
Geography The Atmosphere • The damage of the atmospheric quality - air pollution, acid rain, global warming and green house effects. • Destruction of the ozone layer. Economic activities • Their impacts on the environment (degradation, pollution, loss of bio- logical diversity. etc.). • Use of solar energy and conservation of the environment • Conserving underground water sources; understanding sources of water pollution, their effects and ways recycling waster waters. • Forests and problems of exploitation of forest resources and solutions. • Effects of mining on the environ- ment • Industrial pollution etc.
181 The teaching methodologies vary considerably. They encompass: discussions, experiments, field trips/tours, projects and so on. Teachers use practical examples to deliver EE messages. For instance, to impart knowledge on the effects of excessive cutting of trees which leads to de- forestation, the use of an efficient charcoal or wood stove (improved ceramic jiko Figure 2) can be demonstrated.The message here is that this type of stove requires less charcoal. As it conserves energy, fewer trees will be cut for making charcoal. The more people adopt and make use of it, the more forest will be conserved. Poor conduction material
Handle
Metal framework
Closed air inlet
Fig. 2: The Ceramic Jiko
Environmental Education in Higher Learning Institutions This is now done in teacher training institutions, vocational training centres and higher institu- tions of learning including colleges and universities. The University of Dar es Salaam offers an MSc in Environmental Studies in the Faculty of Science. In the Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, a full time GEM, MA (Geography and Environmental Management, Masters of Arts) is offered with numerous EE components. The Department of Civil Engineering in the Faculty of Engineering offers environmental engineering courses. In the Faculty of Science much environmental physics is incorporated in its courses, albeit indirectly. The University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS) features components of EE in its courses in the Faculty of Lands and Envi- ronmental Engineering, especially in the Department of Environmental Engineering. The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) offers an undergraduate course in EE.
Conclusion It is encouraging to observe that there is a greater degree of awareness now on developing skills and strategies for environmental education in the school system. Capacity building has to be strengthened. The Ministries of Education and Culture and the Ministry of Science, Technol- ogy and Higher Education should collaborate more closely to develop courses and EE teaching gear in order to realize a firmer integration of EE in Tanzania’s school system.
182 References Bakobi, B.L.M. et al. (eds).1995. Proceedings of Environmental Education Policy (EEP) Workshop. Morogoro 13-15 December 1995 (NEMC & WWF). Bude, Udo. (ed) 1991. Culture and Environment in Primary Education. DSE, Bonn. 1997. The Jiko in the School Yard: Teacher Training and Environmental Education in Africa. ZED Texts. Green COM- USAID. 2000.The Environment Education & Communication Project- Teachers’ Environmental Education Handbook. Maembe, A.T. (ed). 1999. Proceedings of Tanzania Environmental Education Workshop 6-11 December 1999, Morogoro Tanesco Training Centre. Mwinuka, S.M.M. 1999. The State of the Art of the Teaching of Environmental Education with Special Focus on the Ordinary Level Secondary Schools in Tanzania”. In Maembe A.T. (ed). (op.cit., pp. 45-90). Mwinuka, S.M.M. and Bakobi B.L.M. 1998. Project on Environmental Education for Primary Schools in East Africa (PEEPSEA). Internal Evaluation Report for the Project Implementation, Tanzania Component (195-97). Osaki, K. M. & Wandi D.M. 1994. Environmental Education in the Formal and Non-formal System in Tanzania: A Paper prepared for the Research Issues on Environmental Education Workshop Nairobi 28/9/1994-2/9/1994. Osaki, K.M. 1991. Factors influencing the use of the environment in Science Teaching: A Study of Biology Teaching in Tanzania. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Alberta. Rajabu, A.R.M.S. 1994. A review of the Status of Environmental Education in Formal Education Sector in Tanzania. A Paper for Work- shop on Research in Environmental Education in Eastern and Southern Africa, Nairobi, 1994. URT-MoEC. 1996. Science Syllabus for Primary Schools, Std 1-V11.
1 The Tanzania Environmental Action Plan (TEAP) recommended the integration of EE into the formal curriculum. The New Edu- cation Policy urges the same at all levels. A number of organizations, NGOs, and the Ministry of Education and Culture and the Tan- zania Institute of Education (TIE) have been collaborating to make this a reality.
NOTES
183 13. USEFUL TOOLS
HOLDING A WORKSHOP,SEMINAR OR CONFERENCE
Planning and Budgeting tions, participants’ fees etc. 2. Terms of reference for 1. Develop the idea Record all expenditure, resource persons Identify: remembering to keep receipts • Discuss subject,objectives • The main objectives for each item and duration of their input • The target group • Explain how these fit in to • The intended outcome Organising the overall objectives and Write the outline. 1. A checklist program for the workshop • Book the venue & accom • Discuss the desired 2. Develop the program modation method of presentation Decide: • Hold preparatory meetings • Give information about • Which topics • Prepare PR (public rela- the venue and the facili- • The time frame tions) activities if relevant ties/equipment provided • The organisational style • Make agreements with for the workshop (conference, lectures, resource persons • Request a written paper working groups) • Prepare the invitations and or hand-outs if they • How much time is needed -State the objectives clearly are considered necessary for the various elements, -Give information about • State the terms of payment not forgetting recreation the program, venue, dates, for the persons services • Who will act as resource resource persons and par- Try to hold preparatory meet- persons ticipants ings with resource persons. • Whether or not to seek -If participants have to do media coverage of the homework beforehand, Implementing event make this clear 1. Arrival -Explain financial and Organisers should be in place Try to involve participants in other conditions clearly well before the participants developing the program. • Make the necessary travel • Check the venue and the arrangements technical facilities needed 3. Calculate the budget • Hold a joint session with • Give resource persons a • Preparatory meetings all resource persons final briefing • Hall charges • Prepare the necessary • Prepare for the registration • Catering materials, forms, of participants • Refreshments during documents • Display the program and sessions -Stationery other documents, if relevant • Accommodation -Registration forms • Travel -Claims forms for 2. Registration • Stationery allowances • Secretariat/organising team -Printed program 3. Welcome • Reception (if necessary) -Papers and teaching Explain: materials • Subject of the meeting 4. Income and expenditure -Workshop documentation • Who are the organisers Record all income - dona- and sponsors
184 • Objectives • Logic and timing of program • Methodological approach • Expected outcome
4. Holding the sessions • Handle transport claims etc. during tea breaks only
5. Departure Collect all that is necessary before people leave • Signed registration forms/list of participants • Signed allowance claims • Original detailed invoices and receipts for venue, food, drinks, accommoda- tion, travel, stationery etc.
6. After the event As soon as possible take care of • Accounting Source: Bridging the Gap: A Guide to Monitoring and Evaluating Development Projects • Report writing by Bernard Broughton & Jonathan Hampshire • Any other follow-ups needed
8 TIPS ON HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY CHAIR A CONFERENCE
1 It is the conference chairperson’s responsibility to see that the atmosphere during the discussion is always friendly, communicative and fair. 2 The conference chairperson introduces the topic in an objective and informative way. He/she formulates the discussion goals for each item on the agenda. During a discussion, he/she must not initially express his/her own opinion or assessment as this would bias the discussion. 3 The chairperson speaks as little as possible in order to give maximum time to the conference participants. Conference chairmanship principally entails raising questions and giving the word to different speakers.
185 4 Questions from the chairperson should always be designed to stimulate dialogue and consequently should never be answered by the chairperson himself/herself. 5 Preference should be given to open questions (W-questions: who, why, where, when, etc.) and information questions. Closed questions (which can only be answered with a “yes” or “no”) can be fatal to a discussion. 6 Should a discussion peter out it is up to the chairperson to get it moving again by means of (open) questions, thought-provoking remarks and a summary of the proceedings so far. 7 The chairperson should make interim summaries to emphasize the thread of the discussion. At the close, the chairperson gives a general summary and his/her evaluation as to which of the goals formulated at the outset have or have not been achieved. 8 At the end of the conference, it is also up to the chairperson to formulate and delegate tasks to individual participants. Nobody ought to leave the conference without precisely knowing: a. what has been achieved in today’s discussion, b. what is my specific assignment until the next conference/meeting, c. where and when is the next conference/meeting?
Source: Schulte, Carla (1997) Talking Politics (and being understood), Kampala: Fountain Publishers.
HOLDING EFFECTIVE INTERNAL MEETINGS AND PLANNING SESSIONS
Starting the meeting Remember the issues that (if necessary). After that ask 1. Who is chairing the meet- might have cropped up at the which issue should be dealt ing? (It is best to have agreed previous meeting. with first, second, third and so on this in advance.) on. This should not take more 4. In collaboration with the than five minutes! 2. Who is going to write the participants decide how much minutes? time it will take to discuss During the meeting each issue. Confirm at what 1. Follow the agreed agenda, 3. If the agenda has not been time the meeting has to close. discussing the issues in turn. prepared in advance, then the Ask if anyone has to leave The chairperson or moderator chairman, (you), should col- early. must see to it that the agreed lect the issues that need to be time frame is adhered to. If discussed from the partici- 5. Then ask participants this proves difficult, then the pants. They should be written which issues they wish to con- group must be asked to decide up on a board or a flipchart, so centrate on at the meeting and whether to continue the dis- that everyone can see them. which ones can be postponed cussion of the issue in ques-
186 tion and therefore extend the meeting, or whether to stop the discussion and continue it at an agreed time.
2. Never move on to the next issue before making a decision on the one being discussed.
Closing the meeting 1. Quickly repeat the decisions that have been made.
2. Decide when and how the minutes will be distributed.
3. Decide who will chair the next meeting.
4. Close the meeting at the Source: Bridging the Gap: A Guide to Monitoring and Evaluating agreed time. Development Projectsby Bernard Broughton & Jonathan Hampshire
NOTES
187 PROJECT OUTLINES by Meike Meyer
Should be short, Explain briefly aims, clear and promising. general objectives, TITLE OF THE PROJECT former projects! Those who really • Name of Convince the reader know what they proposing agency of the need for this want can usually do • Address and with 2-3 objectives. contact person project! Be as concrete as • Short presentation Explain the idea of possible. of your NGO the project and how • Objectives you want to fulfill Who takes interest • Justification for the objectives, in this project? choosing the project describe the impact! Who shall be • Target group involved? • Know-how from Do you need to con- Who profits from outside needed? tact other persons to the project and how? • Budget fulfill your objec- • Schedule/program tives? Specify their Detailed list of • Feasibility capacities or know- expected expendi- • Sustainability how! tures (personnel • Intended follow-ups material, travel, etc.). • More info about your Be precise about the NGOs background, venue, duration Do you foresee any work done so far etc. methodology! prohibitive difficul- (optional) ties or problems? Which further impact does it have? Any workshops about maintenance By whom? List and organisation of names. the project?
✓ Practical advice • use white, clean sheets of A4 - paper • present your project in a typewritten version if possible • write on one side of the paper • make sure you have a clear structure • attach a covering letter
188 QUALITIES OF A MODERATOR
THE MODERATOR document the steps of the HOW TO PREPARE A discussion process and its MODERATION Moderation technique can immediate results best be used in groups of up to • ask the right questions • The issue, the main 15 participants. How to be a and break deadlocks objective, and the quality good moderator is not of the intended results something to be learned have to be very clear quickly and easily, but is a Usually two people can ful- • Be aware of the matter of guided experiences, fill these tasks easier than participants’ composition, self reflection and continuous one... background, knowledge, learning. A moderator’s tasks interests and potential are to: conflicts • help the group to know THE IDEAL MODERATOR •Determine the duration of and appreciate their own IS A PERSON WHO IS... the process, the facilities knowledge and strengths available and their • help the discussion process •regarded as neutral by all limitations to be coherent and result- participants • Identify clear-cut oriented • therefore an outsider to the objectives and goals for • be expert at guidance as far discussion group and every session, what as the “how” of the • able to use visualisation methods to use and the discussion process is techniques, such as amount of time needed concerned, and not the pinboards, flipcharts and • Make sure that sufficient “what” blackboards visualisation materials are • visualise and thus available.
NOTES
189 THE MODERATION METHOD
The typical steps in moderating a discussion
1. OPENING - Warm-up with participants (explain your role, make them know each other). - Discuss and agree on time-frame and organisational matters. - Collect the expectations of participants. - Discuss and agree on expectations that shall/can be objectives for the workshop. - Agree on methodology. - How will minutes be taken? 2. COLLECT ISSUES/SUBJECTS - Phrase the guiding question carefully and in a very focused manner and visualise it! - Collect all answers/ideas of participants, without discussing them first! - Visualise answers/ideas as they come. - Group them into clusters and give a name/title to each cluster. 3. SELECT ISSUES/SUBJECTS - Phrase a guiding question carefully and write it down visibly. - Allow participants to prioritise clusters according to their individual preferences. - The agenda will then be determined by the number of “votes” per cluster, going through as many clusters as time or workshop-concept allows. - In doing this, every participant gets the same number of “votes” which he can use on the clusters as he wishes. (One way of doing this is to hand out little markers of some sort to every participant so that they can all jot down their preferences at the same time.) If possible avoid “voting” by raised hands. 4. WORK ON THE ISSUE AND FIND A WAY TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM - Find a method of how to discuss or “solve” the prioritised subject/s. - The method has to depend on the kind of issue at hand and the intended results. 5. PLAN ACTION/DETERMINE THE FOLLOW-UPS - Visualise the activities regarded necessary by the group. - Write down who will be in charge and by when different tasks need to be done. 6. CLOSING - Find out, whether participants’ expectations have been fulfilled, - Whether they are satisfied with the process and the result.
Always come up with a result! Always pin down which task is assigned to whom! Always ascertain if you have addressed the needs and expectations of the participants!
190 THE STRUCTURE OF YOUR SPEECH
The aim of a discursive is to OPENING REMARKS •Present your own convince the listeners of the (max. 3 minutes) evaluation. correctness of the speaker’s • Begin with a provocative •Prove the accuracy of your opinion on the subject in proposition, a rhetorical assessment. question. Such speeches question, a current event, ✓SUBJECT-RELATED should not last longer than 30 etc. CONCLUSION minutes. ✓PREVIEW THE MAIN (max. 4 minutes) POINTS OF YOUR •Summarise the main How do you most SPEECH argument in a maximum effectively structure such a (max. 1 minute) of three points. speech? ✓MAIN BODY ✓AUDIENCE RELATED ✓AUDIENCE RELATED (max. 20 minutes) CONCLUSION INTRODUCTION • Discuss the current (max. 1 minute) (max. 1 minute) situation/the facts/the • Close your speech by, for •Create the right problem. instance, thanking the atmosphere for the speech • Discuss a variety of audience for their attention. by referring to the audience, possible solutions. Source: H. Hess: Party Work in Social the venue, the occasion, etc. •Discuss the pros and cons Democratic Parties ✓SUBJECT-RELATED of these solutions.
ARGUMENTATION TECHNIQUES
Good argumentation techniques are always beneficial. Your chances to win others over are higher if you can: •present effective arguments and •refute your opponent’s arguments.
PRACTICAL TIPS •Try to understand the position of your counterpart first, then react to it. • If your counterpart’s argumentation is weak, repeat your own good arguments. • If you are interrupted, insist on the right to finish what you were saying. •Anticipate your counterpart’s arguments by including them in your own argumentation. •Use the persuasive power of examples. Ask your counterpart to provide concrete examples of how to apply his theories. • Expose generalisation and inaccuracies. •Stick to the facts of the issue. Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere during an • If somebody evades the issue, return to the subject. interview with the German magazine “Der Überblick” in Hamburg in April 1999. Source: C. Schulte, 1997, Talking Politics (and being understood): Kampala, Fountain Publishers
191 HOW TO USE BLACKBOARDS AND FLIPCHARTS
Blackboard Useful in gatherings of up to 25 people. + It is easy to write information & easy to correct it. -Information is wiped off, it disappears and it is hard for participants to retrieve. TIP If the chalk squeaks - this always makes participants uncomfortable - break the chalk and continue writing using the broken end.
Flipchart Useful in gatherings of up to 35 people. +Sheets can be prepared in advance. Information can be displayed for a long period by removing sheets from the flipchart and posting them on the wall. TIPUseful for a wide range of information e.g. displaying the day’s agenda, important overviews, central state- ments, flowcharts, participants’ contributions.
General rules • Do not write down too much: concentrate on key issues only. • Give the audience time to copy the contents of the presentation OR give it to them as a hand out afterwards. If you intend to distribute a handout, tell the participants so. Otherwise it is likely that they will spend time making unnecessary notes. • Do not talk with your back turned to participants (e.g. while writing on the blackboard or flipchart). • Do not stand in front of your presentation - the participants will get irritated at not being able to read what is written.
NOTES
192 THE CHECK LIST FOR GOOD IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITIES
1. Important: plan step by step. What should be done first?
2. Consider all improbabilities, and plan alternatives.
3. Fix deadlines for you and for your partner.
4. Follow-up the results before the deadline.
5. Keep an eye on the indicators to be achieved.
6. Hire assistants, delegate, mobilize people.
7. For seminars & workshops, check everything in advance on loco.
8. Take care of the documentation (dates of receipts, use of materials, tasks of people involved ...)
9. Support partners in the learning process. Sell the idea “on-the-job learning”.
10. Take care of the financial settlement and reporting as soon as possible.
11. Evaluate with the partners the achievement of objectives and indicators. Write recommendations. File documents. Release important papers. Inform other related institutions.
12. Write a reminder for following-up the results sometime later. Document it.
13. Keep your colleagues informed and updated.
Source: Workshop Report Management Skills for Source: Bridging the Gap: A Guide to Monitoring and Decision-Makers - August 1999 Evaluating Development Projects, by Bernard Broughton & Jonathan Hampshire
193 TIME MANAGEMENT - SELF MANAGEMENT
Participants in one of the seminars supported by FES, discussing issues of “Time Management” in 2001
Most people bristle at the idea of becoming a slave to time: “The Swiss have clocks, but we have time”, said a wise old man in Bhutan. A certain degree of time and self- management is nonethe- less necessary if you wish to be effective and to achieve your goals. Many people rely on their memory as their management tool, but most find that at some point their memory lets them down. “Sorry, I forgot” is not an uncommon statement. This is not ne- cessarily a catastrophe, but in some instances forgetting can have unfortunate consequences. You might lose an important contract, you might lose your job, you might even lose your husband/wife to-be!
RULE 1: Write things down - use a diary and a calendar, (e.g. the FES diary/calendar). • Keep a “things to do” list. • Enter all your appointments and deadlines, putting in a reminder maybe a week before the deadline falls. • Review your appointments and deadlines regularly, informing those implicated in good time if you want to change them. • Plan your week: Make the “things to do” list, get an overview over your appointments and deadlines. • Plan your day. •At the end of each day and at the end of each week make a review. Did you do all that you had planned to do? Did you meet your deadlines? Did you attend the scheduled meetings? Were you late? Why?
RULE 2: Be realistic about what you can manage to do • Do not get overloaded: you have to be realistic about what you can overcome in the given amount of time. • Prioritise: decide what are the most important issues. • Say no, if the task is beyond what you are capable of doing. • Remember to make time for your private life - family, friends, hobbies and your own relaxation. This is where you renew your energy.
194 TWELVE STEPS TOWARDS CONFLICT RESOLUTION
By Dr M. O. Maundi, Centre for Foreign Relations
1. Understanding the conflict • its type • its sources • its intensity • its impact
2. Identifying the parties to the conflict • whether bilateral or multilateral conflict
3. Identifying the issues involved
4. Determining the method of resolution • Conflict prevention: Preventive diplomacy • Conflict resolution: Negotiation - Direct negotiation between the conflicting parties. - Assisted negotiation: Use of a third party. Mediation/Facilitation Conciliation Good offices Arbitration
5. Determining the mechanism of resolution • The actors/agents -States - NGOs - Individuals: Eminent personalities - Inter-governmental organizations
6. Determining the venue and dates for negotiation
7. Negotiating rules of procedure
8. Setting the agenda
9. Launching the substantive negotiations
10. Reaching a compromise agreement
11. Implementing the negotiated settlement
12. Guaranteeing and monitoring the implementation of the agreement
195 14. MISCELLANEOUS
SOME HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE ACCOUNTING RULES OF FRIEDRICH EBERT STIFTUNG FOR SEMINARS AND TRAINING COURSES
When financially dealing A proper receipt must Allowances with FES, certain rules have include: Allowances (imprests, per to be followed in order to •Name and address of payee diem) for participants and ensure the individually agreed • Date seminar staff have to be paid refund for activities. The basic •Name and address of payer on a daily basis only. A proper facts are listed here for easy •Amount paid allowance form has to show: reference. • Reason for payment •Event title, date & •Signature of payee location The Budget •Name of payee Expenditures for any activity Transport charges should be •Address of payee have to be in line with the accounted for through the •Amount paid per person budget agreed upon in writ- presentation of original bus •Signature of payee ing. Any overspending can only tickets, airline tickets or like- •Total amount paid be accepted by prior consent so wise. In the normal case, the •Signature of organiser you should check your corre- original ticket will be kept for spondence carefully prior to the FES-files and you have to Honorarium the activity. If you have add the name of the person(s) For the payment of honorar- already received advances, travelling on the front side. If ium to the seminar staff, FES make sure they are in line only a copy can be taken, the provides a form. The seminar with and part of the budget reason for this change of pro- staff can only receive honorar- mentioned. cedure has to be given in writ- ium for one single function at ing. In case a motor vehicle is the seminar, either coordina- Receipts used, the petrol bills can be tor or lecturer, typist etc. in Any payment whatsoever can presented if and as far as agreed case of combined functions, only be done against proper upon beforehand. decide for one. The honorar- receipt whose wordings ium form has to include: should be legible and no wite- For proper accounting, the •Title of the activity, date out or Tipp-Ex should be petrol bill has to show: and venue used on it. •Purpose of the trip •Proper address of recipient Receipts have to be issued by •Name of the traveller(s) •Amount due and currency the person/company which •Name/address of petrol • Signature of recipient delivers the service or goods e.g. station for stationery from the shop- • Date of filling keeper, a hotel or restaurant Other documents required • Distance travelled for lodging, rental or seminar for proper accounting • Car’s owner and facilities, meals etc. and •Complete list of registration number should be written in or trans- participants • Amount paid/litres lated into English. •Complete list of seminar staff
196 •Program of the seminar event • Handouts during/after the •Number of participants seminar •Short summary on the •Seminar report of the course of events organiser •Important results •Resume of the organiser as How to write a seminar to success of the event report •Outlook of future A proper seminar report has to activities/follow-up contain: •Title, date, venue of the
NOTES
197 WRITING A PROPOSAL TO FES FOR A CONTRIBUTION TO AN ACTIVITY
The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung contributes to partner organization’s activities after receiving and going through a written/detailed proposals from them.
Before writing your proposal, please crosscheck whether the activity you wish to organize falls within our objectives or not. If it fits in, then your proposal should include the following: 1. Give a brief introduction to your organization (including organizational objectives). 2. State the objectives of the planned event. 3. State the expected outcome/indicators. 4. Indicate the topics to be covered or the theme of an activity. 5. Specify the target group/beneficiaries. 6. State the tentative dates and venue for an activity to take place. 7. Give a rough idea about the programme. 8. Indicate the budget in details.
N.B. Please always remember to make a follow-up on your request either by telephone or an e-mail message.
Ahsante! !
NOTES
198 GUIDELINES FOR INCLUDING THE GENDER DIMENSION IN AN ACTIVITY compiled by Viktoria Walter
FES Tanzania puts a strong emphasis on assuring gender balance and gender sensitivity in its activities. We invite all our partners to join hands with us in order to make sure that women and men participate and profit equally from the activities. Objectives Development: • Identify a specific gender objective for the activity Target Group: •Which group of men/women will benefit? •What can you do in terms of ensuring gender balance/participation? •Who should participate in order to advocate for gender-balance? Is the Concept Gender-Oriented? Modality and instruments, type of event: •Invitation addressing women, e.g. personal invitation, not only inviting the organisation •What type and design of the event is needed to attract also women? •Consider differences in the time budget of men and women, family supporting facilities •Invite female representatives of the organisation for planning Collaborators/Partner Organisation/Resource Persons: •Prepare yourself for resistance against gender integration and appreciate willingness of partners to integrate gender • Choose gender-responsive resource persons: is there a female to do the job? • Ensure gender-balance in teams • Include women experts Topics to be Covered: • Check that the topics address the gender dimension or issues in question •Avoid having gender as a separate topic Financial Estimates/Resources: •Allow for additional resources for possible extra gender-informed resource person and/or family supportive facilities •Allocation of budget to facilitate that at least 1/3 of the activities are gender responsive Tentative Programme: •Send it out as early as possible (women need time for planning their release from family duties. They might even need to seek permission to attend.) Media Coverage: • Enable women to speak to the media (prepare well!) Expected Outcome: • Check consistency with gender objective • Ensure that women’s concerns are addressed in all documentation and other follow ups
199 LIST OF FES PUBLICATIONS IN TANZANIA
TITLE AUTHOR/EDITOR YEAR
Final Report on Designated Law Reform Commission 1997 Legislations in the Nyalali Commission Report
Tanzania Constitution Attorney General 1997
Report of the Commission on the Law Reform Commission 1997 Law Relating to Children in Tanzania
Report of the Commission on the Law Reform Commission 1997 Law Relating to Prisons in Tanzania
Legal & Constitutional Parliamentary Hon. J. F.Wapakhabullo, 1997 Committee Workshop Hon. A. S. L. Ramadhan & Others
A New Tanzania Constitution:Why Robert Makaramba 1997 and How?
Political Reform in Eclipse Max Mmuya 1997
NGO Calendar 1998 Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 1997
Media Council Constitution Media Council of Tanzania 1997
Wall Calendar 1998 Media Council of Tanzania 1997
Local Government Proceedings BUNGE 1997
Investment Policies and VAT BUNGE 1997
Writing a Will LHRC 1997
Poster on Gender Awareness LHRC 1998
The Bill of Rights LHRC 1998
FES Activities 1997 Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 1998
Tanzania Unions of Journalists Tanzania Union of Journalists 1998
Parliamentary Structure BUNGE 1998
Legislative Process BUNGE 1998
200 TITLE AUTHOR/EDITOR YEAR
Kiongozi cha Sheria 3rd Edition Women Legal Aid Centre 1998
Facing the Challenge:Women Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 1998 Empowerment in Kenya,Tanzania & Uganda
Guide to Informal Sector L. F. Kongosya 1998
NGO Calendar 1999 Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 1998
State of Media Handbook L. Kilimwiko/ J. Mapunda 1998
Children’s Rights in Tanzania Robert V. Makaramba 1998
Political Handbook & Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 1999 NGO Calendar 2000
Haki za Watoto Tanzania FES/R. Makaramba 1999
FES Activities 1998/1999 Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2000
Journalism as a Profession - Rights, F. Karashani, L. Kilimwiko, Ayoub Rioba 2000 Duties & Responsibilities
Agenda Participation 2000, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2000 The 10 Principals for Free and Fair Elections
Agenda Participation 2000 Civic Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2000 Education Programme
Who is Who in the Tanzanian BUNGE 2000 Parliament
Bunge la Tanzania BUNGE 2000
Answers to Media Questions BUNGE 2000 about Parliament
Ufafanuzi wa Kanuni za Bunge BUNGE 2000
Maadili Kumi ya Uchaguzi Huru Max Mmuya 2000 na Haki
Ijue Katiba Yetu Dr. Asha Rose Migiro 2000
201 TITLE AUTHOR/EDITOR YEAR
Ijue Katiba Yetu-Zanzibar Hon. Arcado Ntagazwa, Dr. Aggrey Mlimuka 2000
Essays & Poems to Agenda Students Comp 2000 Participation 2000
Political Handbook & Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2000 NGO Calendar 2001
The New EA-ACP Partnership: Francis Matambalya 2001 Consequences for Eastern and Southern Africa
Art in Politics Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001
Gender and Land Laws in Tanzania Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001
Code of Ethics for Media Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001 Professionals
Political Handbook & Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001 NGO Calendar 2002
FES Activities Report 2000/2001 Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001
NOTES
202 EDITORIAL
PUBLISHED BY Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Kawawa Road Plot No. 397 P. O. Box 4472 Dar es Salaam Telephone: 00255-22 2668575/2668786 Fax: 00255-22 2668669 Mobile: 0742 785 434 or 0741 324 924 E-mail: [email protected] http://tanzania.fes-international.de
COPYRIGHT© 2001 Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Dar es Salaam
EDITORS Peter Häussler Angela K. Ishengoma Kate Girvan Valéria Salles
LAYOUT Petra’s Maridadi Limited
TYPESETTING/DESIGN Petra’s Maridadi Limited
PRINT Tanzania Printers
NB: Articles which carry an author’s name do not necessarily reflect the view of FES. All facts and figures presented in this NGO Calender are correct to the best of our knowledge. However, FES bears no responsibility for oversights, mistakes or omissions. The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung,1 or FES, was founded in 1925 as a political legacy of Germany’s first democratically elected President, Friedrich Ebert, who died in that year. Ebert, a Social Democrat of humble origins, had risen to hold the highest office in his country despite considerable opposition from his political adversaries. He assumed the burden of the presidency in a country which was crisis ridden following its defeat in World War 1. His own personal experience led him to propose the establishment of a foundation with a threefold aim: • to further a democratic, pluralistic political culture by means of political education for all classes of society. • to facilitate access to higher education for gifted young people by providing scholarships. • to contribute to international understanding and co-operation in order to avert a fresh outbreak of war and conflict wherever possible. Today, the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung is a political non-profit making, public-interest institution committed to the principles and basic values of social democracy in its educational and policy- oriented work. Development Co-operation In the Foundations offices in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania approximately 100 German staff and 600 local nationals are involved in projects in the fields of economic and social development, social-political education and information, the media and communication and in providing advisory services. The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung sees its activities in the developing countries as a contribution to: • the improvement of political and social framework conditions • the democratisation of social structure •the empowerment of women and the promotion of gender •the strengthening of free trade unions • the improvement of communication and media structures • regional and international media co-operation • regional co-operation between states and interest groups • the resolution of the North-South conflict This calendar is intended to provide not only an individual tool for purposes of time planning but also a day-to-day handbook for quick reference on issues that may be of interest to people in NGOs and to other politically active Tanzanians.
1 Stiftung is the German word for “foundation”
Friedrich Ebert Stiftung North-South Dialogue: Julius Kawawa Road, Plot No. 397 Nyerere, former President of P. O. Box 4472, Dar es Salaam the United Republic of Tanzania Tanzania and Willy Brandt, former Chancellor of the Tel: 00255-22 2668575 or 2668786 Federal Republic of Germany Fax: 00255-22 2668669 Mobile: 0742 785 434 or 0741 324 924 WILLY BRANDT: E-mail: [email protected] “International co-operation is far http://tanzania.fes-international.de too important to be left to governments alone.” ISBN 9987-22-048-7