Discussion Summaryof Discussionand Recommendations from the Conference

EleanorM. Dorseyand Judith Pederson

n an effort to fosterexchange among partici- perspectivesfrom a post-conferencemeeting of pantsand developa setof recommendations the conferencesteering committee, The conference on future actions, a discussionperiod was discussionsession was not tapedand a numberof held at the end of the conference, Effects of participantscould not attend,We havemade every FishingGear on theSea Floor of NewEngland effort to capturethe diverseviewpoints expressed on May 30, 1997.The discussionwas structured duringthe dayand to reflectthe concerns and aroundtwo questions: thoughtfulnessof the attendees,A full list of com- ' What studiesare needed in New Englandto mentsand recommendationsas recorded in writing improveour understandingof fishinggear effects and at the conferencediscussion session is providedin other disturbances on the sea floor? Appendix2. ~ What insightshave we gainedfrom the con- ferencepresentations and discussionsabout research GENERAL OBSERVATIONS on and experiencewith fishinggear effects on the sea The provisionson essentialfish habitatin the floor? Magnuson-StevensFishery Conservation and Man- Approximately60 of 150participants attended agementAct of 1996place new emphasis on fish the discussion session and shared information and habitatsand will influencemanagement decisions observationsof habitatsand the relationshipof habi- in the both the short andlong term Kurland,this tatsto fisheryproductivity. Although the intentof volume!.Participants at the discussionsession noted thissession was specifically to identifyresearch activities that inforination on what constitutes essential fish that would further understandingof seafloor habitats habitatis limited, that scientistsmust help identify andfisheries, the exchangeof informationcovered a and describe habitats, and that decisions will have to broadspectrum of topicsand reflectedthe experience be madebased on incompleteinformation. One of of the scientists, fishermen, environmentalists, and the key recommendationswas for fishermen'sknowl- fisherymanagers in attendance.The discussionranged edgeto be incorporatedinto the definition and iden- beyondthe initial questionsand fell into threecate- tification of essential fish habitat and for fishermen to gories: I! generalobservations and assumptions, participatein designingresearch to betterunderstand ! recommendationsfor research,and ! recornmen- habitatsand fish productivity. dationsfor fisherymanagement A collaborativeefFort between scientists, managers Time constraintsprecluded in-depth discussion and fishermencould translateflishermen's knowledge on any one issueand there was no attempt to resolve gainedthrough years of observationsinto scientifi- contradictoryobservations. This summaryfocuses on callyuseful information. Some of the habitatfeatures themesthat wereidentified as high prioritiesor were highlightedby fishermenin this volumeare edges part of severalrecommendations. It alsoincludes or transitionsbetween different bottom types, rapid

140 Effects of Fishing Gear on the Sea Floor of New Eng and changesin topography,beds of benthicinvertebrates disturbanceaffect primary productivity may ultimately suchas mussels and stalkedascidians!, and special helpincrease food for harvestedfish. Another produc- bottomstructures such as pipe clayand gravel pave- tivity-relatedquestion is to evaluatethe role of'trawl- ment!, These featuresoccur on scalesmuch smaller ing and dredgingin reducingpredators of' targeted than the 10-minutelatitude and longitudesquares speciesthrough bycatch mortalityor increased used for fish stock assessments. To use fishermen's exposure to scavengers. knowledgeof habitateffectively, habitat maps should Throughoutthe discussion,many people remark- depictsmall-scale features, such as substrate transitions, ed thatwe do not know what limits fish production. musselbeds, sea floor peaks,and claypipe areas. Without this understanding,it is difficult to evaluate Severalparticipants observed that differentgoals the effectof naturaldisturbance, gear disturbance, wereexpressed by variousspeakers at theconference, predation,competition, weather, cliinate, and over- Somepresentations focused on fisheryproductivity fishingon fishproductivity and habitat function. asthe principalpurpose for humanuse of marine Another observation was that declines in fish stocks ecosystems,whereas others stressed the preservation and alterations to sea floor habitats result from a of biologicaldiversity. Although thesegoals may not singleproblem: too much fishing, Reduced fishing be mutuallyexclusive, they differ in einphasisand effort canbe expectedto resultin increasedfish expectation. stocksand improvedbottom habitats Somepresenters Focused on the importanceof Severalcontradictory observations emerged biologicaldiversity and stated that maintainingdiversity at the conference.Some studies have shown fishing at the seafloor benefitsfisheries by increasedstruc- disturbance to reduce abundance, biomass, and tural heterogeneityand food availability. The protection diversityof somebenthic invertebrates, while other of uprightbiota suchas sponges, algae, and bryozoans! studiesand observationsreport increasesin theabun- not only providesrefuge for earlylife history stages dance and biomassof other bottom species,notably of harvestedfish species,but alsoenhances prey For scavengers,due to fishing.In thisvolume, sea scallop larval,juvenile and adult fish,Thus, scientistsand fishermenreport both positiveand negativeeffects fishermenwith an interestin biologicaldiversity and of scallopdredging on the targetspecies. Careful ecologicalfunctions of inarinesystems contended studiescan help resolvethese observed differences, that maintaininga heterogeneousenvironment will andparticipants recommended further research on improvefish populations,In addition,protecting fundamentaland appliedquestions. benthicbiodiversity might providea bufferfor fish populationsif fishingregulations do not adequately RECOMMENDATIOIVS FOR RESEARCH control fishinginortality. This approachwould sug- Therewas general agreement at the discussionsession gesta changein emphasisfor managerswho curremly that a high priority for future studiesshould be to usestock assessinents asthe principal consideration improveunderstanding of the relationshipbetween for managementdecisions. Another value expressed carryingcapacity of habitatsand fishing productivity for biologicaldiversity, apart from its contribution to andto quantifythat relationship. Another recommen- robustfisheries, is thepart that eachspecies represents dationwas to quantifythe relationships benveen habi- in the recordof the evolutionof life on this planet. tatsand fish and to providea scientificand technical Thosewho emphasizedmarine productivity basisFor inanagement decisions, In addition,a coor- wantedresearch and management to focuson inaxi- dinatedprogram to researchthe effectsof fishinggear mizingthe yield of targetedspecies. An analogyto on habitatsis needed,Such a programshould, among farmingwas used to Framethe discussion.In agricul- otherthings, designate areas For research, develop ture,cultivation of thesoil is usedto increaseyields of inethodologies,and study the importanceof bottom specificcrops. Proponents of a focuson productivity structure.It wasrecommended that priorities be set wereinterested in processesand ecosystem components for monitoring and researchby focusingon the im- that enhancefishery productivity, For example, portantareas and placing less effort on areasthat are understandinghow nutrient releasesfrom sediment not important to fisheries.Studies should look at the

Discussion 141 effectsin the short,middle, and long term and men'sobservations as well ashypothesis testing, and shouldintegrate over the regionfor all populations. both shouldbe reflectedin agencies'funding priorities, Furthermore, studies should focus at scalesappropri- Another recommendation was for research to ate for individual fish, scales that are smaller than developfishmg gear that minimizesdamage to sea currentmanagement divisions. floor habitatsand to untargetedbiota. Optimism A recurringtheme throughout the discussionwas wasexpressed that considerableimprovements in the recommendation for fishermen and scientists to this directionare possible. collaboratein identifyingpriority areasof research and developingresearch projects. Conducting fish- RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT eries-directedresearch is challenging becauseagencies The conferencedid not attemptto addressthe man- that fund research,such as the National Science Foun- agementimplications of fishinggear impacts to the dation and the Office of NavalResearch, encourage seafloor, but somesuggestions for managementwere hypothesis-drivenresearch rather than descriptive madeat the discussionsession. A high priority was studies.Improved understanding of fisheryhabitats givento classifyingthe seafloor accordingto vulner- requiresdescriptive studies that may includefisher- ability to fishinggear, with input from both scientists and fishermen,Managers were urged to solicit in- creasedinput from fishermenand academicscientists, Recommendations for Research to establishprotected areas, to re-examineappropri- atescales for definingfish habitat,and to focuson 1. Investigate the relationship between sea productiveand sensitive areas first. Severalpartici- floor habitats and fish productivity. pantsrecommended the establishmentof marine ~ Develop a consistent assessment approach reserves.Permanent, seasonal, and rotating closed for evaluating habitats and habitat functions. ~ Develop methodologies for quantifying fishery productivity. Recommendations ~ Evaluate the function of edges or transition for Management areas to fisheries productivity.

~ Demonstrate that three-dimensional 1. Classify the sea floor types according to complexity results in higher fish productivity. vulnerability to fishing gear, using information from both fishermen and scientists. 2. Demonstrate the effect of fishing gear on commercially important species. SeveraI 2. Use fishery closures for research to separate initiatives are needed; three are listed below. the effects of fishing removals from fishing gear damage to habitats. ~ Identify unfished areas to compare with fished areas. ~ Determine whether closures should be permanent or rotating. ~ Use fishing closures to gain insights into habitat recovery and fish use of habitats. ~ Look at effects over varying time and space scales. ~ Improve estimates of trawl distribution and frequency using fishermen's records. ~ Use fishermen records to identify trawled areas. 3. Map ecoregions of the sea floor as a first step in identifying important habitats. 3. Consider zoning the sea floor I.e. review land-use zoning and modify for the ocean 4. Measure the productivity of fish regionwide bottom!. because it is difficult to generalize from individual studies of habitat. 4. Improve economic valuation of marine ecosystems. 5. Improve fishing gear to minimize fishing mortality of non-target species, some of elude economic values for non-fisheries which provide habitat for target species. roducts and services. 6. Modify fishing gear to minimize damage to prove methods for valuing marine sea floor habitats. oducts.

142 Effects of FishingGear on the Sea Floor of New England areaswere all suggestedand would servedifferent mendationwas to improvethe economicvaluation of purposes.Monitoring wasrecommended inside the marineecosystems, with thescope expanded to include existingfishery closures to examinetheir effectson valuesfor other productsand services than fisheries fish and habitats.It wassuggested that managers harvests.It wasagreed that improvedunderstanding considerzoning the seafloor in a mannercomparable of humanimpacts and natural disturbance is keyto to land useplanning. This would be a majorunder- improvingmanagement decisions. taking andwould haveto involveall the diverse interests in the use of the sea floor, Another recom-

Discussion 143

Appendice APPENDIX I SpeciesList: Scientific and Common Natnes Used in this Volume

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME TYPE OF ORGANISM

Ampeliscid a mphi pod Ampelisca sp. Amphipod Ampeliscid amphipod Ampelisca spi nipes* Amphipod Amphipod Erichthonius spp. Amphipod Amphipod Unciola i nermis Amphipod Ascidian Colonial! Aplidium pallidum Ascidian Ascidian Solitary! Ascidia collosa Ascidian Barnacle Balanus spp. Barnacle Basket star Gorgonocephalus arcti cus Echinoderm Bay scallop Aequipecten irradians Biva Ive Bivalve Ocean quahog! Arctica islandica 8ilvalve B lackback flounder Pleuronectes americanus Finfish Winter flounder! Blood star Henricia sanguinolenta Echinoderm Blue mussel Mytilus edulis Bivalve 6 rachiopod Terebratulina septentrionalis Brachiopod Brittle star Ophiura sarsi Echinoderm Brittle star Amphi ura spp.* Echinoderm Bryozoan ldmidronea atlantica Bryozoan Bryozoan Crisia sp. Bryozoan 6ryozoan Crisia eburnea Bryozoan Bryozoan encrusting! Parasmittina j effreysi Bryozoan Calcareous alga Lithothamnion spp.* Red alga Calcareous tube building Sabellaria spinulosa' Polychaete worm Catfish Wolffish! Anarhichas lupus Finfish Cerianthid anemone Cerianthis borealis Cnidarian Cockle Cerastoderma eclule' Bivalve Cod Gadus morhua Finfish Cora ll inc alga Corallina officinalis Red alga Cormorant Double crested! Phalacrocorax auri tus Bird Crab Jonah! Cancer borealis Crustacean

146 Effects of Fishing Gear on the Sea Floor of New Eng and COMMON NAME S C I E NT I F I C N AM E TYPE OF ORGANISM

Cunner Tautogolabrus adspersus Finfish Dab American plaice! Hippoglossoi des pla tessoides Finfish Dab European! Limanda limanda' Finfish Decorator worms Diopatra cupraea Polychaete Dogfish Squalus acanthias Shark Dover sole So/ca so/ea* Finfish Dragonet Callionymus lyra" Finfish Eastern oyster Crassostrea vi rginica Bivalve Eider duck Somateria mollissima Bird Fluke Summer flounder! Paralichtys dentatus Finfish Foliose bryozoan Pentapora foliacea' Bryozoan Formaninife ran Bathysiphon spp. Foraminifera Gaper clam Soft-shelled! Mya arenaria Bivalve Goosef ish Monkfish! Lophi us ameri canus Finfish Gorgo ni a n cora I Gra pes! Paragorgia arborea Cnidarian Gorgorian coral Sea corn! Primnoa resedaeformis Cnidarian Green crab Carcinus maenas Crustacea n Grey sole Witch flounder! Glyptocephalus cynoglossus Finfish Gurnard Trigla spp.* Finfish Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus Finfish Hake Red, silver and white! Various genera Finfish Ha libut Hippoglossus hippoglossus Finfish Hard coral Unknown species CnIdarIan Heart urchin Echinocardi um cordatum* Echinoderm Hermit crab Pagarus bernhardus» Crustacean Hermit crab Pagarus spp. Crustacean Herring Clupea harengus Finfish Horse mussel Modiolus modi olus 8iva Ive Hydroids Several genera Cnidarian Icela ndic scallop Clinocardium pinnulateum Biva Ive Japanese scallop Patinopecten yessoensis Bivalve Kelp Laminaria digitata Brown alga Kelp Laminaria sacchari na Brown alga Lemon Stalked sea squirt/ Boltenia ovi fera Ascidian ascidian! Little skate Raja erinacea Skate Lobster American! Homarus americanus Crustacean Longhorn sculpin Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus Finfish Lugworm Arenicola marina Po lych a etc Mackerel Atlantic! Scomber scombrus Finfish Maerl Lithothamnion spp. Red alga Mahogany quahog Arcti ca islandi ca Biva Ive Ocean quahog! Manila clam Tapesphilippinarum* B ivalve Mantis shrimp Sguilla amprisa Crustacean Menhaden Pogy! Brevoortia tyrannus Finfish Mollusc Margarites sordi dus Bivalve Mollusc Astarte! Astarte borealis Bivalve

Appendices 147 COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME T Y P E OF 0 R G A N I S IVI

Mollusc Iceland cockle! Clinocardium ciliatum Bivalve Mollusc Northern cardita! Cyclocardium novangliae Bivalve Monkfish Goosefish! Lophi us ameri canus Finfish Northern pink shrimp Pandalus borealis Crustacean Norway pout Trisopterus esmarkii » Finfish Nudibranch Aeolidia papillosa Gastropod Ocean perch redfish! Sebastes mari nus Finfish Ocean pout Macrozoarces americanus Finfish Ocean quahog Arctica islandi ca Bivalve Oligochaetes Several genera Annelid worm Orange mounding sponge Myxilla fimbriata Sponge Plaice American! Hippoglossoi des platessoides Finfish Plaice European! Pleuronectes platessa» Finfish Pogy Menhaden! Brevoortia tyrannus Finfish Pollock Pollachi us vi rens Finfish Polychaete Euphrosi ne borealis Polychaete worm Polychaete tube worm! Fiiagrana implexa Polychaete worm Pork fat Unknown species Ascidian Queen scallop Aequipecten opercularis' Bivalve Razor clam Ensis directus 8iva Ive Razor clam Ensis siliqua' Biva Ive Red hake Urophycis chuss Finfish Redf i sh Ocean pe rch! Sebastes marinus Finfish Rockweed Fucus sp. Brown alga Salmon Atlantic! Sa/mo solar Finfish Sand dollar Echinarachni us parma Echinoderm Scallop Atlantic sea! Placopecten magellani cus Bivalve Scallop European! Pecten maximus» Bivalve Scup Stenotomus chrysops Finfish Sea anemone Metridi um senile Cnidarian Sea anemone Northern red! Urticina crassicornis Cnidarian Sea cucumber Cucumaria frondosa Echinoderm Sea fan Euni eel!a verrucosa ' Cnidarian Sea moss Irish moss! Chrondrus crispus Red alga Sea pen Pennatula aculeata Cnidarian Sea pen Funiculina quadrangularis' Cnidarian Sea pen Pennulata phosphorea» Cnidarian Sea pen Virgularia mirabilis' Cnidarian Sea scallop Atlantic! Placopecten magellanicus Bivalve Sea star Forbes! Asterias forbesi Echinoderm Sea star Northern! Asterias vulgaris Echinoderm Sea urchin Stronglylocentrotus droebachi ensis Echinoderm Sea urchin Strongylocentrotus palli dus Echinoderm Sea worms Toredo navalis Bivalve Wood boring worms! Serpulid polychaete Spirorbis spirorbis Polychaete Shrimp Crangon spp,* Crustacean

148 Effectsof Fishing Gear on the Sea Floor of New England COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME TYPE OF ORGANISM

Shrimp Crangon crangon» Crustacean Shrimp Northern pink! Pandalus borealis Crustacean Silver hake Whiting! Merlucci us bi linearis Finfish Skate Raja neavus» Skate Snake blenny Lumpenus lumprefaeformis Finfish Snow crab Chionoecetes opilio Crustacean Soft coral Alcgonium spp. Cnidarian Soft coral Gersemia sp. Cnidarian Sole Solea solea» Finfish Solitary ascidians Ascidia collosa Ascidian Sponge Mycale lingua Sponge Sponge Orange rnounding! Myxilla fimbriafa Sponge Sponge lophon sp. Sponge Sponge Finger! Isodicfya spp. Sponge Sponge Breadcrumb! Halichondri a panicea Sponge Sponge Hymedesmia sp. Sponge Squid I ong-finned! Loligo pealei Mollusc Squid Short-finned! lllex illecebrosus Mollusc Stalked sea squirt Boltenia ovi fera Ascidian Starfish Asterias rubens' Echinoderm Starry ray Raja racfiata* Skate Summer flounder Paralichtys dentatus Finfish Swimming crab Liocarcinus spp.* Crustacean Swordfish Xiphias gladius Finfish Tautog Tautoga onitis Finfish Tha lassinid shrimp Callianassa subterranea» Crustacean Toad crab Hyas coarctatus Crustacean Tube dwelling anemone Cerianthis borealis Cnidarian Ceria nthid! Tube worm Filograna implexa Polychaete Tuna Thunnus sp. Finfish Tunicate Ascidian and Several genera Ascidian sea squirt! Whelk Buccinum undatum" Gastropod White hake Urophycis tenui s Finfish Whiting European! Melangius melangus» Finfish Whiting Silver hake! Merlucci us bilinearis Finfish Windowpane flounder Scophthalanus agnosus Finfish Winter flounder Pleuronectes ameri canus Finfish Witch Flounder Glyptocephalus cynoglossus Finfish Wo I ff i sh Catf i sh! Anarhi chas lupus Finfish Wood boring worm Toredo navalis Bivalve Mollusc! Yellowtail flounder Pleuronectes ferruginea Finfish

* Refers to organisms found in the northeastern Atlantic.

Appendices 149 APPENDIX 2 Discussion SessionRecommendations and Comments

Below is the list of recommendations and comments 10. Identify unfishedareas to comparewith fished asrecorded in writing at the discussionsession that areas. concludedthe May 30, 1997conference on Effects 11, Decisionswill haveto be madewith imperfect of FishingGear on the SeaFloor of New England, knowledge. Recommendationsin bold typewere identified as 12. Essentialfish habitatregulations recognize that high priority. preycan be a componentofhabitat.

1. There is a need to understand a! the relation- 13. Recognizethat thereare other economicvalues shipbetween fishing productivity and habitat frommarine ecosystems in addition to harvested carryingcapacity and b! the efFectsof fishing fish. on habitats.Since habitat effects and fishing 14. There is a need to demonstrate that three- vary together,use closures For research to dimensionalcomplexity on the seafloor increases separatethese rwo effects. fish productivity, 2. Add habitatconsiderations to geardevelopment. 15. Question:Can methodsbe developedfor valuing 3. Look at gearimpacts over short, medium, and marineproducts and servicesin addition to fish? long term. 16. Setpriorities For monitoring efforts:focus on 4. Improveestimates of trawl frequencyand important rather than representativeareas. distribution by usingfishermen's records. 17, Quantify effectsof fishingon the seafloor. 5. Investigatethe function of "edges" transition 18, Studiesshould measure the relationshipbetween areas!to fish productivityin heavilytrawled habitatand fish productivityon a regionalscale areas. becauseit is difficult to generalizeFrom indi- 6. Provethere is a needto documentthis question vidual studies, first: What is the effecton commerciallyimpor- 19. The scaleof managementis largerthan the tantspecies of fishinggear? scaleof fish populations. 7. Considerzoning the oceanin a mannersimilar 20. Map seafloor ecoregionsas a startingpoint to land usezoning. for management, 8, Differing goalsfor the oceanhave been expressed 21. ClassiFysea bed types and determine which at the conference:biological diversity and fishery aremost vulnerable to geardisturbance, productivity. 22. Developimproved habitat understanding. 9. Minimize mortality of nontargetspecies because 23. Developan improvedhabitat assessment someprovide habitat and food for targetspecies. approach.

150 Effectsof FishingGear on the Sea Floor of New England 24. For the EFH deadlines,scientists need to help 27, Involveindustry directly in research:find identify and describehabitats. opportunitiesfor collaboration,such as habitat 25. Becausewe do not know what limits fish of scallops. production,developing a researchprogram 28, Fisheryclosures must be unpopularto work. to answerthis questionis a high priority. 29, Thereis only one problem:too much fishing. 26, Decidethe future of existingclosed areas: should Reducingfishing effort will solvethe problem. they be permanentor shouldthey rotate?Per- manentclosures may create adjacent blighted areas.

Appendices 151 Color Plates

Thefollowing eight pages reproducein color some of thefiguresin thisvolume. The color plates are labeled with author'slast name and f'igure number Pom thepaper iohere the

figure appearedinblack and white.The page number for theblack and whiteversion of eachcolor plate

is providedfor quickreference, Surface Sediment Key ~ bedrock sandy silt / clayey silt ~ gravel ~ ciay gravel-sand ~ sandy clay/ siltyclay ~ sand ~ sand / silt/ clay ~ clayey sand/ silty sand ~ no data DORSEYFIGURE 2 page I2! Surficialsediments of the seafloor of New England.BOF = Bayof Fundy.GOM = Gulfof Maine. NS= NovaScotia. IVIE = Maine.NH = New Hampshire.VT = Vermont. MA = Massachusetts. RI = Rhode Island. CT = Connecticut. The seaward extent of state waters and the boundaryof the U.S.exclusive economic zone are indicated.Map reproducedfrom Poppeet al. 989!, with politicalboundaries added by the New EnglandFishery Management Council.

Color PIates 153 aph from the southwest corner of Je ne, and a witch flounder Glyptoce e is about 15 cm across.Photograp

154 Effects of Fishing Gear on the Sea Floor of New England WITMAN FIGURE 3 page 32! Rockwall at 30 m depth at Ammen Rock Pinnacle, Cashes Ledge. A. Wide angle photograph of dense aggregation of the sea anemone Metridium senile that originally covered most of the top of the ledge. B. Close-up photograph of a nearby spot in June 1987, showing patches created by nudibranch Aeolidia papiilosa! predation on the sea anemones. One nudibranch is visible left of center, and the sea anemones colored white, orange, and brown! are contracted in this photograph. Anemones previously occupied the areas covered with white spiraled massesof nudibranch eggs. Bar below photograph indicates 5 cm. Photographs by Jon Witman.

Co or Plates 155 WITMAN F by sponges Myxilla firn communitie photograph sponge. Tw photograph

156 Effectsof FishingGear on the Sea Floor of New England Color Plates 1S7 SMOI.OWITZ FIGURE 6 page 52! A bottom longline. Drawing by Robin Amaral.

158 Effects of FishingGear on the Sea Floor of New England COLLIE FIGURE 9 page 61! Photographs of the gravel habitat on northern Georges Bank. A. Gravel pavement in an undredged area, site 20. Abundant hydroids and tubes of the worm, Filograna implexa, are attached to the gravel. Visible in the center of the photograph are a horse mussel, northern red anemone, and toad crab. B. Gravel pavement in a dredged area, west of site 17, outside closed area II. There are few attached organisms on the gravel, and few animals apart from burrowing anemones and a juvenile scallop. Photographs by Page Valentine and Dann Blackwood, U,S. Geological Survey.

Color Plates 159 160 Effects of FishingGear on the Sea Floor of New England 4 ~ ~ ~ ~ 4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I I''I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ' I ~ ~ ~ ~

~ ~' ~