DIAMOND ROUTE NEWS

WWW.DIAMONDROUTE.COM JANUARY 2019 THE WORLD SHOULD COME AND LISTEN presentation by Peter Fearnhead, CEO of African Parks Networks, who manages 15 protected areas in nine African countries and has the largest anti-poaching force of any private organisation on the continent. He shared his experiences of working with governments and local communities to convert protected areas into successful and safe operations, contributing to job creation, tourism and the general improvement of life and prosperity. The keynote address on the second day was delivered by Fred Swaniker, founder of the African Leadership University’s School of Wildlife Conservation, the first of its kind on the continent, dedicated to teaching the next Left to right: Nicky Oppenheimer generation of world-class conservation congratulates the 2018 winners Saeed SPECIAL CONFERENCE Mohammadi and Professor André Ganswindt, leaders in Africa. He said that Africa EDITION with Dr Duncan MacFadyen, one of the contained unusual assets in its wildlife conference organisers. that needed to be protected, nurtured Welcome to the Oppenheimer and managed, adding that leadership Generations–De Beers About 220 wildlife experts, researchers would become even more important in Group Research Conference and the media gathered in October the years to come. newsletter, a special edition 2018 at De Beers Group’s corporate The winner of the Best Paper Award throwing a spotlight on papers office in Johannesburg for a very was Professor André Ganswindt, from and people at the 9th annual successful 9th annual Oppenheimer the Mammal Research Institute at the conference held in October Generations–De Beers Group Research University of Pretoria, for his excellent 2018. Conference. presentation on non-invasive methods It carries a host of papers A wide variety of topics were used to measure stress in wildlife. presented at the conference, discussed by researchers from local and The winner of the Best Poster, focusing covering fascinating flora and international universities and research on barcoding techniques for species fauna such as butterflies and institutions. The topics included water identification, was Saeed Mohammadi, moths, bees and bats, shrimps quality and climate change, several from the same institution. and weed, vultures and fleas, bird-related projects, dwindling giraffe In closing the conference, pangolins and frogs – and more and leopard figures, and carbon Nicky Oppenheimer, Chairman of besides. storage in mine tailings through mineral Oppenheimer Generations, commented The conference newsletter carbonation. on the remarkable diversity of papers is to be published annually Represented in the presentations and posters and their importance to after each year’s research were NGOs, private companies and protecting the environment. conference. individuals, government agencies “The African population is exploding For news through the year and 45 universities from South Africa, and it is more important than ever before from De Beers Group’s Diamond Botswana, Zimbabwe, Democratic that everybody contributes a piece in Route properties, visit our news Republic of Congo, Swaziland, France, the bigger puzzle and task of preserving hub on the new-look Diamond Portugal, Australia, Canada and the UK. the continent and its wildlife for the Route website which is replacing Mpumi Zikalala, Deputy CEO of generations to come,” he said, adding the quarterly newsletter. De Beers Consolidated Mines, opened that it was important to get the word out Subscribers will now receive the conference by emphasising the there that researchers, environmentalists, email alerts when the latest news importance of conservation to De Beers activists, academics and students in on the activities and projects Group. Africa were ahead of the game. taking place on the properties is The first keynote address on 16 “It is imperative that the world comes published. October, opening day of the two- and listens to and learns from what we day conference, was a fascinating do every year,” he said.

1 The winning paper HOW THE POWER OF POO HELPS MONITOR STRESS André Ganswindt, from the Mammal Research Institute at the University of Pretoria, looks at non-invasive monitoring of stress in wildlife.

Organisms are frequently confronted practical approach for assessing with challenges, usually leading to a adrenocortical activity in elusive wildlife range of adaptive mechanisms aimed species. at protecting affected individuals, and Nowadays, the hormone matrix most including behavioural, physiological commonly used to determine responses and neuroendocrine responses. to stressors in wildlife non-invasively is From a physiological perspective, faeces. The idea of working with faeces the endocrine system’s role in may not be a pleasant prospect for modulating stress has been extensively some, but the truth is that, logistically, it investigated since the 1950s. An is the best hormone matrix that can be essential component of the response collected without disturbing the animal. to extrinsic or intrinsic stimuli is the However, while non-invasive activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary- hormone measurement is a favoured adrenocortical axis and the symphatho- choice among many wildlife adrenomedullary system, which endocrinologists, one must keep in mind results in, for example, an increase that hormone metabolism and excretion in glucocorticoid and catecholamine are highly species-specific processes. secretion to facilitate hyperglycaemia. Since this specificity even applies to Catecholamines are usually closely related species, test systems must secreted within fractions of a second be carefully validated for every new promoting the so-called fight or flight species studied. response and, although glucocorticoid Since opening its doors in 2009, responses can also be adaptive in the Endocrine Research Laboratory the short term, prolonged periods of (ERL), at the Mammal Research Institute elevated glucocorticoid levels due to of the University of Pretoria, has prolonged stress can have an array of established numerous non-invasive tests disruptive effects, including reproductive for monitoring responses to stressors suppression, muscle atrophy and in a wide range of species and is immune suppression. Consequently, pioneering non-invasive endocrine stress is generally regarded as monitoring in Africa. The team antipathetic to welfare. collaborates with several national and Although measuring glucocorticoid international researchers and shares levels is a precise and widely accepted expertise within this research community. approach in monitoring responses to The continually growing network stressors, its implementation can be around ERL as well as its substantial challenging – especially when working collection of sample material has with elusive or dangerous animals such created great opportunities for Samples are collected out in the field and as elephants, rhinos or leopards. researchers around the world, serving then examined in the Endocrine Research Apart from being challenging as a platform for those wanting to Laboratory. for both the investigator and the conduct further studies. In 2010, investigated, the necessary process the International Society of Wildlife While faecal hormone analysis of capturing or restraining wildlife to Endocrinology was founded and will be provides valuable insights into collect blood samples usually causes chaired from South Africa for the next the endocrinology of animals, it a stress response, making it difficult four years. simultaneously allows for evaluation to determine natural cause and effect The ERL team has collected of potential stressors such as injury, relationships. information from among others African disease, translocation, housing, Furthermore, frequent blood sampling and Asian elephant, black and white tourism, risk-mitigation measures and may be harmful, particularly to very rhinoceroses, African buffalo, giraffe, urbanisation. small animals such as spiny mice, wildebeest, zebra, crocodile, tiger, Thus non-invasive hormone analysis elephant shrews, or African lesser leopard, cheetah, wild dog, aardwolf, not only represents a valuable tool for bushbabies. Although hormones were otter, sengi, bat-eared fox, African monitoring responses to stressors in predominantly measured in serum penguins, ground hornbills, vervet wildlife, but also enables the addressing and plasma in the past, non-invasive monkeys, golden langur, bushbabies, of current and future challenges related methods have thus gained popularity meerkats, sugar-gliders, mole-rats, and to the accelerating transformation of the over the past 30 years as a more even cat sharks. global landscape.

2 MOTHS THAT MAKE A HOME AT WALTHAM PLACE Zoë Radle, from Butterfly Conservation, reviews the decline – and rise – of moths at Waltham Place and elsewhere in the UK.

Waltham Place, the English home of The most well recorded Section Nicky and Strilli Oppenheimer, is an 41 species at Waltham Place is Oak 88-hectare biodynamic farm in the Hook-tip (Watsonalla binaria). There county of Berkshire, in the south of have been 15 records of this species England. over seven years. The abundance trend Moth recording has taken place across Britain shows a 78 per cent there since 2002, and a total of 524 decline since the late 1960s and the species (20 per cent of Great Britain’s NMRS distribution trend is stable. moth species and 30 per cent of the Some rare and locally distributed moth species known from the county of species have been recorded at Berkshire) have been recorded. Waltham Place. Waved Black A variety of moth recording (Parascotia fuliginaria) was recorded in techniques have been used as not all 2015. This species was first recorded moth species can be detected using in the London Docklands feeding on a single method. Pheromone lures are slime moulds in the late 1800s. great for attracting and recording day- The larvae of this moth also feed flying clearwing moths. on fungi on moist deadwood. The At Waltham Place, three clearwing practice of leaving deadwood in situ species have been recorded: Currant at Waltham Place will be beneficial Clearwing (Synanthedon tipuliformis); A horse chestnut leaf-miner. Photo: Patrick to this moth and, with more intensive Red-belted Clearwing (Synanthedon Clement The moth’s effect on the leaves of moth trapping, it may be recorded there myopaeformis) and Hornet Moth (Sesia the tree. Photo: Mark Parson again. apiformis). These species are generally Wormwood (Cucullia absinthii) is under-recorded across Britain and From this list of 71 rapidly declining another species with a restricted and Ireland. species, 32 have been recorded at declining distribution. It was recorded in Waltham Place. 2017. This species normally feeds on One of these is the Spinach moth wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) and (Eulithis mellinata); this species was mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris). recorded once in 2014. It feeds on However, at Waltham, it was found Ribes species, such as redcurrant and feeding on Russian tarragon (Artemisia blackcurrant. These plants are still dracunculus). Across the UK, many sites grown at Waltham Place. With more for this species have been lost through intensive moth trapping, this species the tidying up and development of may be recorded again. former derelict sites. Across Britain, this species has suffered a 96 per cent decline in abundance since 1968. In addition, A hornet moth. Photo: Iain H Leach both the short-term and long-term distribution trends generated from Leaf-miner surveys (visual searches Butterfly Conservation’s National Moth for caterpillar mines on leaves) took Recording Scheme (NMRS) show place at Waltham in 2015, 2016 severe declines for this moth. and 2018. A total of 89 species The reasons for the decline may were found during the surveys. The be due to there being fewer people A wormwood shark. Photo: David G Green Horse Chestnut Leaf-miner (Cameraria growing currants in their gardens and ohridella) was the most abundant. allotments and increased pesticide use Least Carpet (Idaea rusticata) is This moth is a recent arrival in the UK in commercial crops. Britain’s most rapidly increasing species (Wimbledon, 2002), having spread in terms of population growth. The across north-western Europe from distribution trend of this moth also shows Macedonia. The species is rapidly a significant increase. It is thought that spreading northwards and westwards this is in response to climate change. across the UK. It was first recorded in Britain in In 2007, 71 common and 1831 around London and is now well widespread but rapidly declining distributed in south-east England. Its macro-moth species were added to the range continues to expand into the UK list of priority species (Section 41 south Midlands, East Anglia and as far species) for research only purposes. An oak hook-tip. Photo: Roy Leverton north as Yorkshire and Cheshire.

3 WHY POMPOM WEED IS A WOLF IN SHEEP’S CLOTHING Dawie Krynauw, from South African Vegetation Services, and Duncan MacFadyen, from Oppenheimer Generations, examine an alien invader and how invertebrates interact with it.

damage to the plant. It flowers prolifically and produces a superabundance of wind dispersed seed. Dense pompom weed plants eventually outcompete most indigenous veld plants, and so literally take over and seriously degrade the food production potential and biodiversity of the veld, if left uncontrolled. Pompom weed is not well controlled in South Africa. Effective and relatively safe herbicides have been registered for its control but they, unfortunately, are not well utilised. A plant-specific rust fungus has been observed on pompom weed, which probably came in with the plant itself. This fungus does harm the plant, but is presently limited in occurrence, and only affects the plant seriously after the flower and seeding periods. Working for Water, a South African governmental alien plant control organisation, has invested in finding a biological control agent (a host-specific organism from the countries of origin) to assist in controlling and limiting the plant, but this has thus far not proven very successful. One of the practical aspects that seems to contribute to the lack of action to control the plant is the fact that the above- ground parts of the plant die back during winter, causing the problem then seemingly to disappear, resulting in an ‘out of sight, out of mind’ phenomenon. Pompom weed has its peak flowering time in mid-summer, when it transforms invaded veld areas into beautiful purple- pink flower fields. Generally, people marvel at the plant’s beauty, ignorant of the threat it poses. While doing research on the ecology of the plant, the varieties of indigenous invertebrates utilising pompom weed were noticed with interest. Some feed on the plant itself, and some on its nectar and pollen, while others use it as hunting perches etc. This illustrates that, besides the massive threat the plant itself poses to ecosystems, it is of some value to invertebrates, which in turn assist the plant’s propagation. It is indeed a wolf From top: A pompom field; Pompom seeds; Pompom seedlings. in sheep‘s clothing.

Pompom weed (Campuloclinium macrocephalum) is a beautiful alien invader plant, which became very prominent in large parts of South Africa’s non-arid grasslands and open savannas. The point of invasion was probably Gauteng, and that’s where it is presently most abundant. It has also started to become a serious invasive plant in other provinces such as Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal. Nobody knows how it came into the country from South America (where its occurence is quite widespread), but it was probably by seed and plant material that was brought in illegally and disposed of there. Considering its attributes, pompom weed has very special adaptations, which makes it a very successful invader. It is a strong-growing, perennial plant with a big fleshy root system, which enables it to survive serious environmental limiting factors such as drought, fire and frost. It is unpalatable to large grazing and browsing animals. Top left: A bee fly collects nectar and pollen. Above left: A brown Although the plant itself is also fed on by some bee fly collects nectar and pollen. Top right: A monkey beetle feeds. invertebrates (mostly insects), this causes only limited Above right: A flower crab spider ambushes visiting insects.

4 HOW BIRD DIVERSITY IS AFFECTED BY BANKRUPT BUSH Susannah Graham from the Applied Behavioural Ecology & Ecosystems Research Unit, Unisa, ponders the impact of dense Seriphium plumosum on bird diversity at Telperion.

Our study shows that grassland specialist bird species are more sensitive to changes in their habitat and their diversity declines steadily as bankrupt bush densities increase. This may indicate that these species are more susceptible to changes in their habitat. Certain species were found to prefer or avoid dense bankrupt bush indicating that some generalist species are not affected (Rufous-naped Lark, Barn Swallow and Banded Martin), though others may exploit the altered habitat (Desert Cisticola, African Stonechat and Long-tailed Widowbird), while specialist species (Ant-eating Chat, Cloud Cisticola, African Pipit and Eastern Clapper Lark) will decline if bankrupt bush encroaches into grasslands. The bird diversity was lowest in the dense site, which has the highest percentage of woody species. Bush encroachment results in a loss of a particular species and an associated decrease in bird species richness. Grassland bird diversity may be more affected by bush encroachment than other vegetation types. Since a grassland is structurally homogenous, grassland bird specialists experience severe variations in competition A cisticola on bankrupt bush. and predation when encroachment occurs. Specialist species are inclined to occur in less disturbed habitats than Mesic Highveld Grassland is essential for biodiversity generalists. They avoid the dense site indicating that, if further conservation, but large sections are under threat of densification occurs, it will have a direct impact on these densification by Seriphium plumosum (previously known as species and reduce their habitat. Stoebe vulgaris and commonly known as Bankrupt Bush). When considering the number of grassland specialists This small woody shrub reaches an average height and (40 per cent of the total 350 bird species) of which 25 are width of 60cm. An indigenous encroacher, it spreads rapidly threatened, it is evident that not only does bankrupt bush and dominates natural grass species, transforming grasslands. densification threaten a high percentage of the bird species, These changes in plant composition and structure lead to but may contribute to the extinction of species currently listed altered habitats for grassland dwelling bird species. as threatened. The study looked at different densities of bankrupt bush and how this affects grassland bird biodiversity within the Telperion Nature Reserve, Mpumalanga. The objective was to understand how biodiversity, species composition and the community structure of birds are affected by various densities of bankrupt bush. Grassland birds are a vital part of the ecosystem, since they act as predators, pollinators, scavengers, seed dispersers, seed predators and ecosystem engineers; they also control rodent and insect numbers. During recent years, many threatened bird species, including korhaans, bustards, larks and pipits, have been affected by degradation of grassland habitats. Studies have shown that vegetation affects bird species composition and distribution since it influences food availability and nesting and provides shelter from the elements and predators. It is thus imperative to determine the effects of change in vegetation, ie bush encroachment, on grassland bird diversity. In this study, the grassland site was the most diverse, and the dense site the least diverse, indicating that bird diversity is negatively affected by dense stands of bankrupt bush. There was also a clear variation in bird species composition between the three sites, which demonstrates how bankrupt bush affects bird communities. An expanse of bankrupt bush at sunset.

5 BATS AND DIAMONDS: GOOD BIOINDICATORS OR RESOURCE JUNKIES? Dawn Cory-Toussaint, from the University of Venda, Limpopo, looks at the relationship between bats and diamond mines.

I have always been asked: why on earth bats? All I can combination of permanent and irreversible damage where respond is: because they are so unbelievably fascinating from the ore is extracted; long-lasting physical and chemical effects a physiological and ecological perspective, quite unlike any at varying scales during extraction and processing activities; other group of animals I know, and (more informally) because and temporary impacts (ecological light pollution) on the they are exceptionally cute. environment. After many years of being exposed to bats as a personal In general, such disturbances to the landscape trigger interest and then for postgraduate studies, I can appreciate two major effects: firstly, a decrease in population sizes not only their unbelievable physiological adaptations but also of different species and, secondly, a decrease in species their incredible importance from an ecological perspective. diversity with an associated decrease in survival probability One aspect that predominantly sticks out to me, of the remaining species, particularly in fragmented habitat particularly in South Africa, is that there is limited information patches as they become more sensitive and vulnerable to on how bats are ecologically important, particularly as external factors. bioindicators (an organism that can be used to monitor the Accounting for 23 per cent of global mammals, bats have improvement or decline of ecosystem health). been reported as good bioindicators of ecosystem health as In a nutshell, we know that anthropogenic activities such they are taxonomically stable, have low reproductive output as land-use change and climate change pose a significant and long life expectancy, and short and long-term population threat to biodiversity. trends can be monitored and measured. Both negative and positive aspects have been reported in They deliver key services to human and natural numerous peer-reviewed papers, indicating that changes in ecosystems, they co-exist with humans, thus exposing habitat due to climate change or anthropogenic activities or themselves to increased pollution and contaminant levels, and a combination of both result in species (plants and animals they are distributed on a global scale, allowing for the effects alike) either avoiding changes in their habitats, becoming of habitat change to be comparable. locally extinct, or using or adapting to the changes. Additionally, bats have been suggested to be good These changes in the environment ultimately lead to bioindicators of human health, particularly in the context of changes in the composition of animal communities, their mining (coal) as bats and humans share the same trophic associated intraspecific and interspecific interactions, level, which means that the accumulation of toxins and ecosystem functionality and thus conservation strategies elements in bats may also indicate a threat to humans. for any given area. Opencast mining and the associated This leads to my current PhD research being conducted on loss of biota has been and continues to be a concern for the Venetia mine in Limpopo and the areas flanking the mine conservationists. to the west (Musina Mopane Bushveld) and east (Limpopo The main concern regarding opencast mining is that Ridge Bushveld). it covers large areas of the landscape resulting in a My research began with 81 days of acoustic monitoring

The study site landscape: Musina Mopane Bushveld.

6 of the bat communities present between June and September 2018. Much to my surprise, the acoustic data collected revealed contrasting patterns of species assemblages based on activity indices between bat detectors as well as habitat types over a rather small timeframe and area. The Limpopo Ridge Bushveld revealed 14 species. The Musina Mopane Bushveld only had 10 species, whereas the Venetia mine boasted 13 species and the highest activity index. The observed differences in bat assemblages in relation to the habitat types and mine may be due to available roosting sites, both natural and manmade, in the Limpopo Ridge Bushveld and Venetia mine respectively, compared with a potential lack of roosting sites in the Musina Mopane Bushveld. Overall, the species assemblages are dominated by Molossid species (Ansorge’s Free-tailed bat and Egyptian Free-tailed bat) with the exception of one area located in the Musina Mopane Bushveld that was dominated by the Cape Serotine. It appears that the high bat activity over the mine footprint is due to the domination of a few bat species such as Ansorge’s Free-tailed bat, the Egyptian Free-tailed bat, Rusty bat/Anchieta’s Pipistrelle and the Banana bat that particularly benefit from the mining activities. The wastewater dam north-west of the mine pit also appears to be an important drinking and foraging resource for bat species in the area, with even the clutter forager Bushveld Horseshoe bat utilising the dam for either drinking or possibly foraging. Bearing in mind that Northern Limpopo is a hot, dry area, it is not surprising that bats would use the wastewater dam since surface water is a scarce resource in the surrounding area. Similar patterns have been shown in the literature in relation to anthropogenic activities where certain bat species congregate and even dominate others due to available roosting sites in buildings and increased foraging opportunities at artificial light sources and artificial water points. This raises the question: are South African bats good indicators of ecosystem health or are they resource junkies that adapt to and make use of land transformed by humans? I encourage you to follow this journey with me as the bats of Venetia mine reveal to us both the impacts of the mine (positive and negative) as the effect of light pollution and wastewater quality are investigated, and the role that De Beers Group can play in the conservation of these extraordinary From top: Ansorge’s free-tailed bat; Banana bat in unfurling banana leaf; Bushveld creatures. horseshoe bat; Yellow-bellied house bat; Zulu serotine.

7 HOW SHRIMPS ARE MANAGING IN EPHEMERAL WATERS Jackie Dabrowski, from Confluent Environ- mental, reports on branchiopod crustacean diversity at Tswalu Kalahari Reserve.

Temporary waterbodies such as pans and rockpools are ubiquitous in the arid regions of southern Africa. Unpredictable and infrequent rainfall has led to a unique assemblage of remarkable crustaceans able to survive as desiccated propagules in the sediment during dry periods. These habitats are occupied by branchiopods in the classes Conchostraca (clam shrimps), Notostraca (triops), and Anostraca (fairy shrimps). These are considered the flagship species of ephemeral systems worldwide. Branchiopods have evolved a range of strategies that enable their survival in unpredictable and harsh aquatic environments. Most species are highly fecund, and fairy shrimp egg banks quantified in the sediments of the Makgadigadi Pans of Botswana have been found to contain up to 50,557 eggs per square metre. Eggs may hatch and produce viable offspring after as long as a 100-year dry period and must undergo a period of desiccation in order to hatch. As a form of bet-hedging, the fraction of eggs that hatch from the egg bank after rewetting Top: Leptestheriella inermis (clam shrimps) showing the female (left) and ranges from two per cent to 70 per cent, thus ensuring that male (right) found in rockpools at Verwater. Above: Triops granarius unfavourable rewetting events (low rainfall or high evapora- (tadpole shrimps) from Picnic Dam. Merged dorsal and ventral vie. tion rates) don’t threaten the survival of the entire population.

ARE BEEKEEPERS SET TO SAFEGUARD THE HONEYBEES OF GAUTENG? Elise Lundall-Magnuson, from the Agricultural Research Council in Roodeplaat in Pretoria, sets the scene for the development of black-owned beekeeping ventures

Honeybees pollinate a third of agricultural crops planted in Gauteng everything we eat and play a vital role that are almost totally dependent on in sustaining the planet’s ecosystem. honeybees are vegetables such as An ancient synergy exists between pumpkins, zucchini and butternut; honeybees and flowering plants berries such as strawberries, blueberries with honeybees needing access to and blackberries; seed oils such as flowers for the food they consume, sunflower and canola; and nuts such as while the flowering plants need to almonds and macadamia. attract pollinators to enable essential The expanding cultivation of a wide reproduction. range of horticultural crops, especially Honeybees provide that role while various types of berries (in tunnels), they consume pollen (as a protein has increased the need for commercial source) and nectar (as an energy pollination services. source). Honeybees need a diversity of Wild honeybees are still readily avail- flowers that are available at different able in Gauteng but, with the rapid loss times of year to survive. of the natural habitat due to the much- Honeybees are hard-working insects needed urban and industrial develop- and their activities ensure that most ment within the province, the situation for of the fruits, nuts and vegetables that these honeybees will probably change we eat are pollinated. Some of the drastically in the future.

8 Eggs are dispersed between suitable habitats in mud Out of 23 sites sampled, 18 contained branchiopods. carried on birds, animals and invertebrates, as well as when Species in all three branchiopod classes were found at eggs are eaten and passed in faeces. Niche segregation in Tswalu. The tadpole shrimp Triops granarius occurred in deep time may occur between species occupying the same habitat, water pans with muddy substrates. This species is widespread only emerging when environmental factors such as salinity globally and can live up to 90 days. It is often referred to as (which fluctuates during the hydroperiod) are optimal. a living fossil, having originated during the Triassic period. The distribution and conservation status of branchiopods Three species of fairy shrimps were recorded, two in in South Africa is largely unknown. Phenotypic plasticity the genus Branchipodopsis and the third, Streptocephalus (variable appearance) is very high among fairy shrimps, cafer. Branchipodopsis cf. wolfi was found in small hilltop complicating their identification. Feeding predominantly rockpools. Their morphological characters were highly on detritus, branchiopods convert this food source into variable. a valuable source of protein for migratory birds visiting For instance, in one pool they were large and bright red, ephemeral pans. while in a neighbouring pool they were small and bright One of the main threats to the survival of branchiopods green. However, they were easily distinguished from the other is the destruction of the temporary hydrocycle through the species that occurs at Tswalu. Based on morphological keys, provision of permanent water for various purposes including the unconfirmed Branchipodopsis species could be either ecotourism and livestock watering. B. tridens or B. kalaharensis as they have morphological To determine the diversity of branchiopods present at characters of both species. Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, ephemeral waterbodies including Attempts to resolve the Branchipodopsis species complex pans, rockpools, game wallows and roadside ditches were at the molecular level were complicated as none of the sampled following a period of significant rainfall (April primer combinations attempted provided reliable results. 2018). Samples were collected by sweeping a net (0.5mm Positive results were obtained for B. cf. wolfi, which showed mesh) through all available habitats. that the group at Tswalu was distinct from confirmed B. Sediment collected from various habitats during 2017 wolfi populations in Botswana, and they formed a distinct was also rewet to stimulate hatching of branchiopods. Any haplotype when compared with populations in the Free State, branchiopods that emerged were reared to sexual maturity for South Africa. identification. All branchiopods were preserved in 100 per Three species of clam shrimp were found: Eulimnadia cent ethanol for identification using morphological keys. africana; Leptestheriella inermis; and L. calcarata. The gene regions CO1 and 12S rRNA were targeted for Leptestheriella spp were found in shallow rockpools, while E. amplification, using multiple primer combinations for fairy Africana was found in a muddy pool at the roadside. This is shrimps in the genus Branchipodopsis. To determine whether the first record of Leptestheriella calcarata in South Africa. branchiopods were associated with particular habitats, basic The next phase of the project will focus on depositing environmental variables were measured at each site including samples at the Albany Museum and will continue work to pH, total dissolved salts, dissolved oxygen, substrate and resolve the Branchipodopsis species complex of fairy shrimps water depth. at Tswalu Kalahari Reserve.

Left and above: Beekeepers in action. Right: A honeybee gathers nectar and pollen from a flower. In the past five years, there has address the beekeeping requirements the establishment of black-owned been an expansion of business activity in Gauteng in order to safeguard and beekeeping businesses in Gauteng. associated with honeybees, including manage the honeybee population. These businesses will be involved commercial pollination services, The development of young black in bee removal, beekeeping and crop bee removal companies and ‘bee beekeeping entrepreneurs within pollination; and black owners of small- collectors’. a sustainable environment for the holder farms could possibly supplement There is therefore an urgent need to honeybees will be addressed through their income through beekeeping.

9 INTERESTING MATERIAL IN THE FORBIDDEN ZONE The archaeological potential of Namibia’s Sperrgebiet comes under the microscope of Martin Pickford from the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France.

Apart from some preliminary has been surveying for fossils in the hide, waiting for animals passing by. archaeological surveys carried out Sperrgebiet since 1992, has found There are several Iron Age localities by German scholars during the early many archaeological sites of great close to springs such as Kerbehuk, days of diamond mining (1910-1920) interest. These range in age from with evidence of cooking, pottery, in what was then called South West Middle Stone Age to the Recent fabrication of beads from ostrich eggs Africa, there has been almost no and comprise a variety of site types and hunting of small and medium-sized archaeology done in the Sperrgebiet including ancient quarrying activity animals (tortoises, steenbok). At Hexen following its closure for diamond security at Knapping Hill in the Klinghardt Kessel, there are occurrences of limpet considerations. Mountains, where early humans shells and stone tools, but no signs of This lack of scientific activity has extracted chunks of chert-like rock in cooking, pottery or eggshell beads given rise to the false notion that early order to fabricate stone tools. were observed, suggesting that the site humans did not live there or, if they did, Other sites comprise werfs, where is pre-iron age. they left few signs of their passing. low walls were built around a cleared The scatter of archaeological sites However, the Namibia floor about two metres long and a metre and their range through time indicate Palaeontology Expedition, which or so wide, in which hunters would that early humans inhabited or visited the region from the earliest times, possibly two million years or more ago. Food remains (bones, shells) observed at some of the sites indicate that early humans were regularly exploiting both terrestrial and marine resources, and the distribution of many localities close to freshwater springs indicate that they may have been dependent on these springs for survival in what today is a harsh desert environment. A great deal of interesting material is awaiting the attention of archaeologists in the Forbidden Zone of Namibia.

Left: The Kerbehuk archaeological site in southern Sperrgebiet: a) large core and hammer stone with a scatter of quartz flakes, b) quartz and chert tools scattered on the surface, c) decorated pottery sherds, d) ostrich egg shells, some of them burnt, e) limpet shell, ostrich egg shell fragments and a quartz flake, and f) ostrich egg shell fragments on the surface of the site. Below: Ostrich egg shell bead, shell fragments and stone flakes at Buntfeldschuh.

10 WHY THERE IS TOO MUCH LAND Ian Mitchell-Innes suggests eating more meat to save the world.

The grasslands of the world were This reduces the effects of droughts Any land can be healed, using rumi- developed under large herds of or floods and feeds the azotobacteria, nants, as long as there is something for ruminants, which remained at high which take nitrogen from the air and fix the animals to eat. Over time, using that density to avoid being killed by it in the soil, so reducing the reliance method, the environment at soil surface predators. on fertiliser. If 50 per cent of livestock will be changed and the seeds of the At no time was a grazing animal farmers in the world practised this palatable grasses, which are good at left on the same piece of ground for process, it would sequestrate enough capturing energy, will germinate and any length of time. This only happened carbon to get the carbon dioxide establish themselves. As the amount of when man’s invention, the barbed wire content of the atmosphere back to the energy captured increases, the numbers fence, was erected and then the world’s pre-industrial era, within 10 years. of animals that can be run on a hectare problems with land degradation started. We also know that energy is the of land will more than double. Land is a solar panel. If you are elusive part of the equation to achieve This leaves us in a situation where making a living off the land, by default animal performance. Using holistic we have not got enough animals to you are in the energy business. Energy management planned grazing, we heal and maintain the land available. is money, time is money and water is enable the animal to select the best Hence there is too much land, for the money. We use livestock to harvest energy available in that camp, at a time being. the energy, which is in the form of stock density that will trample ample The moral of the story is: if you are sugars, fats and waxes and turn it into a organic matter to feed life on the soil serious about saving the world, eat saleable commodity. and leave enough behind to continue more meat, so more people can run All life needs energy so, to stimulate photosynthesizing. livestock. soil life, we use stock density to get the energy through the soil surface, by the action of grazing; kinetic energy, the action of hooves on the ground; and symbiotic energy, which is the energy field around all animals. At high densities, this symbiotic energy is multiplied and does not stop at the soil surface but goes into the soil. We need to graze the plants in a vegetative stage (prior to seeding), so the plant never stops growing. This organic matter, above the ground (leaf) and below the ground (root), is increased dramatically by this grazing. Organic matter on the soil (carbon) protects the soil from the sun and wind, and the organic matter in the soil holds the rainfall, changing the environment at soil surface level.

11 WHY LEAD POISONING IS A BIG RISK FOR VULTURES Linda van den Heever, from Birdlife South Africa, examines the risk to nest-bound Gyps vulture chicks of lead poisoning.

Vultures are regarded as one of the most threatened bird Our results suggest that, unlike non-scavenging birds, South groups in the world, and their populations have undergone Africa’s Cape and white-backed vultures are subjected to precipitous decline in both Asia and Africa in recent decades. regular lead poisoning. Unlike vultures, which are obligate Poisoning, which includes secondary lead poisoning, has scavengers, some of the non-vulture species may occasionally been identified as the single most important cause of vulture scavenge at roadkill in order to supplement their diet, mortalities in Africa. suggesting that vultures’ scavenging lifestyle is predisposing In an effort to understand the prevalence of lead poisoning them to lead poisoning. in South Africa’s Gyps vultures, blood and bone samples Blood lead concentrations found in unfledged chicks were obtained from a number of Cape and white-backed (aged between 60 and 100 days) at Dronfield ranged from vultures from various regions in their South African range. barely detectable to consistent with clinical poisoning (in Blood, bone and liver samples were also obtained from a some instances as high as 84.9µg/dl). Had environmental number of non-scavenging raptors and other large terrestrial sources of lead (such as dust) been the source of the lead bird species, and used for comparison purposes. poisoning, all chicks would have displayed similar blood lead Using a blood lead concentration of 10µg/dl as the upper concentrations. limit of background exposure, it was found that 66 per cent of Furthermore, studies have shown that, although organisms white-backed vultures (n = 110, of which 85 were nest-bound can bioaccumulate lead in their tissues, lead does not bio- chicks sampled at De Beers Group’s Dronfield Nature Reserve magnify (that is, concentrate as it moves up the food chain), near Kimberley) and 80 per cent of Cape vultures (n = 15) suggesting that lead bioaccumulated in the tissues of prey sampled exceeded this limit. The national average was found cannot account for increased lead levels in their predators. to be 15.4µg/dl and 29.7µg/dl for white-backed and Cape Only pure, metallic fragments of lead can account for vultures respectively. the high blood lead levels found in some of the Dronfield Bone samples revealed that 12 per cent of white-backed chicks, suggesting that these birds are receiving metallic lead vultures (n = 18) and nine per cent of Cape vultures (n = 75) particles from carrion regurgitated by their parents. suffered from subclinical to severe clinical lead poisoning We suspect the likely source of these particles to be frag- upon their deaths. By contrast, none of the 41 blood, bone ments of ammunition embedded in the carcasses of hunted or liver samples obtained from non-scavenging raptors and animals. So we urge all hunters to switch to the use of non- other large terrestrial bird species were found to exceed lead alternatives, not only for the sake of our vultures, but for background exposure. all animals depending on scavenging as their source of food.

Quantifying levels of lead toxicosis in South Africa’s vulture species

Linda van den Heever1, 2, Hanneline Smit-Robinson1,3,4, Vinny Naidoo5, Andrew E. McKechnie2, 6

1Terrestrial Bird Conservation Programme, BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa. 2Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. 3Applied Behavioural Ecological & Ecosystem Research Unit (ABEERU), UNISA, Florida, South Africa. 4School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. 5Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. 6National Zoological Garden, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, South Africa

introduction results lead is a toxic Blood samples heavy metal that • Of 110 White-backed Vultures sampled, including 85 chicks from Dronfield, 65% were found to have serves no known bio- blood lead concentrations above 10 µg/dl, with a national mean of 15.38 ± 21.03 µg/dl (Figure 1). logical function, impacting • Fifteen Cape Vultures sampled at Blouberg Nature Reserve had a mean blood lead concentration of most systems in the body, 29.74 ± 37.60 µg/dl, with 80% of birds found to have blood lead concentrations above 10 µg/dl (Figure 1). especially the nervous • The mean blood lead concentrations measured in vultures were significantly higher than that measured system and the haeme- in non-vulture species (1.95 ± 2.38 µg/dl, p < 0.001, Figure 2A). synthesis pathway. • Blood lead concentrations measured in non-vulture species (n = 21) were all consistent with background (Franson & Pain, 2011) exposure.

Bone samples acute lead exposure • Bone lead concentrations measured in 18 White-backed Vulture carcasses yielded a mean bone lead con- in birds can lead to centration of 6.81 ± 6.80 µg/g, with 11% of samples (n = 2) consistent with clinical to severe clinical lead mortality, while chronic poisoning. exposure may result in • Cape vulture carcasses (n = 75) were measured to have a mean bone lead concentration of 2.76 ± 4.02 decreased spatial awareness, µg/g, with 9% of samples (n = 7) reflecting clinical lead poisoning. muscle atrophy, depressed • The mean bone lead concentrations measured in vultures were significantly higher than that measured immune response and in non-vulture species (0.75 ± 0.54 µg/g, p < 0.005, Figure 2B). All bone samples taken from non-vulture decreased reproductive species (n = 7) were consistent with background exposure. success. (Garcia-Fernandez et al., 2005; liver samples Haig et al., 2014). Liver samples obtained from non-vulture species (n = 13) were all found to have lead concentrations con- sistent with background exposure (<2 µg/g).

BLOUBERG NATURE RESERVE HOEDSPRUIT/TIMBAVATI

Even low levels cape Vulture white-Backed Vulture Mostly juveniles of exposure can Chicks – Adults: n = 15 n = 10 result in birds that Average = 29.74 µg/dl Average = 9.89 µg/dl Max = 109 µg/dl (two birds)* are less fit. LIMPOPO Max = 16.64 µg/dl Over 10 µg/dl = 80% Over 10 µg/dl = 50% (Franson & Pain, 2011)

MPUMALANGA white-Backed Vultures ALBERT FRONEMAN

Johannesburg GAUTENG NORTH WEST SWAZILAND HLUHLUWE-IMFOLOZI PARK white-Backed Vulture Juveniles – Adults discussion and conclusion cape Vulture ALBERT FRONEMAN FREE STATE n = 15 KWAZULU- • South Africa’s Cape and White-backed vulture species are subjected to lead poi- NATAL Average = 23.09 µg/dl LESOTHO Durban Max = 134.87 µg/dl soning on a regular basis, displaying blood lead concentrations far exceeding levels Over 10 µg/dl = 73% consistent with background exposure. DRONFIELD NATURE NORTHERN CAPE RESERVE • Bone, liver and blood samples obtained from a range of non-vulture species, in- white-Backed Vulture EASTERN CAPE cluding 16 raptor species and three large terrestrial species, were all consistent with Chicks – 2016/2017 n = 85 background exposure for each specific tissue type. Average = 14.82 ug/dl WESTERN • Unlike vultures, that are obligate scavengers, some of these species may occasion- CAPE Port Elizabeth Max = 84.93 ug/dl Cape Town ally scavenge at roadkill in order to supplement their diet, suggesting that vultures’ Over 10 ug/dl = 64% scavenging lifestyle is predisposing them to lead poisoning. • Blood lead concentrations found in unfledged chicks at Dronfield ranged from white-Backed Vulture chick TANIA ANDERSON barely detectable to consistent with clinical poisoning. Had environmental sources of cape Vulture ALBERT FRONEMAN Figure 1: Descriptive statistics of blood lead concentrations found in Cape and White-backed vultures from various regions in South Africa. lead (such as dust) been the source of the lead poisoning, all chicks would have dis- played similar blood lead concentrations. It is more likely that some of the chicks are aims receiving metallic lead particles (such as fragments of lead ammunition) from carrion The study aimed to quantify lead toxicity in South Africa’s vulture species, and to com- regurgitated by their parents. pare it to those found in non-vulture species.

reFerences Franson, J. C., & Pain, D. J. (2011). Lead in Birds. In W. N. Beyer & J. P. Meador (Eds.), En- acknowledgements vironmental Contaminants in Biota: Interpreting Tissue Concentrations (Second Edi, pp. This work would not have been possible without 563–594). Boca Raton: CRC Press. the generous support of Neville Isdell, Mary methodology Garcia-Fernandez, A. J., Martinez-Lopez, E., Romero, D., Maria-Mojica, P., Godino, A., & Oppenheimer & Daughters Foundation, Prof. William Jimenez, P. (2005). High levels of blood lead in griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) from Ca- Bowerman (University of Maryland) and Niall Perrins • Blood (n = 127) and bone (n = 97) samples were collected from White-backed Gyps afri- zorla Natural Park (southern Spain). Environmental Toxicology, 20(4), 459–463. https:// (Bustards Birding Tours). A word of thanks also goes canus, Cape G. coprotheres and Lappet-faced Torgos tracheliotos vultures from various doi.org/10.1002/tox.20132 to all those who assisted with the collection of Haig, S. M., D’Elia, J., Eagles-Smith, C., Fair, J. M., Gervais, J., Herring, G., … Schulz, J. H. samples, and to all landowners who allowed field (2014). The persistent problem of lead poisoning in birds from ammunition and fishing regions in South Africa, including Dronfield Nature Reserve (n = 85), Blouberg Nature work to be conducted on their properties. tackle. The Condor, 116(3), 408–428. https://doi.org/10.1650/CONDOR-14-36.1 The project was approved by the BirdLife South Reserve (n = 15), Hoedspruit and surrounds (n = 10) and KwaZulu-Natal (n = 15). Wiemeyer, G. M., Pérez, M. A., Torres Bianchini, L., Sampietro, L., Bravo, G. F., Jácome, N. Africa Ethics Committee (refs. 2016/04/B and • Blood, bone and liver samples were also collected from non-vulture species (n = 41), L., … Lambertucci, S. A. (2017). Repeated conservation threats across the Americas: High levels of blood and bone lead in the Andean Condor widen the problem to a 2016/06/B) and the Animal Ethics Committee of including various raptor and large terrestrial species. Lead concentrations were deter- continental scale. Environmental Pollution, 220, 672–679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.en- the University of Pretoria (ref. EC012-17). mined using ICP-MS. vpol.2016.10.025 • Blood and bone lead concentrations below 10 µg/dl and 10 µg/g respectively were con- sidered to be consistent with background exposure [adapted from Franson and Pain Figure 2: Blood (A) and bone (B) lead concentrations of White-backed, Cape and Lappet-faced (2011) and Wiemeyer et al. (2017)]. The geometric mean was applied in all instances to vultures and those of other, non-vulture species. compensate for skewness. cape Vulture ALBERT FRONEMAN Conference poster summarising the research.

Lead Poster.indd 1 2018/10/12 11:55 AM

12 WHY WE WANT VULTURE SAFE ZONES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA Birdlife South Africa’s Hanneline Smit-Robinson highlights how vulture safe zones can help keep vultures away from extinction.

effective, realistic and achievable at a grassroots level. BirdWatch Zambia is working to secure 4,000 hectares of the Chisamba Important Bird and Biodiversity Area for the benefit of vultures and the ecosystem. It has taken the first steps in southern Africa to secure safe zones. Through a strategic approach, we are defining this new concept in the southern African context. We are also undertaking a scientifically-based study, employing ecological niche modelling and a habitat remote sensing toolkit to identify core breeding areas of white-backed vultures across their distribution in South Africa. This is based on the analyses of large sets of point locality and nesting data. BirdLife is currently enrolling this long-term vulture safe zone project on one of South Africa’s largest conservation properties, Tswalu Kalahari Reserve (115,000 hectares). The White-backed vultures. Photo: Albert Froneman reintroduction of a range of predators provides additional safe Old world vultures, occurring from Africa to Eurasia, are food resources to the vultures at Tswalu. plummeting towards extinction, with eight of the 15 old world The closest white-backed vulture breeding sites are vulture species regarded as critically endangered by the approximately 50km north-west of Tswalu, while lappet-faced International Union for Conservation of Nature. vultures breed on the property. Eleven vulture species occur in Africa and seven of these Criteria for vulture safe zones developed by BirdLife are nearing extinction. The reasons for vulture declines in South Africa urge owners of large tracts of land to pledge Africa are complex and varied and include: intentional and to manage their properties in a vulture-friendly manner, indiscriminate/unintentional poisoning, the use of lead-based committing to: ammunition, electrocutions on and collisions with energy • Protect breeding vultures from disturbance infrastructure, harvesting for belief-based use, and loss of • Provide carcasses as supplementary food which are lead breeding and foraging habitat. and contaminant free The idea of ‘vulture safe zones’ has been successfully introduced in Asia as an in situ approach to complement • Use lead-free ammunition to cull game/livestock efforts to remove the NSAID (Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory • Not use poison as a deterrent to mammalian predators Drug) diclofenac from veterinary practice. Diclofenac was • Modify water reservoirs to prevent drownings replaced with a safe alternative, Meloxicam. • Work with power producers to rectify unsafe electricity The vulture safe zone concept was formalised under the pylons umbrella of ‘Saving Africa’s Vultures from Extinction (SAVE)’ in Nepal, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In India, the Bombay • Prevent the loss of large trees Natural History Society has reported stabilisation of the • Monitor all vulture populations vulture populations in the designated vulture safe zones of two • Report all vulture mortalities. states and an increase in the population of another zone in recent years. BirdLife South Africa’s research on vultures and lead The Multi-species Action Plan (MsAP) for the conservation toxicosis strongly supports our efforts to establish lead-free of Africa’s and Eurasia’s vultures was accepted by the 12th vulture safe zones and to replace the use of lead ammunition Convention on Migratory Species held in Manila in 2017. with non-toxic alternatives throughout South Africa. One of the suggested MsAP actions is to create vulture To accommodate the complexity of certain measures, safe zones to safeguard Africa’s vultures from extinction. for example the phasing out of lead ammunition, a tiered As the reasons for the decline in vultures in Africa are more system will be implemented, encouraging property owners to varied than those responsible for the Asian vulture crisis, the graduate from the most basic tier to full compliance. application of these zones should be adapted to reflect this While BirdLife South Africa has progressed with complexity. terminology and documentation, we believe that a continent- The establishment of vulture safe zones urges the owners wide strategy is required to initiate the declaration of vulture of large tracts of land to commit to managing their properties safe zones in Africa. in ways that will provide safe havens for existing vulture This will require the input of a wider vulture conservation populations. This focus on sound environmental practices network at a workshop to be held in 2019. Decisions to could provide the landowner with reputational and economic be taken here will pave the way around the flexibility and benefits. adaptation of criteria in the different African regions and Vulture safe zones have recently been implemented drive the strategic selection of areas where vulture safe zones in Africa and could offer conservation solutions that are would be best placed.

13 Winner of the best poster HOW BARCODING CAN HELP CONTROL FLEAS Saeed Mohammadi, from the Mammal Research Institute at the University of Pretoria, introduces his PhD thesis, which was behind his best poster award at the research conference.

taxonomists and is based on their morphological characteristics. However, this expertise has become increasingly rare. In addition, cryptic speciation where species cannot be delineated based on morphological characters is common among ectoparasites. Therefore, it is opportune to provide a reliable method for identification of ectoparasitic fleas; providing updated evidence on their emergence is the most important attempt on the way to overthrowing the limitations of morphological identification. For this study, fleas were collected from Namaqua rock mice (Micaelamys namaquensis) from Telperion and Ezemvelo Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga in South Africa, and morphologically identified to species. The most common fleas found were Xenopsylla brasiliensis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) and Epirimia aganippes (Siphonaptera: Chimaeropsyllidae). The former is widespread and has spread to India and South America and is a known vector of plague, while Epirimia aganippes (Siphonaptera: Chimaeropsyllidae) is Above: Collecting Namaqua rock mice. Below: Mice probably contribute to flea dispersion. Photos: Dewald Kleynhans endemic to southern Africa. Barcoding provides a rapid assessment without the need The poster presented at the 9th annual Oppenheimer for detailed morphological expertise in the first instance. It is Generations–De Beers Group Research Conference was like a unique pattern in universal product codes that identify part of my PhD project, which is devoted to investigating the products. Here, for purposes of this study, I have generated ‘Contributions of life history traits on the genetic structure of a small fragment of molecular marker (cytochrome C oxidase host and parasite populations in South Africa’. subunit I) for the first time from South Africa. The aims of this project are to develop genetic markers for Distinct genetic clusters were identified, with some the parasite species of small mammals for the first time. This apparent gene flow between regions. Fleas exhibited rates will be the basis for investigating landscape spatial genetic of gene flow among Namaqua rock mice colonies in which, structure between small mammals and their ectoparasites the findings suggested, hosts may have contributed to flea (ticks, fleas, mites and lice) in South Africa. dispersal. Parasites as biological indicators have recently gained This preliminary output of my thesis is intended to clarify wide acceptance, as they can provide a reliable guide to the suitability of COI mini-barcodes as an effective and fast understanding the biology of their host. Hence, I tested the tool for identification of flea reservoirs, through which further use of DNA barcoding for reliable species identification of analyses are achievable. parasite species sustained by vertebrate hosts, as these are currently not available. Fleas most commonly exist on warm-blooded animals (such as household pets and rodents) and are small flightless insects belonging to the order Siphonaptera. These ubiquitous parasites spend most of their lifetimes feeding off their hosts as external parasites. They go through a life cycle that includes egg, larvae and cocoon stages in the host nest. While adult fleas are relatively easy to kill with insecticides, the egg and cocoon stages are very resistant. Fleas are able to transmit vector-borne disease pathogens worldwide such as Yersinia pestis, Bartonella spp and Rickettsia spp causing plague, endocarditis and murine typhus, respectively. The plague continues to be an endemic public health problem in many parts of the world, an endemic zoonotic disease across Africa, and knowledge of the distribution of potential flea vectors is necessary because of its potential re- emergence from endemic regions such as sub-Saharan Africa. Technically, identification of fleas depends on skilled

14 Efficacy of universal DNA mini-barcode: Evidence from Xenopsylla brasiliensis and Epirimia aganippes

Saeed Mohammadi1, Sasha Hoffmann1, Dina M. Fagir1, Heike Lutermann1, Nigel C. Bennett1 and Bettine van Vuuren2

1Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, South Africa 2Centre for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, South Africa [email protected] BACKGROUND: Hematophagous ectoparasites, such as fleas (Insecta, Siphonaptera) can carry and spread several bacterial diseases. They play a major role in the dynamics of the plague, murine typhus, flea-borne spotted fever and are known to harbour Bartonella spp which are of medical and veterinary significance. T Plague, an endemic zoonotic disease across Africa, can be transmitted from small mammals' hosts (mainly rodents) to humans and other mammals through adult

C flea bites. To date, there is no such study on identification of fleas using well defined molecular approaches in South Africa. Morphological identification of fleas is limited by the requirement for skilled taxonomists to elucidate their specific taxonomic keys. An accurate molecular tool for species identification would be highly A valuable. The approach with high discriminatory power known as DNA mini-barcodes is well established providing a powerful technique for the identification of flea

R vectors and pathogen dynamic systems.

T OBJECTIVES: i: Demonstrating the application of short fragment COI sequences for identifying two efficient flea vectors of plague with a global distribution Xenopsylla brasiliensis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) and Epirimia aganippes (Siphonaptera: Chimaeropsyllidae) endemic to southern Africa. S Ii: Determining their species differentiation and genetic variation using clustering analysis.

B RESULTS: Based on external morphological characterization, flea specimens were identified. Genomic DNA was extracted and the length of the COI sequences

A obtained was 140bp. According to clustering analysis, neighbor-joining (NJ) trees revealed a distinction with significant bootstrap value for both flea species which can be easily distinguished from other species.

S D O H T E

©D. Kleynhans M Figure 1. Sampling of Namaqua Rock Rat, Micaelamys namaquensis was per-

formed in Telperion/Ezemvelo Nature Reserve, South Africa (trapping grid, 150 Sherman traps, 8 plots/site). Collected fleas were then subject to DNA extrac- tion and amplification of COI gene. Sequences were analysed in Geneious 7. S T L U S E R

Figure 2. The NJ trees generated of the concatenated COI sequences of X. brasiliensis (left) and E. aganippes (right) including 1 outgroup. N REFERENCES

O i. Since COI-based barcoding is not always successful, our study well-supported Meusnier, I., Singer, G.A., Landry, J., Hickey, D.A., Hebert, P.D., Hajiba-

I the usefulness of DNA mini-barcodes to assign and facilitate identification of baei, M. 2009. A universal DNA mini-barcode for biodiversity analysis. medically important ectoparasites.

S BMC Genomics, 9(1):214. ii. Occurrence of X. brasiliensis and E. aganippes on rodents in the study area Segerman, J. 1995. Siphonaptera of Southern Africa. Handbook for the

U shows that the control of flea vectors remain the main step of potential plague Identification of Fleas. Publications of the South African Institute for Med- prevention in South Africa and highlights the need for further investigation to un-

L ical Research. No. 57. South African Institute for Medical Research, Jo- derstand the risk of molecular epidemiological epidemics and reservoirs. hannesburg, South Africa.

C Van der Mescht, L., and Matthee, S. 2017. Host range and distribution of small mammal fleas in South Africa, with a focus on species of medical N ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and veterinary importance. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 31(4): The authors would like to thank the support of the management and staff of the 402-413. O Telperion/Ezemvelo Nature Reserve. We are also thankful to volunteers for field-

C work assistance, D. Main and M. Amiri for their help which improved the poster.

The winning poster summarises the project to develop identifiable genetic markers for parasites

15 DUNG BEETLES TAKE CENTRE STAGE IN DIVERSITY CHECK Debswana’s Dewald Kamffer focuses on an arthropod diversity assessment in Botswana.

Assessing the arthropods of Orapa Game Park and the Northern Extension was primarily aimed at compiling a baseline inventory of the animals without a spine and with an exoskeleton. This was done in accordance with the Five-Year Management Strategy and Resource Management Plan Framework for the Orapa Game Park (2014) in Botswana. With limited timeframes and logistics, the primary aim of the study was accomplished with 980 morphospecies collected and listed for the Orapa Game Park and Northern Extension. Of these, 284 were tentatively identified to genus/ species level, such as the impressive moth Gynanisa maja. Secondly, the study aimed to compare certain arthropod groups of different habitats identified in the original Orapa Game Park and in the Northern Extension. Obvious ecological differences were noted between areas with and without surface calcrete in the original Orapa Game Park and in the Northern Extension, resulting in identifying four major arthropod habitats. Perceived habitat degradation that is high in the original Orapa Game Park and medium to low in the Northern Extension added another ecological factor to the data analyses. Species richness (number of species), species evenness (using Simpson’s Index) and biomass (number of individual animals) were used as biodiversity indicators. From Top: Dung beetles were sampled, using pitfall traps baited with Dung beetles were specifically sampled, using pitfall fresh cattle and rhino dung; Constant over-grazing has resulted in poor grass and forb cover; The Northern Extension’s better grass and traps baited with fresh cattle and rhino dung. Dung beetle forb cover revealed more arthropods. biomass was significantly linked to community structure and

Expedition has visited Diamond Area N° 1 (the Forbidden UNLOCKING THE Zone, or Sperrgebiet) in Namibia to prospect for Neogene fossils. The main fossiliferous deposits are at Fiskus, Elisabethfeld, SECRETS OF THE Grillental and Langental, and collectively they span the period from 21 to 18 million years ago. Every year, we find SPERRGEBIET world-class fossils, which reveal that this corner of Africa was indeed a centre of evolutionary activity, as well as a region Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford from where mammals dispersing from Eurasia arrived and thrived, the Sorbonne Université and Muséum in their turn adapting to the local conditions. The reason for this evolutionary activity was that the National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, area was drier and more open than much of the rest of the go looking for Neogene fossils. continent, which meant that all the lineages were obliged to adapt to the environmental conditions or die out locally, if they A common misunderstanding about southern Africa, when didn’t do so. it comes to fossil mammals, is that it was a cul-de-sac of Among the vertebrates that have a much earlier fossil evolution. record in Namibia than in other parts of the continent are Yet the Cape floristic zone, despite its miniscule dimensions Nile crocodiles, ostriches, sengis, golden moles, some rodent on the world plan, is one of the six botanic kingdoms of the species such as springhaas and mole rats, several carnivores planet, which a priori suggests that its animals would also be such as primitive hyenas, and aardvarks. highly diverse, and this in turn would indicate that, far from Among mammals that arrived from Eurasia and thrived being a backwater of evolutionary processes, it was instead are rhinos, anthracotheres (superficially hippo-like mammals), a hotspot of activity. antelopes, tragulids (water chevrotains), several carnivores Every year since 1992, the Namibia Palaeontology such as felids (cats) and amphicyonids (bear-dogs) as well as

16 the average dung beetle biomass was the highest within the original Orapa Game Park. Large numbers of dung beetles were expected in the park because of the many large mammals present. Surprisingly, this significant trend did not extend to dung beetle species richness and evenness. The variance in species richness and biomass of arthropods sampled from vegetation (beating and sweeping) were strongly tied to community structure. Likewise, species richness and biomass of vegetation- sampled arthropods were significantly influenced by habitat degradation levels. The original Orapa Game Park has been subjected to constant over-grazing by large herbivores over a long period, resulting in poor grass and forb cover and, consequently, fewer plant-related arthropod individuals and species. The Northern Extension was not subjected to the same grazing pressures as the original Orapa Game Park – it currently has better grass and forb cover and revealed more arthropods sampled from vegetation than were collected in the game park. In South Africa, many species of spiders and scorpions are listed as protected species. This protection does not seem to be reflected in Botswana’s environmental legislature. None of the arachnid species encountered during this study are currently listed as threatened or protected (either in South Africa or Botswana). However, some of the other species of the genera Opistophthalmus and Ceratogyrus have formal protection in South Africa. It is not unlikely that the protection afforded to these species might be extended in time to all species of Opistophthalmus and Ceratogyrus. The study supports the view that certain arthropods are closely associated with plant community structure and are easily affected by changes in habitat quality. It also highlights the importance of allowance for holistic biodiversity conservation within conservation strategies for large vertebrates. Veld improvement techniques will reverse the degradation of plant community structure and improve invertebrate species diversity. Three-year dung beetle and arachnid surveys will assist in the monitoring of biodiversity changes (if any) and From top: An impressive gynanisa maja moth; An opistophthalmus provide ecosystem health indicators. boehmi; An opistophthalmus wahlbergii. creodonts (extinct carnivorans). It was also home to probosci- deans but these large mammals are rare in the Sperrgebiet. Another common misunderstanding about fossil sites is that, after three or four visits to fossil sites, the chances of discovering new species is reduced, but our experiences in the Sperrgebiet give the lie to this viewpoint. Every year, we find taxa that were not known from the area before, or we find more complete and better specimens that were previously known. In 2017, for example, during the 27th survey of Elisabethfeld, an almost complete skull of a giant dassie was found [by Brigitte Senut], previously known from two fragmentary specimens from Fiskus and Grillental. This discovery enabled a more detailed description of the species to which it belongs, Afrohyrax namibensis, and it permitted in-depth comparisons to be made with fossils of Afrohyrax championi from Kenya, Uganda and Saudi Arabia. These comparisons indicate that the Namibian fossil dassie was about the size of a donkey. So big is the skull of Afrohyrax namibensis that just the skull on its own is as big as the largest living dassie, Procavia capensis. We plan to continue with our surveys in the Sperrgebiet in Brigitte Senut compares the skull of Afrohyrax namibensis from the knowledge that it still has a lot of secrets to divulge, each Elisabethfeld, Namibia, with one of Procavia capensis, the extant discovery adding a piece to the huge jigsaw that is African rock dassie of southern Africa. Inset: a dassie at about the same palaeontology. scale as the contemporary skull.

17 WHY FROGS ARE WORTH CARING ABOUT Kirsty Kyle, from North West University, introduces her study of Debshan Cattle Ranch and highlights the enchanting world of frogs and toads.

Internationally, the number of amphibian species is declining, with a third of all species either extinct or seriously threatened. There are a number of reasons, including habitat loss, climate change and disease, and these are all very serious issues. The question that needs to be asked is: how can we protect or care about what we do not know and care about? And frogs are worth caring about. In southern Africa, we are fortunate enough to have 169 different species, with new ones being discovered and added to this list every year. Within this number are the most enchanting species portraying a vast array of sizes, colours and habits that could rival anything else to be found in the natural world. Frogs are truly a fascinating group of animals, and they are also vitally important to the ecosystem, fulfilling important roles as both predator and prey to a large number of animals. One of the things that make them so interesting is the A mottled burrowing frog carries tadpoles. diversity they display. Our largest species is the giant bullfrog, which is quite well known for both its size and bizarre dwarf puddle frogs, all of one centimetre long, to the giant breeding behaviour. bullfrogs mentioned earlier, which weigh in at 1.4kg. The amazing thing is that these species occupy the same pools and puddles. Granted the smaller ones definitely stay out of the bullfrog’s path, but each one is uniquely designed to fulfil its specific niches within each ecosystem without outcompeting other species. The average puddle up there, on a good summer’s night, is absolutely enveloped with the deafening cacophony of a myriad of frogs, each with a unique call, adding their voice to the chaos of a warm African evening. As with all things, the more one learns about something, the more one realises there is to learn and, through my journey with frogs, I have been amazed at the intelligence, charm and ingenuity of these intriguing, fragile little creatures. The best part is that they are all around us, being A bushveld rain frog. surprisingly adaptable to urban environments. Many households have a resident toad that drinks out of the dog’s The large males exhibit parental care by protecting the water bowl, and garden ponds are often blessed on summer tadpoles and ensuring they don’t dry out. This they do by nights with a healthy chorus of toads. going to the extent of even digging channels to allow the As loud and annoying as they may be, one can only smile tadpoles to reach deeper pools when their puddles dry up. watching a dear old toad gorging on flying ants or the like. Another example of amazing parental care can be seen More people should be encouraged to learn about them so with burrowing frogs. With this species, the female lays her we can care for them, before it’s too late. eggs in a burrow away from water and, once they hatch, she carries them glued to her body the several metres over dry ground to the edge of the water where she wades in and washes them all. These incredible behaviours have only come to light recently as a result of hours spent observing them and learning. One can only wonder what other incredible behaviour will be brought to light in years to come. It is also amazing to consider the diversity of habitats they can occupy. There are species that are endemic to a single patch of forest or mountain slope, and there are others that are found throughout southern Africa. Debshan Cattle Ranch in Zimbabwe, which was the site of the study, was incredible in this regard. There are 34 species that are reputed to occur there, ranging from tiny A painted reed frog.

18 LOCAL AND GLOBAL INITIATIVES TO HELP SAVE THE PANGOLIN Sean Heighton, from the University of Pretoria, looks at ways of combating the illegal poaching of the ‘roller’.

For many, the word pangolin is a totally new word, a These maps are vital, as they will facilitate identification of buzzword slowly starting to make its way into international poaching hotspots in conjunction with determining trends and media as conservation’s next big problem. trade routes for more efficient law enforcement operations. The word finds its origin from the Malay word Peng-guling They will also be key to identifying suitable areas for safe meaning ‘the roller’. This is because this creature defies all repatriation of seized individuals, thus providing a better laws of nature in its fight or flight response by rolling into a chance of repatriation success. ball when threatened. Once validated, these methods also have the potential to The pangolin is the only mammal in the world to have be used as a prosecution tool that is needed in the fight to keratin-based scales covering almost the entirety of its body. save this unique animal. These scales, which are almost identical to primate nails, form a suit of armour that has protected the pangolin for millions of years from natural predators. Yet, ironically, this armour is one of the main reasons that the pangolin is the most heavily trafficked wild mammal in the world at present, because its scales have a high medicinal value in many cultures. It is estimated that more than one million pangolins were trafficked between 2004 and 2014, which is more than the trafficking of rhinos and elephants combined. This, along with the fact that pangolins only have one offspring at most once a year, means that the illicit trade is unsustainable and will most likely lead to extinction if nothing is done. Despite the uplisting of all eight pangolin species (four in A pangolin. Africa and four in Asia) to CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) Appendix I in 2017 with a resultant prohibition of all forms of commercial trade, illegal poaching of these animals continues unabated. One approach to solving the problem is through science- backed enforcement of international regulations created by organisations such as CITES. This, however, can only be achieved by establishing high-resolution geo-referencing maps of pangolins using either their DNA, morphology, microbes, stable isotopes or a combination thereof as a means to determine the origin of a trafficked individual or its derivatives, regardless of where it is seized. The feasibility of enhanced traceability was investigated by characterising pangolin microbial diversity in two populations that are 100km apart. The results provided insights into the approaches that A pangolin in its defensive posture when threatened. Photo: Darren Pietersen hold the greatest possibility for future expanded studies on microbial diversity and traceability. In addition, a range of potential sources of variability for stable isotope traceability using pangolin scales was evaluated. Stable isotope analyses work by identifying isotopic differences in elements such as carbon and nitrogen across geographic regions. This preliminary research has led us to develop a methodology for using stable isotopic analyses of pangolin scales to determine their geographic origin. Our initial results indicate that it is possible to distinguish between Lowveld and Kalahari individuals using this method. In addition to these local initiatives to conserve pangolins, there is a global, French-funded initiative called PANGO-GO involving multiple collaborators, which aims to create the first geo-referencing maps for all eight pangolin species using their An average seizure of pangolin scales. These seizures are usually DNA and morphology. measured by the tonne. Photo: ©Hong Kong Customs

19 SOCIAL WEAVER PROJECT THAT SHOWS THE BENEFITS OF COOPERATION Rita Covas, from the University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal, and Percy FitzPatrick, from the Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town report on a social weaver project at Benfontein Farm.

The aptly named Sociable Weaver (Philetairus socius) is a highly social species that is endemic to the Kalahari region of southern Africa. As the common name suggests, these weavers work together to accomplish diverse tasks, from building their highly distinctive thatched nests to helping raise chicks and defending the nest and colony from predators. Akin to traditional human societies, these weavers have an elaborate social structure with different levels of organisation – the family, the neighbourhood that surrounds the family nest, and the colony. Their fascinating social structure and different types of cooperative behaviours undertaken make them an ideal study model to investigate the benefits and costs of sociality and the evolutionary mechanisms that allow cooperation to evolve and be maintained. The evolution of cooperation is a central problem in evolutionary biology because individuals cooperate to help others, but at a cost to themselves. Hence, it is expected that individuals should try to reap the benefits of being part of the cooperative group, while avoiding paying the costs, which could lead to the collapse of cooperation. Yet cooperation is widespread in nature. When cooperation takes place among family members, it is easier to explain, since close kin share a large proportion of genes, and hence by helping a close relative achieve higher survival or reproductive output, the cooperative individual is contributing to spreading its own genes in the population (as it would through its own reproduction, albeit indirectly). This kin selection theory appears to provide an important explanation for cooperation in sociable weavers, since many cooperative interactions take place among family members. For example, older offspring help the parents by feeding their siblings, cleaning the nest and contributing to maintain the family’s nest chamber. However, there are some Top: The research team parks underneath a communal nest. Photo: Alexander Vaz Above: Social weavers mobbing a snake (visible top left corner). cooperative behaviours that also Facing page: Social weavers grouped on a branch. Photos: René van Dijk involve non-relatives. For example, the

20 communal nest building that allows the colony structure to be maintained is conducted by related and unrelated individuals, and nest defence against predators may also involve relatives and non-relatives of the nests under attack. One of the main current focuses of the sociable weaver project is to investigate whether there are benefits to cooperating that go beyond kin selection. In particular, we are interested in finding out whether more cooperative individuals are preferentially chosen as mates or as social partners. This could lead to higher reproductive success or higher survival and provide an additional mechanism favouring investment in cooperative tasks as opposed to cheating. This hypothesis has received support in humans and theoretical studies but remains poorly studied in other animals. Additionally, the project’s long-term demographic data allows us to tackle timely questions related to how investigating how this affects population trends. environmental change affects crucial population parameters. Under the current climate change scenario, the frequency Thanks to the efforts of Mark Anderson (now CEO of and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts Birdlife South Africa), who started ringing the sociable weaver and heatwaves are predicted to increase, and cooperative colonies at Benfontein in 1993, the project now spans nearly species may be better equipped to cope with these extreme 25 years of data. This allows us to study how environmental adverse conditions than non-cooperative ones. factors affect population trends. Given the number of biotic and abiotic factors that may In addition, we are investigating how social factors, affect animal populations and how these vary between such as the presence of helpers at the nest, influence these years, long-term data is absolutely crucial to obtain a realistic population trends. We have obtained results showing understanding of population dynamics. that having helpers allows parents to maintain a sustained The sociable weaver project is the longest-running study reproductive output under adverse conditions, and it also of individually marked birds in South Africa and we are improves the breeding females’ survival. We are now committed to continuing it into the coming decades.

TWO DECADES OF DECIPHERING THE DIVERSITY OF FYNBOS Sean Privett, Director of the Grootbos Foundation, tells the story of a 20-year vegetation survey on Grootbos Nature Reserve.

The Cape flora is internationally term botanical study in the Cape. The recognised for its exceptional diversity, study has revealed a remarkably diverse high levels of endemism and many rare and complex flora. and endangered species. An initial vegetation survey, which In 1991, the Lutzeyer family included laying out 50 5x10 metre purchased the 121 hectare Grootbos permanent monitoring plots representing farm on the foothills overlooking Walker all obvious habitats on Grootbos, Bay in the heart of the Cape flora. revealed a total of 250 indigenous From small beginnings, Grootbos plant species on the reserve. Nature Reserve has grown to 2,500 Subsequent continuous surveying hectares of endangered lowland fynbos over all seasons and through all post-fire and forest, becoming a world leader in stages has revealed an extraordinary responsible tourism and a catalyst for number of additional indigenous conservation action across the highly plant species. Thus far, a total of 806 threatened Agulhas Plain region of the indigenous plant species have been Cape. recorded, and new finds keep adding The development of this tourism to this list. enterprise and associated conservation Detailed analysis of the vegetation initiatives has been solidly grounded on composition and environmental developing a deep understanding of the conditions has further revealed the fynbos and forest habitats of this area in floral complexity of the reserve, with 29 the heart of the Cape floral kingdom. distinguishable vegetation types in an Starting in 1997, and continuing area of just 2,500 hectares. uninterrupted to the present, Grootbos Many of these species only appear Disa-lugens. Photo: Gareth Williams has undertaken the most detailed long- for a short interval ...continued overleaf

21 following fires, some are extremely localised, 75 are species Grootbos also assists landowners in developing and of conservation concern, and six are completely new to implementing conservation management plans for their science. properties. Ultimately, the aim is to ensure long-term The impact of this study reaches far beyond the boundaries conservation of critically endangered and vulnerable areas on of the reserve, as Grootbos has developed a suite of private land within the conservancy. conservation projects and extended its vegetation survey to To this end, Grootbos and its partners have developed surrounding private landowners in the Walker Bay region. a framework for the signing of conservation servitudes In 1999, Grootbos was instrumental in the establishment (easements) on private properties. These provide a legal of the Walker Bay Fynbos Conservancy (www.fynbos. framework for the conservation of conservation-worthy co.za) by partnering with Cape Nature and eight other portions of private land in perpetuity. local landowners. Under the guidance of the Grootbos Ultimately, the long-term survival of the unique biodiversity conservation team, the conservancy has grown to 35 of the Walker Bay region will rely on partnerships and trust members who collectively own 18,000 hectares of between the private landowners of the region. endangered lowland habitat on the western rim of the Grootbos is committed to continuing delving into the Agulhas Plain. detail and complexity while at the same time nurturing these This region is a botanical gem with subtle changes in partnerships. physical conditions such as soil, slope, aspect and altitude leading to continual changes in plant composition. So far, 1,074 indigenous plant species, of which 133 are species of conservation concern, have been recorded in the Fynbos Conservancy. While an in-depth understanding of the floral diversity and compositional patterns is critical, of even more importance is how to go about ensuring the long-term conservation of this unique region. A three-pronged strategy has been implemented by Grootbos over the last 20 years. Firstly, the landscapes that have been ravaged by past farming activities need to be healed. Primary to this is the management of natural fire cycles (farmers burnt too frequently in the past) and the removal of invasive alien species (most notably Australian acacias). Over the last two decades, the entire Grootbos Reserve has been cleared of these invasive species. Concurrently, a landscape-wide alien-clearing programme has been initiated that has employed hundreds of local community members and cleared 9,600 hectares of alien vegetation. Secondly, an environmental education and awareness programme has been implemented to work with local communities and develop sustainable nature-based careers. In 2003, the non-profit Grootbos Foundation (www. grootbosfoundation.org) was established and its first project, the Green Futures Horticulture and Life Skills College, initiated. This college focuses on the training and upliftment of local communities by providing a practical curriculum in indigenous horticulture, landscaping, conservation and life skills. Over the past 15 years, 258 young people from the local communities around Grootbos have graduated from this programme. Many of them have been absorbed into the Grootbos tourism business or the Grootbos Foundation, while the others have found alternative employment or started their own businesses. The third component of the Grootbos landscape conservation strategy has been to develop positive relationships with private landowners, building on their conservation awareness and commitment over time. By providing detailed flora, bird, small mammal, frog, reptile and more recently entomological surveys of their individual properties, many landowners have become far more aware of the uniqueness and conservation value of their property. A tool that has proven particularly effective in exciting landowners has been the images of cryptic faunal species including Cape leopard, caught on motion-sensor cameras. This work highlights the importance of connectivity, conservation corridors and conservation beyond the fence From top: The Green Futures nursery; Alien clearing at Grootbos; line to private landowners. A resurvey of vegetation gets under way in 2015.

22 REMARKABLE BUTTERFLY DIVERSITY AT THE OPPENHEIMER PROPERTIES Reinier Terblanche, from the University of Stellenbosch, goes butterfly hunting on Oppenheimer properties

A remarkable butterfly diversity is present on the Oppenheimer properties in South Africa and Zimbabwe. While, for most of the properties, the current butterfly species numbers will certainly increase along with more surveys, early results point to a significant diversity. To date, the totals of butterfly species for the properties are: Brenthurst Garden 55; Shangani Ranch 132; Nyazengu 86; Telperion 83; Tswalu Kalahari Reserve 76; and Wakefield 58 and counting. For some of the properties, the butterfly species list is the first ever and for others, such as Nyazengu, literature is available from which some localities of butterflies could be traced. The total of 55 butterfly species from the Brenthurst Garden (Johannesburg, South Africa) highlights the significant contribution that urban gardens and parks could make to biodiversity conservation and an urban conservation network. Many of the beauties that are found at Brenthurst Gardens, such as the species Green-banded Swallowtail (Papilio nireus) and Garden Commodore (Precis archesia), owe their residential status to the presence of indigenous plant species on which they breed.

A tinktinkie blue (Brephidium metophis), one of the smallest butterfly species in South Africa, at Tswalu Kalahari Reserve.

composition of montane scarp forest species and grassland endemics has already been found.

A green-banded swallowtail.

Females of the Green-banded Swallowtail lay their eggs on the indigenous white-ironwood (Vepris lanceolate) in the gardens while there is no shortage of Plectranthus hostplants for the garden commodores. Rocks and pathways at Brenthurst Garden provide an ideal playground for species such as the Garden Commodore, and there is a wealth of nectar sources in the gardens. The total of 76 butterfly species found at Tswalu Kalahari Reserve (Northern Cape, South Africa) is spectacular by any standards for an area with a rainfall below 400mm per A blue-spangled charaxes. Photos: Reinier Terblanche annum. There is a fascinating assemblage of Bushveld and Karoo butterfly species. New concepts for the conservation of A total of 132 butterfly species has been recorded butterfly migrations in Africa are being developed at Tswalu at Shangani Ranch, which is situated in the highveld of at present. Zimbabwe. Why such a high diversity of butterfly species in At Wakefield (KwaZulu-Natal), a unique butterfly species a highveld area where topographical ...continued overleaf

23 changes are not large? It is likely that geology and soil types play a large role in this diversity by causing a unique mosaic of vegetation communities to which butterfly diversity responds. For example, Shangani Ranch contains patches of miombo woodlands (characterised by Julbernardia and Brachystegia trees). Certain butterfly species such as Blue-spangled Charaxes (Charaxes guderiana) and Lunulated Hairtail (Anthene lunulata) have a high fidelity to these miombo woodland patches. Other butterfly species at Shangani Ranch are in turn associated with the hills where a well-developed grass layer as well as tree assemblages quite different from the miombo are noticeable. Butterfly fauna in the Nyanga area of the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe, which include Nyazengu, is legendary so that, in contrast to the other properties visited, literature of historical records is available. Field surveys have started at Nyazengu to unravel, in combination with the literature survey, what species are present there today. So far, it is estimated that there are 86 butterfly species. A recent trip to Nyazengu indicated that endemic highland butterfly species such as the beautiful False Scarlet Acraea (Acraea pseudatolmis) are still alive and well in the beautiful montane landscape. Widespread species that have now spread to urban environments owing to exotic hostplant species in southern Africa, such as the Eyed Pansy (Junonia orithya) are still found in their pristine natural environment at Nyazengu, which could provide clues to their original distribution.

A marsh sylph mating pair.

playground for butterflies. Through research, an interesting picture emerges that a substantial number of butterfly species do not share their presence with all or most of the other properties, a number of these being endemic to certain bioregions and provinces of countries. This means that together the properties make a profound contribution to butterfly conservation in southern Africa.

An eyed pansy butterfly.

Telperion Nature Reserve (Mpumalanga, South Africa) is another example of how butterfly diversity reacts to a mosaic of grassland patches and savanna as well as rocky ridges and wetlands. Marvellous bushveld species such as Hutchinson’s Highflyer (Aphnaeus hutchinsonii) and the wetland habitat specialist, the Marsh Sylph (Metisella meninx), share the same property. Larvae of Hutchinson’s highflyer use the indigenous wild syringa (Burkea africana) as hostplants where the correct mutualistic ant species is also available. The marsh sylph larvae use wild rice grass (Leersia hexandra) growing only on wetlands as the hostplant. And then add species such as the Russet Protea butterfly (Capys disjunctus), which is dependent on Protea species for completing its life cycle. The list is endless. The Oppenheimer properties provide a spectacular An oreas russet copper (Aloeides oreas) at Wakefield.

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