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To(~do : UnivQ-rsit-J of Tof¢do Librarias, 1991 Wanderers outside the gates, in hollow landscapes without memory, we carry each of us an urn of native soil . . .

--Malcolm Cowley, The Urn (1929). *** Acknowledgments

This exhibit, "Parisian Odyssey: Writings From the 'Lost Generation,'" was accomplished as a team effort and it is my pleasure to recognize and thank members of the team who played a role in realizing this project. Serving as exhibit curator was Jerry Joseph Bower, the Canaday Center's Rare Books Graduate Assistant for 1993- 1994. He was assisted by Rare Books Assistant Nancy Burnard and student assistant Kerri Hagan. Members of Carlson Library's Audio-Visual Services department who lent their expertise include Jana Bishop, Susan Benedict and Terry Fell.

Special attention must be called to the contribution of Dr. Shari Benstock, Professor of English at the University of Miami, whose recent book, Women of the Left Bank: Paris, 1900-1940 (1986), was used to inform the intellectual development of the exhibit. Her lecture, "Modernism and Expatriate Writers in Paris," formally opened the exhibit. Dr. Ben stock's participation was made possible in part by the Ohio Humanities Council, a state-based agency of the National Endowment for the Humanities, which makes grants to nonprofit organizations in Ohio for public programs in the humanities. Also providing support was the Department of English (particularly, Dr. John Boening and Dr. Wallace Martin), University of Toledo and the Friends of the University of Toledo Libraries.

To all those involved, I offer my appreciation along with my thanks.

Robert A. Shaddy, Director The Ward M. Canaday Center for Special Collections *** THE WORLD: 1917-1929

The First World War (1914-1918), saw the advent of new ways of utilizing technology in the conduct of warfare. Awesome and terrible weapons such as machine guns, submarines, poisonous gases, tanks, airplanes, and zeppelins were used on a scale which resulted in mass casualties and destruction never before experienced by combatants. When the Peace of Paris was signed in 1918, the fighting ended but millions of dead and seriously wounded soldiers created, literally, a lost generation. The impact was significant in a number of ways. Globally, the war signaled the end of European imperialistic hegemony and the rise of nationalism as former colonies began long and painful bids for independence. The foundation was laid for the "American Century." On a personal level, the accumulated horrors of the war with its technological assault on individual psyches and sensibilities produced a desire for participants to attempt to forget the senseless war and what had happened.

There is little wonder, then, that older mores and ways of thinking about and doing things changed. In the United States, the demise of Victorianism was symbolized by the rhythms of jazz and, because of a relatively widespread economic prosperity, a rampant consumerism characterized by Sinclair Lewis' George Babbitt was clearly evident. During this so-called "jazz age," many Americans winked at Prohibition, played the stock market, and indulged in the wonders of buying on the installment plan. The nation was seemingly brought closer together through advancements in aviation (Charles Lindbergh's pioneering transatlantic flight in the "Spirit of St. Louis" occurred during this time) and improvements in mass production realized a transportation revolution that allowed a great many Americans to afford the new cars being produced by Henry Ford and other entrepreneurs. During the post-war years, new styles in fashion, coming from Paris mainly, eliminated the corset and signaled the ascendancy of the sexually liberated, but "boyish," look of the "Flapper". Younger Americans debated the appropriateness of "petting" on the first date-- an event made possible by the automobile which blasted the Victorian parlor from the social scene. These were the "golden days" of radio and films and these relatively new mediums facilitated the rise of advertising and helped spread the emerging and standardized mass culture found in America during the "Roaring Twenties."

However, beneath the facade there loomed troubles and turmoil which would erupt later, in the decade of the thirties. Internationally, the Great War left Europe (where most of the fighting was conducted) in a shambles of economic chaos. Devastation caused by the fighting and the crippling results of the Peace of Paris seriously affected a complete recovery. During the twenties, one finds the Fascists' march on Rome, the beginning of Hitler's National Socialist Party, and, following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the growth of an international communist movement. Within the United States, the prosperity of the decade was not enjoyed by all Americans, particularly those living in rural areas. Remnants of Victorianism and a lingering religious fundamentalism continued to influence events as the Ku Klux Klan was reborn to keep African-Americans, Jews, Roman Catholics, and other minorities "in their place." The Scopes trial in Dayton, Tennessee debated evolution, Darwinism and the future of the American educational system.

Finally, the "death knell" for the period was sounded on "Black Thursday," _ October 4, 1929, when the stock market crashed from the weight of reckless speculators and speculation. Ultimately, banks closed and savings were lost, along with the jobs of, eventually, one out of four Americans. The buoyant optimism of the twenties (an admittedly short-sighted optimism because of real structural problems in the American economy) was replaced by the aptly-named "Great Depression" which lasted until the beginning of, ironically, another world war in 1939 that was even more destructive than the first.

Allied and Associated Powers, Traite de Paix Entre les Puissances Allies et Associees et l'Allemagne Signe a Versailles, le 28 Juin 1919 [Treaty of Peace Between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany Signed at Versailles, June 28, 1918.] Paris: s.n., 1919. Treaty of Versailles printed in French and English on opposite pages. The harsh terms of this treaty made the Second World War inevitable.

The Parisian Experience

The French capital during the twenties provided a multiplicity of cultural sensations and excitement to those who inhabited it. According to Malcolm Cowley, "Paris in those days had dozens of special milieux, including those of the modernist poets, the rebel artists, the fashion writers, the jazz musicians, the boxers, the barmen, the gigolos, the lesbians, the entertainers, the sportifs, and the aristocrats of the Faubourg Saint Germain." When the expatriate writers made their pilgrimage to Paris, they wrote about the city, kept notebooks concerning their experiences, and corresponded with each other. Their activities appeared in the little magazines of the time and in books published after their Paris sojourn was completed.

France and Sherwood Anderson: Paris Notebook 1921. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1976. Includes Anderson's summer in France; "Paris notebook, 1921," "France" and "A Story-Teller's Story".

We Moderns. Gotham Book Mart, 1920-1940. New York: Gotham Book Mart, 1939. To celebrate twenty years in business, the Gotham Book Mart created a sales catalog titled We Moderns. In it, the proprietors set forth their guidelines for including various

2 authors in the listing: "A writer must be of his time and at least trying to say something to his time." They sought writers who were "stimulating modems, challenging the past, daring the present, foreshadowing the future," who "represent art in transition from which will come new formats to be fixed for a while in the literary scene." A great number of the authors included were members of the Lost Generation and they were invited to comment on each other for the catalog. For example, Pound commented on T. S. Eliot; Gertrude Stein on Paris.

Ezra Pound, "The Island of Paris: a Letter, September 1920," The Dial 69 (October 1920): 406-411.

"[Letter From Pound to William Carlos Williams]," Decision 2 (September 1941): 23-24.

Malcolm Cowley, Exile's Return: A Literary Odyssey of the 1920's. New York: Limited Editions Club, 1981. Limited edition, number 1855 of 2000 copies. Photographs by Berenice Abbott. Signed by both the author and the photographer. This edition contains a new introduction by Leon Edel and is illustrated with the contemporary photographs of Abbott.

Gertrude Stein, Paris France. New York: Charles Scribner and Sons; London: Batsford, 1940. Stein 1 s book deals with the subjects of the national characteristics of Paris and France.

John Dos Passos, The 42nd Parallel. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1930.

Mary Ellen Jordan Haight, Walks in Gertrude Stein's Paris. Layton, Utah: G. M. Smith, 1988. This book discusses the homes and haunts of Paris, including the literary landmarks and bohemian life of the 1920s and 1930s.

Periodicals and "Little Magazines"

The many writers who contributed to the periodicals and little magazines of the 1920s were usually paid enough money to sustain themselves while in Paris. For example, F. Scott Fitzgerald was able to support his family while they were in Paris by writing many short stories. His novel writing, though, did get side-tracked by this sort of writing. Some of the stories produced by the expatriates were serialized in the magazines before appearing in book form (for example, Sherwood Anderson Is "Many

3 Marriages"). Other little magazines expressed the strong political views of their editorial staffs (for example, Ezra Pound's The Exile). The magazines provided publication opportunities for all the writers, whether African-American or white, male or female. Also, through these organs, correspondence between the writers was published.

Sherwood Anderson, "Many Marriages," (Part 2), The Dial 73 (November 1922): 533-548.

"Many Marriages," (Part 6), The Dial 74 (February 1923): 165-182).

"Many Marriages," (Part 7, continued), The Dial 74 (March 1923): 256- 272.

Malcolm Cowley, "Blue Juniata," Poetry: A Magazine of Verse 29 (November 1926): 61-71.

Countee Cullen, "Thoughts in a Zoo," The Crisis 33 (December 1926): 78.

___. "Countee Cullen to His Friends," The Crisis 36 (April 1929): 119.

[E. E. Cummings], "Announcements," The Dial 80 (January 1926): 84-88. Cummings receives Dial award for 1925.

E. E. Cummings, "Letter to Ezra Pound," The Paris Review 10 (Fall 1966): 55-87.

John Dos Passos, "Back Home in 1919," Esquire 1 (Autumn 1933): 10, 107, 115.

___. "They Want Ritzy Art, " New Masses 4 (June 1928): 8.

F. Scott Fitzgerald, "What I Think and Feel at 25," The American Magazine 94 (September 1922): 16, 17, 136-140.

Ernest Hemingway, "In Our Time," [excerpts] Little Review 9 (Spring 1923): 3-5. Exiles' number of the Review.

___. "They All Made Peace-- What is Peace?" Little Review 9 (Spring 1923): 20- 21. Exiles' number of the Review.

Langston Hughes, "Afraid," The Crisis 30 (November 1924): 21.

___. "Joy," The Crisis 31 (February 1926): 173.

4 Claude McKay, "Mattie and Her Sweetman," This Quaner 2 (October-November 1929): 199.

___. "What Is and What Isn't," The Crisis 27 (Apri11924): 259-262.

Ezra Pound, Poundffhe Little Review: The Letters of Ezra Pound to Margaret Anderson: The Little Review Correspondence. New York: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1988.

---. "Two Poems, 'One Canto,' 'Another Canto,'" Transatlantic Review 1 (January 1924): 10-15.

Allen Tate, "Parthenia," Double Dealer 4 (July 1922): 46.

"William Blake," Double Dealer 4 (July 1922): 28.

"In Memoriam: Hart Crane," Hound and Hom 5 (July-September 1932): 613-619.

[William Carlos Williams], "Announcements," The Dial 82 (January 1927): 89-90. Williams receives the Dial award for 1926.

William Carlos Williams, "Theesentialroar," Transition 10 (January 1928): 49-50.

"Ezra Pound: Lord Ga Gal" Decision 2 (September 1941): 16-23.

"Lower Case Cummings," Harvard Wake 5 (Spring 1945): 20-23.

In Transition: A Paris Anthology; Writing and Art From Transition Magazine, 1927-1930. London: Seeker and Warburg, 1990. With an introduction by Noel Riley Fitch. This treatment of the little magazine Transition includes selections from William Carlos Williams, Djuna Barnes and others.

The Dial: Arts and Letters in the 1920's; An Anthology of Writings From The Dial Magazine, 1920-1929. Worchester, Massachusetts: Worchester Art Museum, 1981. Edited by Gaye L. Brown with photographs by Ron White. Examines modern arts of the twentieth century and was prepared for an exhibition held at the Worchester Art Museum, March 7-May 10, 1981.

A Return to Pagany: The History, Correspondence and Selections From a Little Magazine, 1929-1932. Boston: Beacon Press, 1969.

5 The Lions of the Time

Several writers who are now recognized as literary "lions" of twentieth-century American literature experienced Paris and the Left Bank (and sometimes the Right - Bank, as well) during the twenties. That experience shaped and influenced their art and had a lifelong impact on each one of them. After the end of the First World War, writers such as Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald and John Dos Passos enlisted in the ranks of what became a close-knit community of expatriates who provided support and stimulation (in varying ways) to each other. As newcomers came to Paris, "older" and more established members helped get them settled and oriented to the wonders and possibilities of the French capital. For example, Fitzgerald met the newly-arrived Hemingway in the Dingo Bar, a frequent haunt of the literati on the Left Bank, and Hem Is "Parisian Odyssey" was begun in earnest.

Sherwood Anderson Born: 13 September 1876 in Camden, Ohio Died: 8 March 1941 in Colon, Panama

Sherwood Anderson visited Paris twice during his lifetime, once in 1921, and then again from 1926-1927. Although each trip was for only a few months, the first one influenced his subsequent writings the most. From May through July, 1921, Anderson and his wife stayed in Paris with their friend, Paul Rosenfeld who funded their entire trip. When Anderson first saw the "city of lights," he was already forty­ five years old, unlike many of the other expatriates who were much younger. He mistrusted the literary group of writers who, he believed, spent more time talking and arguing about writing than actually doing anything. Nevertheless, Anderson was revered by many of the American writers because of his past accomplishments, although most of them soon moved past and beyond him. He does serve, however, as an important link to pre-war literature and the modernism being produced by the younger generation. Two important events from Anderson 1 s first trip to Paris were the completion of A Story Teller's Story (1924) and the beginning of his life-long friendship with Gertrude Stein.

Many Marriages. New York: B. W. Huebsch, 1923. Anderson stripped his characters of their incidentals and produced a classic form of simplicity achieving an ease and beauty in his writing.

6 A Story Teller's Story: The Tale of an American Writer's Journey Through His Own Imaginative World and Through the World of Facts, With Many of His Experiences and Impressions Among Other Writers-- Told in Many Notes-- in Four Books and an Epilogue. Garden City, New York: Garden City Publishing Company, 1924. Portions of this book were published in American Mercury, Century, and Phantasmus. The work reveals Anderson's insight regarding the social scheme of America, found while searching for the meaning of the American way of life, "the right place for the right people", he wrote. And, the book demonstrates the author's struggle with living and trying to write in a hostile environment that resulted in "a personal birth struggle"-­ a theme repeated in his works of the mid-twenties.

"Many Marriages," The Dial 73 (October 1922): 361-382.

E. E. Cummings Born: 14 October 1894 in Cambridge, Massachusetts Died: 3 September 1962 in Silverlake, New Hampshire

E. E. Cummings met John Dos Passos while at Harvard University in 1911. Cummings received his B. A. there in 1915 and theM. A. degree in 1916. At the commencement address of 1915, Cummings praised modernist art, Cubism and Futurism along with Gertrude Stein's Tender Buttons which had been published a year earlier. He declared, "Gertrude Stein is a futurist who subordinates the meaning of words to the beauty of words themselves. Her art is the logic of literary sound-painting carried to its extreme." After graduation, Cummings joined the service of the American volunteer Norton HaJjes Ambulance Corps in France before the United States entered World War I and described the position as being "neither warrior nor conscientious objector. It was an opportunity to do something useful and see France at the same time. " In 1917 Cummings was confined for several months in a French detention camp on an unfounded charge of treasonable correspondence. After being released in December 1917, he returned to America. He went back to Paris in the Spring of 1921 with Dos Passos and met Ezra Pound in July. Cummings returned to the States in 1923 but visited Paris several times between 1924 and 1960. The poet described his first visit to Paris in his book, i: six non lectures (1953): I participated in an actual marriage of material with immaterial things; I celebrated an immediate reconciling of spirit and flesh, forever and now, heaven and e_arth. Paris was for me precisely and complexly this homogeneous duality: This accepting transcendence; this living and dying more than death or life. Whereas-- by the very act of becoming its improbably gigantic self-- New York had reduced mankind to a tribe ofpygmies, Paris (in each shape and gesture and avenue and cranny of her being) was continuously expressing the humanness of humanity. . . . While (at the hating touch of some madness called La Guerre) a once rising and striving world toppled into withering hideously smithereens, love rose in my heart like a sun and

7 beauty blossomed in my life like a star. Now, finally and first, I was myself: a temporal citizen of eternity; one with all human beings born and unborn.

The Enormous Room. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1922. The Enormous Room delineates the author's experience in the French detention ca~p at La Ferte Mace during the latter part of the war and is based on a journal he kept from the time of his arrest until his release. Despite the prison's filth and behavior to which the inmates were reduced in order to stay alive, the narrator discovers that everything good is not outside the prison, nor all the bad within. In fact, the experience of isolation from an unmeaning world permitted access to the timeless world of meaning. Most critics greeted the work with general incomprehension, but it was praised by John Dos Passos in The Dial.

Tulips and Chimneys. New York: Thomas Sittzar, 1923. Cummings' first book of poetry deals with his years in Paris both as a free man and as a prisoner. Poems from the original manuscript which were cut from the book were eventually published in later volumes.

XLI Poems. New York: Dial Press, 1925. Cummings' second book of poetry written during the twenties included a passionate observance of human sexuality which caused a mixed critical response.

Is 5. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1926. This third book of poetry recounts the poet's life in Paris during the twenties and many of the poems contain political overtones and themes. For example, "16 heures" combined Chaplinesque comedy with a fear of communism and reflects Cummings' belief that a powerful police force provided the first steps to an oppressive, communist state.

Him. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1927. Special limited edition of 160 numbered and signed copies of which 150 copies were offered for sale. Him is Cummings' first play. One scene set in the Restaurant Au Pere Tranquille is based on the author's 1924 trip to Paris. Written in New York, it was published in October 1927 and represents the transferal of Cummings' creative energies from Paris to New York.

8 John Dos Passos Born: 14 January 1896 in Chicago, Illinois Died: 28 September 1970 in Baltimore, Maryland

Born in the Midwest, John Dos Passos spent much of his childhood traveling abroad in Europe with his mother. His "hotel childhood" established a lifelong penchant for travel and love of Europe. Dos Passos' s association with France began when he was quite young and his knowledge of the language was very thorough. At 4 the age of sixteen, Dos Passos entered Harvard University where he met and became good friends with E. E. Cummings. In 1917, he joined the Norton Harjes Ambulance Corps and later in the year he transferred to the Italian chapter of the American Red Cross and became an ambulance driver. In this position he had his first encounter with Ernest Hemingway. In 1918 Dos Passos was dishonorably discharged from the American Red Cross because of antiwar comments he had written in personal letters and was sent back to the United States. Determined to return to France, Dos Passos was accepted in the United States Army Medical Corps. He was released from the service in 1919 and attended classes at the Sorbonne. The writer came to know several of the expatriate writers and artists and was particularly close friends with Hemingway. However, Dos Passos never viewed himself as an expatriate or an exile. To Malcolm Cowley, John Dos Passos was the "greatest traveler in a generation of ambulant writers. When he appeared in Paris he was always on his way to Spain or Russia or Istanbul or the Syrian Desert."

Three Soldiers. New York: George H. Doren Company, 1921. The author's second novel was a critical success when it was published in 1921 despite arguments over its frank language and became the first significant war novel to emerge from the generation of writers who served in World War I. Clearly reflected are the rage, bitterness, and disillusionment felt by Dos Passos during the war. Set in France, the novel was praised by French critics and thus began the writer's long popularity with the French intellectual avant-garde.

Manhattan Transfer. London: Constable, 1927. Foreword by Sinclair Lewis. First published in the United States by Harper in 1925, Manhattan Transfer is a city novel which contains experimental techniques that would be developed more fully by Dos Passos in the U. S. A. trilogy. His cinematic technique, his sensuous details of the urban scene, and his kaleidoscopic portrayal of New York in the first two decades of the twentieth century is memorable. Although set in New York, Dos Passos found many of his technical and artistic ideas in early twentieth-century French literature and art forms such as Cubism, Futurism, and Unanimism. Paris was the center of modernism for Dos Passos.

9 Orient Express. New York, London: Harper and Brothers, 1927. First edition. This travel diary reveals the author's broadening point of view and a growing interest in social problems.

"The Camera Eye," Esquire 6 (Apri11936): 51, 112.

U.S. A. The 42nd Parallel, 1919, The Big Money. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1946. Illustrated by Reginald Marsh. Limited edition, in three volumes, specially bound in an edition of 350 sets signed by the author and illustrator. In 1930, Dos Passos published The 42nd Parallel, the first novel in his U. S. A. trilogy, which also includes 1919 (1932) and The Big Money (1936). These novels, which tell the story of the first three decades of the twentieth century in the United States, have as their protagonist the social background of the nation, and as their major theme the vitiation and degradation of character in a decaying civilization based on commercialism and exploitation. The trilogy, considered Dos Passos' s masterpiece, presents various interlocking and parallel narratives, against a panoramic collage of real-life events, biographical sketches, snatches of newsreel and popular song, advertisements, and with a commentary by the author as "The Camera Eye." Dos Passos' s debt to French art and poetry is even greater in U. S. A. than in his earlier works. His borrowings from Cubism and the collage poem can be seen in his new technical devices: the "Newsreel," the "Camera Eye," and the biographical sketch and he was praised by both French and American critics.

F. Scott Fitzgerald Born: 24 September 1896 in St. Paul, Minnesota Died: 21 December 1940 in Hollywood, California

F. Scott Fitzgerald was born, like Dos Passos, in the Midwest and was educated at Princeton University where he met and became friends with Edmund Wilson and John Peale Bishop. He entered the army in 1917 and, while being trained in camp, wrote the initial draft of his first novel, This Side of Paradise (1920). The book caught the flavor and interests of the changing era and was seen at the time as the expression of a new generation and its jazz age. Fitzgerald became instantly famous and his stories were in great demand. Shortly after the publication of This Side of Paradise, he married the glamorous Zelda Sayre and they embarked on a life of high living, big spending, and party going. Fitzgerald first went to Europe in 1921 and would spend a total of six and a half years there, off and on, until September 1931, the date of his last visit to Paris. Fitzgerald was never truly at home in Europe; he was always an American in France who frequented the Right Bank hotels and bars (popular with American tourists) rather than the Left Bank literary circles with which Hemingway was far more familiar. The French and Parisian experience was a strong influence on both the Fitzgeralds; France provided a useful background against which to measure the value and worth of

10 Americans and America. The events and settings of Paris and the Riviera color a number of Scott Fitzgerald's best stories and are at the center of his novel Tender Is the Night (1934), as well as Zelda's novel Save Me the Waltz (1932).

The Beautiful and Damned. Garden City, New York: Permabooks, 1951. Reprint of the edition published by Scribner's in 1922 was a novel about a wealthy, doomed, and dissipated marriage. "A searing tender story of the passion and heartbreak of youth."

The Great Gatsby. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1925. Fitzgerald's third novel, his finest, was received warmly by critics, especially by T. S. Eliot, Edith Wharton, and Gertrude Stein. The author's sensitive and symbolic treatment of themes of contemporary life-- adultery, hard drinking, fast driving, and finally murder-- in which the age of "miracles, art and excess" turns to ashes was met with respectable but not overwhelming sales. Scribner's would not reprint the book during Fitzgerald's lifetime and his 1925 revenues were less than $2,000 after his advances were paid back.

Bits of Paradise: 21 Uncollected Stories by F. Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald. New York: Scribner's, 1973. Autographed by Matthew J. Broccoli. This volume contains uncollected stories which were selected by Matthew J. Broccoli and Scottie Fitzgerald Smith (Scott and Zelda's daughter).

Ernest Hemingway Born: 21 July 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois Died: 2 July 1961 in Ketchum, Idaho

Ernest Hemingway first saw Paris in 1918 after coming to France as a member of a volunteer ambulance unit. He was seriously wounded on the Italian front and returned to the United States in January 1919. Soon he went to Toronto to write for the Star and returned to Paris in 1921 as the paper's foreign correspondent. On a deeper level, though, Hemingway went to Paris to be a writer and several of his works helped to immortalize the individuals whom he helped to characterize as the "lost generation." He expressed the feelings of a war-wounded people disillusioned by the l()SS of faith and hope, and so thoroughly defeated by the collapse of former values that, their atrophied nerves not permitting them to attack their betrayers, they could only turn to a stoic acceptance of primal emotions. His stories are concerned mainly with "tough" people, either intelligent men and women who have dropped into an exhausted cynicism, or primitives such as frontiersmen or athletes, whose essential courage and honesty are implicitly contrasted with the brutality of civilized society. Emotion is held at arm's length; only the bare happenings are recorded, and emphasis is obtained by understatement and spare dialogue. Paradoxically, as a writer he was, at

11 his best, governed by an absolute literary temperament and a sense for language that astonished his contemporaries. Hemingway lived in Paris for a number of years during the twenties and returned to the city sporadically in the thirties. His association and involvement in personal and theoretical feuds with other literary expatriates such as F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein, and Ford Madox Ford still fuel debates in literary circles. By the time he drifted away from Paris in 1929, Hemingway had published an impressive number of critically-acclaimed works: Three Stories and Two Poems (1923); In Our Time (1925); The Torrents of Spring (1926); Men Without Women (1927); The Sun Also Rises (1926); and A Farewell to Arms (1929). Late in his life, he rediscovered Paris by writing about it and recovered his ability to create brilliant prose passages that evoked the sensations he had had in Paris when he was young and free to develop his craft.

In Our Time. New York: Charles Scribner and Sons, 1930. Collection of short stories first published in 1925, most of which treat life in the Midwest, but includes interpolated sketches that describe war in Europe and bullfights. Three stories, "Mr. and Mrs. Elliot," "Out of Season," and "Cross Country Snow" are brief poignant tales of American expatriates in Europe and their complex loves and friendships.

The Sun Also Rises. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1926. The title is derived from a pessimistic passage in Ecclesiastes that expresses a cynical disillusion which reflects the postwar attitude. In this novel, Hemingway chronicles the moral collapse of a group of expatriated Americans and Englishmen, broken by the war, who turn toward escape through all possible violent diversions.

Men Without Women. Cleveland, Ohio and New York: World Publishing Company, 1946. 14 short stories first published in 1927. "The Undefeated" tells of the futile heroism of a Spanish bullfighter who refuses to retire; "The Killers" describes the tense atmosphere in a small-town lunchroom where two Chicago gangsters await the arrival of the man who they have been paid to murder; and "Fifty Grand" is the story of a champion prizefighter who bets on his own defeat.

A Farewell to Arms. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929. The poignant love story of an English nurse and an American ambulance lieutenant during the war. Hemingway once referred to the novel as his Romeo and Juliet.

12 A Moveable Feast. New York: Scribner and Sons, 1964. Published posthumously, A Moveable Feast provides sketches of the author's life and acquaintances in Paris, 1921-1926. It was shaped from a memoir recovered by Hemingway in 1956 which had been stored in the Ritz Hotel in Paris. Its publication

~ in 1964 sparked a revival of interest in the twenties literary scene and revived old quarrels.

Allen Tate Born: 19 November 1896 in Clark County, Kentucky Died: 9 February 1979 in Nashville, Tennessee

A student of John Crowe Ransom at Vanderbilt University, Allen Tate began his literary career as an editor of The Fugitive, a bimonthly "little magazine" published in Nashville (1922-1925) that contained poetry and criticism championing regionalism and agrarianism. Tate became best known for his poetry which was distinguished by a neoclassical polish and satire utilizing a technique he described as "gradually circling round the subject, threatening it and filling it with suspense, and finally accomplishing its demise without ever quite using the ultimate violence upon it." He also wrote interpretative biographies of Stonewall Jackson (1928) and Jefferson Davis (1929) and a novel, The Fathers (1930). Tate contributed to the symposia that ultimately resulted in the publication of I'll Take My Stand (1930); The Critique of Humanism (1930); and Who Owns America? (1936). As a critic, he has been associated with the New Criticism; he edited the Sewanee Review (1944-1946) and taught at the University of Minnesota ( 1951-1968). Tate went to Paris with his wife, fellow author Caroline Gordon, in 1928 after receiving a Guggenheim Fell.owship for 1928-1929. While there he met several other literary expatriates, but his actual experience in Paris seems to have affected him and his art relatively little mainly because of his solid grounding in the classics (from his undergraduate education) and his passionate devotion to the beleaguered South of the twenties and thirties. Tate was extremely homesick in Paris and left in 1929, disappointed with his visit. Allen Tate provides an example of the "Parisian Odyssey" having a somewhat different impact upon some writers such as himself. Once back in the United States, Tate plunged enthusiastically into the Southern agrarian movement again.

The Fathers. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1938. Tate's only novel was first published in 1930 and, despite his association with Hemingway, Fitzgerald and other expatriates, it shows little of their influence on him.

Poems, 1928-1931. New York and London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932. Written in 1928 and 1929, these collected poems offer proof of the sturdiness of Tate's ties to the South. They reflect the poet's frustration and discontent with life in France.

13 One poem, "Mother and Son" may be interpreted as indicating a dominant mood of cultural disorientation and shock along with homesickness. Another, "The Cross," contains associations which express the imperfections of the present life and the longing for a more blissful, less confused state.

Poems, 1922-1947. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948. Inscribed by the author. Most of these poems appeared in Selected Poems (1937) or The Winter Sea (1944).

William Carlos Williams Born: 17 September 1883 in Rutherford, New Jersey Died: 4 March 1963 in Rutherford, New Jersey

William Carlos Williams studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and while there became friends with Ezra Pound and Hilda Doolittle and shared their subscription to the tenets of Imagism. He practiced medicine but also was a poet, novelist, and short story writer who has been considered one of America's foremost modernists. He is, perhaps, the quintessential avant-gardist who has had a profound influence on subsequent generations of American writers. Interested in artistic and literary developments abroad, Paris in particular was a part of Williams I imagination from an early age. He traveled with his mother to Paris in 1897 and was schooled there while she studied painting. The 1913 Armory Show in New York introduced Williams to the painters of the French avant-garde. The experience inspired him to return to Paris, which he did (taking a leave from his medical practice) in 1924. He and his wife met Hemingway, James Joyce, Ford Madox Ford, composer George Antheil, sculptor Constantin Brancusi and the photographer Man Ray. During a second trip to Paris in 1927, he met Gertrude Stein. Both trips to France afforded Williams the opportunity to experience the visual arts and the literary stimulation of the French as well as the expatriate community.

In the American Grain. New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1925. Individual chapters appeared first in the "little magazine" Broom in 1923 and 1924. This collection of impressionistic pieces on important figures in American history is now recognized as a major essay on American culture although it suffered small sales when it was first published. Being in Paris during the time in which the manuscript was completed gave Williams the necessary distance to discern the texture of the American past, "to hear myself above the boilermakers in and about New York."

Voyage to Pagany. New York: The Macaulay Company, 1928. Williams' first novel, Voyage to Pagany, was based on the itinerary of his Paris trip in 1924. Its theme draws upon that of the "innocent American" in Europe and utilizes a

14 straightforward plot and conventional characterizations that contrast sharply with the opacity of his earlier work, The Great American Novel (1923).

"[Lines on receiving the Dial's award]", The Dial 82 (March 1927): 211-212.

Ecrivains Noirs of the Twenties

African-American writers and artists who went to Paris during the twenties went for many of the same reasons as did other Americans. In addition, they sought to escape racist attitudes in the United States that resulted in a re-born Ku Klux Klan which spread a new reign of terror throughout the nation. Paris, it was believed, might prove to be a haven. However, after their arrival, African-Americans discovered that the French capital presented a "white" literary community in which many of them still felt uncomfortable and they continued to group together apart, mainly, from white expatriates. Refuge was often found in the nightclubs· and bars of Montmartre which catered to them and the French Riviera where there was a large black community. Although its impact was somewhat different, for Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, their "Parisian Odyssey" still shaped and influenced their art and contributed to the Harlem Renaissance of the twenties.

Four Negro Poets. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1927. Edited by Alain Locke (who introduces the work with "The Poetry of Negro Life") contains poetry by Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, and Langston Hughes.

Countee Cullen Born: 30 May 1903 in New York City, New York Died: 9 January 1964 in New York City, New York

Countee Cullen was a major figure of the Harlem Renaissance who was educated at New York University and Harvard. While in his twenties, his poetry won prizes in journals and was collected in Color (1925); Copper Sun (1927); The Ballad of the Brown Girl (1927); and The Black Christ (1929). As these titles indicate, his poems were influenced by race, but one also finds a trace of the romanticism of Keats. Cullen preferred to think of himself as a poet in the European tradition and resented the parochialism which encouraged African-American poets to limit their interests to .subjects reflecting the black experience. He received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1928 for a year of study and writing in Paris and his lifelong fascination with French language and culture began. While in Paris for his Guggenheim year, he was associated with a group of black artists and writers whose focal point was the studio of sculptress Augusta Savage.

15 Color. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1925. The poems of this book symbolize the paradox found in Cullen's philosophy and his work. While he argued that racial poetry was a detriment to the color-blindness he craved, he was so disturbed by the racial injustice in America that most of his verse gave voice to racial protest. He was, in spite of himself, a racial poet.

Copper Sun. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1927. Special edition, limited to one hundred copies each signed by the author, this volume number 71.

The Ballad of the Brown Girl, an Old Ballad Retold. New York and London: Harper, 1927. Special edition of 500 copies of which this is number 170.

The Black Christ and Other Poems. New York and London: Harper Brothers, 1929. The Black Christ was completed in Paris during Cullen's Guggenheim year. This volume of poems illustrates several of Cullen's themes which are found in other publications also (The Ballad of the Brown Girl, for example): there is a duality of the black psyche that includes a simultaneous allegiance to America and rage at her racial inequalities; a black chauvinism that judges the passion of blacks as better than that of whites; an admonition against miscegenation; a racially motivated affinity toward death as a preferred escape from racial frustration and outrage; and a direct expression of anger at racial unfairness.

"Countee Cullen on His Friends," Crisis 36 (April 1929): 119.

The Medea and Some Poems. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1935. The Medea was partially written in Paris and contains two of Cullen's translations from Baudelaire and the poem "To France." By the time of its publication, the poet's career was in decline and he took a position teaching French in New York City which he held until his death in 1946.

Langston Hughes Born: 1 February 1902 in Joplin, Missouri Died: 22 May 1967 in New York City, New York

Langston Hughes was a major figure of the Harlem Renaissance who had a nomadic life in the United States and Europe until he began his prolific literary career with The Weary Blues (1926), a collection of poems on black themes in jazz rhythms and idiom. His subsequent books were in diverse media and included ten books and pamphlets of poetry; two novels; several collections of stories; and five volumes of

16 prose. He wrote several plays and two autobiographical volumes, The Big Sea (1940) and I Wonder as I Wander (1956) and a volume on the NAACP, Fight For Freedom (1962). His concern with the plight of African-Americans is evident in these works as is his social consciousness. In 1924, at the age of twenty-one, Hughes first arrived in Paris after jumping the merchant ship that brought him across the Atlantic Ocean. Virtually penniless, the writer worked at several menial jobs in black nightclubs in Montmartre where he was exposed to black musicians and entertainers. Here he absorbed the richness of black culture in exile. After five months of intensely experiencing the Parisian scene, and a failed love affair with an African-English woman, Hughes left the French capital to travel in Italy. In 1937, Hughes passed through Paris again as he traveled to and from Spain to cover the Spanish Civil War. Paris was, for Langston Hughes, a personal symbol of civilization that stood opposed to the barbarous forces of fascism.

"African Dancer in Paris," Carolina Magazine 58 (May 1928): 36.

"Boy on Beale Street," Carolina Magazine 58 (May 1928): 36.

The Big Sea. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1940. This work provides a unique picture of Paris in the twenties and captures the vital spirit of black Montmartre. Hughes' own struggle for existence, portraits of such characters as the one-eyed chef of LeGrand Due (a black club in Montmartre), a wonderful sketch of a royal free-for-all in the club, and numerous glimpses of Paris low life combine to give The Big Sea something of the flavor of George Orwell's Down and Out in Paris and London (1933). Hughes' life in Paris was, as he described it, "right out of a book"--"living in a garret, writing poems, and having champagne for breakfast. "

I Wonder As I Wander. New York: Rinehart, 1956. Hughes' second volume of memoirs also includes the scene in Paris.

Claude McKay Born: 15 September 1889 in Sunnyville, Jamaica Died: 22 May 1948 in Chicago, Illinois

Claude McKay once replied, when asked about his nationality, that he preferred to think of himself as an "internationalist." Born in Jamaica, McKay immigrated to the United States and, by 1914, had adopted Harlem as his base. From 1919 to 1934, though, he spent little time in New York City and lived and worked in London, Russia, Germany, France, and North Africa. He returned to Harlem in 1934 and lived there until his death. McKay's poems display a political militancy that speak out against submission to oppression.

17 Arriving in Paris in the fall of 1923, McKay found a world of "radicals, aesthetes, painters and writers, pseudo-artists, [and] bohemian tourists-- all mixed tolerantly and congenially enough together." This largely white expatriate world was not to his personal taste and he ultimately went to live in the Marseilles area which he found to be "one of those places which stirred me up to creative expression." This was because he could live, he wrote, "among a great gang of black and brown humanity._ Negroids from the United States, the West Indies, North Africa and West Africa, all herded together in a warm group. Negroid features and complexions, not exotic, creating curiosity and hostility, but unique and natural to a group. . . . It was good to feel the strength and distinction of a group and the assurance of belonging in it."

"In the Hospital," The Crisis 33 (February 1927): 202.

Home to Harlem. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1928. McKay acknowledged the influence of Sinclair Lewis (McKay met him in Paris) who discussed with him "a few cardinal and practical points about the writing of a book or novel." Utilizing an impressionistic style, the author reproduces vivid images of Harlem and its varied atmosphere.

Banjo, a Story Without a Plot. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1929. The sequel to Home to Harlem, this volume is set in Marseilles and continues McKay's earlier themes. About a black vagabond, Banjo, who embodies a largely instinctual way of living and Ray, an intellectual who had appeared in Home to Harlem, the two are perpetually dissatisfied and disturbed by their limited role in white society.

Les Femmes en France

Many women writers of the period participated in their own Parisian odyssey and crossed the Atlantic for reasons similar to those of their male counterparts: to escape the commercialism and boosterism of the "Babbitts" at home and to experience the rich culture of the avant-garde in France. Also, the legacy of the First World War allowed women to view themselves in ways different from the Victorians of the older generation. No longer would many of them be content to submit to earlier forms of sexist oppression and they agitated for the right to participate with men more equally on a number of levels: political, social, economic, and intellectual. Some traveled alone, for example, Djuna Barnes; while others were accompanied by their husbands, for example, Zelda Fitzgerald and Caroline Gordon. Living as expatriates provided an abundance of material for their writings.

18 Djuna Barnes Born: 12 June 1892 in Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York Died: 18 June 1982 in New York City, New York

The literary career of Djuna Barnes was highly prismatic; she was at various times a novelist and short story writer, a poet, a playwright, a journalist and theatrical columnist, as well as a portrait painter and illustrator of her own books. Her artistic diversity gives her work a unique quality in twentieth-century literature. Once regarded as an obscure avant-gardist, Barnes is now seen as one of the last classicists whose work, like that of James Joyce and T. S. Eliot which had strongly influenced her, sustains the finest literary traditions of our culture. Barnes arrived in Paris in 1922, shortly after the appearance of Ulysses and soon met James Joyce. It is reputed that she said, after meeting the Irishman, "I shall never write another line .... Who has the nerve after that?" She did, of course, and her own work had a significant impact upon later generations of experimental writers such as Anais Nin and John Hawkes. She returned to New York City by way of London in 1940 and remained there as a virtual recluse until her death in 1982.

"A Night Among the Horses," The Little Review (December 1918): 3-10.

A Book. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1923. Her first collection consisting of three one-act plays, twelve short stories, eleven lyrical poems, and six drawings which are remarkable evocative of the women portrayed in her prose and verse. In 1929, the stories were republished as A Night Among the Horses, and her Paris experience is the immediate inspiration for many of these stories. The characters can be described as rootless, estranged from society and themselves. They are at home nowhere and can do nothing but move on in the vacuum of contemporary civilization.

Ryder. New York: H. Liveright, 1928. This novel sustains the themes presented in A Book but involves a new experiment in style. Whereas the prose of the stories is economic and tersely poetic, that of Ryder is lavishly ornamented and copious. Its fifty chapters bring into play nearly every literary mode or tradition since the holy scriptures and Joyce's experiments with language and craft are apparent. Chronological plot development is ignored leaving many chapters to stand as individual vignettes and, in the end, the author's parodic treatment of epic, fable, and scripture illuminate the absurdity of modern man's attempt to resuscitate them. The convictions and patterns of existence once available in church and society have vanished, leaving a waste land not unlike T. S. Eliot's.

19 Ladies Almanack: Showing Their Signs and Their Tides, Their Moons and Their Changes, The Seasons As It Is With Them, Their Eclipses and Equinoxes, As Well As a Full Record of Diurnal and Nocturnal Distempers. Paris: Privately printed for the author, 1928. First edition limited to 1050 copies, this is copy number 836. Equally satirical as Ryder, this work is much smaller in scope. It celebrates female sexuality and mocks eighteenth-century language as it presents a society of lesbians and a cultural aristocracy of women with its rituals and credos, its chic and erotic images. Barnes primary intention is to confront the anomaly of sexual identity.

Nightwood. Harcourt, Brace, 1937. Densely allusive, metaphoric and autobiographical, this novel (edited and introduced by T. S. Eliot) is set in the homosexual underground of Paris and is a sustained, moving analysis of women's place in patriarchal culture. At first a cult book that was quickly passed over, the work now stands as Barnes' masterpiece, her "Paris novel" that sums up the residual despair of the expatriate experience.

Selected Works of Djuna Barnes: Spillway, Antiphon, Nightwood. New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1962.

Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald Born: 24 July 1900 in Montgomery, Alabama Died: 1948 in Asheville, North Carolina

Zelda Fitzgerald traveled to Europe with Scott in 1924 and, feeling the need to step out of her husband's shadow following the publication of The Great Gats by, studied painting, ballet, and wrote. Eventually she and Scott became competitive as writers each seeking to rewrite the other's version of their lives. Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald completed several short stories, a ballet libretto and a novel and exhibited her paintings in New York City . The story of her life with Scott Fitzgerald and subsequent mental problems are now incorporated into the tapestry of the cultural history of the twenties as is her tragic death in a mental hospital fire in 1948.

Save Me the Waltz. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967. Originally published in 1932, the novel is an autobiographical account of Zelda's life through the main character, Alabama Beggs. A commercial failure at the time, the work is a valuable literary document of the twenties and Fitzgerald accomplishes considerable beauty in her eccentric and intensely original imagery. One finds great strength in the honesty and courage of her relentless and straightforward exploration of Alabama's doomed struggle.

20 Caroline Gordon Born: 6 October 1895 in Todd County, Kentucky Died: 11 April 1981 in San Cristobal, Chiapas, Mexico

A Southerner, Caroline Gordon was intimately associated with the Fugitive and Agrarian movements in literature; she espoused their ideals which she incorporated into her novels, short stories and criticism. However, her circle included other writers such as Ford Madox Ford, Robert Lowell, and Jean Stafford. Her early novels focused on the decline of ante-bellum Southern culture as seen through agrarian eyes, for example, Penhally (1931), Aleck Maury, Sportsman (1934), None Shall Look Back (1937), The Garden of Adonis (1937), and Green Centuries (1941). She taught at many institutions, beginning with a joint post with her husband, Allen Tate, at the Women's College of the University of North Carolina in 1938 and her published criticism was informed by New Critical doctrines. Her stories are collected in The Forest of the South (1945), Old Red (1963), The Glory of Hera (1971), and Collected Stories (1981). Gordon visited France with Tate twice during the tw~nties and thirties, in 1928- 1929 and again in 1932-1933 (each in tum on a Guggenheim Fellpwship). She wrote much of her first two novels while living abroad, and participated in the social and intellectual life of the American expatriate community in Paris. Her early work, however, was relatively unaffected by living in Paris which was, rather, influenced more by her devotion to her native South. Much later in her career she began to draw on events and characters from her stay in France.

Strange Children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952. In this novel, published originally in 1951 by Scribners, Gordon clearly utilizes her personal experiences from her Paris days along with her conversion to Roman Catholicism in the late forties. Characters in the work highlight the great difference between the rural, slow-paced life on the farm with the frenetic pace of Paris.

The Malefactors. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1956. Again Gordon draws on her visits to France and, as in Strange Children, the expatriates in Paris are portrayed as unnatural, immoral, and destructive; they learn to hide behind • a blanket of words and intellectual facades and suppress their natural feelings. Their world is contrasted with the morality, spirituality, and honesty of agrarian life.

How to Read a Novel. New York: Viking Press, 1957. In this work Gordon challenges the aesthetics of Gertrude Stein which she believed were bare and empty. She insisted that the only proper subject for fiction was the realistic portrayal of experience. Gordon's literary output was shaped by her devotion to that ideal.

21 Old Red and Other Stories. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1963. Paris influences the story "Emmanuele, Emmanuele!"

Gertrude Stein and Her Literary Conclaves

Gertrude Stein Born: 3 February 1874 in Allegheny, Pennsylvania Died: 27 July 1946 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France

Gertrude Stein was educated abroad (where she learned to speak impeccable French and German), at California schools, and graduated from Radcliffe College in 1897. She moved permanently to Paris in 1904 only making brief visits to the United States during the rest of her life. Stein become an icon in the world of the Parisian expatriates during the twenties and thirties. Her literary output was wide-ranging, avant-gardist and intensely stimulating; she was a fierce propagandist for the modernist movement. She was also known for her salon which attracted virtually every prominent expatriate writer and artist during the period .. At tea gatherings and literary expositions, they came to exchange ideas among themselves and receive Stein's own authoritative pronouncements. Also in attendance was Alice B. Toklas, Stein's secretary and companion, who sometimes served the guests hashish brownies which she had prepared.

Geography and Plays. Boston: Four Seas Company, 1922. In her first post-World War One book, Stein reflects upon the camaraderie that she developed with the soldiers during the war when she, Toklas and their Ford truck, "Auntie," drove hospital supplies throughout France. Sherwood Anderson wrote the preface for the book and honored Stein for "rebuilding ... the city of words," and acknowledged her contribution to the development of his own writing style.

"A Long Gay Book," The Dial 83 (September 1927): 231-236.

The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1933. The publication of this work made Stein famous almost overnight. The book and The Atlantic Monthly 's serialization of the work in four parts in May 1933 brought Stein what she greatly desired, "praise, praise, praise, praise, praise." Written as the reminiscences of her lifelong companion, it covers the early, heroic years of the Cubist revolution in art and the literary decade of the twenties with its literary squabbles and celebrities-- Hemingway, Fitzgerald, Anderson, Djuna Barnes, Joyce, Eliot, and Ford Madox Ford.

22 Everybody's Autobiography. New York: Random House, 1937. An account of Stein's American lecture tour in 1934-1935.

Sherwood Anderson/Gertrude Stein: Correspondence and Personal Essays. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972. Stein and Anderson conducted a long-lasting correspondence.

Robert McAlmon, "Gertrude Stein," The Exile 4 (Autumn 1928): 70-74.

Alice B. Toklas Born: 30 April 1877 in San Francisco, California Died: 7 March 1967 in Paris, France

In the spring of 1906, in the aftermath of the San Francisco earthquake, Alice B. Toklas met the brother and sister-in-law of Gertrude Stein who were in the city to assess damage done by the earthquake to their property. Their description of Paris convinced Toklas to journey to France which she did, arriving in Paris, in 1907. On the evening of her arrival she met Gertrude Stein and was immediately fascinated by her. The two women saw a great deal of each other and, during the summer of 1908, Stein proposed a lifelong relationship which Toklas accepted. Toklas encouraged and supported Gertrude Stein's literary efforts and did not begin her own writing until after Stein's death in 1946.

"Those Who Came to Paris To Write," New York Times Book Review (6 August 1950). In this piece, Toklas gave her opinions of writers beginning with Stein and ending with those she had met as late as 1950. She praised Anderson as a gentleman; Fitzgerald's This Side of Paradise as the definitive portrait of his generation; the "Latin charm" of Dos Passos; and dismissed the talent of Hemingway, who she had always disliked .

. What Is Remembered. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963. Her reminiscences of life with Stein were accomplished through the assistance of friends and associates but do not successfully serve as an autobiography of Toklas herself. Rather, the purpose of the work in Toklas' mind was to burnish Stein's image and keep alive her legend. The book was also undertaken to benefit an impoverished Toklas whose last years were spent in ill-health and financial difficulty.

23 Sylvia Beach and "Will"

Sylvia Beach Born: 14 March 1887 in Baltimore, Maryland Died: 6 October 1962 in Paris, France

At the age of fifteen, Sylvia Beach went to Paris with her family. Her father served as the associate pastor of the American Church of Paris, which provided special services to the students of the Left Bank. Beach traveled extensively in her youth and spent time in Switzerland, Florence and Spain. In 1916 she moved from Madrid to Paris and in 1919 opened a book shop and lending library at 8 rue Dupuytren. Known as Shakespeare and Company, it remained in business for forty-six years. Shakespeare and Company served the Franco-Anglo-American literary exchange acting as bank, clubhouse, library, post office and publishing house for most of the expatriate writers. The book shop moved to its permanent address at 12 rue de l'Odeon in 1921. It closed its doors in 1941 and Beach lacked the necessary money to reopen it after the Second World War. One of the most important achievements of the book shop was its publication in 1922 of the first complete edition of James Joyce's Ulysses. Beach published nine of the first eleven editions of this seminal work.

Ulysses. London: The Egoist Press, 1922. Special edition limited to 2,000 copies on handmade paper, this copy unnumbered. This volume was printed by Maurice Darantiere at Dijon, France for John Rodker of the Egoist Press from the plates used for the original edition which was published by Shakespeare and Company in 1922. The same plates were used for the first eleven printings of the novel.

James Joyce's Letters to Sylvia Beach, 1921-1940. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1987. Beach served as Joyce's publisher as well as his banker, clerk, propagandist, errand girl, appointment secretary and business manager. This volume reproduces their correspondence from 1921-1940.

Les Annes Vingt Les Ecrivains Americains a Paris et Leurs Amis, 1920-1930. Exposition du 11 Mars au 25 Avril. Paris: Centre Culture Americain, 1959. Exhibit catalog prepared by Beach with the collaboration of Helene Baltrusaitis and Maurice Saillet.

Shakespeare and Company. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1959. Beach's memoir of the book shop and the literati who frequented it.

24 Sylvia Beach, 1887-1962. Paris: Mercure de France, 1963. Written in English and French, this volume is a compilation of memories of Beach and her book shop by the writers who knew her. Published the year after her death.

Sylvia Beach and the Lost Generation: A History of Literary Paris in the Twenties and Thirties. New York: Norton, 1983.

Malcolm Cowley: Chronicler of the Twenties

Malcolm Cowley Born: 24 August 1898 near Belsano, Pennsylvania Died: 27 March 1989 in New Milford, Connecticut

Cowley is known as a poet, editor, critic, and the social reporter of his age, the chronicler of the Lost Generation who painted the accepted picture of the writers who matured during and after the war. Like many of his literary colleagues, he volunteered for ambulance service on the European front during World War One. Being a volunteer, he wrote, was in many ways ideal with "good food, a congenial occupation, furloughs in Paris" and allowed first-hand observation of a once-in-a-lifetime spectacle, the war on the Western front. Cowley compared the experience to a college extension course which "revivified subjects that had seemed forbidden because they were soiled by many hands and robbed of meaning; danger made it possible to write once more about love, adventure, death." Returning to the States after the armistice, he found that "the country of his boyhood was gone and he was attached to no other." Cowley completed his A. B. degree at Harvard University during 1919-1920, married his first wife, Margaret Frances Baird, and went to live in Greenwich Village among the "proletariat of the arts," where one idea seemed to float more securely and confidently than any other, the idea of "salvation by exile." For Cowley, along with others like him, the American scene seemed to be closed to imaginative and artistic endeavors. The literati found themselves suffering from a spiritual malaise derived from an intimacy with death and struggle which had lifted them out of their ivy-league experience into premature adulthood. Winning an American Field Service fellowship in 1921, Cowley, with his wife, returned to France to pursue studies at the University of Montpellier. Here he found people he had known in Greenwich Village as well Dadaists and surrealists. The American Field Service fellowship was extended for 1922 and Cowley moved to Giverny where Claude Monet was still painting. When the fellowship expired, he stayed in France to edit Broom, a new literary journal and contributed works to little magazines like the Gargoyle and Secession. In the summer of 1923 he met Pound and Hemingway and saw Paris as a place of artistic finesse and manner.

25 Cowley returned to New York City before his twenty-fifth birthday. Paris had been the place to come to terms with his vision of his niche in the literary world. Like many expatriates, Cowley's exile ended when he "rediscovered" America, when the country he had left in disillusionment came, from a distance, to seem more complex and exciting, filled with the possibilities of new material for artists in its monstrousness, its machinery and its dynamic energy.

"Two American Poets," The Dial 73 (November 1922): 563-567.

"A Monument to Proust," The Dial 73 (November 1922): 234-240.

"Alaster," The Dial 84 (June 1928): 475-478.

Exile's Return: A Narrative of Ideas. New York: Norton, 1934. A study of the "lost generation" of American writers, this work was revised later by Cowley. This version contained Cowley's strong left-wing political views and condemned the conservatives of the time. Because of this, Exile's Return was judged more for its political statements than for its literary merit.

Exile's Return: A Literary Odyssey of the 1920's. New York: Viking Press, 1951. The revision of Exile's Return had a much softer political tone and became known as the definitive narrative of the Lost Generation. Three chapters were cut from the original: a study of the exploitation of the proletariat, a discussion of the politics of his contemporaries from 1924-1930, and the original epilogue. Additional chapters were added on Hart Crane and Sacco and Vanzetti. Accordingly, the critics' reception of the revision was more favorable. VanWyck Brooks called it "the irreplaceable account of the most romantic episode in American literary history."

A Second Flowering: Works and Days of the Lost Generation. New York: Viking Press, 1973. Autographed by the author. The work treats American authors and literature of the twentieth century.

Blue Juniata: A Life, Collected and New Poems. New York: Viking Press, 1985. Special autographed edition, limited to 250 copies of which this copy is number 51. First published in 1968, this edition includes six new poems.

26 Ezra Pound, The Dial, and The Exile

Ezra Pound Born: 30 October 1885 in Hailey, Idaho Died: 1 November 1972 in Venice, Italy

Ezra Pound left the United States for England in 1908 to start his literary career in Europe, and soon became known as the leader of the Imagists literary movement. After spending time in Great Britain, Pound arrived in Paris in 1921 and stayed there until 1924 during which time he translated original French works like Remy de Gourmont's Natural Philosophy ofLove (1922). While in Paris though, Pound did not publish as much as he did in London, and his work slipped according to the critics. Gertrude Stein wrote, "He's like the village explainer, which is fine if you're a village, and if not not. " In Paris Pound helped younger writers with both their work and in meeting other expatriates in the community. Pound left Paris in 1924 and went to Rapallo, Italy where he dedicated his time to working on his cantos. Pound was seen as the ideal expatriate, or exile, and was described by T. S. Eliot as, "[a] squatter everywhere, rootless, ever ready to depart."

Indiscretions or Une Revue de Deux Mondes. Paris: Three Mountain Press, 1923.

How to Read. London: D. Harmsworth, 1931.

Pisan Cantos. New York: New Directions, 1948. While Pound was interned at the U. S. Army Disciplinary Training Center in Italy in the 1940s, he remembered his time in Paris during the twenties "before the world was given over to wars." Pound recounts his friends, the restaurants, and the architecture. Looking back at this time he remembered Paris as the ideal city of the mind "now in the heart indestructible." He won the Bolling en Prize in 1948 for his Pis an Cantos.

The Dial, "Paris Letters"

In 1920-1921, The Dial printed Pound's translations of "Dust for Sparrows" by Gourmont and selections from Proust and Jean Giroudoux. The magazine also published Canto 7, commonly known as his Paris Canto, in which he ascribes a frightful view of the city of Paris, where the people are "[d]ry casques of departed locusts, speaking a shell of speech." Pound's writings in Paris began to emulate his progressive sense of disappointment and seclusion. He began traveling to Italy more often, half of 1922 and most of 1923 and 1924 was spent there. However, Pound still believed Paris was "the place in which more than in any other there are the greatest

27 number of men and things not for sale." But in his "Paris letters," which appeared in The Dial from October 1921 to March 1923, Pound began to display his disappointment with contemporary French literature. He wrote, "the latest real news of the French is still Flaubert, Corbiere, Laforque and Rimbaud."

"The Island of Paris, 11 The Dial 69 (December 1920): 635-639.

"Paris Letter," The Dial 72 (April 1922): 401-405.

"Paris Letter, August 1922," The Dial 73 (September 1922): 332-337.

"Paris Letter," The Dial 74 (March 1923): 273.

The Exile

After Pound left Paris for Italy, he began to edit the aptly titled magazine The Exile. Four issues were printed in all, the first one in Paris and the remaining three in the United States. Works were submitted to the magazine by such noted writers as Hemingway, William Carlos Williams, and Robert McAlmon. The first and last issues of The Exile were under the total editorial control of Pound and focused on political and economic issues.

"The Exile," The Exile 2 (Autumn 1927): 118-119.

"The City," The Exile 4 (Autumn 1928): 24-29.

"The Editor: Data, 11 The Exile 4 (Autumn 1928): 104-117.

Artists

Expatriate writers maintained close ties to the artistic community in Paris. They shared ideas on their respective projects, patronized each other, and writers often modeled for artists. Gertrude Stein, for example, supported Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse and Jo Davidson. She sat for Picasso over ninety times! It can be argued that writers and artists of the period held many of the same aesthetic ideals and goals, except that they used different mediums. Some writers took up painting; for example, E. E. Cummings was taught by Jean Cocteau.

E. E. Cummings, "Gaston Lachaise," The Dial 68 (February 1920): 194-204.

28 ____• Sketches and Watercolors of the Twenties and Thirties. New York: Profile Press, 1968. Catalog of an exhibition held 9 March-6 April1968 at the Gotham Book Mart, New York City. During his 1924 trip to Paris, Cummings encountered many artists. Even though he met Picasso, he rejected both the man and his work. He began a close association with Jean Cocteau.

Ezra Pound, "Brancusi," Little Review (Autumn 1921): 3-7. This issue of the Little Review contained photographs of the sculptor's work. ***

The Canaday Center is open 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. Monday through Friday, when the University is in session. Qualified readers are encouraged to make use of our collection.

29 Slowly I walked through the lightly falling snow that had begun to sift down over the Paris rooftops in scattered indecisive flakes. The streets were very lonely as I passed the Galleries Lafayette and the Gare Saint Lazare and turned up to the slight incline leading to Montmartre. Even the little clubs and bars along the way were quiet. Where could everybody be, I wondered. How still it was in this old, old city of Paris in the first hour of the New Year.

--Langston Hughes, in Paris, before the beginning of the Second World War. ***

"' Selected Readings and Bibliography

American Novelists, 1910-1945. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1980.

American Writers in Paris, 1920-1939. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1980.

American Writers Since 1900. Chicago: St. James Press, 1983.

Bailey, William G. Americans in Paris, 1900-1930: A Selected, Annotated Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press, 1989.

Bak, Hans. Malcolm Cowley: The Formative Years. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993.

Benstock, Shari. Women of the Left Bank, 1900-1940. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986.

Cooper, Wayne F. Claude McKay: Rebel Sojourner of the Harlem Renaissance, A Biography. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987.

Cowley, Malcolm. And 1 Worked at the Writer's Trade: Chapters of Literary History, 1918-1978. New York: Viking Press, 1978.

Edmiston, Susan. Literary New York: A History and Guide. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.

Fitzgerald, F. Scott. Correspondence of F. Scott Fitzgerald. New York: Random House, 1980.

Fleming, William. Arts and Ideas. Fort Worth, Texas: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1991. Holme, Bryan. Advertising, Reflections of a Century. New York: Viking Press, 1982.

Hughes, Langston. The Weary Blues. New York: Knopf, 1926.

Kennedy, J. Gerald. Imagining Paris: Exile, Writing, and American Identity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.

Kluver, Billy. Kiki's Paris: Artists and Lovers, 1900-1930. New York: Abrams, 1989.

Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Sarason, Bertram D. Hemingway and the Sun Set. Washington, D.C.: Microcard Editions, 1972.

Stock, Noel. Life of Ezra Pound. New York: Pantheon Books, 1970.

Waldron, Ann. Close Connections: Caroline Gordon and the Southern Renaissance. New York: Putnam, 1987.

Wickes, George. Americans in Paris. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1969.

Wilhelm, James J. Ezra Pound in London and Paris, 1908-1925. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1990.

***