Modern Submarine Canyon Feeder-System and Deep-Sea Fan Growth in a Tectonically Active Margin (Northern Sicily)

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Exploring the Deep Sea and Beyond, Volume 2, themed issue Deep-sea fan facies on an active margin Modern submarine canyon feeder-system and deep-sea fan growth in a tectonically active margin (northern Sicily)

Fabiano Gamberi1, Marzia Rovere1, Michael P. Marani1, and Mason Dykstra2 1Istituto di Scienze Marine, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, UOS Bologna, Via Gobetti 101, 40129, Bologna, Italy 2Statoil Gulf Services, LLC, 6300 Bridge Point Parkway, Building 2, Suite 500, Austin, Texas 78730, USA

ABSTRACT and the facies of submarine fan growth dur- channels, have been highlighted in increasing ing highstand periods is therefore highlighted. detail. Of particular interest for the understand- Widely used sequence stratigraphic mod- A further view that arises from our paper is ing of sediment delivery to the deep sea is the els predict that specifi c facies assemblages that in active margins, the slope portion of discovery that in many cases, particularly along alternate in the stratigraphy of deep-sea fans, fan systems, through seafl oor instability and active margins, canyon heads can incise the shelf depending on the cyclic nature of sea-level variations in channel gradient, is a key factor and reach the coastal areas (Harris and White- variations. Our work tests this assumption in determining the fi nal deep-sea fan facies, way, 2011). Canyon heads can be directly con- through facies reconstruction of submarine regardless of the distance between the coast nected with rivers and consequently can some- fans that are growing in a small basin along and the canyon. The concomitant growth times be fed directly by hyperpycnal fl ows (Piper the tectonically active Sicilian margin. Con- of turbidites, mass-transport deposits, and and Normark, 2009; Puig et al., 2014). In other nected canyons have heads close to the coast- mixed fans demonstrates that models that cases, canyon heads are not in direct connection line; they can be river connected or littoral predict changes in submarine fan facies on with rivers, but their activity during the present cell–connected, the fi rst receiving sediment the basis of sea-level cycles do not necessarily sea-level highstand is nonetheless made possible from hyperpycnal fl ows, the latter intercept- apply to systems developed along tectonically by longshore currents and littoral cells that sup- ing shelf sediment dispersal pathways. Hyper- active margins. ply sediment to them (Piper and Normark, 2009; pycnal fl ows directly discharge river-born Puig et al., 2014). Landslides are also a possible sediment into the head of the river-connected INTRODUCTION source of sediment for the deep sea and can act canyon and originate a large turbidite fan. A also in canyons that are far from the coastline drift formed by the longshore redistribution Early sequence stratigraphy models assumed and stranded at the shelf edge (Piper and Nor- of sediment of a nearby delta introduces sedi- that deep-sea submarine fans grow mainly dur- mark, 2009; Puig et al., 2014). Thus, taking into ment to the head of the littoral cell–connected ing sea-level lowstands when a direct connec- account the relationships between the canyon canyon, forming turbidity currents that fl ow tion between rivers and submarine canyons and head and the sediment staging area, the role of within the canyon to reach the basin plain. channels is established (Vail et al., 1977). These hyperpycnal fl ows, storms, longshore currents, However, since sediment failure and landslide models were developed mainly from the analysis littoral cells, dense shelf-water cascading, and processes are common in the slope part of the of passive margin stratigraphy and derived their landslides as possible triggers for fl ows that can system, a mixed fan, consisting of both turbi- main conceptual framework from the interpre- feed sediment to the deep sea during the present- dites and mass-transport deposits, is formed. tation of conventional seismic and drill cores. day highstand has been reevaluated (Piper and Disconnected canyons, with heads at the shelf Ideas coming from the functioning of modern Normark, 2009; Puig et al., 2014). Therefore, edge far from the coastline, are fed by canyon depositional systems were not incorporated in it has been recognized that landward shifts of head and levee-wedge failures, resulting in the model. At that time, the available techniques shorelines do not always lead to the deactivation mass-transport or mixed fan deposition, the of marine geology could not play an important of channels and canyons, and the hypothesis that latter developing when the seafl oor gradient part in the perception of the multiple aspects deep-sea sediment starvation always occurs dur- or the lithology of the failed sediment allows connected with the issue of sediment delivery ing sea-level highstands is now negated (Covault turbidity current formation. Connected can- processes to the oceans, one of the main assump- et al., 2007; Covault and Graham, 2010). yons form in areas with high uplift rates, tion that underlies the sequence stratigraphic Sequence stratigraphic models also recognize where the shelf is narrow and steep and the model (Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Catuneanu that in areas with narrow shelves, sediment can shelf edge is at a relatively shallow depth. et al., 2009, 2011). Since then, the techniques be delivered to the deep sea during highstands, Disconnected canyons develop where there of marine geology have advanced; in particular, but the implication is that this process is brought are lower uplift rates or subsidence, where the advent of multibeam technology has led to about by coastal progradation (Catuneanu et al., the shelf is large and relatively gentle with a the extensive mapping of continental margins 2009, 2011). As a consequence, the majority of deeper shelf edge. It is deduced that the rela- worldwide, revealing submarine landscapes that river-born sediments are trapped in the coastal tive vertical movements of fault-bound blocks were previously largely unexpected (Sager et al., area and shelf and only low-density turbidites control whether canyons are connected to the 2004). The characteristics of the geomorphic contribute to the growth of fi ne-grained deep- coast at the present day. The role of tectonics elements that contribute to sediment delivery to sea fans. Therefore, the models envisage the in controlling the canyon feeding processes the deep sea, particularly submarine canyons and systematic development of submarine fan facies

Geosphere; April 2015; v. 11; no. 2; p. 307–319; doi:10.1130/GES01030.1; 11 ﬁ gures. Received 23 January 2014 ♦ Revision received 1 August 2014 ♦ Accepted 30 January 2015 ♦ Published online 11 March 2015

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driven by the changing character of gravity facies are controlled by the variation of canyon on board the R/V Urania and various cruises fl ows as coastline positions shift during the dif- connectivity to the coastline along the margin, carried out by ISMAR (Istituto di Scienze ferent tracts of a sea-level cycle (Posamentier and by fl ow transformation imposed by uneven Marine-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche) in and Kolla, 2003; Catuneanu et al., 2009, 2011). gradient along the slope part of the system. the frame of the MAGIC (Marine Geohazards This simple model is, however, not in agree- We integrate new multibeam bathymetric and along the Italian Coasts) project funded by the ment with recent marine geology data indicating refl ectivity data with sidescan sonar and sub- Italian National Agency for Civil Protection. that the processes that feed sediment into can- bottom images and core data to characterize The merged bathymetric data cover all the shelf, yons are highly varied during the present-day modern submarine fans along a tectonically slope, and basin plain apart from a narrow zone, sea-level highstand (Piper and Normark, 2009; active margin. We analyze fan dimensions, with variable extent, of the very shallow water Puig et al., 2014). The nature of the processes processes, and facies and correlate them with areas close to the coastline (Fig. 1A). The 1999 that feed sediment into canyons has been shown the location of the head of the feeding canyons multibeam bathymetric data were also processed to have a large impact on the volume of deep- and with processes occurring on the canyon to obtain a backscatter image of the lower slope sea highstand sedimentation and consequently course. We highlight that both turbidites and and basin plain (Fig. 2). Besides the multibeam to be largely responsible for the growth rate of mass-transport deposits contribute to the recent backscatter, a mosaic acquired during the TTR14 deep-sea fans (Normark et al., 2009; Romans makeup of the submarine fans, showing that in cruise on board the R/V Logatchev, with the et al., 2009; Covault and Graham, 2010). Fur- active margins, deep-sea fan facies development MAK II (www.cggeinternational .com /MAK thermore, the style of canyon feeding systems does not fi t in models that rely exclusively on -1M .htm) deep-towed sidescan sonar is available has been shown to have a large impact on the sea-level variations, but depends largely on tec- in a portion of the study area covering the lower behavior and character of fl ows within canyons tonic deformation. slope and the proximal basin plain (Fig. 3). A and channels and in the basin plain, controlling grid of two-dimensional single-channel seismic the effi ciency of the system and consequently GEOLOGICAL SETTING lines acquired in the late 1970s is also available being largely responsible for the site of sedi- (Fig. 1B). CHIRP (compressed high-intensity ment deposition (Piper and Normark, 2009). The Capo d’Orlando Basin is located along radar pulse) subbottom profi les spaced at an The large variability of fan depositional style the central part of the northern Sicilian margin average interval of 2 km cover the entire study and facies as imposed by the nature of the fl ow- (Fig. 1). The continental shelf is in general nar- area (Fig. 1B). Seafl oor samples, with both grav- triggering mechanisms is further augmented by row, attaining a maximum width of 10 km to ity and box corers, were collected during the the possibility for fl ows to undergo modifi ca- the west and becoming progressively narrower TORDE10 cruise carried out in 2010 on board tions imposed by gradient variations along the toward the east (Fig. 1A). The shelf break is the R/V Urania (Fig. 1B); the 60 samples, with slope (Piper and Normark, 2009). located at variable depths, at ~140 m to the west variable penetration (from no recovery to 6 m), It is well established that fans can be active of Cape Orlando, shallowing signifi cantly to the provide control on the facies of the Holocene to during the present sea-level highstand (Covault east. The upper slope of the Capo d’Orlando modern succession and allow the ground truth- and Graham, 2010); an important step forward Basin is characterized by canyons that have their ing of the geophysical data. in the study of deep-sea sedimentation is to heads at the shelf break or incise the shelf, hav- We use the term mass-transport deposit as in investigate the potential of tying deep-sea fan ing their heads very close to the coastline (Fig. Nardin et al. (1979) to include all kinds of grav- evolution to the processes of sediment delivery 1A). In the lower slope, the canyons connect ity-driven deposits with the exception of turbi- to canyons and to the setting of the slope. Mod- with leveed channels that have a general south- dites. The term mixed refers to fans that show ern marine geology data must play a prominent east-northwest trend. The basin plain is located evidence of both turbidites and mass-transport role in the study of this issue. Process-oriented at an average depth of ~1500 m and is character- deposits and not to the hybrid group of sediment interpretation of multibeam data can be aimed ized by lobe deposits formed beyond the chan- gravity fl ows (sensu Haughton et al., 2009). at determining the sedimentary processes occur- nel mouths. The Capo d’Orlando Basin plain is ring in modern deep-sea fans, an essential step confi ned seaward by the submarine slope of the SUBMARINE FAN MORPHOLOGY, toward the understanding of facies develop- Aeolian Islands. An extensional fault bounds the PROCESSES, AND FACIES ment. The data deriving from old, but still amply basin to the west and is responsible for its west- used, techniques of marine geology can greatly ward dip (Gamberi and Dalla Valle, 2009). A The available data set has been used to deter- enhance the strength of facies interpretation submerged structural high, connecting the Sicil- mine the sedimentary processes that prevail in obtained from bathymetric information. Apart ian margin with the Aeolian Island arc, bounds the various parts of the basin. In particular, the from few instruments with limited availability, the basin toward the east. The area is affected by character of the sediment gravity flows in sidescan sonars and high-resolution sub bottom a high rate of regional uplift (Westaway, 1993) the canyons, channels, and lobes, was deter- profilers have not undergone revolutionary and ongoing fault activity as displayed by the mined through the combined interpretation of development in recent years. However, they still seismicity of the area (Pondrelli et al., 2006). the genetic signifi cance of the seafl oor geo- furnish superior data, the importance of which morphology and backscatter at different scales, is now better appreciated when they are used to DATA AND METHODS and core interpretation. As a result, a map of complement interpretation of seafl oor bathym- the different discrete fans in the study area was etry (Sager et al., 2004). The routinely available The available data set consists of multibeam produced (Fig. 4). In the study area, the Calavà techniques of seafl oor sampling have remained bathymetry acquired in 1999 with a SIMRAD and the Orlando canyons have their heads close largely unchanged in the last years, but never- EM-12 multibeam at depths >500 m (Gamberi to the coastline (<500 m; Fig. 5) and are thus theless provide geophysical data ground truth- and Marani, 2004; Gamberi and Dalla Valle, defi ned as connected canyons. The Calavà can- ing and facies evaluation. 2009). Further multibeam data were succes- yon head is located in front of a river mouth In this paper we expand the analysis of pres- sively acquired to complete the bathymetric (Fig. 4) and is therefore defi ned as a river- ent-day highstand fans to determine how their coverage of the area during the cruise TORDE10 connected canyon. The Orlando canyon head

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A 14°10′0″E 14°20′0″E 14°30′0″E 14°40′0″E 14°50′0″E 38°30′0″N Lipari Aeolian Island southern slope N

structural ridge Vulcano

38°20′0″N Naso channel

Calavà channel Orlando channel

Zappulla channel

38°10′0″N Cape Calavà Cape Orlando

01020km –12 m –1797 B C ITALY

! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! " ! ! "!) ! " ! ! ! " ! " ! " ! " ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! ! ! ! "! ! " ! ! ! !" !!" ! SICILY focal mechanism instrumental epicenter hystorical epicenter ! gravity cores " box cores single-channel profiles CHIRP profiles

Figure 1. (A) Shaded relief map from multibeam bathymetric data of the Capo d’Orlando Basin. The southern slope of the Aeolian Island arc conﬁ nes the basin to the north. A fault-bounded structural ridge and the slope of the Lipari and Vulcano islands are the western and eastern boundaries of the basin, respectively. Seismicity (dots), historical earthquakes (stars) and focal mechanisms are from Pondrelli et al. (2006). (B) Seismic and subbottom CHIRP (compressed high-intensity radar pulse) proﬁ le coverage over the study area. (C) Location of the Capo d’Orlando Basin along the northern Sicilian margin. The box corresponds with the area in A.

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14°10′0″E 14°20′0″E 14°30′0″E 14°40′0″E 14°50′0″E 38°30′0″N Calavà fan distributary Aeolian Island slope channels Lipari

Calavà fan fringe

sediment waves

38°20′0″N Orlando fan distributary Calavà fhannel channels Naso levee Calavà canyon

Naso channel abandoned canyon system landslide Orlando channel Brolo abandoned canyon 38°10′0″N Cape landslide Calavà abandoned canyon system Cape Orlando Zappulla fan Zappulla channel mass-transport lobes

0 10 20

Figure 2. Seafl oor refl ectivity from multibeam data of the Capo d’Orlando Basin. The Zappulla channel and related mass-transport lobes have a very high backscatter. The Calavà fan distributary channels correspond with narrow linear stripes with higher backscatter than the surrounding seafl oor. Large sediment waves are shown by alternating stripes of higher and lower backscatter in the Naso and Calavà fans.

does not face a major river, but is located down- and further downchannel, sediment waves at the thin, medium sand basal part grading upward current from a major river delta and is called seafl oor provide evidence of turbidity current into a thicker mud cap. However, an ~1-m-thick a littoral cell–connected canyon (Fig. 4). The activity (Fig. 6B). The sediment wave area has fi ner grained parallel-laminated turbidite and a Naso and the Zappulla canyons have their heads high backscatter in the sidescan sonar and lacks mudclast-rich coarse to medium sand turbidite stranded at the shelf edge, far from the coastline penetration in the subbottom profi le (Fig. 6B), are present. Further westward, the channels die (>2.5 km; Figs. 4 and 5); they are referred to suggesting that it is composed of coarse-grained out distally into a featureless fan fringe (Figs. here as disconnected canyons. bedforms. The sediment waves have a wave- 2 and 4), where subbottom profi les show that a length of ~100 m, a suitable indicator of coarse- succession of relatively thin bedded refl ections Connected Canyon Fans grained bedforms (Wynn and Stow, 2002; Gam- account for the upper 50 m of the fan stratig- beri and Marani, 2011). Coarse-grained, graded, raphy (Fig. 6D). This seismic facies is taken Calavà River Connected Turbidite Fan and laminated sands sampled at the seafl oor in as an indication that turbidites predominate in The head of the Calavà connected canyon the sediment wave fi eld (Fig. 6C) provide evi- the entire most recent sediment package of the is very close to the coastline adjacent to Cape dence of Holocene turbidites, confi rming the Calavà fan. Calavà and a few tens of meters from the coast- geophysical interpretation. The Calavà chan- line the canyon fl oor is >100 m deep (Figs. 1, 3, nel feeds a large lobe (50 km long and 10 km Orlando Littoral Cell–Connected Mixed Fan and 5). Further downslope, the Calavà canyon wide) with a series of diverging channels that The Orlando canyon has its head very close has a relatively fl at fl oor where the subbottom head toward the western part of the basin (Figs. to the coastline adjacent to the Cape Orlando profi le lacks penetration and the sidescan sonar 2 and 4). The channels have low relief, and are (Figs. 1 and 5). It connects with the Orlando shows a high backscatter, indicating the pres- best imaged in the multibeam backscatter image channel that crosses the headwall of a landslide ence of coarse-grained deposits (Fig. 6A). At the (Fig. 2). In the middle part of the lobe, the core involving a large portion of a preexisting levee base of slope, the canyon passes to the Calavà of Figure 6E shows that 8 turbidites make up wedge (Fig. 4). Further, smaller scale collapse channel that heads toward the northwest (Figs. most of the last 2.80 m of the sedimentary suc- events also occurred in the area, as shown by an 2 and 4). At the canyon to channel transition cession. Turbidites are mainly composed of a abundance of landslide scars and blocky mass-

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14°10′0″E 14°20′0″E 14°30′0″E 14°40′0″E 14°50′0″E 38°30′0″N Aeolian Island slope Lipari

Fig. 6D Fig. 7E Fig. 6E 500 250

sediment waves

! Figs. 6B,C Figs. 7C,D Figs. 8A,B ! Fig. 9E Fig. 7B 38°20′0″N Fig. 9D ! ! Figs. 9A,B " ! ! Fig. 6A Calavà channel

blocky texture Cape Orlando channel Fig. 8C Calavà 1500 1400 Fig. 7A Naso channel 38°10′0″N 5 500 10 200 Cape Zappulla channel 100 Orlando Fig. 9C Fig. 5

50 30 20 10 km

0 10 20

Figure 3. High-resolution deep towed MAK (www.cggeinternational .com /MAK -1M .htm) sidescan sonar mosaic. The lobes of the Zappulla fan are characterized by a blocky texture. A blocky texture also characterizes mass-transport deposits due to levee wedge failure in the area of the Naso and Orlando channels. Sediment waves are present in the eastern levee of the Naso channel and in the ﬂ oor of the Calavà channel. The boxes correspond with the areas enlarged in the following ﬁ gures. Dots and square correspond with the location of respectively gravity and box cores shown in this paper. The locations of the CHIRP (compressed high-intensity radar pulse) and sparker lines shown in Figures 6D, 9C, and 9D are also shown. The box corresponds with the area imaged in Figure 5.

transport deposits in the levee and at the channel further downsystem (Fig. 7E), confi rming that terizes the Naso canyon. The Naso disconnected mouth (Figs. 7A, 8A). At the channel mouth, a both turbidites and mass-transport deposits are canyon links with the Naso channel (Figs. 1 and network of distributary channels forms a rela- present in the Orlando fan. 4). The straight western fl ank of the channel is tively large lobe (20 km long and 8 km large) interpreted to be fault controlled, including gul- that in its distal part is in contact with the Calavà Disconnected Canyon Fans lies and small landslide headwall scarps that are fan lobe (Fig. 4). In the proximal part of the fan positioned on the channel fl ank (Figs. 8A, 8C). lobe, sediment waves and scours are indica- Naso Mixed Fan Downchannel, signifi cantly larger landslide head- tive of turbidity current activity (Figs. 7B, 7C). The Naso canyon head is far from the coast- wall scarps continue to modify the western chan- However, a blocky seafl oor is also relatively line, at a distance of ~2 km, corresponding nel margin. Mass-transport deposits are abundant common, indicative of mass-transport deposits with an embayment in the shelf break (Fig. 5). on the channel fl oor, as shown by the widespread (Fig. 7C). Comet marks are formed in the lee of Upslope from the Naso fan, the sediments of the blocky sidescan sonar facies (Fig. 8C). However, some blocks, indicating that turbidity currents last transgressive and highstand sea-level stages turbidity current activity is also exhibited in the reworked the mass-transport deposits (Fig. 7C). are restricted to the shelf (Pepe et al., 2003). The channel fl oor through the excavation of two inner The core in Figure 7D, located at the channel Brolo abandoned canyon, 4 km to the east, has thalwegs, discontinuous fi elds of sediment waves, to lobe transition, shows that two parallel and a head physiography similar to that of the Naso and longitudinal furrows (Fig. 8C). Furthermore, cross-laminated medium sand turbidite layers canyon. It has a low backscatter and shows a on the eastern side of the channel, turbidity cur- overly a mass-transport deposit, consisting of thin-bedded drape in the subbottom profi le (Fig. rent overspill forms a levee with sediment waves folded and disrupted thin-bedded turbidites and 6A), suggesting that is it not a coarse-grained and scours (Figs. 2 and 4). Seafl oor sampling mudclast, within a silty matrix. A similar sub- setting. It is therefore reasonable to assume that confi rms that both turbidites and mass-transport bottom sedimentation pattern is found in a core a similar sedimentary setting currently charac- deposits are present in the channel fl oor (Fig. 8B).

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14°10′E 14°20′E 14°30′E 14°40′E 14°50′E 38°30'N 1500 Lipari Aeolian Island slope

500 2 50

38°20′N

1500

Calavà canyon 1400 Naso canyon 38°10′N 5 500 10 200 100 Orlando canyon Zappulla canyon Cape Orlando Cape Calavà 50 30 20 10 km 0 20 continental continental basin landslide head- fault shelf slope plain wall scarp along shore current Zappulla fanOrlando fan Naso fan Calavà fan river delta active channel/ abandoned mass canyon system transport turbidite

Figure 4. Map showing the different facies of the fans in the study area. The map results from the integrated interpretation of multibeam bathymetric data, seafl oor backscatter, subbottom profi les, and seafl oor sampling. Land data are from Sulli et al. (2013).

Zappulla Mass-Transport Deposit Fan Abandoned Canyon Systems marks, and sandy turbidites at the seafl oor, sug- In the shelf adjacent to the head of the Zap- gestive of highly turbulent fl ows, such as those pulla canyon, fi lled incised valleys show that the Both the eastern and western slope sectors initiated due to oceanographic processes and lowstand feeding system is currently shut off (Fig. bounding the described active fan systems dis- hyperpycnal fl ows (Piper and Normark, 2009; 9C). The Zappulla channel is fed by disconnected play intermediate backscatter in the canyons Romans et al., 2009). Northern Sicily is a moun- canyon heads within a large shelf edge embay- (Fig. 2), providing evidence that coarse-grained tainous, high-relief region and the rivers have an ment affected by sediment failure (Figs. 1, 5, sediment is not currently delivered to the sys- intermittent regime (called fi umara) with river and 9C). The channel parallels the base of slope tems. In the 3-km-wide eastern and 6-km-wide fl oods normally occurring twice a year in corre- and has a very high backscatter and blocky sea- western shelves, canyons do not indent the shelf spondence with rainy seasons (Regione Siciliana, fl oor indicative of mass-transport deposits (Figs. break and thus are currently shut off from a sedi- 2010). The solid discharge of the rivers facing 2 and 3). Distally, the Zappulla channel connects ment supply (Figs. 1 and 4). the study area can reach values of 80,000 m3/yr to small lobes (8 km long and 5 km wide) with a (Brambati et al., 1995). The area is also prone similar backscatter pattern (Figs. 3 and 9A), again DISCUSSION to fl ash fl oods, exemplifi ed by three events in suggesting mass-transport deposits (Fig. 4). The northern Sicily between 2007 and 2009 (Aronica mass-transport nature of the high backscatter lobes Connected Canyons Fan Facies et al., 2012). During fl ash fl oods, exceptionally is confi rmed by seafl oor samples (Figs. 9B, 9E). large volumes of sediment can be transported to Mass-transport deposits compose the major part The Calavà and the Orlando connected can- the river mouths, as shown by the mobilization of the subbottom succession of the Zappulla fan yons form, respectively, a turbidite and a mixed of 780,000 m3 of sediment in the 2009 event in a lobe, as shown by a stack of 4 transparent layers fan (Figs. 4 and 10A). The fans show abundant catchment of only 10 km2 close to the study area in the last 50 m of the lobe sequence (Fig. 9D). evidence of sediment waves, scours, comet (Aronica et al., 2012). During this episode, the

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Figure 5. Shaded relief map from multibeam bathymetric data of the continental shelf and the slope of the Capo d’Orlando Basin (see location in Fig. 3). The Calavà and the Orlando are coast-connected canyons having heads that reach the coastal area. The Naso and Zappulla canyons are disconnected canyons with heads at the shelf Fig. 11A break far from the coastline. The boxes cor- Brolo respond to the areas in Figure 11. canyon Naso (disconnected canyon abandoned) (disconnected)

Fig. 11B Calavà canyon Orlando (river connected) Zappulla canyon canyon (littoral cell connected) (disconnected) 10 km

B scour C E

sediment 0.01 m waves 0.05 m 0.2 m A 0.1 m C " msvf f mc vc

600 m laminated turbidite mud channel margin Brolo Calavà sediment massive turbidite sand canyon canyon waves hemipelagic mud mud clasts laminated 25 m turbidite sand 600 m 600 m 25 m D

75 m

50 m 2 m 1 m

25 m

500 m NW SE msvf f mcvc

Figure 6. The Calavà fan. Locations of images and cores are in Figure 3. (A) MAK (www .cggeinternational .com /MAK -1M .htm) sidescan sonar image and subbottom profi le of the Calavà connected canyon and the Brolo disconnected canyon. Note their different backscatter and subbottom facies. (B) Sediment wave fi eld in the fl oor of the Calavà channel. (C) Box core BC05 (located in B), showing the coarse-grained sand in the sediment wave fi eld area (m—mud, s—sand, vf—very fi ne, f—fi ne, m—medium, c—coarse, vc—very coarse). (D) Subbottom CHIRP (compressed high-intensity radar pulse) profi le in the distal part of the Calavà fan lobe. The thin-bedded refl ective facies is indicative of the prevalence of turbidite deposits. (E) Gravity core GC44 showing the turbidite succession in the middle part of the Calavà fan.

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landslide scar mass transport deposit landslide scar mass transport deposit mass transport deposit Orlando channel

600 m 25 m D E C mass-transport B deposit comet mark D 600 m ! 0.2 m

mass-transport channel margin sediment waves deposit

scour

600 m 25 m hemipelagic mud turbidite mud laminated turbidite sand cross- laminated turbidite sand chaotic mass transport deposit sandstone blocks in mass transport deposit massive turbidite sand 2 m 1 m

ms vf f mc vc

Figure 7. The Orlando fan. Locations of images and cores are in Figure 3. (A) MAK (www .cggeinternational .com /MAK -1M .htm) sidescan sonar image and subbottom profi le showing the Orlando channel and the widespread seafl oor instability and mass-transport deposits in its surroundings. (B) MAK sidescan sonar image showing the scoured seafl oor at the mouth of the Orlando channel. (C) MAK sidescan sonar image and subbottom profi le of the proximal part of the Orlando fan. In the sidescan sonar, the area with blocky texture is interpreted as the product of mass-transport deposits, whereas the smoother high-backscatter areas with narrow longitudinal ribbons are interpreted as turbidite deposits. In the eastern channel margin, thick transparent layers on the subbottom profi les correspond with the mass-transport deposits over- lying turbidites with thin-bedded refl ective facies. (D) Gravity core (located in C), showing that both turbidites and mass-transport deposits are present at the Orlando channel mouth fan (m—mud, s—sand, vf—very fi ne, f—fi ne, m— medium, c—coarse, vc—very coarse). (E) Gravity core GC43 showing the turbidites and the mass-transport deposits of the middle part of the Orlando channel.

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A Orlando fan Naso fan B area and are fed directly to the Calavà canyon X ray head through hyperpycnal fl ow processes during ! B river fl oods. A fi eld of sand waves is located west of the canyon at a depth of ~50 m (Fig. 11A). To

0.2 m the west of the Calavà canyon, two large rivers form deltas upslope from the disconnected Naso and Brolo canyons (Figs. 4, 5, and 10A). Long-

landslide shore currents trend east (Brambati et al., 1995), scarp western flank of mass-transport Naso channel and thus the north-south–trending axis of the deposit sediment waves is indicative of an eastward drift of sediment that, intercepted by the canyon head, forms turbidity currents. Thus the proximal part basal shear surface of the Calavà canyon, on the west side of a north- 600 m 25 m Naso 1 m channel ward-projecting cape, is fed both by hyperpycnal fl ows and by an eastward-fl owing littoral cell of C furrows sediment furrows waves deltaic sediment (Figs. 4 and 10). The Orlando canyon head is not connected with a major river, but there is a large river mouth only ~5 km to the west (Fig. 4). To the east of the major river mouth, two large west-east elongate mass-transport depocenters of Holocene sediment are separated deposit in coincidence with the canyon head (Fig. 11B). They are the evidence that the eastward-fl owing 2 m littoral cell redistributes the river-born sediment to form an asymmetric sediment distribution in gullied W flank 600 m the delta developed at the river mouth. We therefore interpret this fan as being fed by sediment burrows turbidite mud redistributed by a littoral cell that is intercepted mud clasts by the canyon. The Orlando fan shows that even sandstone blocks in mass transport deposit a coast-connected system can develop a mixed chaotic mass transport deposit facies (Figs. 4 and 10A). In this case, the substan- hemipelagic mud msvf f mc vc tial mass-transport component of the fan facies is the result of the abundant landslides generated in laminated turbidite sand its slope portion, where extensive failure of the cross-laminated turbidite sand channel levee wedge occurs (Figs. 4 and 10A). massive turbidite sand The thickness of the Holocene sediment is much higher in the coastal and shelf areas Figure 8. The Naso fan. Locations of images and cores are in Fig- surrounding the Orlando canyon than in those ure 3. (A) MAK (www .cggeinternational .com /MAK -1M .htm) side- surrounding the Calavà canyon (Figs. 11A, scan sonar image and subbottom profi le showing the widespread 11B). This setting can be the evidence that in seafl oor instability and mass-transport deposit in the areas sur- the case of the river-connected canyon much of rounding the Naso channel. (B) Gravity core (located by red dot the river-born sediment is bypassed to the deep in A), showing that both turbidite and mass-transport deposits are sea directly from hyperpycnal fl ows, and only a present in the Naso channel fl oor (m—mud, s—sand, vf—very fi ne, little amount is stored in the shelf surrounding f—fi ne, m—medium, c—coarse, vc—very coarse). (C) MAK side- the canyon head. On the contrary, in the case of scan sonar image of the fl oor and western fl ank of the Naso chan- the littoral cell–connected canyon, a large part nel. A blocky texture indicative of mass-transport deposits is wide- of river-born sediment is stored in the shelf, and spread within the Naso channel fl oor. However, sediment waves and only that involved in the littoral cell escapes the furrows indicate that turbidity currents are also active within the shelf and is fed to the canyon head. The differ- channel fl oor. ent capability of sediment storage in the shelf is in turn refl ected in the size of the two fans, the river-connected one being much larger than occurrence of hyperpycnal fl ows was observed away from the very narrow shallow-water area the littoral cell–connected one. at fi umara mouths (Casalbore et al., 2011). between the river mouth and the canyon head The Calavà canyon head is located in front of and form two separated sediment bulges (Fig. Disconnected Canyons and Mass-Transport the mouth of a relatively large river (Fig. 4). In 11A). This setting is here interpreted as the evi- Deposit Fan Facies the coastal area between the canyon head and the dence that the area that connects the river, and river mouth, Holocene deposits have a thickness the canyon head is characterized mostly by sedi- The Zappulla and Naso disconnected can- of <10 ms twt (two-way traveltime; Fig. 11A), ment bypass. We therefore conclude that much yons feed a mass-transport deposit and a mixed equivalent to about 10 m. The deposits thicken of the river-born sediments bypass the coastal fan, respectively.

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X ray B E A 0.2 m B mud clasts ! sandstone blocks in mass transport deposit chaotic mass transport deposit

hemipelagic mud

mass transport deposit

600 m 25 m

C Zappulla canyon landslide scarp infilled incised valleys 2 m 1 m 300 ms

600 ms mass transport deposits 3 km

D mass-transport deposit 1 75 m

50 m mass-transport deposit 2 25 m mass-transport deposit 3 mass-transport deposit 4

500 m W E

Figure 9. The Zappulla fan. Locations of images and core in Figure 3. (A) MAK (www.cggeinternational .com /MAK -1M .htm) sidescan sonar image and subbottom profi le. One of the mass-transport lobes of the Zappulla fan has a blocky texture and corresponds with a laterally restricted thick transparent layer. (B) Gravity core (located in A) showing the mass-transport deposits that make up the western part of the Zappulla fan lobes. (C) Sparker profi le showing the landslide occurring on the head of the Zappulla canyon. To the east, infi lled incised valleys are present in the continental shelf. (D) Subbottom profi le of the Zappulla fan showing that it is due to the stacking of thick transparent layers corresponding to mass-transport deposits. (E) Gravity core GC34 showing the mass-transport deposits in the eastern part of the Zappulla fan.

In the study area, active block faulting cre- within a canyon 10 km east of the study area for submarine fan growth in the area where the ates surfaces tilted as much as 0.8° (Sulli et al., was revealed by the rupture of a submarine cable canyons are not connected. 2013) that can represent a precondition for sedi- in coincidence with two regional seismic events In these fans, the facies of the failed sediment ment failure. The Capo d’Orlando Basin is char- (Ryan and Heezen, 1965). It can therefore be is variable, consisting of both muddy slope acterized by local widespread seismicity (Fig. concluded that earthquake-related landslides deposits of the Zappulla canyon areas and thin- 1A). Earthquake-triggered sediment transport favored by seaﬂ oor steepening are responsible bedded sandy turbidites formed on the levees

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coastline far from the shelf egde: length shelf shelf mass-transport A high B × width (km) edge condensed section Canyon type Coastal area Initiating 1 TIME stand vertical movement mechanism width / depth turbidite coastline progrades to the shelf (km) gradient (°) (m) mixed edge: fine grained turbidites late coastline still close to the shelf transgression condensed section edge: turbidites Prevailing hyper- 3 shelf edge instability: mass early 2 pycnal flows, transport deposits transgression 1.connected High uplift rate 70×12 0.5/3.5° 50 littoral-cell 4 low capture shoreline located near the shelf stand edge: turbidites dominate 2.disconnectedLow uplift rate Landslides 25×9 3.5/2.5° 70 late coastline progrades closer to the –50 m sea level fall Littoral-cell Slope 4° shelf edge: turbidites –120 m 3.connected High uplift rate capture, 40×10 1.0/4.0° 70 shelf edge deltas instability: mass transport deposits landslides 1° Shelf early interval of upper slope sea level fall Land instability: 4.disconnectedSubsidence Landslides 25×15 6.5/1.0° 120 mass transports dominate relative sea level (–) (+)

Figure 10. Factors controlling deep-sea fan facies development. (A) Highstand, active margin fans as a function of shelf setting and canyon distance from the coastline: 1—Calavà fan, 2—Naso fan, 3—Orlando fan, 4—Zappulla fan. (B) Passive margin fans as a function of the time along a cycle of sea-level variation (modiﬁ ed from Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Catuneanu et al., 2011). The colors along the sea-level curve refer to main fan facies and correspond with those in Figure 4.

of the Naso submarine channels, as shown where the deeper incised valleys formed during divergence between deep-sea fan facies develop- by cores. Sandy mass-transport deposits are river incision of the emerged continental shelf. ment in tectonically active margins and in passive transformed into turbidity currents more easily Active tectonics in the studied margin are margin models. (Fig. 10B). Our work shows that than muddy ones (Tripsanas et al., 2008). The responsible for fault-block tilting and differ- it is the landward migration of the canyon heads capacity of mass-transport deposits to transform ential rates of uplift (Fig. 10A). The Orlando that drives the possibility of sediment delivery to into turbidity fl ows is also enhanced by higher and Calavà Capes are part of a structural high the deep sea during the present highstand. Where seafl oor gradients (Piper et al., 1999b; Piper with high uplift rates (1 mm/yr; Di Stefano a more effi cient connection with river discharge and Normark, 2009). The gradient of the Naso et al., 2012) (Fig. 10A). To the west of the Cape exists, most of the river-born sediment is directly channel is 2.5°, whereas that of the Zappulla is Orlando, a northeast-southwest–trending exten- fed to the canyon heads, allowing the building of only 1.0°. Thus, in the Naso channel, the seafl oor sional fault parallels the coastline and causes sandy turbidite fans (Fig. 10A). In addition, our gradient and the facies of the collapsed mate- the lowering of the coastal area and of the shelf study suggests that the largest facies variability rial cause landslides to readily transform into (Figs. 4 and 10A). It is apparent that in the study in deep-sea fans is to be expected during high- turbidity currents in a way similar to the Grand area, the connected canyons are located in the stands. During highstands the disconnected can- Banks (Piper et al., 1999a). As a result, the Naso areas with the highest uplift rate. We therefore yons are cut off from coastal sediment supply, fan develops a mixed nature that contrasts with conclude that it is the rate of vertical movement and, depending exclusively on sediment supply that of the Zappulla fan, where mass-transport of blocks that determines the character of can- from seafl oor instability, build mass-transport deposits are prevalent (Figs. 4 and 10A). yons, by controlling shelf gradient and width fans. Our work shows that landslides and slope and thus the degree of incision of rivers during channel gradient can initiate or modify sediment Tectonics as Ultimate Control sea-level lowstand. Connected canyons feeding delivery to the deep sea, thus controlling the on Fan Facies turbidite fans are developed only in connection fi nal facies of deep-sea fans and the formation with blocks characterized by the highest rate of of mixed fan deposition. Attributes intrinsic to All the canyons of the study area were linked relative uplift. the deep-water slope portions of the systems are with river mouths during the last sea-level mini- therefore vital in modifying deep-sea fan deposi- mum, when incised valleys formed through river Deep-Sea Fan Facies: Active versus tion in active margins. The essential role of the excavation of the exposed shelf, as shown in the Passive Margins slope is thus a further aspect that sets apart deep- nearby northeastern Sicilian continental shelf sea fan facies in active and passive margins, the (see Gamberi et al., 2014). During sea-level Sequence stratigraphy models, developed latter being controlled merely by the position of fall and lowstand, rivers incise deeper where on passive margins with long-term subsidence, the coastline and the resultant variation of sedi- the shelf is narrower and steeper and where the show that the facies of deep-sea fans are mainly ment delivery processes to the deep sea. shelf edge is at shallower depth (Tornqvist et al., dependent on shifts of the coastline position 2006; Mattheus and Rodriguez, 2011). In the (Catuneanu et al., 2009, 2011) (Fig. 10B). CONCLUSIONS study area, a narrower, steeper shelf and a lower Models relate deep-sea fan facies to specifi c depth of the shelf edge characterizes the areas points in time along a cycle of sea-level variation, The integrated interpretation of geophysical where the two connected canyons are located each with its own character of sediment delivery data and seafl oor samples provides the oppor- (Figs. 4 and 10). On the contrary, a relatively to the deep sea (Catuneanu et al., 2009, 2011). tunity to study the sedimentary processes and wide, gently sloping shelf is present in the areas A long-term 1 mm/yr regional uplift affects the the facies of present-day deep-sea fans along an where the Zappulla and the Naso disconnected northeast Sicilian margin (Westaway, 1993) and active margin as a function of canyon connec- canyons are located (Figs. 4 and 10). The geo- block faulting results in local uplift rates as high tivity to sediment sources, the initiation mecha- morphology of the shelf therefore substantiates as 5 mm/yr (Di Stefano et al., 2012). Our work nisms of sediment transfer to canyons, and fl ow that the connected canyons are now present therefore offers the possibility to highlight the response to gradient changes. Most of the deep-

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A 4. Coast-connected canyons have the ability to build large turbidite fans; eventually sediment failure in the slope part of the systems can cause landslides that result in the building of mixed fans. 5. Both coast-connected and disconnected canyons can form mixed fans, in the ﬁ rst case 20 as a result of sediment failure in the slope part 10 of the system, and in the latter as a result of ﬂ ow transformation of mass-transport processes into turbidity currents.

10 20 30 20 6. Coast-connected canyons form in areas sediment with high uplift rates, with a narrow and steep waves shelf; disconnected canyons develop where lower uplift rates or subsidence is occurring and the shelf is large and relatively gentle. Overall, we show that, in active margins, sediment transfer to the deep sea is not merely B a function of sediment supply to the margin 40 50 and shelf accommodation space driven by sub- 60 10 Alluvial, coastal plain sidence, as in passive progradational margins. 20 70 and beach deposit Coastal progradation is in fact not a prerequi- (Holocene) site for sediment delivery to the deep sea, as 30 90 demonstrated by the Sicilian margin source to 100 sink sediment transport system. Regardless of 40 90 their absolute volume, sediments can bypass 110 the shelf where river-connected canyons are 50 80 pre-Holocene substrate fed by hyperpycnal ﬂ ows from rivers that, not 60 having space for the construction of prograd- 70 ing deltas in the shelf, directly feed their load to the canyon heads. In this case, the lack of Holocene deposit accommodation for river-born sediment in the isochronopach shelf is brought about by canyon landward (ms TWT two-way time) migration rather than by coastal progradation as in passive progradational margins. Further- more, even when rivers, being not directly connected with canyon heads, have enough accommodation space to build deltas in the canyon margin coastal areas, littoral cell–connected canyons can be active where there is a favorable inter- play among canyon head, river delta location, Figure 11. Maps of the thickness (measured seismically: twt—two-way traveltime) of Holo- and the direction of sediment transport by cene deposits in the areas of the coast-connected canyons (modiﬁ ed from Istituto per la Pro- littoral cells. tezione e la Ricerca Ambientale, 2014). (A) Calavà canyon area. (B) Orlando canyon area. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the technical crews and colleagues who made possible the acquisition of the data set during sea fans of the study area continue to receive fans; however, depending on the lithology of the oceanographic cruises over a long time span. Ales- sandra Mercorella and Elisa Leidi reprocessed the sediment during the current highstand, as shown failed masses and on the slope gradient, land- compilation of swath bathymetry data; Andrea Galle- by other examples worldwide. Thus our fi ndings slides can transform into turbidity currents and rani assisted with sample collection. We thank the consolidate the idea that, particularly in active as a fi nal result a mixed fan is formed. participants and the Chief Scientists Michael Ivanov margins, present-day sediment delivery to the 2. Coast-connected canyons, with heads close and Neil Kenyon of the TTR-15 cruise of R/V Profes- deep sea is relatively common. to the coastline, can be river connected and are sor Logachev. We also thank Brian Romans and Lorna Strachan for their reviews on an early version of this The processes that feed sediment within the fed by hyperpycnal fl ows, or littoral cell–con- manuscript, and David Piper for insightful comments canyons, in turn controlled by the type of connected canyons fed by longshore currents that and suggestions through the various stages of devel- nectivity of the canyons to sediment sources, rework coastal and shelf sediment. opment of this paper. This work was supported by are a major control on the facies of the deep-sea 3. Single coast-connected canyons can also the “MAGIC project” (Marine Geohazards along the Italian Coasts) of the Dipartimento della Protezione fans along the studied active margin. be characterized by multiple sediment supply Civile and by the “Ritmare project” of the Programme 1. Coast-disconnected canyons are fed by mechanisms when hyperpycnal flows and Nazionale della Ricerca funded by the Ministero landslides and form mass-transport deposit littoral cells combine as sediment sources. dell’Università e della Ricerca.

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