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Aspects of the Supergene Geochemistry of Copper

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Aspects of the Supergene Geochemistry of Copper ASPECTS OF THE SUPERGENE GEOCHEMISTRY OF COPPER, NICKEL AND BISMUTH Meagan E. Clissold BAppSc(Hons), UWS This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Western Sydney July 2007 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to sincerely thank my supervisor Professor Peter Williams for sharing his wealth of knowledge in chemistry and mineralogy. His enthusiasm, guidance and support through out this study are greatly appreciated. I would also like to thank my co-supervisor Professor Peter Leverett, for his invaluable insight in many fields, especially crystallography. Jim Sharpe is thanked for his assistance with fieldwork and for sharing his experience in mineralogy. David Colchester is acknowledged for determining the optical properties of gillardite. Auzex Resources Limited is thanked for permission to work on the Wolfram pipe deposit. I am grateful for the assistance and interest of company staff, particularly Dr. Roger Mustard, Kevin Chard and Ed Hammond. Northparkes Mines is thanked for permission to work on their deposits. Allan Ryan of Northparkes Mines provided details concerning groundwater analyses. Professor Erik Melchiorre (California State University, San Bernardino) is thanked for stable isotope data. Valuable technical assistance was provided by Malcolm Tiddy and Wayne Higginbotham. I would like to thank the people who have helped and encouraged me throughout this work, especially Adam McKinnon, Jacqueline, Sarah, Suzie, Sandy and Tanya. I thank my fellow students, my friends, and family for their love and support. ii DECLARATION The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material in any form for a degree or diploma at any university or other institution of tertiary education. …………………………… Meagan Elizabeth Clissold July, 2007 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page SUPPORTING PUBLICATIONS……………………...…………...viii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………... ix Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………............... 1 1.1 AIMS OF THIS STUDY………………………………………………... 4 1.1.1 Northparkes study………………………………..……………. 4 1.1.2 Lavendulan study………………………….…….……….......... 5 1.1.3 Kingsgate Bi study……………….……………..………..……. 6 Chapter 2: GEOCHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF THE OXIDISED ZONES OF THE COPPER ORE BODIES AT NORTHPARKES, NEW SOUTH WALES, AND ITS RELEVANCE FOR GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION……………………………….... 8 2.1 SETTING………………………………………………………………... 8 2.2 EXPERIMENTAL……………………….…………………………….. 11 2.2.1 Instrumentation………………………………………………. 11 2.2.2 Synthesis …………………………………………………….. 12 2.2.3 Solution studies………………………………………………. 12 2.3 GEOCHEMISTRY OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE OXIDISED ZONES AT NORTHPARKES…………………………………………….. 15 2.3.1 Phosphate minerals…………………………………………... 15 2.3.2 Atacamite, malachite and azurite…………………………….. 25 2.4 GEOCHEMICAL DISPERSION OF COPPER FROM THE OXIDISED ZONES AT NORTHPARKES…………………….…………. 28 iv Chapter 3: THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF FORMATION OF LAVENDULAN…………………………………………..………….. 32 3.1 BACKGROUND……………………………………….……………… 32 3.2 EXPERIMENTAL…………………………………….……………….. 34 3.2.1 Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD)……………………….......... 34 3.2.2 Total reflectance X-ray fluorescence (TRXRF) spectrometry……………………………………...……... 34 3.2.3 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)……………...………... 35 3.2.4 Electron microprobe analysis…………………….…………... 35 3.2.5 Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)……....……………... 35 3.2.6 Lavendulan synthesis ………………………………………... 36 3.2.7 Solution studies……………………………..………………... 36 3.3 GEOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL FORMATION…………………… 39 3.3.1 Phase relationships…………………………………………… 39 3.4 SOLID SOLUTION PHENOMENA INVOLVING LAVENDULAN AND RELATED MINERALS………………………….. 47 Chapter 4: GILLARDITE, Cu3NiCl2(OH)6, A NEW MINERAL FROM THE 132 NORTH DEPOSIT, WIDGIEMOOLTHA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA……………………….………………….. 54 4.1 HISTORY…………………………………...…………………………. 54 4.2 OCCURRENCE………………………………….…………………….. 55 4.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION………………………………….……... 56 4.4 PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES………………………….. 57 4.5 SINGLE-CRYSTAL X-RAY STRUCTURE………………………….. 58 4.6 X-RAY POWDER DIFFRACTION…………………………………… 62 4.7 RELATIONSHIP OF GILLARDITE TO HERBERTSMITHITE AND OTHER POLYMORPHS……………………………………..……... 62 v Chapter 5: THE BISMUTH MINERALS OF THE KINGSGATE, NEW SOUTH WALES, DEPOSITS AND THE SUPERGENE DISPERSION OF BISMUTH……………….. 66 5.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………...………… 66 5.2 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.………………………..…….………... 69 5.2.1 Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD)…………...………………... 69 5.2.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)…….……..…………... 69 5.2.3 Electron microprobe analysis………………………………… 70 5.3 A SURVEY OF SECONDARY Bi AND Mo MINERALS FROM AUSTRALIAN COLLECTIONS………………………………………….. 71 5.4 THE Bi-Mo DEPOSITS OF KINGSGATE…..………..……….……... 76 5.4.1 Primary mineralogy………………..…………...……………. 80 5.4.1.1 Bismuth………………………….…………………………. 82 5.4.1.2 Bismuthinite……………………..…………………………. 83 5.4.1.3 “Cannizzarite”………………….…………………………... 86 5.4.1.4 Cosalite………………………...…………………………... 86 5.4.1.5 Galenobismutite……………………………………..……... 86 5.4.1.6 Ikunolite…………………………………………….……… 86 5.4.1.7 Joséite………………………………………….…………… 88 5.4.1.8 Kobellite……………………………………..……………... 88 5.4.1.9 Molybdenite………………………………………………... 93 5.4.1.10 Ag-rich Pb-Bi sulfides…………………….……………… 93 5.5 THE “LOST” MINES OF KINGSGATE……………...………………. 97 5.5.1. Minerals from Maurer’s Claim…………...………………... 103 5.6 A GEOCHEMICAL MODEL FOR BISMUTH IN THE SUPERGENE ENVIRONMENT……………………...…………………. 107 5.6.1. The pH regime of the supergene zone at Kingsgate……….. 107 5.6.2. A model for Bi solubility and dispersion…………………... 110 5.6.3 Exploration implications and previous exploration campaigns in the Kingsgate region………………………….......... 119 vi REFERENCES……………………………………………………... 123 APPENDIX…………………………………………………………. 144 Table A.1 COMICS output……..………………………………… 145 Table A.2 Observed and calculated structure factors for gillardite. 146 Table A.3 Crystallographic Information File (CIF) for gillardite… 151 vii SUPPORTING PUBLICATIONS Clissold, M.E., Leverett, P. and Williams, P.A. (2003) Gaspéite-magnesite solid solutions and their significance. CRC LEME Regional Regolith Symposia, 2003. CRC LEME, 78-79. Clissold, M.E., Leverett, P. and Williams, P.A. (2005) Chemical mineralogy of the oxidized zones of the E22, E26 and E27 ore bodies at Northparkes, New South Wales. In: Roach, I.C. (Ed.), Regolith 2005 - Ten Years of CRC LEME, Proceedings. CRC LEME, 55-58. Clissold, M.E., Leverett, P., Williams, P.A., Hibbs, D.E. and Nickel, E.H. (2007) The structure of gillardite, Cu3NiCl2(OH)6, from Widgiemooltha, Western Australia: the Ni-analogue of herbertsmithite. The Canadian Mineralogist, 45, 317-320. Colchester, D.M., Leverett, P., Clissold, M.E., Williams, P.A., Hibbs, D.E. and Nickel, E.H. (2007) Gillardite, Cu3NiCl2(OH)6, a new mineral from the 132 North deposit, Widgiemooltha, Western Australia. Australian Journal of Mineralogy, 13, 21-24. viii ABSTRACT The solution geochemical conditions associated with the development of supergene copper mineralisation in the E22, E26 and E27 deposits at Northparkes, New South Wales, have been explored. Determination of a stability constant for sampleite [NaCaCu5(PO4)4Cl·5H2O], a conspicuous species in the upper oxidised zone of E26, has led to an understanding of the differences between the three deposits in terms of the influence of groundwater geochemistry on their mineralogical diversity. Modelling of copper dispersion from the three deposits using current ground water compositions as proxies for past solution conditions has shown that the elevated chloride concentrations associated with E26 have negligible influence on total dissolved copper concentrations over a wide pH range. The results are discussed with respect to applications in exploration geochemistry for the discovery of new ore deposits in the region. Determination of a stability constant for lavendulan [NaCaCu5(AsO4)4Cl·5H2O], the arsenate isomorph of sampleite, suggests that solid solution between lavendulan and sampleite is likely to be extensive and this has been established by reference to mineral compositions from a number of deposits. Activity-activity phase diagrams have been developed to explain the common mineral associates of lavendulan and differences between the analogous phosphate and arsenate systems. With respect to the occurrence of lavendulan in the oxidised zone of the Widgiemooltha 132 N ore body, Western Australia, its crystal chemistry explains why Ni does not substitute for Cu in the lattice. This is despite Ni being abundantly available in the deposit and substituting freely into other copper-based minerals. The substitution of Ni for Cu was explored in a study of supposedly Ni-rich paratacamite, Cu2Cl(OH)3, from the deposit. It transpires that much of this is a new ix mineral, gillardite, Cu3NiCl(OH)6, the isomorph of herbertsmithite, Cu3ZnCl(OH)6. The nature of gillardite was thoroughly investigated and the mineral was approved as a new species by the International Mineralogical Association. A high resolution single-crystal X-ray structure of gillardite has been completed. In addition, the substitution of Ni in simple carbonate lattices has been explored as gaspéite, NiCO3, Ni-rich magnesite, MgCO3, and calcite, CaCO3, are all common species in the oxidised zone of the Widgiemooltha 132 N deposit. Attention was subsequently focussed on the geochemistry of the element Bi, with special reference to deposits of the Kingsgate region, New South Wales. This study has led to a modern assessment of the Mo-Bi deposits in the area and new Bi sulfosalts from the Wolfram
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