Impacts on Mixed Mountain Agriculture in the Rupal Valley, Nanga Parbat, Northern Pakistan Author(S)

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Impacts on Mixed Mountain Agriculture in the Rupal Valley, Nanga Parbat, Northern Pakistan Author(s): Marcus Nüsser and Jürgen Clemens Source: Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 16, No. 2 (May, 1996), pp. 117-133 Published by: International Mountain Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3674006 Accessed: 14-04-2015 21:22 UTC

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IMPACTSON MIXEDMOUNTAIN AGRICULTURE INTHE RUPAL VALLEY, NANGAPARBAT, NORTHERN PAKISTAN

MARCUS NOSSER1 AND JURGEN CLEMENS2

ABSTRACT In the Hindukush,Karakorum, and northwestHimalaya the struggle for subsistence by mountain farmers is based on agricultureand animal husbandryin the formof mixedmountain agriculture. This studyanalyses the seasonal pastoralmigrations to alpine pasturesas a strategyfor utilizing the naturalresources in theRupal Valley,south of Nanga Parbat(8,126 m). Traditionally,this strategy of resourcemanagement was sustainable,but increasesof populationand livestockas wellas external innovationsare rapidlyeffecting change throughoutthe region.However, the resultsof thisdevelopment vary according to the potentialfor off-farm employment and accessto modeminfrastructure in each valley.In Hunza,approximately 100 kmnorth of Rupal, theutilization of alpine pasturesdecreased following a significantreduction of themale workforce and, afterthe introduction of cash cropsand foddercultivation, cropping patterns changed. Agriculturein theRupal Valleyduring the last 20 yearsis characterizedby an increasein animalhusbandry and pastoralmovements. Althoughthere is also off-farmemployment, itis morelikely that animal husbandry will remain an importantpart of theagro-pastoral economyand thereis potentialfor its commercialization.

sur mixtede montagnedans la de Rupal, Nanga Parbat,Pakistan du nord.Dans l'Hindoukush, RISUMt Impacts 1'agriculture vallie Karakorumet l'Himalayadu nord-ouest,la luttepour la subsistancedes fermiersde montagneest basee surl'agriculture et I'ilevage, sous la formed'une agriculturemixte de montagne.Cette etude analyseles migrationspastorales saisonnieres en tantque strategie d'utilisationdes ressourcesnaturelles de la vallee de Rupal,au sud du Nanga Parbat(8 126 m). Cette strategiede gestiondes ressources&tait viable dans le passe,mais la croissancede la populationet du betail,ainsi que le prograsf l'extbrieur,ont entrainedes changementsrapides dans la region.Cependant, les r'sultatsde ce developpementvarient selon le potentield'emploi non ruralet I'acces a l'infrastructuremoderne de chaque vallee.Dans l'Hunza, faenviron 100 kmau nordde Rupal, I'utilisationdes pituragesalpins a diminuepar suited'une reductionimportante de la main-d'oeuvremile, et les modes de cultureont change apres l'introductionde culturescommerciales et de la culturedu fourrage. L'agriculturedans la vall*e de Rupal au coursdes 20 dernieresannees est caract&ris6epar une augmentationde l'6levagedes animauxet des deplacementspastoraux. Bien qu'un l'emploinon ruralexiste, il estprobable que l'6levagedes animauxcontinuera a tenirune place importantedans l'&conomieagro-pastorale et qu'un potentielexiste pour sa commercialisation.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Einfliisseauf die Hochgebirgslandwirtschaft imRupal-Ta4 Nanga Parbat, Nordpakistan. Autochthone Handlungsstrate- gien zur Existenzsicherungim Hochgebirgsraumvon Hindukusch,Karakorum und Nordwest-Himalayakombinieren den Bewasse- rungsfeldbauauf Talniveau mit almwirtschaftlicherNutzung alpiner Hochweiden.Dieser Beitraguntersucht die Formender Hochgebirgslandwirtschaftund ihrejiingere Entwicklung im Rupal-Tal,siidlich des Nanga Parbat(8126 m). Die traditionelleHochgebirgslandwirtschaft hat bislangeine nachhaltigeNutzung der natiirlichenRessourcen gewdhrleistet. Bev61lkerungswachstumund die Zunahmeder Viehbestinde sind typisch ffir den gesamtenHochgebirgsraum. Doch in Abhfingigkeit von der M6glichkeitzu auf3eragrarerErwerbstfitigkeit zeigen sich verschiedene Verinderungen. In Hunza (etwa100 kmn6rdlich von Rupal) erfolgteein Rfickgangder Hochweidenutzunginfolge einer Arbeitskraftverknappung sowie verfinderter Anbauschwerpunkte durchmarktorientierten Anbau und Futterbauwirtschaft. Im Rupal-Talist ffir die vergangenen20 Jahrejedoch eine zunehmendeBedeutung von Tierhaltung und Almwirtschaftfestzustellen. Trotzder einsetzendenauBeragraren Einkommensm6glichkeiten wird die Viehwirtschafthier auch weiterhineine hohe Bedeutung behalten,zumal noch Potentialezur marktorientiertenViehhaltung erschlossen werden k6nnen.

INTRODUCTION

This studypresents a detailed surveyof the systemof akorum the utilization of alpine pastures forms an in- animal husbandryand grazingresources in the Rupal tegral part of high mountain agriculture. The ecological Valley,a side valley of the AstorValley in the Nanga potential and limitations of the summer and transitional Parbatarea of thenorthwestern Himalaya (Figure 1). The pastures, shortages of winterfodder, and socioeconomic adaptivestrategies of mountainfarmers and thecarrying impacts are factors that affectland use. capacityof the land are analyzedin termsof the use of The central concern throughout the Himalaya is the alpine pastures.In the Hindukush,Himalaya, and Kar- threatto montane forestresources fromoverexploitation

IDepartmentof Geography,The Free Universityof Berlin,Grunewaldstrasse 35, D-12165 Berlin,Germany. 2Departmentof Geography,University of Bonn, MeckenheimerAllee 166, D-53115 Bonn, Germany.

? International Mountain Society and United Nations University

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A generalview of theNanga Parbat region showing the upper Zaikot Valley. All photo- graphsare by M. Nfisser.

and subsequenteffects on theneighboring lowlands. This There have been fewscientific studies based on synop- regionhas been thefocus of muchenvironmental discus- ticaspects of theNanga Parbatregion. There is a remark- sion and manydevelopment projects; however, it has been able gap of knowledge in the relationship between suggestedthat frequently studies have been based upon human activitiesand the biosphere.In the 1930s some false assumptionsand inaccurate estimatesdue to in- well-knownstudies of physical geography were carried out sufficientknowledge of local conditions(Ives and Mes- withinthe framework of mountaineeringexpeditions to serli, 1989; Kreutzmann,1993 b: 10-15). However,the Nanga Parbat.To thisday, the 1934 topographicsurvey by ecological aspects of high pastureshave receivedvery Finsterwalderand Raechl (Finsterwalderet al., 1935 a, b) littleattention. and the 1937 vegetationsurvey by Troll (1939), which

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Sources: Kartader Nanga Parbat-Gruppe, 1:50.000R Deutsche Himalaya Expedition,1934 397 KFA-1000Satellite-Data; 11.7.1988 gometrical rectified 4004 Own Survey, 1992 & 1993 Draft,1994: J. Clemens & 60 M. NOsser .35.15'. Cartography:J. Clemens 35*15' -

-3310

4270 m npur* 2577 3982 - -P ano3982aP

. [m] PermanentSettlements So4ooo 3982 AltitudeContourline[m] - Nucleated , .... Pass Settlement o, o-0--0 Glacier: V 11 Dispersed .3580 I -Ice/Snow-covered Settlement .. -2oc Sa isonal Settlements: C: Up" " S 4233 ? -Debris-coverederce , -With River OnlyPasturesCultivation to ...... Lake, zCo _ i o- IrrigatedFields - Deserted 310'N 043D472 Jeeproad atii 435o10 4839 SFootpth [111. of peditions/ x 17440' Bridge 'BasecemaCamps Lt'0 FIGURE1. The the cultivated area n/ Rupal Valleyshowing (i.e., irrigated) and thelocation of seasonalsettlements in relationto the permanentvillages. tm1 z(A NN

?.D

This content downloaded from 129.206.86.242 on Tue, 14 Apr 2015 21:22:29 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 120 / MOUNTAIN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 'Usks kistan(.'t7Oq-< 81 :MV131MI'm aplis a ?-:x::x...... lNEP Aghanistan, I.:~NXMM.-?-.-NE.M...... M-M-MMM-...... NER ...... i::M M ::- ......

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Townnhaitans>25000 37f...... k 0 K O M...... WO N Pakistan VrrPass' ittnLie1'1ouAlteN.ro 100 m Tereresetatin otncesaiyofintenatinaluhoiatvIndia

FIGURE 2. The locationof the re- searcharea. During the period of Britishcontrol, the Astor Valley pro- videda routethrough the mountains betweenSrinagar and Gilgit; after partitionof the subcontinent in 1947, thesetraditional communication lineswere interrupted; more recently theNanga Parbat region has become moreaccessible after the opening of theKarakorum Highway (KKH). resultedin splendidmaps, scale of 1:50,000,have been an Accordingto Gr6tzbach(1980: 267, 272), theintensity importantsource of valuable information. However, these of high-altitudepasturing reflects the economic and de- surveys,and also otheravailable geological, glaciological; mographicfactors in the permanentsettlements of the and climatologicalreports, pay littleattention to aspects lower altitudinalbelts. The use of high pasturesis an of land use and animal husbandry.Recent work by cul- importantindicator of the socioeconomicconditions in turalgeographers and anthropologistsin adjacentmoun- highmountain regions. As a resultof his studyin Hunza, tain areas of the Karakorumand Hindukushdeal with Kreutzmann(1989: 143) regardspasture use as an indica- aspectsof animal husbandryand offercomparable data tionof a newevaluation of labor inputsand of changing forthis study (Gr6tzbach, 1984; Kreutzmann,1988, 1989, prioritiesin productionwithin integrated high-mountain 1993 a; Langendijk,1991; Butz,1993; Uhlig,1995). agriculture.In his opinion,changing influences, such as In a recentoverview of mountainpasturing (Almwirt- populationpressure and externalsocioeconomic innova- schaft)in the regions of Hindukush,Karakorum, and tions,do not necessarilyaffect the intensityof animal northwestHimalaya, Snoy (1993) indicatesa remarkable husbandry.The reasons are more likelyto be found decline in animal husbandry,although the population withinthe entiresystem of mixed mountainagriculture. continues to grow.According to his sources,the work- WhereasGr6tzbach (1980) points to a general relation- forceis no longerlarge enough to fulfillthe demands of shipbetween population growth and pressureon natural alpine pasturing,because of the convenienceand eco- resources,Kreutzmann (1989) emphasizesthat, due to nomic advantageof non-agrarianincome opportunities new income fromoff-farm employment and changes in (Snoy,1993: 69). Kreutzmann'sfindings (1989: 139-143; animal husbandrysuch as increasingfodder cultivation 1993 a: 33) in the Hunza valleyprovide a good example and stall feeding, this relationship is not at all well of thisdecline in high pasturingwhere the numberof defined. animalsincreased in proportionto populationgrowth. In Generally,high mountains in developingcountries are summer,however, the lactatinganimals are stall-fedand characterizedby rudimentary accessibility and consider- no longerleft to graze in the highpastures. able intra-regionaldevelopmental disparities, due to lack

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AstorTahsil (Population; log.) Villagesof Rupal (Population; Nos.) 100,000 2,500 frameworkof a study of the Aga Khan Rural Support * AstorTahsil Programme, a project of rural development in the high mountains of Northern Clemens noted Za ip ur ...... Pakistan, (1992) that sometimes increased f Rehmanpur intra-regionaldisparities during for the central areas of Hunza Tarishing . . project activities; example, ...... These 0 Churit2 ...... 2,000 received special development advantage. findings were confirmed by Langendijk (1991) for Ishkoman where social and economic change also took place, al- 10000 though to a lesser extent. In Ishkoman the use of high a1,500 pastures has not declined, but shepherds are hired while the local households spend the summer in permanent settlementson the valley floor (Langendijk, 1991: 37-38). Hunza is exceptional within the Northern Areas because the early initiation of socioeconomic change created an 1,0 0 0 ...... advance in development which exceeded that of sur- but this had effects on the 1.0 0 0 ...... rounding regions; negative intensityof use of high pastures in Hunza. These intraregional developmental disparities within 500 the high mountains of Northern Pakistan indicate the significance of the historical factors in the Astor and Rupal valleys.Astor belonged to Kashmir as an indepen- dent Tahsil (district) in GilgitWazarat until 1947. Due to the Gilgit Road from Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir in 1ooo0 the south, and the military outpost in Gilgit and other o 0) na) Astor became a transit in the mountains Yea) garrisons, region (Figure 2). The road increased the opportunity for non- Years income from and trade. However, FIGURE3. Populationgrowth in AstorTahsil and villagesof the agrarian transportation Astor lost this after the of British Rupal Valley,1900-1990, indicatingthe rapid increase after key position partition 1941. India in 1947. The line of control dividing the Pakistani Sources:Anon. (1890); Census of India (1912, 1923); Singh and Indian administered parts of Kashmir is situated 40 (1917); GeneralStaff of India (1928); Ahmad (1952); Censusof km south of Rupal near the Kishanganga River and cuts Azad Kashmirand NorthernAreas (1961); Khan (1979); Govern- off the Astor Valley from its historical connections with mentof Pakistan Revenue Astor (1984); Office, (1991; 1992a). Srinagar.This "peripheralization" of Astor has been grad- ually broken down with the completion of the Karakorum Highwayin 1978 and the opening up of higher valleysfor of infrastructureand spatial distribution of resources. four-wheeldrive vehicles (Allan, 1989: 131; Kreutzmann, These factors apply especially to the Northern Areas of 1991: 723; 1995: 219-221). Pakistan. The altitudinal zonation and the factorof access In the Rupal Valley the most significantfactors are: the are closely related in their impacts on the land-use sys- high rate of population growth (sometimes over 4% a tems. In his model of accessibility,Allan (1986: 191) puts year,Figure 3); the improved accessibilityto the "modern particular emphasis on the temporal sequence fromtradi- world" via the Karakorum Highway; the extension ofjeep tional, subsistence-orientedvillages withlimited access to roads up to Tarishing; and the impacts of these develop- neighboring market-orientedagricultural villages. Allan's ments on the intensityand efficiencyof high mountain model is based primarilyon the impact of the Karakorum agriculture,and high pasturing in particular. It has yet to Highway on land use in the mountainous regions of be seen whether or not population pressure will lead to Northern Pakistan. Butz (1993: 468) details that, al- overexploitationof pasture phytomass;whether the indig- though the construction of the Karakorum Highway and enous strategiesof local farmersare sufficientlyflexible; other roads generally improved the accessibility of all and whether or not the new exogenous influences and altitudinal belts, the villages and alpine pastures that sources of income from tourism and labor migration will previously had no road access are now perceived by the lead to specific changes of this traditional form of sub- population as being more remote than before. In the sistence economy.

MIXED MOUNTAIN AGRICULTURE AS A SYSTEM

Mixed mountain agriculture (Rhoades and Thompson, related and extend over the differentaltitudinal belts. 1975: 537; Kreutzmann, 1989: 148; 1994: 338; Uhlig, This economic systemis also known as "Vertical Control" 1995: 201, 203) is practiced in the Rupal Valley.Irrigated (Casimir and Rao, 1985: 222). In former times the strat- cultivation and pastoral activities are interdependently egy assured the subsistence of the population; today the

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PastoralMigration inRupal Valley Thormy 3500m Ghutum 3620m Chuko ,-'y June Khori NagaChakaly 35a m SSW 34M 3450 EayJune Chungphare " NE Dayar 3300m \ Ey E LbS

Je3 r wn Fm SeptemberBaffordat Eary E ba r 3200m

TarishingDoaM

m92911Eaihing Tr 9 Churit31 ChKarteder Nanga Parbat-Gruppe, 1: 50000 NucleatedSettlement thCultivation SpringtoAutumn DeutscheHimalaya-Expedition 1934ember

2911 m Churft 2733 m

PermanentSettlements Seasonal Settlements/ "Nirm/s" PastoralMigrations Source: ? Karteder Nanga Parbat-Gruppe,1 50 000 DeutscheHimalaya-Expedition 1934 F Settlement F WithCultivation SpringtoAutumn INuleated - L OwnSurvey 1992/1993 DispersedSettlement A OnlyPastures Winter Draft: FJ. Clemens, M. NOsser Graphics: Overwintering M.NOsser

FIGURE4. The patternof pastoral migration in theRupal Valley.

utilizationof differentaltitudinal agro-ecological belts permanentsettlement of Rupal-Pain (3,065 m) and the providesa widespread for agrarian risks. Butz (1993: 463; cultivationof barley near the summer settlementof 1994: 93) pointsout thatindigenous mountain commu- Yackmy(up to 3,340 nm),altitudinal limits of agriculture nitiesgain sustainabilityfrom altitudinal diversification by extend much higherhere than in other valleysof this increasingthe variety of potentialresources and byreduc- highmountain group (Troll,1939: 158). ing the risk of failuredue to natural hazards. Animal Due to altitude,the Rupal Valleyis a single cropping husbandry,therefore, continues to be mobile,so thata area withsummer grains dominant. The mostimportant varietyof differentpasture ecotopes can be used through- crop is wheat,followed by recently introduced maize and out the year.The pastoraleconomy whereby the moun- potatoes. These have reduced the cultivationof tradi- tainfarmer is able to use differentecotopes on a seasonal tional grainssuch as barley,buckwheat, and milletand basis is describedas Staffelwirtschaft(altitudinal zonation caused a change in the crop rotation.According to Pi- ofland use) or Almwirtschaft(high pasture economy) (see lardeaux (1995: 80-81), the displacementof the tradi- Kreutzmann,1989: 127, and Uhlig, 1976, 1995: 201-202 tionalgrains to highersummer settlements is widespread fordetailed discussionof the terminology). in northernPakistan and resultsfrom the expansion of Butz (1993: 462) argues that the differencebetween wheat and maize cultivationin the permanentsettle- the concepts of verticalityand Almwirtschaftis one of ments.Barley, however, is stillthe grain that can be grown emphasisrather than content. Whereas, on theone hand, at the highestaltitude due to its shortripening period the model ofverticality emphasizes the stronginfluence (Troll,1973: 46; and author'sown observations).Maize is of altitudein determiningthe productionstrategies of cultivatedup to about 2,750 m. Whereas thereis large- mountaincommunities, Almwirtschaft, on the otherhand, scale maize cultivationin Churitand Rehmanpur,the concentrateson the production sector of animal hus- cultivatedarea of Zaipurforms a transitionalzone, mainly bandry,using vertical ecological belts. Both concepts pro- because of the lack of solar radiation due to the Chu- vide a frameworkfor understanding how mountain farm- gahmridge to the southand itsshadow effect. Tarishing ers attaina balance betweenthe naturalresources and (2,910 m) and Nahake (2,980 m) are above the limitof theirmaterial requirements. maizecultivation. In comparison,in centralHunza maize The Rupal Valleyis a high valleyto the south of the is grownup to about 2,470 m (Kreutzmann,1989: 101) Nanga Parbat group and it releases its watersinto the and in Chitralto 3,000 m (Haserodt, 1989: 118). The AstorRiver, which is a tributaryof Indus.The valleyfloor cultivationof fruitand nut trees (mostlywalnuts) in the rangesbetween about 2,500 and 3,700 m (Figures1 and Rupal Valley also reaches an altitudinallimit around 4). The altitudinalbelts of all plantformations reach their 2,750 m. uppermostlimit in thisvalley due to theextreme uplift of The arableland in theRupal Valleygenerally lacks any Nanga Parbat'sRupal Face (Troll, 1939: 169). Withthe fixedcrop rotationin the sense of a common fieldsys-

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FIGURE 5. Traditionalthreshing in earlyOctober at Churit(2,730 m). Afterthreshing, straw and crop resi- duesare kept for winter fodder and cattleare allowed to graze freely on thefields. October 1992.

FIGURE 6. The harvestingof hayin autumnin thevillage of Tarishing (2,910 m); grassand haycut in Au- gustand September provide essential winterfodder for cattle. September 1993. tem.The agro-socialstructure is characterizedby individ- Fromthe beginning of thiscentury, supplies for the local ual householdsand is comparativelyhomogeneous. Very populationand troopsin the garrisonsalong the Gilgit fewfarmers own more than one hectareof arable land Road (Figure2) havebeen providedby regular deliveries (Khan,1979: 28). As a resultof thetraditional inheritance fromKashmir (Singh, 1917: 94). Until the end of the system,the cultivatedland is divided into even smaller 1970s,twice a yearfarmers from the Rupal villageswould units.The rapid populationgrowth in thestudy area has travelwith pack animals throughthe Chichi Valleyand led to recentvillage expansions and extensionsof irriga- over the ShontarPass at 4,564 m (Barron,1932: 63) to tion networks. down country(Kel or Mansehra).They would purchase Throughoutthe region,areas of singlecropping can- provisionssuch as grain,rice, sugar, salt, and tea. Nowa- not meet the food demands of the inhabitants.Often days,these productsare easily importedover the Kar- more than 50 percentof the requiredgrain and flouris akorumHighway by tractor orjeep and are obtainablein broughtinto the villagesat state subsidizedrates from the local bazaars (for Hunza and Gilgit District,see down country (Saunders, in Kreutzmann,1989: 113). Kreutzmann,1995: 221-222).

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FIGURE7. Summersettlement with additionalirrigated fields at about 3,080m; such settlements are usually usedtwice during the pastoral migra- tioncycle and providefields, pastures,and fuelwood. May 1994.

FIGURE8. Alpine pastureand settle- mentin theupper Rupal Valley; theseare used for eight or nine weeksin summertime;cows and bulls grazefreely while the men take sheep andgoats to thesurrounding hills at about3,600 m. July 1993.

Withinthe systemof mixedmountain agriculture, high the mountainsof northernPakistan (Figure 6; Snoy, pasturingand crop cultivationare interrelated.Tradition- 1975: 101 ff.;1993: 52, 65; Gr6tzbach,1984: 312). In the ally,plowing and threshingcould be done onlyby use of studyarea, no low-lyingwinter pastures are availableand animals (Figure 5) but withinthe lastten years,tractors animals mustbe stall-fed.In contrastto other parts of and threshingmachines have been introduced. The northernPakistan and even in Astor(Pilardeaux, 1995: roughtopography, however, prevents them from reaching 104),in Rupal agrarianinnovations such as mineralfertil- all the fieldsof the permanentsettlements and also the izerand mechanizationhave not reduced theimportance summersettlements, so thatanimal labor is stillrequired. of cattleand, to thisday, a symbioticrelationship charac- Althoughmineral fertilizer is nowreadily available, large terizesthe link between animal husbandry and crop culti- amountsof animal manureare also needed. In spite of vation(Khan, 1991: 2). seasonal movements,livestock raising is possibleonly in Crop residues,leaves, and hay are stored for winter combinationwith cropping,because over-winteringof fodder(Figure 6). Crop selectionis determinedby animal animalspresents the primarylimiting factor throughout foodrequirements. Traditional varieties of wheat are pre-

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Stages of Land Use in RupalValley: The Exampleof Churit

Altitude [m] 3500 -Tap-Area

3400-

3300-

- 3200 P I -HT 3200p .. /Rupal-Bala 3100-

3000 -

2900--

2800 P I T Churit 2700 ------J Month , ,D

Agriculturalactivities: Non-agriculturalactivities:

Pastoralmigrations Seasonal labourmigration ofadult men .--~ Cultivation Impactof tourism and participationof young men, eg. as portersor guides P - ploughing I - irrigating Dailycollection of fuelwood for winter storage, H - harvesting fromChichi Nallah T - threshing G - harvestingofgrass

Additionalexplanation: Source: Fieldwork1992/1993 Winterlyvisits of some families, Draft: J. Clemens,M. Nusser 1994 stallfeedingof cattle with hay and straw Graphics:M. Nisser

FIGURE9. Stagesof land use at Churitin theRupal Valley. Mixed mountain agriculture has been influenced recentlyby non-agricultural factors, especially job opportunitiesfor men.

ferrednot onlyfor bread, but also forhigh yields of straw. The pastoraleconomy, based on the altitudinalzona- Winterslaughtering (Daikkyo or Nasalo, Shina) is one tion of land use, involves seasonal settlements in the adaptive strategyto reduce the fodder demand; Nayyar upper valley zones (Figures 4, 7, and 8). According to (1986: 10) and Snoy (1993: 66) report this activityin Troll (1939: 157), there are two types of summer settle- Astor.Within villages, hay and straware exchanged be- ments: the "summer field settlement" and the "summer tweenhouseholds with excess and thosewith deficits. The pasture settlement" (cf. Uhlig, 1995: 201). The firstis allotment of arable land for fodder production was characterized by supplementaryirrigated agricultureand adopted only recently. Lucerne (Medicago sativa, M. X the latterby pastoral use only. Nirril(Shina) is the indige- varia) is cultivatedin onlya fewisolated patches and, at nous term used for all settlementsthat are occupied only this altitude, can be harvested up to three times a year. in certain seasons (Troll, 1939: 158). These vertical strate- According to Snoy (1993: 66), this is typicalfor the whole gies (Staffelwirtschaft,Almwirtschaft) have been developed mountainous region. due to the lack of sufficientpasture resources close to the

This content downloaded from 129.206.86.242 on Tue, 14 Apr 2015 21:22:29 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 126 / MOUNTAINRESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT permanentsettlements. Additionally, traditional rules for- Agriculturallabor is generallydivided according to bid the keeping and free grazingof animals near the gender.Traditionally, men tookcare of theirrigation and Heimgut(households in permanentsettlements) during livestock,whilst women were responsiblefor weeding, the croppingseason. Elected villagerepresentatives de- cuttinghay, harvesting, and milking,including milk proc- cide when the herds are to be moved (Figure 9), and essing. Comparablefindings are presentedby Herbers neighboringvillages must consent to these dates. The (1995: 237) for Yasin Valley.The divisionof labor by upward movementdepends upon the availablefodder genderis similaralso in Hopar (Nagyr);however, women supply (scarcity) in the Heimgut,in spring, and on do not go to the high pasturesand theyare excluded snow conditionsin the high pastures.In autumn,the fromtending sheep and goats (Hewitt,1989). Also,dur- animalscan be broughtdown onlyafter the completion ing thesummertime activity at theNirrils, the fields of the of harvesting. permanentsettlements still require labor input.For this One characteristicof the regionis the importanceof reason,during summer large familiesdivide theirlabor cooperativework in agriculturalproduction. Irrigation force among two or three altitudinal levels, whereas channels,roads, and bridgesare builtand regularlymain- smallerfamilies are forcedto change locationsfrequently tained bythe villagecommunity. This is indicatedby the or to delegateparticular duties to relatives.The village efficientutilization of limitedresources. Field watchmen ofChurit provides a good exampleof Staffelwirtschaft(Fig- (Rakha, Urdu, or Zaituh,Shina) ensure that the tradi- ure 9). tional ban of animalsis upheld (forBagrot Valley: Snoy, Meanwhilesome families spend thesummer also in the 1975: 112). Duringsummer all householdskeep one don- wintervillage (Heimgut)where there are schools and keyfor transportation, together with one goat or sheep small bazaars. The men take the opportunityto earn forregular milk supply, close to theHeimgut. A traditional moneyas high-altitudeporters or as mountainguides for communalrotational system (Ayegon, Shina), ensures daily touristsand trekkingexpeditions. In thesecases, the men grazingon thesurrounding slopes. Also on theNirrils, the fromthe winter village manage to irrigatethe fields of the labor intensivecare of sheep and goat herdsis commonly summersettlements (e.g., Rupal-Bala)which are nearby. shared.Relatives and neighborsprovide one male family Goat and sheep herdsare thenbrought to thepastures by memberto workas a shepherd,according to a rotational a relative in exchange for an agreed share of milk plan (Lachogon,Shina). products.

AN OVERALL VIEW OF THE PASTORALUSE OF ENVIRONMENTALRESOURCES

The horizontaland verticaldifferentiation of theenvi- THE LOWERRUPAL VALLEY ronmentalpotentials of the Rupal Valleydemand very In the lowervalley sector, recent dissection by fluvial differentstrategies, expressed by spatial and temporal erosionhas resultedin isolatedplateaus of groundmo- patternsof pastoralmigration between permanent settle- raineup to 50 m above theriver. All cultivatedland of the mentsand high pastures(Figures 4 and 9). The general permanentvillages between Rehmanpurand Rupal is patternof thisStaffelwirtschaft is fundamentally influenced situatedhere. Up to 200 m above these plateaus are by rightsfor the use of pasturesand foreststands in furtherglacial terraceson the southerlyexposed sunny variousvalley sectors. Usually, these rights are confinedto slopes thatare used foragriculture and settlements(Fig- thevillage boundaries, adjoining slopes, or valleysectors. ures 1, 7, and 8). Especiallyin this part of the valley, In some exceptionalcircumstances, however, villages re- hygrophilousbushes including species of Salix,Hippophae, ceive additional forestrights, such as when the forest and Populusare commonlyfound on wetsites. The domi- resourcesof one villagedo not providean adequatewood nantspecies of dwarf shrub on the southslope is Artemisia supply.For example,the villagesof Churit,Nahake, and brevifoliaand, due to theclose proximityof thepermanent Gageh are allowed access to the forestsof the Chichi settlements,Artemisia is used fortemporary pasturing be- Valley,although they have no pasturerights there (Clem- tweenwinter stall feeding and summerhigh-altitude graz- ens and Niisser,1995). The schematicprofile of theRupal ing. In thecontext of the rotationalherding system (Aye- Valley shows overlappingutilization rights (Figure 4), gon),it providesa limitedfodder supply, sufficient only whichare unusual forAstor and are based on factorsof for small herds. Cuttingsfrom the hygrophilousplant settlementhistory. formationsare dried and used in timesof foddershort- For a more detailed understandingof theseproblems, age in winter. thefollowing analysis of theenvironmental potential and Mostpasture settlements are located on the southerly utilizationstrategies in the valleyprofile is presented. exposed slopes,relatively close to the permanentsettle- Vegetationcover and land use shouldbe takeninto con- ments.The summerfield settlementsare found up to sideration,because theyrelate the spatialdistribution of 3,300m and are sometimesextensions of cultivatedland vegetationto topoclimaticand edaphic site conditions, withseparate huts outsidethe normalvillage boundary and also greatlyinfluence the wayof lifeof the people (Chack,Shina). The summersettlements of Doai-Bala and (Schweinfurth,1983: 537). Doai-Pain,as wellas Baffordat,represent the H6chststaffeln

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(higheststages of utilization).Formerly some higherpas- (1939) on the westside of the ChungphareGlacier, a turesand settlements(e.g., Dudeh Haret,Jamay Haret, distinctreduction in conifersand Betula utiliscan be and Susrat)were occupied fora fewweeks each year,but observed.As a resultof degraded and overexploitedfor- todaythey are desertedand are used onlyin the frame- estsin the Chungphareregion, Tarishing no longerhas workof dailygrazing from lower settlements (Figure 1). adequate timberresources. Between3,800 and 4,000 m Artemisiabrevifolia gives way to As previouslymentioned, livestock is also dividedbe- alpine Cyperaceaemats. The vegetationof thealpine belt tweenthe Chungpharepastures (lactating cows, sheep, is dominated by Kobresiacapillifolia. and goats) and the upper Rupal Valley (oxen, non- Betweenthese Nirrils, there are no fixedpasture bound- lactatinganimals). All Nirrilsof thisvalley section lie close ariesor exclusivegrazing rights for lineage groups, so that to the permanentsettlements and thisenables the chil- grazingin the alpine belt is freelyavailable to all farmers. drento attendschool dailyand youngmen to meettour- Most of the familiesfrom Churit and Nahake also own istgroups in Tarishingat shortnotice. land, and are allowed to use pastures,in the middleand In summary,the land use around the ChungphareGla- upper sectionsof the Rupal Valley.Often this leads to a cier is characterizedby the dominance of animal hus- divisionof livestock:labor-intensive animals (sheep, goats, bandrybecause of comparativelyeasy access to richpas- and lactatingcows) stayin the Nirrilsof the lowervalley, tures.Whereas there is no evidenceof severedegradation whereas oxen and young animals are taken by family of the alpine and subalpine mats as the main fodder membersto the upper areas wherethey graze freely. resource(apart fromlocations in close proximityto the On the northernexposed slopes of the lowervalley pasturesettlements), there is a remarkabledecline in the (Chugahm ridge), between about 2,800 and 3,700 m, juniperand birchforests. This causes severeproblems for humid coniferous forests with Pinus wallichiana, Picea thefuelwood supply of Tarishing. smithiana,and Abiespindrow are found. These foreststands are an importantlocal source of fuelwoodand timber. THE MIDDLE RUPAL VALLEY Apartfrom this, these slopes are used forforest pasturing In thisvalley section, ground moraine provides good and are the sitesof twosmall Zaipur Nirrils. conditionsfor irrigation. The area can be reachedonly by In summary,most of the settlementsand cultivated crossingthe debris-covered Chungphare Glacier. The per- land are situatedon thevalley floor. The vegetationcover manentsettlement of Rupal-Pain(at about 3,100 m) was and potentialland use of the adjoining slopes are pri- formerlyonly a summersettlement of Tarishing(Kick marilydetermined by the exposure to solar radiation. 1967: 116). This is evidentfrom the fact that most families Whereasthe dwarfshrub formation of Artemisiabrevifolia own land in both villagesand commonlyshare pasture covers the southerlyexposed slopes betweenthe culti- settlements(Figures 1 and 4). vated valleyfloor and its upper limitat 3,800 m, the One characteristicadaptation to scarcefodder supplies slopes exposed to the north are covered by temperate in winterin theHeimgut is thefrequent return to summer coniferousforests. In one or the otherway, all resources settlementsbetween January and March (Figures4 and 9) are utilizedin termsof grazing and fuelwoodsupply. Due wherefamilies remain usually for six to eightweeks and to the proximityof the permanentsettlements, the pres- feed stocksof hay and strawto theiranimals. It is con- sure on thesenatural resources is comparativelystronger sideredless problematicto guide the animals over the than in othervalley sectors. ChungphareGlacier in winterthan to transportlarge amountsof fodderdownstream to the permanentsettle- THE CHUNGPHARE GLACIER REGION ments.Recently, fewer families return to these Nirrilsin Near to the ChungphareGlacier are six pastoralsettle- winter;they exchange fodder supplies with other families mentswhich are frequentedonly by Tarishing and Rupal- betweenthe villages and the Nirrils. Pain farmers.With the exceptionof Bayals,an adjoining, The southerly-facingslopes are coveredextensively with southerlyexposed stripof cultivatedland belongingto Artemisiabrevifolia, whilst the northern slope of theRupal Tarishing,no fieldcultivation takes place here.Although ridgeis coveredwith coniferous forests which are used by thereare no altitudinalconstraints to cultivationin these the inhabitantsof Rupal-Painfor fuel and timber,and Nirrils,such as Dayar on the rightbank of the Chung- showclear signsof degradation(especially on the lower phareGlacier, it seemsthat the intensity and frequencyof slopes). Upstream,the conifersgive way to forestsand katabaticwinds from the glaciers are limitingfactors. small standsof Betulautilis (at approximately3,950 m) Nevertheless,the pastureshere are highlyvalued by the whichform the alpine treeline.Birch can be foundat locals and recentfield observations indicate no evidence 4,150 m and is upwardlyreplaced by Salix kareliniiin the of degradationof pasturevegetation. Especially on the formof krummholz(creeping shrub formations). "ice-freeislands" (moraines,surrounded by glaciers) of To summarize,the vegetationpattern of the middle Naga Chakalyand Thormyand on theslopes of Sharsingi valley sector with the distributionof Artemisiadwarf (4,676 m), therewere mats of Cyperaceaethat could be shrubsand coniferousforests, determined by exposure, grazed. Only along the main footpathsbetween the per- reflectsthat of thelower Rupal Valley.Due to altitude(up manentsettlements and theNirrils, was theredegradation to 3,350 m), theland use is dominatedby summer settle- of vegetationcover. mentswith cultivation. It is remarkablethat the people The Juniperusexcelsa woodlands on the southerlyex- riskcrossing the glacier with their herds in winterto feed posed slopes of the Sharsingi are stronglydegraded. themthe suppliesof hay and strawstored from the last When theyare comparedto thevegetation map ofTroll harvest.

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FIGURE10. Grazingon alpine pas- turesof Ephedra gerardiana in the upperRupal Valley at about3,650 m. July1994.

THE UPPER RUPAL VALLEY enon is a great advantage to mountain shepherdsand Erosional processesare affectedby the debris-covered reduces the pressure on the fodder supplies in the glaciersof Tap, Latobo, and Shaigiri.Wide areas of gravel Heimgut. depositsof recentsediments are formedbetween these Otherpasture settlements of the upper valleyare used glaciers at elevationsbetween 3,500 and 3,700 m (Fin- foreight or nineweeks in highsummer (Figures 4 and 9). sterwalder,1936: 333). On thesehigh-valley plains of the Grazingresources here are plentifulfor all the livestock upper Rupal Valley,alluvial fans and remnantsof isolated fromChurit, Nahake, Tarishing,and Rupal-Pain,and rockfallsprovide suitable sites and shelterfor ten pasture indicationsof local overgrazingare observedonly around settlements. theNirrils. Mixed herdsof sheep and goat graze dailyon In the upper areas,the longitudinalvegetation profile the surroundingslopes (Figure 10). Cattle graze freely showspronounced changes in thefloristic composition of throughoutthe upper valley, while lactating cows are kept Artemisiastands. The subalpine typeof dwarfshrub is near the summersettlements for regularmilking. It is characterizedby increasing numbers of Artemisiasantolini- importantthat the Nirrilsbe situated close to a water foliaand Ephedragerardiana. The lateralglacial moraines source and near the birchforests of the southernslopes provide enough groundwaterto supportthe growthof of the Rupal ridge.Willow stands on the lateralmoraine Salixspp. forests,and shrubs.Like thehygrophilous vege- and bythe river should be convenientlyclose as thewood tationunits of the lowerRupal, these are an important is used forheating and cooking (Figure 11). supplyof fodderduring the meagerwinter period. The mostimportant base campsfor trekkers and expe- One exceptionto thepastoral migration pattern is the dition groups are located in upper Rupal (Figure 1). NirrilLatobo (3,600 m) in the upper valley(Figure 8). Althoughtourism offers a welcomeextra income for men, About ten men fromTarishing and Rupal-Painshepherd base campssituated close to the Nirrilscan disruptvillage an average of 200 sheep and goats duringwinter. The life.This causes problems,especially for women, who are numberof animalsdepends on theannual amountof the forbiddenby theirreligion to have any contactwith for- hay harvestin the Heimgut.The use of high pastures eign men (the Purdahcommandment). Because of this, throughoutthe year is an extremesurvival strategy to one particularNirril, which once lay at the foot of the cope withthe scarcityof fodderin winter.This is unusual Bazhin Glacierand was frequentlyvisited by tourists, was fornorthern Pakistan, although Kreutzmann (1989: 138) abandoned. The location of base camps for trekkersin and Butz (1993: 491) have observed this in Shimshal close proximityto pasturelandon thevalley floor restricts Valley in Hunza. Cattle sheds in Latobo, which house the activitiesof the pastoraleconomy. onlyanimals in summer,are sharedby the shepherdsin The uppermostpart of theRupal Valley,including the winterand the livingareas are separatedby wooden parti- Mazeno and Toshain areas (west of the map shownin tions. Strongglacial windsin winterblow offthe snow Figure1, on both sides of the Rupal Glacier),is a subsidi- cover to expose Artemisiaand to allowgrazing along the ary region for animal husbandryin Rupal. The highly lateralmoraine and the lowerslope of theNanga Parbat productivevegetation mats around the valleyhead (be- southface (also knownas the Rupal face,towering more tween4,000 and 4,600 m), are grazed onlyby hardy non- than4,500 m overthe valley floor). This climatic phenom- lactatingcattle, mostly crossbred with yaks, because lack

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FIGURE11. The Tap Glacierand al- pinepastures in theupper Rupal Val- leyat about3,600 m. The lateralmo- rainesare vegetated by Salix and Juniperusforests and Artemisia spp. standswhich provide rich fodder for cattlefrom the nearby pasture settlements.July 1993. of firewood prevents establishment of a pasture V-shapedvalley, irrigated agriculture is restrictedto the settlement. alluvialfans of side valleys.At the end of thevalley is the An overviewof the upper Rupal Valleyshows that the summercamp of Bakrwalnomads who migrateannually vegetationis characterizedby the transitioninto sub- via the ShantorPass fromthe Potowarplateau nearJhe- alpine and alpine formations.On thenorth-facing slopes, lum. Conflictsover grazing grounds are unknownbe- conifersare replaced bybirch and willow,reaching down tweenfarmers and nomads. Trading and exchange of to thevalley floors at an altitudebetween 3,500 and 3,700 animalsand food is advantageousfor both groups and, m. This valleysector is used exclusivelyfor pasturing. The for the farmers,the purchase of donkeys is of great highestgrazing areas are in the uppermostpart of the importance. Rupal Valley (Mazeno and Toshain areas), reachingalti- Withinthe Chichi Valleyare the mostvaluable forest tudesof about 4,600 m at thevalley head. These areas of resourcesof the entirestudy area. Here, as mentioned productivealpine mats,however, serve only as subsidiary earlier,some villageshave rightsfor firewood collection, sitesfor animal husbandry. but no rightsfor grazing. According to the estimatesof local people and the forestdepartment, the naturalrate THE CHICHI VALLEY of reproductioncannot keep up withthe increasingde- The basic land use of the ChichiValley reflects that of mandfor wood. However,there are no plans forreforesta- the Rupal Valley. Due to the narrow profile of the tionin thisregion (Clemensand Nfisser,1995).

DISCUSSION ON PASTURE CAPACITY

In conclusion,the ecological carryingcapacity of the withthe actual intensityof use (stockingdensity, fodder high pasturesin Rupal remainsunimpaired. This is be- needs ofgrazing animals) show that the yield exceeds the cause no overexploitationtakes place althoughthe pas- basic fodderrequirements. This findingis confirmedby tures are used intensively.Moreover, according to the vegetationmapping, as isolated indicationsof degrada- local population and estimatesmade during this field tion can be identifiedas sitesaround the pasturesettle- study,the existinggrazing resources of highpastures are mentsand lineartracks along the main routesof pastoral adequate to supporta slightincrease in animalnumbers. migration.Kl6tzli et al. (1990: 22), fromstudies of the Case studies of the pastures of Naga Chakaly in the ecologicalconditions of highpastures in Hunza, depicta Chungphareregion and of Latobo in the upper Rupal similarsituation. In thiscontext, one has to considerthat Valley(Clemens and Nilsser,1995) serveas examplesto grazinggenerally has a strongimpact on the vegetation focus on the relationshipbetween pasture ecology and cover,which leads to a distinctbotanical change in the pastoralstrategies. The investigationsinto edible pasture balance of palatable and indigestiblespecies. The re- phytomass(in the sense of standingcrop, measuredby searcharea, however, is a culturallandscape that has been harvestingat theend of thevegetative period) compared developedby the inhabitantsover a long period of time.

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The actual species composition, as well as the distribution of animal husbandry are inadequate unless the problems of phytomass,have to be interpretedfrom a human- offodder shortage during the long winterseason are also ecological viewpointrather than froma solelybotanical takeninto account. perspective.Generally, estimates of thecarrying capacity

DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRYAND PASTURE ECONOMY IN RUPAL

Animalhusbandry and pastureeconomy still occupy a Haramosh, and Shigar). For a fee (Yakluk, Shina), yak- high statusin the agrariansystem of Rupal. For a quanti- bullsmay also be hiredfor mating with cows. tativestudy of the development,a livestockcensus from When the numberof animals (Figure12) is compared 1970/71 is comparedwith a fieldsurvey in 1992 (Figure withthe numbersgiven by Kreutzmann(1989: 124) for 12). Withinthis 20-year period, the influences of modern the Gilgit District,animal husbandry appears to be more transportand improvedaccessibility have to be consid- dominantin the Rupal Valleyand Astor.This phenome- ered. In everyvillage in the Rupal Valleythe numberof non has alreadybeen mentionedin historicaldocuments animals per capita has risen significantlyand the total (Singh, 1917: 94, 100). In Rupal, there are up to ten numberof livestockhas doubled withinthis period. Lan- animalsmore per household than in Hunza. Thus, the gendijk(1991: 44) came to a similarconclusion in Ishko- resultsfrom Rupal can be compared onlyto thosefrom man and he puts thisdown to necessity.Even small,di- upper Hunza. This supportsthe assumptionthat animal vided households need a minimumnumber of livestock husbandry and high pasturing in Astor, as a single crop- forsubsistence farming, that is, forplowing and thresh- ping region, is relativelymore important for subsistence ing,whilst a fewhouseholds increase their livestock num- farming than in areas where double cropping is feasible bers,especially sheep and goats,for prestigious reasons. (Khan, 1991: 2; Langendijk,1991: 9; Snoy,1993: 53). Despite this increase in livestock,there are stillno signs In Rupal, the livestockoverwhelmingly serves the offodder shortages in the highpastures. Likewise, due to householdneeds and onlyoccasionally are animalssold, the strategiesdescribed earlier, the limitationsof winter mostlyto thearmy. Additionally, traders from down coun- foddersupplies can be overcome.Furthermore, the in- trybring up waterbuffaloes for the needs of the garri- creased cultivationof wheat and maize, comparedwith sons.In therural economy, animals are keptnot onlyfor buckwheatand barley,produces a greateramount of theirmeat, but also forthe value of milkand wool prod- strawfor winter fodder. In the last fewyears, there has ucts (Langendijk,1991: 28, 31). These are not marketed, also been an extension of the irrigation systemaround however,but stay within the households.The purchaseof everyvillage, which allows the expansion of arable land donkeysand goatsfrom Azad Kashmiror fromthe Indus and, therefore,an increasein hayand strawproduction. valley for breeding is more common than the sale of The developmentof animal husbandryin the Rupal livestock. Valleyis not only an indicationof growingpopulation, but also reflects and socioeconomic Livestockunitsper Capita political changes 1.0 whichpartly influence the compositionof livestock.The Kindof Animals: & Horses importanceof animal husbandryin Astoris recordedin I Sheep & Goats 99 Cows, Bulls Donkeys & Yak-Crossbreeds historical documents and travel reports (Drew, 1875; Knight, 1895; Singh, 1917) which mention the keeping of 0.8 ...... pack animals used along the GilgitRoad. This can be compared with the number of horses noted in the 1970/71 census which,at thattime, were the only means 0.6 ...... of reachingthe villages. Nowadays, due tojeep transport, horses are no longer of importanceand are regarded mostlyas a luxury item. Donkeys, however, are more fa- 0.4 - - - - ...... vored, as theyare the only way of transportingfirewood to the villages and supplies to the Nirrils.Sheep and goats have alwaysbeen the dominant village animals, and goats tend to be preferred.Since the partitionof BritishIndia 0.2 .... in 1947,the number of cowsand bullshas increased.This is due to thefact that the former Hindu rulersof Kashmir forbadebeef consumptionby both Hindus and Muslims. 0.0 i Cattle still continues to increase also Pi- Ts e rearing (see C>0 0 i0 cu uC lardeaux, 1995: 97). Crossbreedsof yaksand cows,Zoai . . .pu . and Zomo,are typicalin the studyarea and are highly Churit Tarishing Zaipur Rehmanpur valued fortheir stamina and high-fatmilk. For breeding, selectedyak-bulls are commonlyreared by groups of farm- FIGURE 12. Changes in animal husbandrybetween 1970 and ers and sold in othervalleys further north (Yasin, Hunza, 1992 at foursettlements in the Rupal Valley.

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Populationpressure and significantincreases of animal However,the strategiesof agricultureand animal hus- numbershave not led to overexploitationof the high bandrymust be improvedto more adequatelyfulfill the pasturesin the Rupal Valley.Nor have the non-agrarian economicneeds of the rapidlygrowing population. incomeopportunities reduced theimportance of animal The increasein animalhusbandry in theRupal Valley husbandryon highpastures as a fundamentalcomponent makesthe further development of relatedservices neces- of the indigenouseconomic system;this is in contrastto sary.Until now, there have been no veterinaryfacilities the general statementof recentabandonments of mar- and no promotionof foddercultivation. Improvements in ginal pasturesin Astor(Pilardeaux, 1995: 97, 103 f). Un- these sectorsare expected to take place throughthe like in Hunza, farmersof the Rupal Valleyneed not stall activitiesof the Aga Khan Rural SupportProgramme, a feed theirlactating animals all yearround. A shortageof self-helpprogram working successfully in the Northern labor,due to migrationand non-agrarianincome oppor- Areas (Clemens,1992; Kreutzmann,1993 b), and since tunities,has notyet forced any change in theproduction 1993 also in theAstor Valley. It has managed to improve systemsof animal husbandryand mixed mountainagri- the rural infrastructure(road networksand irrigation culture.Labor intensiveactivities will continue to be car- systems),introduce a successfulimmunization campaign ried out withinthe community.As in Hunza, womenare foranimals, and encouragefodder cultivation. The po- increasinglytaking over more of the activitiesthat were tentialfor market-orientedanimal husbandryto satisfy traditionallydone bymen. In spiteof non-agrarianinflu- theincreasing demand for meat in thesurrounding towns ences,animal husbandry and pastoralmigration will con- and garrisonshas not yetbeen exploited. tinue to have a centralfunction within Rupal's economy.

OUTLOOK

AlthoughAlmwirtschaft places pressureon thecarrying interdisciplinaryintegration within high mountainre- capacitydue to the increased number of animals,the search (Uhlig,1980: 304; Winiger,1992: 406). Aspectsof ecological balance remainsstable in theRupal Valley. To culturaland physicalgeography, such as naturalresource assess the potentials of intensificationof animal hus- use (pasturesand forests)and village-orientatedrights of bandry,a moredetailed study of presentpasture manage- access and utilization,should be analyzed in a broad ment(especially rotational systems) is required.An analy- contextof research.In thisperspective, changing socioec- sis of qualitative and quantitative estimates of onomic conditionsin the Rupal Valley,including an in- high-pasturephytomass has alreadybeen carriedout for creasinginfluence of labor migration,off-farm income, partsof Hunza byKlotzli et al. (1990). Theircontribution and tourism,need consideration.The impactof these highlightsthe problemsof highpasturing in thecontext factorsand the pressure from increased population of the complex mixed mountainagriculture and rural on agro-pastoralpractices and survivalstrategies of in- developmentin the northwestHimalaya. By discussing digenous mountain communities are still not fully the problemfrom a human-ecologicalpoint of view, the understood. presentauthors attempt to addressthe requestfor more

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This studyis part of the "CultureArea Karakorum" by Dr. W. B. Dickore in the frameworkof the "Flora researchproject. The authorsare gratefulto theGerman Karakorumensis"Project. Prof. G. Miehe and Dr. S. Research Council (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Miehe providedunpublished proposals for the descrip- forfinancial support and to the project'sscientific coor- tionof plantformations. G. Laos helped withthe transla- dinators,Prof. I. Stellrecht,Prof. E. Ehlers,and Prof.M. tion.Many thanks also go to severalhost institutions and Winiger.Most of the plantnames refer to determinations friendsin Pakistanfor kindly providing assistance.

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This content downloaded from 129.206.86.242 on Tue, 14 Apr 2015 21:22:29 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Pakistan. Arid mountainslopes seen fromthe KarakorumHighway below KhunjerabPass, Northern Central was The highway,the modern expressionof ancienttrade routesbetween South and Asia, Area motivatedalso bypolitical considerations. The majorGerman-Pakistan research program, Culture and Karakorum,is assessingthe impacts of thehighway on thewell-being of thelocal mountainpeople theirenvironment.

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