microbiologytoday

vol34|feb07 quarterly magazine of the society for general microbiology

microbes shaping history a tale of two generals

a blight on ireland

churchill, hitler and antimicrobials

end of a devastating plague

viral evolution in action contents

vol34(1) regular features 02 News 34 Gradline 41 Addresses 28 Meetings 36 Hot off the press 42 Reviews 30 Schoolzone 38 Going public 44 Letters/opinions other items 46 Why every protist needs a barcode 48 IDF reports 50 Elections 07 articles 06 Microbes shaping history 20 Vaccination spells the Bernard Dixon end for a devastating Past, present and future effects of microbes on mankind are plague reviewed. Tom Barrett A global vaccination programme is eradicating 08 Napoleon and typhus: deadly rinderpest disease. a tale of two generals Gavin Thomas 24 Evolution in action: Infectious disease had a major influence on Napoleon’s a virological experiment of campaigns. long duration 12 Phytophthora: Jean Lindenmann a blight on Ireland One of the longest biological experiments on record is described. Gareth Griffith How potato late blight devastated 19th century Ireland and revolutionized plant pathology. 52 Comment: XDR tuberculosis – 16 How two antimicrobials untreatable disease altered the history of the or the X factor in modern world mycobacteriology Milton Wainwright Ibraham Abubakar Use of novel antimicrobial drugs on Churchill and Hitler may Can this emerging health threat be have altered the outcome of World War II. controlled?

Cover image The typhus louse shaking hands with Death. A Russian poster from 1919 warning of the danger of typhus. Wellcome Library, London The views expressed

Editor Dr Matt Hutchings––Editorial Board Dr Sue Assinder, Professor Iain Hagan, Professor Bert Rima––Managing Editor Janet Hurst––Assistant Editor Faye Stokes by contributors are not Design & Production Ian Atherton––Contributions are always welcome and should be addressed to the Editor c/o SGM Headquarters, Marlborough House, Basingstoke Road, necessarily those of the Spencers Wood, Reading RG7 1AG–Tel. 0118 988 1809–Fax 0118 988 5656–email [email protected]–web www.sgm.ac.uk––Advertising David Lancaster, McMillan-Scott PLC, Society; nor can the London Office, 10 Savoy Street, London WC2E 7HR–Tel. 0207 878 2316–Fax 0207 379 7118–email [email protected]––Regular feature images pp. 3 SGM; 29 Imperial College London/SPL; 31 Mauro Fermariello/SPL; 35, 37 Stockbyte; 39 Simon Lewis/SPL; 41 Digital Vision; 43 Tek Image/SPL; 45 Photodisc claims of advertisers © 2007 The Society for General Microbiology––ISSN 1464-0570––Printed by Latimer Trend & Company Ltd, Plymouth, UK be guaranteed. news

Have your say Staff News News of SGM Council BioSciences In this issue we introduce a new Letters & Opinion section members Nominations 2007 Federation to Microbiology Today. From time to time articles published Royal Society Three members, Professors Lorna Casselton, Iain Hagan and Nick Mann, retire from Communication in MT cause some debate amongst the microbiology Council in September 2007. Nominations are invited from Ordinary Members to fill these Congratulations to Council Prize community and people often ask the editorial office if they vacancies. All nominations must include the written consent of the nominee and the names Member Professor Lorna can write responses to those articles. of the proposer and seconder, both of whom must be Ordinary Members. Members The 2006 prize was Casselton on her election awarded to Dr Chris Now, we’re all in favour of reasoned debate. so it seemed submitting nominations should indicate the main area of microbiological interest of their as Foreign Secretary and Smith for his extensive only fair that we introduce a section in which you, our nominee, who must have been a member of the Society for at least 2 years. Nominations Vice-President of the Royal work communicating readers, can offer an alternative point of view. We are also should be sent to the SGM General Secretary, Dr Ulrich Desselberger, c/o SGM HQ to Society. microbiology and other inviting comments on just about anything else you read arrive no later than 30 April 2007. scientific research to the in MT, anything you’d like to see covered in the magazine Deaths public. Chris is a doctor and and any interesting developments or news stories which November Meeting Highlights The Society notes with regret a scientist and his current we somehow missed. Welcome to new Staff New President the deaths of Professor Editor Nicolas Fanget, who Council members welcomed Robin Weiss PhD FRCPath FRS, Professor of Viral Oncology, role is as clinical lecturer The SGM, and this magazine, are here to represent all William. T. Coakley (member is initially training on JGV. University College London, London, to his first session as the new SGM President. and specialist registrar in the members so we’re relying on your feedback to keep Nicolas is just completing since 1980; see obituary on at Cambridge this section alive and interesting. As a start, you can read his PhD at Napier University website), Dr Tom H. Flewett Honorary Membership University. Chris started The about the reaction to some of the opinions on the recent where he has been (member since 1950), Dr Council was pleased to confer Honorary Membership on T. Hugh Pennington MB BS PhD, Naked Scientists Radio Show, Systematics issue on p. 44. researching the starvation Stanley Jackson (member Professor Emeritus, University of Aberdeen and SGM President 2003–2006. which began on local radio, Matt Hutchings, Editor survival of Rhodococcus. since 1954) and Dr Maurice SGM Prizes 2007 but now reaches huge Jones-Mortimer (member Council approved the following awards: audiences worldwide, and since 1968). he is also at the forefront The Fleming Lecture to Professor Gregory Challis, University of Warwick, for outstanding of podcasting. Check out HEA subject review of microbiology and work on the functions of predicted gene clusters of Streptomyces coelicolor (‘genome New Year’s www.thenakedscientists. mining’), leading to the discovery of novel mechanisms of the biosynthesis of antibiotics Honours 2007 com and other metabolic pathways. In 2007, the Higher Education Academy (HEA) Subject Centre for Bioscience will be Congratulations to the conducting a major review of the student experience in microbiology and biochemistry in following on their awards: The Fred Griffith Review Lecture to Professor E. Richard Moxon, Oxford University UK higher education. This is one of three pilot reviews commissioned by the HEA, with Department of Paediatrics, for excellence in the study of genomics and postgenomics the intention of expanding the scheme in subsequent years. The review will be managed Knight Bachelor of Haemophilus influenzae and Neisseria meningitidis, and for major contributions to the by two Review Panels consisting of representatives from academia, employers, students Howard Dalton FRS, Chief rational development and clinical study of safe and effective vaccines against these and and learned societies. Sue Assinder (SGM Education Officer) has been invited to chair Scientific Adviser to Defra other micro-organisms. and Professor of Biological the Microbiology Panel, with Keith Elliott (Manchester University) taking the lead for the The Colworth Prize Lecture to Professor Paul Williams, University of Nottingham, for Sciences, University of Biochemistry review. The SGM is formally supporting the project and Janet Hurst will sit on his groundbreaking work on the molecular mechanisms of cooperative bacterial social Warwick (SGM President the Microbiology Panel to represent the various microbiology learned societies. behaviour (‘quorum sensing’) and for numerous applications of his basic research work 1997–2000 and Honorary The Review will consider factors relevant to students’ learning, from pre-entry, through in biotechnology, agriculture, ecology and medicine. Member). to provision at undergraduate and postgraduate level, and to issues relating to graduate The Peter Wildy Prize for Microbiology Education to Professor Simon Cutting, Royal destination and employment. It will make use of quantitative data for all universities CBE Holloway, University of London, for the development of an extensive and productive where this is available (e.g. centrally published by funding councils and the results of the Donald James Jeffries, programme of educational courses in Vietnam. Chris was joint winner of National Student Survey). Where new data are required, the review will select a subset Professor of Virology and A more detailed appreciaton of the prizewinners’ work will appear elsewhere in the Promega Prize at the of universities, paying attention to the different admission and teaching arrangements Head, Department of Microbiology Today. The lectures will be delivered at SGM meetings in 2007. SGM meeting in Exeter in Scotland. Learned Societies will also have useful data collected from their subject Medical Microbiology, St in 2000. You read about communities, including employer needs and satisfaction with regard to the subject area. Bartholomew’s and Royal Strategy meetings his radio career first here The SGM has a ‘representative’ in all of the appropriate departments in the UK and these London, for services to The President announced that he was convening a meeting in March to discuss SGM in Microbiology Today! individuals will be a very important source of information. strategy. The Scientific Meetings Officer, Professor Hilary Lappin-Scott, gained Council medicine. In February 2001 Chris approval to carry out a review of SGM meetings and group structure in 2007. Comments The principal output from the review will be a report providing an evidence-based described his first show, OBE on any issues relevant to Society activities are welcome. overview of the context and state of HE provision for microbiology. This will summarize Professor Susanne Moira ScienceWorld, which was the range of learning experiences available and highlight issues of concern, giving Brown, Director and Interaction with other learned societies broadcast from Cambridge departments information from which to reflect on the appropriateness of their own Chief Scientist, Crusade Ms Ruth Cooper of the Royal Society presented an update on the International Scientific on Sunday evenings. courses. Laboratories, for services to Unions Committee of the Royal Society and outlined possibilities for interaction with SGM. Sue Assinder, Education Officer health care. Ulrich Desselberger, General Secretary

2 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 3 Retired Member Grants Prize lectureships Grants Studentships Any enquiries should be made to the Grants Office, Cover accommodation Elective Grants SGM, Marlborough House, Basingstoke Road, Spencers Grants schemes Colworth Prize Lecturer and the Society Dinner at Wood, Reading RG7 1AG (t 0118 988 1821; f 0118 reviewed Funding for medical/dental/ Professor Paul Williams will deliver his prize lecture, one SGM meeting a year. veterinary students to work 988 5656; e [email protected]; w www.sgm.ac.uk). entitled Look who’s talking: communication and co-operation As described in the last Closing date for Manchester on microbiological projects in the bacterial world, on Wednesday, 28 March 2007 at issue of MT (p. 146), SGM meeting: 23 March 2007. in their elective periods. microbiological topics support the delivery of a the Society’s meeting at the University of Manchester. grant schemes have been Closing dates for 2007: 23 in annual departmental training reviewed. The new rules Scientific Meetings The Colworth Prize Lecture is awarded for an outstanding March and 21 September. seminar programmes. course in Mauritius. contribution of importance in applied microbiology. have been in force since Travel Grants 1 January 2007. Check the Council has introduced Vacation Studentships Student Society Applications for 2007 are Paul is currently Professor of Molecular Microbiology in website to ensure that you this new, enhanced travel To enable undergraduates Sponsored Lectures invited. Closing date: 21 the School of Molecular Medical Sciences and Director of are applying for the right grant scheme to support to work on microbiological These cover the travel and September 2007. the Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation at the grant on the correct form! early-career microbiologists research projects for 6–8 other expenses of up to two University of Nottingham. He graduated in Pharmacy at International Research wishing to present work at weeks in the summer speakers on microbiological Nottingham in 1979 and did a PhD in microbiology with Travel and meetings Grants a scientific meeting in the vacation before their final topics per society each year Mike Brown at the University of Aston in Birmingham. After This scheme has now been Postgraduate Student UK or overseas. Eligibility year. Applications must be at student society meetings. a short postdoc at Aston, he moved back to Nottingham Conference Grants from SGM members on discontinued. in 1985 as a lecturer in the department of Pharmaceutical has been extended to International All postgraduate student behalf of named students. Sciences and was promoted to Professor in 1995. Paul’s research interests primarily focused include graduate research The following awards have members are eligible to Closing date: 16 February UNESCO-IUMS-SGM on the molecular basis of bacterial pathogenicity, but a chance observation in the early assistants and lecturers been made for 2006. apply for a grant to support 2007. Fellowships 1990s redirected his focus to the study of cell-to-cell communication (quorum sensing) (within 3 years of first Prof Edward Jarrol, North their attendance at one SGM These provide funding for in diverse bacteria of biotechnological, agricultural and medical importance. This work, appointment in both cases) Eastern University, Boston – meeting each year. Grants Education and young microbiologists from in collaboration with colleagues in the UK and overseas, has resulted in the discovery of in addition to postdoctoral up to £2,550 to visit cover travel, registration and development developing countries to new signalling molecules and communication strategies not just between bacteria, but researchers (within 3 years Birkbeck College to study accommodation expenses. pursue, or complete, part between bacteria and higher organisms. Consequently, this has created new opportunities of first appointment) and National carbohydrate analysis of The student need not be of an on-going research for developing novel therapeutics and in particular antibacterial and immune modulatory postgraduate students. Balamuthia mandrillaris presenting their research, so Education programme in a laboratory agents. Retrospective applications it is an ideal introduction to Development Fund trophozoites and cysts. are not considered. in a developed country scientific meetings at little Small grants to members and/or acquire theoretical Dr Judith Hall, University or no cost to themselves or for developments likely to Fleming Lecturer President’s Fund for or technical knowledge of Newcastle – up to their supervisor’s budget. Research Visits lead to an improvement in in their particular area of £2,510 contribution to Professor Gregory Challis will deliver his prize lecture, Applicants must be Student Council has reviewed the teaching of any aspect research. Council recently visit James Cook University, entitled Mining microbial genomes for new natural products Members resident and the provision of grants to of microbiology relevant agreed to increase support Australia to look at and biosynthetic pathways, on Tuesday, 27 March 2007 at to secondary or tertiary registered for a higher support short international for this scheme, so that whether antimicrobial the Society’s meeting at the University of Manchester. The education. Up to £1,000 degree in an EU country. research visits. Up to £3,000 SGM is now funding three peptides function as part Fleming Lecture is awarded for outstanding research by a is also available to support Closing date for Manchester is now available to support fellowships instead of of the Cnidarian defence microbiologist in the early stages of their career. meeting: 23 March 2007. science promotion activities. early-career microbiologists two. See www.iums. mechanism against Greg Challis obtained a BSc in Chemistry from Imperial Technician Meeting who are planning a short GRADSchool Grants org/outreach/outreach- microbial infection. College London and a DPhil in Organic Chemistry at the Grants research visit to another Postgraduate Student fellowships.htm for details. . In 1998 he was awarded a Wellcome The Watanabe Book All technician members are laboratory (minimum visit members who are not Trust International Prize Travelling Research Fellowship International Fund eligible to apply for a grant 4 weeks, maximum visit 3 eligible for a free place on a Development Fund to undertake postdoctoral research in the Department of Members who are to support their attendance months). Closing dates for UKGrad (www.grad.ac.uk) Chemistry at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, USA. The Fund exists to permanently resident at one SGM meeting each applications: 23 March and personal development He returned to England in 2000 to carry out postdoctoral provide training courses, in a developing country year. Applicants need not 21 September 2007. course may now apply for a research on the same fellowship in the Streptomyces publications and other be presenting work at the grant from SGM to cover full may apply for funding to group at the John Innes Centre in Colney, Norwich. The following year he was appointed help to microbiologists in meeting. Some microbiology SfAM/SGM Short course fees. Retrospective acquire microbiology books as Lecturer in Chemical Biology in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Regional Meeting developing countries. The technicians who are not applications not considered. for their libraries. These Warwick and began his independent research programme at the interface of chemistry and members of SGM may Grants following award has been annual awards are available microbiology. also apply for grant to Contribution of up to Seminar Speakers Fund made for 2006. as a result of a generous In 2003 he was promoted to Senior Lecturer and in 2006 he was promoted to his current attend a Society Meeting. £2,000 towards the costs Small grants to cover the Dr Sanjiv Rughooputh, donation from Professor T. position of Professor of Chemical Biology. Greg was the recipient of the 2002 Meldola Closing date for Manchester of running a regional travel and other expenses University of Westminster – Watanabe of Japan. Closing Medal and Prize of the Royal Society of Chemistry. meeting: 23 March 2007. microbiology meeting. of up to two speakers on up to £2,500 to help date:21 September 2007.

4 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 5 Distinguished ome time in 1845 Phytoph- Despite their minuscule measure- inant DNA, the recognition of the cell cycle and the latest thora infestans began to ments, bacteria, and other forms developments in intra- and intercellular signalling, it’s clear ravage Ireland’s previously of microscopic life have done incalcu- that bacteria and viruses (especially phages) have been major science writer healthy potato plants – lable damage and brought incalculable players at every stage. Genetically modified , the country’s staple food. benefits to all other inhabitants of the insulin and other drugs, which are now saving countless Bernard Dixon A million poor folk died in biosphere. Whether in medicine, agri- lives and ameliorating many more, comprise just one Sthe ensuing famine, and 2 million emi- culture or industry; through their practical outcome of the knowledge gained from this great grated for a better life in the New World manifold roles in shaping the natural collaboration between microbes and humans. reflects on the and Australia. Among those who environment, or as a consequence of Bacteria are also moving rapidly into clinical practice in crossed the Atlantic were two entire their influences on the lives and deaths their own right (Baker, M., 2005, Nat Biotechnol 23, 645). past, present families – the Fitzgeralds from Kerry and of the powerful and famous, micro- One that has entered clinical trials recently is Streptococcus the Kennedys from Wexford County. organisms have been major, though lactis, genetically modified not to make enamel-eroding and future So it was that John Fitzgerald Kennedy, usually unheralded players in the lactic acid, which is introduced into the mouth to replace born in 1917, was available to become history of the world. those strains that do rot teeth. Others include a Lactobacillus President of the United States in 1960. Perhaps the most powerful way in lactis recombinant that secretes a therapeutic protein to help effects of The story of late blight of potatoes, which micro-organisms have affected Crohn’s disease patients; and a Lactobacillus crispatus strain recounted in this issue by Gareth Griffith history in recent decades is through their to combat recurrent urinary tract infection. Meanwhile microbes on (p. 12), illustrates in both general and influence on the progress of scientific Clostridium novyi, an anaerobe that can infect hypoxic regions particular the huge impact that micro- research. This was already clear half a within tumours, is showing promise as a means of delivering our world. organisms have had and continue to century ago when Kluyver and van Niel chemotherapeutic agents (Cheong, I. et al., 2006, Science have on human affairs. Hans Zinsser wrote The Microbe’s Contribution to 314, 1308). highlighted another example by giving Biology (Harvard University Press, 1956). Reviewing the scientific insights now being provided by the title ‘On the comparative unimport- In contrast to its modest size, this slim micro-organisms in abundance, one is impressed above all ance of generals’ to one of the chapters volume was intellectually monumental by their diversity. A fast-evolving feline immunodeficiency in his classic book Rats, Lice and History. in reviewing microbial contributions , for example, has revealed details of the population He pointed out that as Napoleon’s not only to our knowledge of genetics structure and demographic history of its natural wildlife armies marched back and forth across but also to our understanding of evo- host (the cougar) that were impossible to obtain by any other the continent of Europe, typhus and lution, energetics and the unity of all means (Biek, R. et al., 2006, Science 311, 538). Studies on the other infections struck down far more terrestrial life. Far more substantial deep-sea-living Photobacterium profundum have yielded a first soldiers on both sides than did the many than today’s human celebrities, the glimpse into the molecular basis for life in the largest portion battles in which they were involved. iconic figures of bioscience at that time of the biosphere (Vezzi, A. et al., 2005, Science 307, 1459), Gavin Thomas develops this theme were Escherichia coli, Aspergillus niger and single-celled algae have shown how abnormalities in on p. 8, while Milton Wainwright and Rhodospirillum rubrum. human cilia can explain the basis not only of Bardet–Biedl (p. 16) discusses the links between Looking back over the emergence syndrome but also of many other conditions too (Vogel, G., World War II, infectious disease and of molecular genetics during the past 2005, Science 310, 216). both penicillin (a microbial product) 50 years, from the deciphering of the Whatever the truth behind contemporary cogitations and sulphonamides. genetic code to the advent of recomb- regarding global warming, it’s clear that microbial life will be here long after we have departed, just as it flourished on Earth aeons ahead of our arrival. Those verities alone tell us much about the resilience and diversity of micro-organisms. The articles in this issue of Microbiology Today illustrate just four of their countless areas of influence. While human ingenuity has fashioned the fabric of the planet of today, Microbes microbial versatility has an even greater range of terrestrial activity to its credit.

Bernard Dixon 130 Cornwall Road, Ruislip Manor, Middlesex HA4 6AW, shaping UK (t 01895 632390; e [email protected])

b Ruins of stone houses in County Mayo, Ireland, abandoned during history the Irish potato famine. Richard Cummins / Corbis

6 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 7 Disease rather than military tactics was a major influence on Napoleon’s downfall, as Gavin Thomas describes.

Napoleon and typhus: a tale of two generals

istory has been shaped by many elements A warning from the Caribbean nation to have gained its independence meaning that water and other supplies m Napoleon (1769–1821) crossing the alps beyond human control, and infectious disease Napoleon had had at least one warning about the power of from a successful slave revolt – but were short. This environment provided (1801). The Bridgeman Art Library / Getty Images must rank as the single most important of these. infectious disease in determining the outcome of a campaign, history should also note that a virus ideal conditions for the spread of lice Warfare, with the particular stresses and strains when in 1802 he sent his brother-in-law General Charles had something to do with it! and subsequently Rickettsia prowazekii, felt by its combatants, is a human activity that Victor Emmanuel Leclerc on an expedition to Saint- the causative agent of epidemic typhus. is highly susceptible to intervention by our Domingue (now Haïti) to restore control over this French The Grande Armée in Russia The average French soldier was dirty Hmicrobial cousins. This might not be immediately apparent colony. Over the preceding few years a native general, The campaign into Russia was Napo- and sweaty and was living in the same in our schoolboy histories, which concern great generals and Toussaint L’Ouverture, had created an almost autonomous leon’s greatest gamble and ultimately led clothes for days on end, perfect for their feats of bravery and stratagem. However, if one digs a state which had started from a slave rebellion in 1791 and to the destruction of his Grande Armée lice to find a home in the seams of his little deeper into the historical records, it is often epidemics the French wished to reinstate control by force. and the breakdown of his empire. One clothing. The excrement of the lice that have made a major contribution to the outcome of Leclerc arrived with 25,000 men and, not surprisingly, of his stated aims was the liberation of then contaminated the clothes and skin conflict – often before the opposing forces have even set eyes quickly overwhelmed the natives and forced them into the Poland from the Russians and it was in of the soldiers and even the smallest on each other. interior. The French tricked Toussaint into agreeing to capitu- crossing this country that his soldiers scratch was enough for the bacteria to Napoleon Bonaparte was a great general, politician and late and he was shipped off to France where he quickly died, first came across ‘General Typhus’. The infect the body. The soldiers also were leader of his people. He became ruler of France in 1799, but when the French announced that they would be reinstat- quality of life in rural Poland at the start sleeping in large groups in confined being crowned Emperor in 1804, and then systematically ing slavery, the natives, under the leadership of Jean-Jacques of the 19th century was not high; in spaces and here the lice could quickly conquered the majority of Europe, enjoying 10 years of Dessalines, began another uprising. However, by this time the villages most people lived in hovels move to uninfected soldiers and deposit astonishing military success. In 1812 he was at the peak of the French forces had been absolutely decimated by yellow heavily infested with insects, and their bacteria-laden excrement. his powers, had assembled the largest army in the world fever: 22,000 of them were dead by 1803, including General typhus had been endemic in Poland A month into the campaign in July with upwards of 500,000 soldiers and was about to embark Leclerc. His replacement, Rochambeau, was defeated by and Russia for many years. 1812, an incredible 80,000 soldiers had on a well-planned assault on Russia. Two years later he had Dessalines’ forces at the Battle of Vertières, and in 1803 The retreating Russian army had died or were incapacitated by typhus. attempted suicide and had fled France. General Napoleon’s the remainder of the French force, less than 3,000 men, done its best to turn Poland into a waste- Although the French army probably downfall was due to many things, but as we will see ‘General evacuated the island. Dessalines subsequently claimed the land during its withdrawal and the had the best medical and sanitary Typhus’ was one of his most bitter opponents. independence of Haïti and history notes this as the only autumn of 1812 was unexpectedly hot, facilities of any in the world, it simply

8 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 9 the original Grande Armée made it That modern molecular techniques b French soldiers from Napoleon’s Grande ‘Typhus, with its brothers and sisters – back, as few as 10,000 of them being can provide support for the reports of Armée suffering from typhus, lying in the Epidemic or streets of Vilnius. Tinted lithograph by in any state suitable for further duty. French army surgeons written almost E. Leroux after A. Raffet. Wellcome plague, cholera, typhoid, dysentery – Amazingly Napoleon managed to 200 years ago must provide unexpected Library, London louse-borne raise a new army of nearly the same evidence for historians of medicine. m False-coloured scanning electron has decided more campaigns than size in 1813, but it was nothing like his However, they are already well aware micrograph of a pubic louse (Phthirus typhus original army of experienced veterans of the strong connection between pubis), a vector for Rickettsia. © Dennis Caesar, Hannibal, Napoleon and all the and almost half of this new army were microbes and warfare as succinctly Kunkel Microscopy, Inc. The causative bacterium of this lost to typhus in the same year, effect- described by historian Carole Reeves disease, Rickettsia prowazekii, is Hans Zinsser ively halting Napoleon’s plans for Euro- from the Wellcome Trust Centre for the transmitted between humans by inspector generals of history.’ pean domination. History of Medicine, ‘wherever there is lice. These become infected when could not cope with this level of disease. Napoleon had banked on Tsar Alex- warfare there is always infectious disease’. biting affected people and pass on Of course, they did not know that lice ander I capitulating after the capture Bioarcheaology and the It is undeniable that Napoleon’s career, the bacteria in their faeces through were transmitting the disease and so of Moscow, but Alexander had no Grande Armée like many other generals in history, was bite wounds. The incubation period once the infected lice population was intention of doing this and was able to In 2001, a mass grave of French soldiers at least partly shaped by microbes. is 1–3 weeks and symptoms include established in the army, they were play his trump card: the Russian winter. was discovered in Vilnius in Lithuania, high fever, headache and weakness; impossible to get rid of. The soldiers The autumn had been surprisingly mild where parts of the army were garris- Gavin Thomas a rash appears after a few days. Com- were not able to change their dirty and Napoleon jested with his generals oned during the retreat from Russia. It Department of Biology, Area 10, plications leading to serious illness clothes or wash themselves and deaths that a Russian winter couldn’t be much was estimated to contain 2000–3000 University of York, PO Box 373, and death may develop, involving continued at massive rates. colder than one at Fontainebleau! bodies, and buttons were found from York YO10 5YW, UK (t 01904 damage to the central nervous sys- As Napoleon’s army pushed further Moscow was as poor in providing sup- around 40 different French regiments. 328678; f 01904 328825, tem, kidneys, heart and lungs. East, the Russians continued their retreat plies to the French army as the country- A group of scientists, led by Didier Raoult e [email protected]) Severe epidemics of typhus were and lay-to-waste strategy almost as far side they had passed over in their at the Université de la Méditerranée, common in times of war and as Moscow itself. It was only then that journey from France, and despite an Marseilles, has examined these burials Further reading Cartwright, F.R. & Biddiss, M. (1972). famine; up until World War II, the French Army actually engaged the extra 15,000 reinforcements arriving and has been able to amplify DNA Disease and History. Guildford: Sutton typhus claimed more victims Russians, and even here, at the battle of during their month-long stay, about sequences from the remains of lice and Publishing. on the battlefield than fighting, Borodino, the Russians committed just a 10,000 of the existing soldiers died from dental pulp from the soldiers’ teeth. causing nearly 3 million deaths small number of their forces; the rest had from typhus. Napoleon finally decided These identified the presence ofRickettsia Raoult, D. & others (2006). Evidence in World War I. Now lice can be retreated further into the East. Napoleon to leave Moscow on 19 October with prowazekii in some of the teeth (positive for louse-transmitted disease in soldiers controlled with improved hygiene entered Moscow unopposed on 14 about 95,000 tired, dirty and famished signals were found in 3 out of 35 of Napoleon’s Grand Army in Vilnius. J Infect Dis 193, 112–120. and insecticides, and the infection September, but with only 90,000 of his men. The retreat back to France is different soldiers) as well as Bartonella treated with antibiotics. original force: typhus had claimed over a sad story of disease, extreme cold quintana, the causative agent of trench Zinsser, H. (1935). Rats, Lice and History. 10,000 in the past week alone. and starvation and only 40,000 of foot, in some teeth as well as in lice. London: George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.

10 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 11 Phytophthora: a blight on Ireland

Late blight of potatoes caused s the world’s fourth most the cultivation of potatoes and from the early 18th century b Far left. The distinctive sporangia of Phytophthora infestans which important food crop, much of the population was dependent on this crop, especially were observed by Berkeley and others to emerge ‘out of the mouths of stomata’ of infected leaves. G.W. Griffith & A. Edwards the potato is a major the high-yielding ‘Lumper’ variety. Apparently, adult males by Phytophthora infestans had part of the Western diet. consumed over 6 kg per day. A further contributory factor m Centre and right. The symptoms of late blight on leaves and tubers. It first became known to the success of the new crop was the small size of land The small black lesions enlarge and coalesce, leading to defoliation. Sporangia washed by rainfall from leaves infect the tubers which an enormous socioeconomic to Europeans after the holdings in Ireland. Most families were forced to live off small develop a brown marbled appearance during storage. Garden World Aconquest of the Andean Aztecs by the plots, often on marginal soils; potato yields were greater than Images / D. Bevan (leaf) & USDA Photo Library (tuber) Spanish in the early 16th century. The for other crops and the plants were generally less susceptible impact on 19th century Ireland. route whereby the potato reached to disease. The availability of potatoes was probably a major crops in many parts of Europe were badly infected by the Ireland is unclear. Reports that Sir Walter contributory factor to the continued growth of the population new disease, the 1845 crop in Ireland was better than average. According to Gareth Griffith, Raleigh introduced the potato through in Ireland which exceeded 8 million by 1841. Unfortunately, during storage in clamps, tubers infected in his extensive estates in County Cork or the field developed blight symptoms and blackened, making the outbreak also heralded a that it arrived via the fleeing Spanish Arrival of late blight them inedible and providing ample inoculum for the 1846 Armada are unsubstantiated, though The pandemic of late blight (originally called potato season. Severe food shortages in early 1846 were exacerbated there was extensive trade between murrain or gangréne humide) has its earliest confirmed by a total crop failure later that year. landmark in the development Ireland and Spain in the 16th century.. origins on the US east coast in 1843, probably due to the As in more recent famines, the greatest damage was caused Spanish seafarers were certainly quick spread of the pathogen in tubers on the trade routes from by failures to recognize the seriousness of the problem and of microbiology, especially in to recognize that potatoes were well- Southern/Central America. Irish immigrants had introduced to mobilize chains of supply to bring grain to the areas suited for ship’s stores, providing a use- potato cultivation to the USA in the 1790s and the crop was most heavily dependent on potatoes. The insensitivity of the areas of plant pathology ful source of fresh food and vitamins. widely grown along the east coast. The next jump, and the landlords was also shocking, with widespread eviction due With increasing transatlantic sea travel one that secured the infamy of this pathogen, was across to unpaid rents. In the small town of Kilrush, Co. Clare, at this time, it is likely that there were the Atlantic in 1845. Potato disease was first reported in there were 7,000 evictions in the second half of 1848. Much and crop protection. numerous introductions to Europe. Belgium in May and air-borne dispersal of the sporangia blame was also laid at the door of the government in London In Ireland, the high rainfall and mild permitted its rapid spread, so that it reached Ireland in July, and specifically its tardiness in repealing the much-hated, winters in the west were conducive to arriving in western Ireland by September (Fig. 1). Though anti-free-trade Corn Laws which had maintained high wheat

12 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 13 1 prices by preventing imports. Accord- of this idea, notably Charles Morren ductive structures of P. infestans might seem odd. Had these Late blight is still the most important disease of potatoes ing to the Nobel prize-winning in Belgium and Camille Montagne in events occurred a few decades later, with due regard to and commercial production is not viable without fungicides. economist Amartya Sen, the mortality France. With remarkable prophetic abili- Koch’s postulates, the matter might have been settled more Fungicide mixtures and targeted application based on rate in Ireland in the 1840s was higher ty, in August 1845 Morren suggested quickly and poor Morren would have been vindicated in meteorological data (blight forecasts) are used to great effect, than in any other recorded famine. the use of copper sulfate/lime to protect his own lifetime (he died young in 1858). Berkeley, though but the delisting of many products under the EU Pesticide The Irish nationalist and politician seed potatoes and destruction of dis- older, lived to a ripe age and is with justification known as Directive and environmental concerns (some farmers spray John Mitchel went as far as to write eased tissues, strategies similar to those the father of English mycology. their crops 10–20 times in a season) provides impetus for End of June ‘the Almighty sent the potato blight, but the which became the mainstays of control potato breeding and more effective fungicide application.

Mid-July English created the Famine’. The resulting of late blight until the 1930s, although Modern migrations of P. infestans Copper-based fungicides were widely used for late blight

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mass mortality and emigration – it is it is unclear where his ideas originated. The taxonomy of fungi and other multicellular eukaryotes control between 1885 and 1935 and are still used for organic

u

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Mid-October

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Mid-September

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i estimated that 1 million people died and Meanwhile Montagne christened the is based on the morphology of the sexual reproductive potato production.

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a similar number emigrated between fungus Botrytis infestans. structures. In renaming P. infestans without having ever Mid-September Mid-October 1845 and 1849 – had a profound effect The Rev. Miles Joseph Berkeley, a found its oospores, De Bary predicted where these might Other Phytophthora diseases on the history, not only of Ireland, Northamptonshire parson and promin- be found and what they would look like. Despite several The genus Phytophthora contains over 60 species, all of but also of the industrializing areas ent mycologist, who had been in con- conflicting reports in the late 19th century of the discovery which are plant pathogens, with many more likely to be of the UK and the US east coast. The tact with the continental ‘fungalists’, of oospores in P. infestans, it was only when isolates were found. Unlike P. infestans which infects foliar tissues and 2 depopulation of Ireland, which began first observed the disease in early obtained from the Central Highlands of Mexico, the area of is wind-borne due to its dehiscent (detachable) sporangia, in 1845 as a result of the famine (Fig. September and rapidly ascribed to greatest diversity and presumed to be the evolutionary origin most Phytophthora spp. are soil-borne root pathogens. Other Over 30 % 2), led to the disappearance of the cot- the fungalist theory. However, the of the fungus, that oospores were found. It was realized members of the genus currently causing serious problems 20–30 % tier (crofter) class of peasant and con- scientific establishment in Europe that only the A1 mating type had originally escaped from around the world have mysterious names such as Jarrah 10–20 % 0–10 % tinued for 150 years, with 4.5 million remained unpersuaded and the fungal- Mexico and that outside Mexico the fungus relied totally on dieback of Eucalyptus, Black Pod of Cacao and Sudden Oak Population rise emigrating between 1851 and 1921. It ists were widely pilloried. So vehement asexual reproduction. It remains a matter of debate whether Death. It is ironic that free trade, as enforced by the WTO is only very recently that the population was this opposition in the later 1840s P. infestans was transmitted directly from Mexico to the US or and for which the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was a of Ireland has begun to grow again. that only Morren refused to moderate whether there was an intermediate migration to the Andes, key step in the process, leading to the current global market his opinion. Montagne even suggested followed by transport in the new steamships carrying guano for plant produce, leaves us at greater risk of suffering at the The origins of plant pathology that his specific epithetinfestans from Peru to the US and Europe. hands of introduced plant diseases. The causes of the potato famine were should be changed to fallax. Berkeley’s A further twist in the potato blight story came in 1976 when the subject of much speculation as behaviour at this time suggests a degree a drought in Europe led to poor potato crops and the need Gareth W. Griffith soon as the disease appeared. The pre- of fence-sitting. Despite bravely writing to import potatoes from abroad, including Mexico. Over the Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Wales vailing view at the time was that all ‘I believe the fungal theory to be the correct next 20 years numerous papers documented the discovery Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 3DA, UK (t 01970 diseases were caused by ‘bad air’ or one’, in 1846, he skilfully avoided much of the A2 mating type in various European countries. Use 623111; e [email protected]) ‘miasma’, with some authors blaming of the resulting flak, being, in the of molecular markers has demonstrated that the genetically deterioration of potato breeding stock, words of Austin Bourke, more of a uniform ‘old’ genotypes (the ‘Ib’ mitochondrial haplotype) Acknowledgement damp weather or an origin in outer ‘believer than a missionary’. The debate prevalent up to the 1970s were progressively superceded over Thanks to Richard Shattock and Arwyn Edwards for useful space. The idea that plant diseases were rumbled on until 1861 when Anton the next 15 years by a more diverse range of ‘new’ genotypes. discussions. due to fungi was rather heretical, and de Bary published his papers on the The presence of both mating types opened the possibility microbial growth in diseased tissues life cycle of the pathogen, eventually of sexual reproduction, allowing not only the generation of Further reading was generally viewed as a consequence renaming it Phytophthora infestans in additional diversity among pathogen populations, but also Andrivon, D. (1996). The origin of Phytophthora infestans rather than a cause of disease. The 1876. Although its name has remained the formation of thick-walled oospores which could remain populations present in Europe in the 1840s: a critical review of ‘fungalist’ view of plant disease had long stable for over a century, P. infestans and dormant in soil for prolonged periods. As with all plant historical and scientific evidence.Plant Pathol 45, 1027–1035. been propounded, notably by Edouard its numerous pathogenic relatives now pathogens, severe selection pressure for pathogen evolution Bourke, P.M.A. (1993). The Visitation of God? The Potato and m Fig. 1. The spread of P. infestans through Prévost (in 1807 for the wheat bunt reside in the phylum Oomycota, in the is imposed by farmers (assisted by scientists). In the case of the Great Irish Famine. Edited for Irish historical studies by north-west Europe in the summer of 1845. Tilletia), Agostino Bassini (in 1835 for Kingdom Stramenopiles (heterokonts), late blight this was due to both the breeding of progressively Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Jacqueline Hill & Cormac Ó Gráda. Dublin: Lilliput Press. muscardine disease of silkworm by and thus in fact are only very distantly more resistant cultivars and the introduction of highly Publishers Ltd: Nature, London (Bourke, Glendenning, D.R. (1983). Potato breeding and introductions P.M.A., Emergence of potato blight, 1843–6. Beauveria bassiana) and von Martius (in related to the members of Kingdom effective systemic phenylamide fungicides in the late 1970s. up to the early 20th century. New Phytol 94, 479–505. 203, pp. 805–808), © 1964 1842 for ‘dry rot’ of potato by Fusarium Fungi. Despite many similarities in ‘Old’ genotypes were highly susceptible and resistance arose coeruleum), but was not accepted by gross morphology with Fungi (hyphal amongst the new genotypes, though the extent to which May, K.J. & Ristaino, J.B. (2004). Identity of the mtDNA m Fig. 2. Depopulation of Ireland caused by haplotype(s) of Phytophthora infestans in historical specimens the famines. Public domain – taken from the scientific establishment. In July growth, etc.), the oomycetes are now sexual reproduction plays a role in the modern evolution from the Irish Potato Famine. Mycol Res 108, 471–479. Edwards, R.D. & Williams, T.D. (1956) 1845, as late blight began to take its recognized to possess several distinctive of the pathogen is still uncertain. Recent genetic analysis of The Great Famine: Studies in Irish History toll, the French cleric Edouard van den ultrastructural features.” the pathogen from herbarium specimens collected in the Rapilly, F. (2001). Champignons des plantes: les premiers agents 1845–1852 (Dublin: Brown & Nolan) Hecke described the sporulation of a From a 21st century perspective, 1850s has revealed these to be of the ‘Ia’ rather than the ‘Ib’ pathogènes reconnus dans l’histoire des sciences. C R Acad Sci fungus from blighted leaves, giving it the this whole debate about the origin of haplotype, as had been widely assumed. Thus it seems that Sci Vie 324, 893–898. name Botrytis. Several other eminent a disease so consistently and obviously at least one pan-global migration of P. infestans, probably Tóibín, C. & Ferriter, D. (2002). The Irish Famine: A mycologists went into print in support associated with the distinctive repro- during the early 20th century, has gone unnoticed. Documentary. London: Profile Books.

14 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 15 he sulpha drugs, together with penicillin and the other antibiotics that followed, had a massive effect on medicine, saving countless lives in peace How two and war, as well as making Tpossible many of the medical advances we now take for granted. The first two drugs had a particular impact Milton Wainwright speculates on how the in WWII and while the Allies had antimicrobials unlimited supplies of penicillin from D-Day onwards, the Axis powers outcome of World War II might have been had to rely upon the less dependable sulphonamides. very different if novel antimicrobial drugs The following two stories show how altered the history these novel antimicrobials changed the had not been available. course of WWII, and thereby modern history. The first story is relatively well known, how Winston Churchill’s life . Winston Churchill giving his traditional ‘V for Victory’ salute on 10 November 1942. was saved by a new sulphonamide. The of the modern Reg Speller / Hulton Archive /Getty Images second and more intriguing story has only recently come to light and begs the c Adolf Hitler at the Berghof, Berchtesgaden, Upper Bavaria, Germany, in the late 1930s. question – did the Allies inadvertently Hugo Jaeger / Timepix / Time Life Pictures / Getty Images save Hitler’s life in July 1944? world Churchill’s cure developed sulpha drug (sulphapyridine), commonly referred By the time WWII began in Europe the sulphonamides were to as M&B, after its manufacturers. Churchill’s condition got well established as life-saving drugs. Discovered by Domagk, worse, however, and he developed heart disease. The lungs as Prontosil, the new drugs had been further developed of the 69-year-old Prime Minister became congested and his and were showing their worth in treating childbed fever, condition deteriorated rapidly. Then, miraculously, under the pneumonia and septic wounds. Sulphonamides were used influence of the new drug, Churchill began to improve, and to great effect to treat the wounded at Pearl Harbor and by Christmas he was working again. At the end of December continued to be used in the Pacific and, alongside penicillin, he was transferred to Marrakesh to convalesce and was able throughout the War. to return to England by early January 1944. One type of sulphonamide produced in England by May M&B 693 undoubtedly saved Churchill’s life in 1943, and, and Baker undoubtedly saved the life of Winston Churchill by allowing him to return to work on plans for the Anzio and thereby had a spectacular effect on the outcome of the invasion of Italy and the Normandy invasion, affected the War, and civilization in general. course of WWII. We obviously have no idea what would Late in 1943, at the height of the War, Churchill made have happened if Churchill had not been saved by M&B. a trip to the Middle East, meeting Chang Kaishek in Cairo, Perhaps his successor would have taken a completely different Stalin in Tehran and then on his return to Cairo, Roosevelt. approach when it came, for example, to supporting Tito in Early in the morning of 11 December, he boarded a flight Yugoslavia, to the aerial bombing of Germany or relations to Tunisia to spend a while relaxing at Eisenhower’s villa in between Stalin and the Allies. What is not in doubt however, Carthage. But things began to go wrong from the start. Off is that without M&B the outcome of WWII would, for better course, the plane was forced to make an unscheduled stop or worse, have been very different. some 40 miles from Carthage. Churchill was left stranded in a cold wind, sitting on his luggage, for more than an hour. In Hitler’s escape from death the evening, he complained of a sore throat and bad headache Antibacterial agents, of course do not discriminate – they and soon developed a temperature of 101 F. His personal save the wicked as well as the righteous. The next story physician, Lord Moran, was called and he used a portable provides a perfect example of the former, showing how, in X-ray machine to show that Churchill had a shadow on his all likelihood, penicillin, the antibiotic that has reduced lung that indicated only one thing; the Prime Minister had mortality and relieved so much suffering, also saved the life pneumonia. Moran immediately prescribed a new, British- of Adolf Hitler.

16 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 17 28–30 Hitler lived a charmed life, so much so that one might November 2007 believe the Fates were, for a long time, on his side. He Cardiff City Hall survived wounding in the First World War, life in Munich during the interwar years, and then numerous near misses The 2007 Conference will be the largest UK gathering of and assassination attempts as he rose to power, even while health professionals working in infectious disease and its allied he was Führer. disciplines. The conference will include: One assassination attempt that almost succeeded involved d multidisciplinary plenary sessions Count Claus von Stauffenberg. In 1944 von Stauffenberg smuggled a briefcase containing a bomb into Hitler’s briefing d a variety of challenging interactive workshops hut at the Wolf’s Lair in East Prussia. As he made his hasty d named lectures d satellite symposia exit, he heard an enormous explosion, which he assumed d oral presentations d poster walks must have killed everyone in the hut, including Hitler. d social programme d trade exhibition Unfortunately he was wrong; Fate had once again smiled The Scientific Organizing Committee, with input from many on Hitler. Soon after von Stauffenberg placed the bomb, of the constituent societies of FIS, is putting together an exciting one of Hitler’s adjutants moved it behind a thick wooden programme focusing on a wide range of topics of current table leg. This helped dampen the blast, leaving Hitler alive, importance in the field of infection. although badly injured. von Stauffenberg, his family and co-conspirators were not so lucky; some committed suicide, For all enquiries, contact the FIS Secretariat: while most were hunted down by the Gestapo and the SS, email [email protected]; tel. 0118 988 1805 tortured and then brutally murdered. Hitler’s personal physician, Theodor Morell, arrived almost We look forward to welcoming you to Cardiff in November 2007. immediately on the bomb scene and began administering first aid. It was clear, however, that Hitler’s life hung on a thread. Morell is usually portrayed as a quack who did more harm than good to his principal patient. Despite the fact that he kept Hitler high on drugs, Morell also did some surprisingly Out-of-print books for sale imaginative work on a novel probiotic called Mutaflor, which he prescribed to ease Hitler’s long-term stomach problems. Morell probably began treating Hitler with sulpha drugs after m Hitler’s personal physician Theodor Morell in Wilhelmshaven for the the explosion, but he had a small supply of a much better launching of the battleship Tirpitz. Hugo Jaeger / Timepix / Time Life drug, penicillin, in his arsenal. Pictures / Getty Images The Germans and their allies had been remarkably slow in developing their own penicillin so, by the time of von would have sued for peace and all those who died in the war Stauffenberg’s assassination attempt, they had only small and the concentration camps, from 1943 onwards, would amounts of Axis-produced penicillin. Doubtless these have survived; the speculation is endless. meagre supplies would have been available to Morell for For good or for worse, antimicrobial agents have use in treating Hitler and his criminal henchmen. Fortunately dramatically changed the course of history. Although we for the Führer, Morell had access to the more potent usually emphasize their positive effects in saving lives, American and British penicillin. The Americans, in particular, these two stories show that history is never simple and that Microbiology and allied disciplines, especially late 19th to mid-20th century had decided to supply their field doctors with penicillin, antimicrobials have had a complex impact on our modern and fighter and bomber pilots carried a supply when they world. flew over Germany. Penicillin was also sent through the • We welcome enquiries for specific titles Red Cross to prisoner-of-war camps. Morell clearly would Milton Wainwright have had access to some of this Allied penicillin; Adolf Our regular catalogues cover all biomedical sciences Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, • Hitler would naturally have been the first person to receive University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK We are also interested in buying books it. My own recent researches in fact leave little doubt that • (e [email protected]) Morell used Allied penicillin to help save Hitler’s life in 1944. Bernard Dixon and Kath Adams A Germany at war without Hitler in 1944 would have been Further reading 130 Cornwall Road very different. Perhaps the Germans would have continued Lesch, J.E. (2006). The First Miracle Drug. Oxford: Oxford to fight under a new Führer. Conversely, a German Army University Press. Ruislip Manor Tel. 01895 632390 without Hitler’s meddling may have done better at Stalingrad Wainwright, M. (2004). Hitler’s penicillin. Perspect Biol Med and on D-Day; we shall never know. Maybe the Germans 47, 189–198. HA4 6AW Email [email protected]

18 microbiology today feb 07 At a time when highly pathogenic virus diseases such as avian influenza and AIDS are threatening to vaccination campaigns, farmers were made aware of rinder- pest by advertising it as the disease of the three D’s (discharge, overwhelm us, Tom diarrhoea and death). Barrett reports some Disease and warfare Rinderpest has long been associated with wars and invasions good news: the virtual where there is uncontrolled movement of people and their cattle. Invasion by the Huns into Europe in the late 4th century resulted in an outbreak of a highly contagious disease global eradication of cattle which was clearly identified for the first time as rinderpest by the Latin writer Severus Sanctus Endeleichus. of rinderpest virus Subsequent accounts describe pandemics that followed the Mongol invasions of Western Europe. Cattle plague was through a concerted probably the first agrobiological weapon ever employed. ‘The secret weapons of the invaders were Grey Steppe oxen. vaccination campaign. Their value was a strong innate resistance manifested by slow inderpest, or cattle plague, bears all the hallmarks spread of virus and by the absence of clinical signs. A troop of the activities of veterinary organizations of a disease capable of causing economic and Grey Steppe cattle could shed rinderpest virus for months provo- could be properly co-ordinated inter- social disaster. Wherever it has occurred, it has king epidemics that devastated buffalo and cattle populations nationally, with a particular view to miti- caused terrible destruction of cattle, adversely of invaded countries. The sequelae were no transport, untilled gating the widespread ravages of animal affected agriculture and rural livelihoods, bring- fields, starving peasants, and overthrown governments’. plagues, especially rinderpest. ing in its wake famine and starvation. R Rinderpest is a morbillivirus, its closest relative being human Rinderpest and veterinary medicine Control measures measles virus. Infections begin in the upper respiratory tract Veterinary services were pre-occupied with rinderpest It was not until the pandemics in and, after a variable incubation period, spread from the local control for much of the 20th century. In the 1920s the Europe in the early 18th century lymph nodes via the lymph and blood to other lymphatic Office Internationale des Épizooties (OIE), a body that acts that the disease was first described tissues, before progressing to the mucosal surfaces, causing as the World Organization for Animal Health, was estab- scientifically and that effective control the formation of necrotic lesions and discharges from the lished in response to the introduction of rinderpest into measures were introduced. In 1711 nose and eyes. The gut mucosa is also affected, leading to Australia and South America by trade in live animals. When Pope Clement XI ordered his physician severe and bloody diarrhoea and death as a result of de- the United Nations was established in 1945, one of the first Dr Giovani Lancisi to investigate the hydration. Virulent strains also affect the immune system and specialized agencies to be set up was the Food and Agriculture cause and prescribe ways to control the cause an increased susceptibility to other pathogens. During Organization (FAO) with a mandate to consider ways that plague that had killed so many cattle in the Papal herds. Lancisi understood the nature of infectious diseases without knowing their cause and he proposed slaughter of infected animals to reduce disease spread, burial of the carcasses in lime, movement controls on cattle Vaccination and inspection of meat. He also intro- duced the idea of quarantine and his

m A giant syncytium formed when a B95a cell monolayer was infected with a version of spells the end the virus expressing GFP inserted into the polymerase gene. The nucleocapsid protein is stained red, the cellular filaments white and the nuclei blue. Where the virus nucleocapsids form, by co-location of the polymerase and nucleocapsid proteins, the for a devastating cytoplasm stains yellow. Tom Barrett c An animal infected with rinderpest showing a severe ocular discharge, a major clinical sign of infection. The virus antigen present in the discharge can be used for rinderpest detection using the pen-side plague test. Tom Barrett

20 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 21 1900 1980s 2006

policies were backed by strong legal m Stamps issued in Ethiopia and other African countries in the 1970s to advertise the campaign laboratories, co-ordinated by the FAO laboratory at the The endgame enforcement with severe punishments against rinderpest. Tom Barrett International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna, was In the eradication campaign, mass vaccination has ceased for transgressors. By rigorous appli- c The eradication of rinderpest during the 20th century. Tom Barrett set up in each of the countries involved to ensure that local and we are in a period of active surveillance to designate cation of these sanitary measures the staff received effective training and that standards were countries in Africa as rinderpest-free. The last time disease disease was eliminated from Europe a policy of mass vaccination. Goat- 60 to 100 %) and shorter average sur- maintained by an external quality assurance system. A rapid was unequivocally detected in Kenya was in 2001 when in by the late 1800s. These methods adapted vaccine was favoured in India vival time post-infection (falling from 9 ‘pen-side’ test was also developed for diagnosis by local buffalo in the Meru National Park were found to have been are still applied today to control and and Africa, while East Asian countries to 3 days). It had also become readily veterinarians during an outbreak. This speeded up reporting infected. Wildlife in Kenya therefore acts as sentinels for eliminate animal diseases such as avian used either lapinized or egg-adapted transmissible by contact as it acquired and obviated the need to await laboratory confirmation of the spread of disease from Somalia and so they are being influenza and foot and mouth disease. vaccines. These vaccines, although the ability to form mouth lesions. By the disease. The test was used effectively to eliminate the last foci intensively monitored for signs of rinderpest. It was feared that The economic and social devastation efficacious, were not safe for use in all 16th passage, however, the virulence had of infection from Pakistan. even if rinderpest were eliminated from the domestic cattle resulting from the cattle plague was susceptible animals and so had limited returned to a level equivalent to that of populations, wild ruminants might act as a reservoir of infec- the impetus to establish veterinary use; nevertheless, Russia and China the parent virus. The ability to cause The global rinderpest eradication campaign tion, but evidence shows that when the disease is eliminated schools, the first being at Lyon, France, succeeded in eradicating the disease lesions, diarrhoea or death of the host In 1986 regional eradication campaigns were begun in the from cattle it disappears from surrounding wildlife. Never- in 1762. The ability to effectively con- during this period. There was little also diminished after the 16th passage endemic regions: sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and West theless, during outbreaks, infected wildlife can spread the trol rinderpest was considered to be a co-ordination between neighbouring and from the 21st passage onwards only Asia. In areas of unrest, community based animal health disease over large distances and play an important part in its measure of the quality of a country’s countries and vaccination in much temperature reactions were observed. workers were used for vaccination and seromonitoring. In epidemiology. veterinary service. of southern Asia, the Middle East and Finally, by 70th, 90th or 122nd BK 1992, based on the success of the regional campaigns, the Rinderpest eradication can clearly be achieved in the near Africa in the 1960s and 1970s was not cell passages, even these temperature FAO agreed that global eradication of rinderpest was justified future if lessons are learnt from the past and the necessary Rinderpest in Africa carried out effectively. Despite specta- reactions disappeared. This has turned and feasible. The Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme commitment and funding are sustained until there is With its origins in Central Asia, the cular early successes, vaccination was out to be the most successful veter- (GREP) was launched formally in 1994 as the prime target scientifically sound evidence for its complete elimination. virus was probably first introduced not carried out rigorously enough to inary vaccine ever produced, saving of the then newly established priority programme, EMPRES One factor that may inhibit achievement of the goal by the into Egypt in the early 1800s, but it did eliminate all endemic foci, resulting millions of dollars annually and ridding (Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal target date of 2010 is a situation of political unrest such as not cause a pandemic in Africa until in a major resurgence of the disease in farmers in the developing world of a and Plant Pests and Diseases). This was to be a globally co- that in Somalia, the last endemic focus of the disease. the late 1880s. This outbreak probably the early 1980s. This led to such great devastating plague. In their introduct- ordinated programme linking the existing regional and started when infected zebu cattle from economic losses that a more concerted tory remarks in the published paper the national efforts and with a time-bound target to achieve Tom Barrett Aden or Bombay were imported to effort to eradicate the disease by mass authors modestly stated that they had, global eradication by the year 2010. The great efforts put Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright Laboratory, Ash Eritrea (then part of Abyssinia) by Ital- vaccination was proposed in 1986 and incidentally, furnished another attenu- into this project have ensured that the whole of the Asian Road, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 ONF, UK (t 01483 231009, ian troops fighting colonial wars in the funded by the European Union. ated strain suitable for the immunization continent (West, Central, South and East Asia) is now free of e [email protected]) region. For over a decade the plague of cattle (Plowright & Ferris, 1959)! rinderpest, Pakistan being the final country in 2003. Most of swept over a whole continent of suscep- A safe and efficacious vaccine If global eradication of rinderpest is the African continent has also been declared rinderpest-free Further reading tible animals. At this time veterinary A factor which contributed greatly to achieved it will be the first animal viral with only one potential focus of infection remaining in the Barrett, T., Pastoret, P.-P. & Taylor, W.P. (editors) (2005). services were virtually non-existent in the decision to eradicate rinderpest was disease for which this has been possible Horn of Africa. The last time rinderpest virus was positively Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants Viruses; a volume in the sub-Saharan Africa. 80–90 % of cattle, the development in the late 1950s of a and only the second after smallpox. For identified in this ecosystem was in 2001 in wildlife and 2003 series Biology of Animal Infections. London: Elsevier. buffalo, eland, giraffe, wildebeest, kudu highly efficacious vaccine, safe to use in this work, Dr Plowright was awarded in cattle. and various species of antelope suc- all susceptible ruminants, by Dr Walter the FAO’s World Food Prize in 1999, With the introduction of RT-PCR for diagnosis, sequencing Barrett, T. & Rossiter, P. (1999). Rinderpest: the disease and its impact on humans and animals. Adv Virus Res 53, 89–110. cumbed. In Kenya, the Masai people Plowright at the East African Veterinary the equivalent of a Nobel Prize in the showed that there were three lineages of the virus circulating suffered starvation and, together with Research Organization laboratories in area of food research. This breakthrough in the world at that time, one in Asia and two, African lineages Fenner, F., Henderson, D.A., Arita, I., Jezek, Z. & Ladnyi, I.D. a smallpox epidemic that followed the Kenya. His approach was to take a viru- convinced veterinarians and scientists 1 and 2, in Africa. The virus which remains in Somalia is (1988). Smallpox and its Eradication. Geneva: WHO. cattle plague, were severely reduced lent needle-passaged strain of the virus, that rinderpest could be cost-effectively lineage 2 which causes only a mild to sub-clinical infection in Plowright, W. & Ferris, R.D. (1959). Studies with rinderpest in numbers. Great tracts of land were chosen because it did not form mouth brought under control or even eradi- cattle, but severe disease in certain wildlife species, especially virus in tissue culture. II. Pathogenicity for cattle of culture- depopulated, which facilitated the sub- lesions and so had a reduced ability cated in many parts of the world. buffalo. It is proving difficult to generate firm surveillance passaged virus. J Comp Pathol 69, 173–184. sequent colonization of Kenya. One to transmit between cattle, and infect data on whether or not lineage 2 virus still circulates in this Scott, G.R. (2000). The murrain now known as rinderpest. account states that ‘never before in the bovine kidney (BK) cells in suspension. Monitoring the effectiveness ecosystem. Newsl Trop Agric Assoc UK 20, 14–16. memory of man, or by the voice of tradition, These were then allowed to form of vaccination have the cattle died in such numbers; never monolayers and infected cells could be The vast number of serum samples that Wherever rinderpest has occurred, it has before has the wild game suffered’. identified when they either rounded had to be analysed to monitor the up or formed multinucleate syncytia. effectiveness of vaccination posed huge Control through vaccination The virus required many passages to logistical problems. A simple, high- caused terrible destruction of cattle, adversely During the 1950s and 1960s individual become attenuated for cattle: in fact, throughput competitive ELISA system, countries in Africa, the Middle East its virulence actually increased over suitable for sera from all species, was affected agriculture and rural livelihoods, and Asia carried out national rinder- the first 10 passages as manifest by an developed at the World Reference Lab- pest control programmes based on increased mortality rate (rising from oratory in Pirbright. A network of bringing in its wake famine and starvation.

22 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 23 he deliberate inoculation of dis- documented from 1881 on. By 1885 In an outpost of the eases into animals or humans the basis of his vaccination method, con- has a long history. In Europe, sisting of serial passages of ‘virus fixe’ this began on a large scale in the from rabbit to rabbit, was established. Paris Pasteur 18th century in the fight against Over the years the schedule of vaccine Evolution smallpox, with variolation (the injections into patients was repeatedly Institute in Vietnam, Tinoculation of variolous material from modified, but the substrate for making person to person) and vaccination (ini- the vaccine, infected rabbit spinal cords, rabies virus was tially the transfer of cowpox material remained unchanged. The Pasteurian from cow to man). Some present-day method of rabies treatment spread very in action: strains of the causative vaccinia virus rapidly; by 1888 there were 20 insti- serially passed from have a long, chequered passage his- tutes using it. Microbiological laborator- tory which is difficult to trace. Too ies as Pasteurian outposts were created rabbit to rabbit many different methods were employed in several French colonies. In 1890, and attempts made to regenerate certain Pasteur offered Albert Calmette the from 1891 to 1953. a virological strains by the addition of smallpox opportunity to set up a microbiological material or by ‘retrovaccination’ (the laboratory in Indochina (Vietnam). occasional return of human-passaged Calmette arrived in Saigon (now Ho Jean Lindenmann material to calves) to call this a single Chi Minh City) early in 1891. He soon experiment. For many years vaccinia realized that a disease locally known as believes that this experiment virus strains were passaged from child ‘mad dog disease’ was rabies. A rabies to child by doctors, not all of whom vaccination section was created, which must be one of the kept comprehensive records or used functioned, using essentially the same the same technique. techniques, without interruption from longest biological 1891 until 1947. Serial rabbit passages of long Rabies of the virus continued until 1953. The Rabies is another viral disease for which French crew left Vietnam in 1959. experiments on experimentation began early. Pasteur’s The comparative isolation of this systematic laboratory work is well outpost explains why, for more than record. duration m False-colour TEM of rabies virions (red) budding away from host cell cytoplasm (green). The virions possess a protein capsid containing single-stranded RNA. A lipoprotein envelope surrounds the capsid. The virus is usually transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected dog or other animal. Symptoms appear after 10 days to 1 year and include fever, muscle spasm and hydrophobia. Death occurs within 4–5 days. CNRI / Science Photo Library

b The Pasteur Institute in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Leonard de Selva / CORBIS

24 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 25 For more than half a century, the rabies virus was maintained by serial rabbit passages. This biological experiment, one of the longest on record, is unlikely ever to be repeated. half a century, Roux’s technique of sub-arachnoid injection shortly after presenting the first unmistakable symptoms of fixed intervals between vaccination between passages over the entire ments, such as the ‘immortal’ line was strictly adhered to, both for maintaining the virus by the experimental disease. Their spinal cords supplied the of donors and vaccine transfer to period averaged 8.2 days. This differ- of chicken fibroblasts from Carrel’s serial rabbit passages and for supplying the infected spinal seed for the next passage. Starting in February 1891 with recipients, so that the time when the ence is explained by the fact that in laboratory. To maintain the purity of a cords from which the vaccine was made. This biological the 273rd passage, the virus reached its 3,080th passage by vaccinal lymph was donated did not Paris longer intervals were possible, virus strain over so many passages is experiment, one of the longest on record, is unlikely ever to 1953. necessarily coincide with that of highest because the virus was refrigerated quite a feat, although it is probable that be repeated. The virus Calmette had brought with him was supposedly virus replication. The most virulent for a few days between passages. In the rabbit, as a biological filter, was able virus fixe, its incubation on standardized inoculation into mutants, if present, would have been Saigon refrigeration was probably not to eliminate occasional contaminants. Serial rabbit passages of rabies in Saigon, rabbits lasting 7 to 8 days, death occurring on the 11th or past their prime, already becoming sufficiently reliable. Infection by a genuine rabbit pathogen, 1891–1953 12th day. In its 1,518th passage (January 1925) the Saigon thermally inactivated, whereas the less It is remarkable that these two lines capable of overwhelming the animal When Calmette arrived in Saigon he brought with him the virus induced paralysis on day 6 and death on day 10. By virulent, freshly hatched variants would of virus, with different passaging reg- even faster than the adapted rabies virus that had been adapted from a rabid dog to the rabbit by 1935 (around passage 2,000), the incubation period had dominate. This might explain why the imes, reached, around their respective virus, would have forced termination Pasteur and Roux in 1882, and passed from rabbit to rabbit shrunk to 4 days, with death occurring on the 6th day. At virus progressively lost virulence. The 1,500th passage, exactly the same of the Saigon series. The technicians, until the status of a virus fixe was reached, i.e. one whose the same time the Paris series had only reached the 1,540th old vaccinators became disenchanted incubation period (6 days) and time to locally hired and trained on the spot, incubation period in the rabbit would remain constant over passage, and the incubation time there was 6 days, with death with their procedure, and, rather death (10 days). It would be interesting must have been very reliable and further passages. During his 27 day voyage by sea, Calmette on the 10th day equivalent to the 1,518th passage in Saigon than relying on natural incidences of to compare, under strictly identical competent, as must have been their kept the virus active by intracerebral transfer from rabbit to 10 years earlier. The Saigon virus remained unchanged from cowpox, maintained the virus by serial conditions (same breed, age, size of teachers. rabbit. By sacrificing infected animals on the tenth day, three 1935 to 1953. passages in cows. rabbits, same animal husbandry, same passages were sufficient to cover the voyage. On arrival in The selective pressures acting on inoculation technique, same intensity of Jean Lindenmann Saigon the virus had reached its 273rd passage. Discussion rabies virus in Saigon were different. observation), the virulence (incubation Medical Faculty, University Pasteur’s vaccination procedure required infected rabbit When an attempt is made to adapt a virus to a new host The decision to sacrifice a rabbit for length and time to death) of the latest of Zürich, Zürich, spinal cords in which the virus had been attenuated by species, often the virus is lost after a few passages, or it supplying the seed necessary for the (most recent) generations of the Saigon (e jean.lindenmann@access. drying. The series of injections began with cords dried for becomes progressively more virulent for the new host. But next transfer was made at a fixed and Paris strains. The Paris experiment unizh.ch) 9–10 days and progressed to cords dried for shorter times this does not always happen, as shown by the 19th century time interval after the first symptoms lasted longer (it probably lasts to this (8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 days). In order to be always ready to start practice of arm to arm smallpox vaccination when the virus were observed. The sooner the dis- day, but serial passages are likely to Further reading a new treatment and to continue ongoing treatments, this did not gain in virulence for man. On the contrary, the ease manifested itself, the sooner the have been replaced by keeping virus Anon. (1888). Br Med J 1888/ii, required a large colony of rabbits and daily infection of fresh vaccinators were convinced that the virus was losing its spinal cords were harvested. This stocks in deep freeze), but in terms 1122–1123. animals. The limited means Calmette had at his disposal vigour, no longer producing high fever, beautiful pustules automatically adjusted the time of of passage numbers the Saigon series Anon. (1992). Centenaire de l’Institut precluded such extravagance. He relied instead on Roux’s and solid immunity. This shows that serial passages alone do transfer to the properties of the virus, is more impressive. Assuming the two Pasteur de Ho Chi Minh Ville. Ann Inst observation that infected spinal cords kept in glycerol not guarantee increases in virulence. and selected a fast-replicating, virulent strains have been kept for the last Pasteur Actual 3, 140–146. retained their virulence for a long time. Calmette showed More important is the selective pressure applied. In virus. After more than 1,500 passages 30–40 years in stable conditions, it Arnoult, H. (1955). Les vaccinations that the degree of attenuation that cords had reached after a choosing children as virus donors, the vaccinators probably the Saigon virus was still not ‘fixed’; might still be possible to make a direct, antirabiques à l’institut Pasteur de Saigon, given time of desiccation remained unchanged for at least 2 did not take the sickliest looking or those who showed the repertoire of genetic variability simultaneous comparison. de 1891 à 1954. Ann Inst Pasteur 88, weeks once immersed in glycerol. This simplified his work secondary pustules, but selected relatively healthy, well governing the selected trait was not Rabies virus must be endowed with 435–445. enormously. To maintain the virus, serial passages from nourished, cheerful youngsters who enjoyed being the centre exhausted and microevolution was a set of genes, subject to mutations, rabbit to rabbit, always using sub-arachnoid inoculation, of attention. They were the least seriously ill of each group. still in action, at least up to some point which in certain configurations make Geison, G.L. (1995). The Private Science of Louis Pasteur. Princeton: Princeton were continuously carried out. The animals were sacrificed In addition, the whole logistics required predetermined, between the 1,500th and the 2,000th for high virulence in a given host. This University Press. passage. By that time, the incubation can go concomitantly with reduced period had shrunk from the initial 7 or virulence for another host. Pasteur felt Koprowski, H. & Cox, H.R. (1947). c Louis Pasteur celebrated on Studies on rabies infection in developing a 1966 French 5 Franc note. 8 days to 4 days and the time to death that rabies serially passed in monkeys chick embryos. J Bacteriol 54, 74. Prof. Beat Rüttimann, Institute from 11 or 12 days to 6 days. Between became less virulent for dogs. His hope for the History of Medicine, the 2,000th and the 3,080th passage that it would, at the same time, become Lépine, P. (1966). Chapter 10: Fermi- Zürich, Switzerland no further changes were observed, but less virulent for man was not fulfilled. type vaccine. In Laboratory Techniques whether a few thousand additional Others have since been able to select in Rabies, pp. 97–109. Geneva: World passages would result in an even virus strains of drastically reduced Health Organization. shorter incubation period will never be pathogenicity for dogs, suitable for use Lépine, P., Cruveilhier, L. & others known. as live canine virus vaccines. (1935). Recherches sur la virulence des The passage history of the virus As a biological experiment of long moelles rabiques en relation avec l’état kept in Saigon differs from that of the duration the Saigon rabies series is actuel des virus de l’Institut Pasteur. ‘ancestral’ strain kept in Paris. There the unusual. A demanding technique Ann Inst Pasteur 55 Suppl., 127–150. virus, also serially passed exclusively in applied and monitored unchanged Roux, E. (1887). Note sur un moyen de rabbits, had only reached its 2,045th over more than 60 years represents conserver les moelles rabiques avec leur passage by 1964 and the average length an effort unlikely ever to be repeated. virulence. Ann Inst Pasteur 1, 87. of time between passages amounted It compares favourably with other pur- Théodoridès, J. (1986). Histoire de la to 14.5 days. In Saigon, the interval ported long-lasting biological experi- Rage: Cave Canem. Paris: Masson.

26 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 27 meetings

*Please note: to qualify for earlybird Special events NEW! Booking confirmation change rates, 2007 membership fees must be IrishBranch Meetings on the web paid by 23 February. Monday 26 March For up-to-date information on From 2007, confirmation of bookings for meetings will no longer be sent by Welcome Reception, Manchester future Society meetings and to post. A confirmation email will be issued for all bookings made. Museum of Science and Industry Postgraduate Conference Biofilm: a system microbiology book online see www.sgm.ac.uk Get to know your fellow delegates Grants analysis over a glass of wine on the first Meetings organization For full details, a form and allowances University of Limerick evening of the conference. The SGM meetings programmes for travel see www.sgm.ac.uk/grants/ 19–20 April 2007 Spring07 University of Manchester are organized by the committees pg.cfm Tuesday 27 March Organizer C. Adley of the special interest groups, th Society Dinner and disco 26–29 March 2007 160 Meeting co-ordinated by the Scientific Offered Poster Cash bar until late. Microbial functions in response presentations Meetings Officer, Professor Hilary Wednesday 28 March to the environment Lappin-Scott. Suggestions for Registration fees per day (incl. lunch Plenary Intracellular life Delegates whose offered posters have PhD – What Next? Queen’s University of Belfast topics for future symposia are refreshments, abstracts book, conference of microbes been accepted should note that an area For early-career microbiologists 30–31 August 2007 always welcome. See p. 41 for literature and disco) of 90 × 90 cm only is available on the only Organizer J. McGrath contact details of Conveners. Programme booklet Earlybird (up to 23 February 2007) poster boards for their display. Planning for your future? Come to Administration of meetings is A booklet giving full details of the Ordinary Members* £40 this event and learn about various For details of Irish Branch activities carried out by Mrs Josiane Dunn at programme is enclosed with this issue Student/Technican Members* £15 Microscene noticeboard career options, followed by a buffet contact Evelyn Doyle (e evelyn. SGM Headquarters, Marlborough of Microbiology Today. Any changes will Non-members £100 At the meeting, a board will be set and wine. Entry is by ticket only, [email protected]). House, Basingstoke Road, Spencers be posted on the SGM website. Retired/Honorary Members* Free up with notices of jobs, postdoctoral so ensure you tick the box on the Wood, Reading RG7 1AG (t 0118 Full (after 23 February 2007) positions, studentships, courses, booking form. If you are applying for Registration 988 1805; f 0118 988 5656; Ordinary Members £50 conferences, etc. Contributions are a Postgraduate Conference Grant to e [email protected]). Registration is through the SGM Student/Technican Members £25 welcome and may be either brought to attend the meeting, attending the website. Anyone experiencing problems Non-members £110 the meeting or sent beforehand to Janet workshop qualifies you for overnight Offered papers & posters should contact the Meetings Office. Retired/Honorary Members £10 Hurst (e [email protected]). accommodation on the Wednesday. Many Groups organize sessions for the presentation of short oral papers or allow intercalated papers Organizer A.S.H. Goldman 07 University of Edinburgh Other symposia/workshops Events within their symposia. Offered Autumn Mechanisms of diarrhoeal disease Monitoring in bioprocesses Other posters are welcome at all Society 3–6 September 2007 161st Meeting Cells & Cell Surfaces / Fermentation & Bioprocessing meetings. Microbial Infection Groups Group Offered posters Organizers P. Everest, B. Kenny Organizers B. McNeil & French Microbiology Each poster should be associated & A.F. Cunningham D. Papadopoulos Society / SGM Plenary Food, fluids, R. Glass USA either with the Plenary topic or Nantes, France fingers, faeces and flies – Water-borne disease Anaerobe 2007 – Changing Workshop on molecular with a Group. The subject content 30 May–1 June 2007 food- and water-borne J. Rose USA perceptions and patterns of detection methods of the latter should be relevant to anaerobic infection pathogens P. Hunter Norwich Food & Beverages / www.sfm.asso.fr the remit of a Group (see website Clinical Microbiology Group / 3 & 4 September 2007 Systematics & Evolution Groups for details); it does not have to K. Jones Lancaster Society for Anaerobic Microbiology Organizer K. Grant Third European Congress relate to the topic of the Group Organizers N. Dorrell, P.H. Everest, P. Wyn-Jones Aberystwyth Organizers S. Patrick, M. Tunney of Virology Symposium taking place at a K. Grant, H.M. Lappin-Scott, R.A. Rastall, Intervention strategies & I.R. Poxton The physiology of non-growing C.E.D. Rees & P. Wyn-Jones microbes Nürnberg, Germany particular meeting. General Offered T. Brockelhurst Norwich Getting it right Physiology, Biochemistry & 1–5 September 2007 Posters will not be accepted. B. Marthi The Netherlands Education & Training Group Speakers Molecular Genetics Group www.eurovirology.org Organizers L.M. Lawrance & Abstracts From farm to fork L. De Vuyst Belgium Organizer D.J. Clarke M.J. Tully Titles and abstracts for all H. Dalton London D.K.R. Karaolis USA Federation of Infection Ecology of viruses Contact details of organizers are Societies Conference 2007 presentations are required in a R. Mandrell USA standard format and should be Hot topic symposium Environmental Microbiology / included in the meeting programme C.E.R. Dodd Nottingham Cardiff submitted through the SGM with support from NERC Virus Ecology Groups on the SGM website. Deadline for 28–30 November 2007 website. Deadlines for submissions C. Hill Cork Post-genomic analysis of Organizers D.A. Pearce, M. Clokie & receipt of titles and abstracts for are published in Microbiology Food-borne disease microbial function in the N.H. Mann offered presentations: 4 May 2007. www.fis2007.org.uk Today and on the web. For further R. Adak Colindale environment A poster to promote the meeting is Eukaryotic microbial pathogens, information contact the Events E. Duizer The Netherlands Organizers A.M. Osborn, P.L. Bond attack and counter attack enclosed with this issue. Please display Administrator. C. Low Edinburgh & J. Snape Eukaryotic Microbiology Group it in your department.

28 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 29 schoolzone

Schools Membership costs only £10 a year. Benefits include and health and safety in school science. For DIY enthusiasts *Details available from, e.g. ASE, CLEAPSS, MiSAC, SGM and Developments in syllabuses and SSERC (see Further information below). Microbiology Today, advance copies of new teaching resources In addition to working with pure cultures, there is also modifications to the ACDP categories a place for investigations using natural materials and John Grainger and discounted fees on SGM INSET courses. To join see occur from time to time in the light commercial products. Here are a few pointers to some MiSAC Chairman, Visiting Fellow at the University of improved knowledge and changes straightforward activities: www.sgm.ac.uk/membership. Enquiries: [email protected] in legislation, and are taken into of Reading and co-deliverer of SGM’s basic practical Observe successions of protozoa and algae developing or go to www.microbiologyonline.org.uk for full details of account. The current list* (2001) was microbiology courses for teachers and technicians in a hay infusion (hay + pond/lake water) at ambient the result of a widely representative (e [email protected]) resources and activities. temperature (maximum 25 °C) weekly using a ×10 safety conference convened by the objective lens. Association for Science Education. Further information Revisions included additions to Look for bacteria in yoghurt by staining a smear of natural Free from SGM ([email protected]): the previous approved list and the yoghurt (read the label) by Gram’s method and examining Basic Practical Microbiology: a Manual (2006). SGM. It’s a culture thing introduction of helpful notes on the with, preferably, an oil immersion objective lens. ISBN 0-95368-383-4 educational use and maintenance for Show the effect of heat on bacterial survival by preparing Practical Microbiology for Secondary Schools (2002). SGM. With the good news that more practical microbiology is being carried out in each culture. streak plates on nutrient agar from soil suspensions that ISBN 0-95368-382-6 have been heated at a range of temperatures, e.g. 60, From ASE Bookshop (www.ase.org.uk/htm/book_store/): schools these days, John Grainger offers some helpful advice on choosing and Using the approved list 80, 100 and 121 °C, then incubate. The plate from an Topics in Safety: Topic 15 (2001), 3rd edn. ASE. using the right microbial cultures. It is essential to refer to the current unheated control sample may show zones of inhibition ISBN 0-86357-316-9 (£18 to ASE members; £30 to non-members) list because it supercedes all previous of growth (antibiotic production?). Websites There are signs of a resurgence in the laboratory practice, present minimum lists. The current one consists of 28 Show the presence of microbes on healthy leaves by teaching of microbiology in schools risk and offer a valuable educational bacteria, 40 fungi and 6 viruses; also pressing a leaf on the surface of agar plates (nutrient agar Association for Science Education (ASE) – www.ase.org.uk and colleges. One pleasing indicator experience. listed are eight bacteria and a fungus for bacteria; malt extract agar or dextrose potato agar CLEAPSS – www.cleapss.org.uk is the strength of SGM initiatives, now considered to be unsuitable. for fungi). Remove the leaf and incubate. Discuss the Microbiology in Schools Advisory Committee (MiSAC) – e.g. the schools membership scheme The risks There is a general comment about relevance to composting and ensilage. www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/misac has more than 400 members and the Pathogenic microbes are officially the use of algae, protozoa and slime DIY enthusiasts might also consider it convenient to Scottish Schools Equipment Research Centre (SSERC) – basic practical microbiology course categorized according to risk, currently moulds, though none are named. maintain a laboratory collection of cultures instead of www.sserc.org.uk for teachers and technicians will pass by the Advisory Group on Dangerous The approved list is not intended purchasing a new culture each time one is needed. SGM – www.microbiologyonline.org.uk the landmark of 50 courses and 1,000 Pathogens (ACDP) in consultation with to be definitive and other cultures delegates this year. the Health and Safety Executive. The may be used if competent advice is A-level science courses will be taught has included a consultation to which ACDP is an advisory committee of the Also, there are developments on the obtained*. However, teachers wishing from September 2008. With QCA SGM responded. With the new GCSE Health and Safety Commission that syllabus front. The new 21st Century to use, at work levels L2 and L3 (levels criteria in place, the awarding bodies in Applied Science just beginning Science and other GCSE specifications also advises Health and Agriculture that apply to practical microbiology In brief are currently devising new courses. to take off, many in the science contain a welcome increase in Ministers. work), cultures that are not listed as Curriculum changes in The aim is to offer more contemporary community feel that the new diploma microbiology content. Inevitably, such The categorization involves allocation presenting minimal risk, must have content and foster the development would be an unnecessary qualification developments draw many teachers of ‘biological agents’ to four Hazard had suitable training in microbiological England, Wales & Northern Ireland of investigative skills. In biology, the that adds to the burden of educators of and technicians into unfamiliar areas. Groups, i.e. (in decreasing order of techniques*. course specifications must ensure there this age group. Consequently, there are increasing risk): Group 4 (e.g. Ebola virus), Group GCSE science is an appropriate balance between Obtaining cultures www.qca.org.uk/17112.html demands for basic advice on how to 3 (e.g. the bacterium Mycobacterium The criteria have been revised by animal biology, plant biology and meet the requirements for practical tuberculosis), Group 2 (e.g. Aspergillus Recognized specialist suppliers* the Qualifications and Curriculum microbiology. Students will be learning Chemistry for non-specialists work, especially as practical aspects of fumigatus a fungus causing a bronchial provide cultures chosen from the Authority (QCA) and each awarding more about micro-organisms than specifications often receive inadequate infection), and Group 1 for those approved list, but for commercial body has created a new suite of before. The Royal Society of Chemistry support from the guidance provided. considered unlikely to cause human reasons do not carry all those listed. (RSC), supported by GlaxoSmithKline courses. These aim to offer a more www.qca.org.uk/16182.html As we welcome new entrants to the disease. It is from Hazard Group 1 that They also stock ranges of algae, contemporary approach to science and the DfES, is organizing a new field and as much practical work the list of cultures considered suitable protozoa and slime moulds. There teaching, with greater flexibility and Specialized diploma teacher training initiative. A 3-year involves working with pure cultures, for use in schools and colleges is drawn. are differences between suppliers’ choice for students. Teaching of the As part of its 11–19 reform programme, programme of courses has been it is timely, therefore, to revisit the lists, so it is useful to compare current new courses began in September. The the government is introducing a new designed to raise the confidence questions of which cultures are suitable Suitable cultures catalogues – and ask why a particular good news is that microbiology has a employer-led Specialist Diploma. and expertise of non-specialists for use, who decides, where the Over the years, a succession of culture is not on offer because a higher profile. Originally science was left off the list of teaching KS3 or KS4 chemistry in UK succession of enquiries may result in a secondary schools. The charge for information is published and how the approved lists of cultures suitable for www.qca.org.uk/12265_14491.html subjects, but with GNVQ science being cultures can be obtained. To start with, schools and colleges has been drawn change of policy. Allow plenty of time phased out from 2007 and following each 4-day course is only £120 + VAT. there is an approved list of cultures for up by government education ministries for delivery (read the small print) and Post-16 science demands from industry, the QCA For detailed information about the use in schools and colleges that, given advised by groups with expertise in for preparation of cultures so that they Changes are also in the pipeline for has been investigating the possibility courses and their venues:

P. Lanotte et al., Tours, France Lanotte et al., Tours, P. observation of good microbiological microbiological aspects of education are growing actively for class use. post-16 students and new AS- and of having a diploma in science. This www.rsc.org/chemnonspec

30 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 31 For two mornings in October, GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) Consumer Healthcare at Weybridge ran a science fair Book reviews at Heathside School in Weybridge for over 200 year 10 GlaxoSmithKline students. Healthy Kids: Illness and Injury We ran the fair with the broad aim of trying to show the students that a science education or career doesn’t S. Goulding, Evans (2006), £5.99, pp. 32, ISBN 1-84234-319-X science fair necessarily mean you end up turning into Prof. Pat Pending Covering topics from coughs and colds to cancer, this is an with antibiotics, but in the glossary that antibiotics kill from the ‘Wacky Races’. People with science degrees and attractive format and should be of interest to 7- to 11-year- ‘germs’. The definition of diarrhoea as ‘your stool is runny’ training from across the GSK Consumer Healthcare business olds. Unfortunately, it is inconsistent in the balance between is not much help to most children I know. Also mucus is at Heathside all contributed to the fair, showing how they were using keeping it simple and using medical or scientific terms. We misspelt as mucous (almost) throughout. I’m afraid this book their science to do their job, even though it might not look are told that colds are caused by viruses, so can’t be treated tries to cover too much ground and just misses the mark. like science now. Some of this was encapsulated in a small Healthy Kids: Taking Care of Your Teeth booklet containing education and career biographies of School, many of the ‘scientists’ involved in the fair, and was given to S. Goulding, Evans (2006), £5.99, pp. 32, ISBN 1-84234-316-5 each student. I love the photographs in this delightful book, showing number of teeth a giant armadillo has. The text is written The fair consisted of a number of sections that the students Weybridge lots of toothy smiles. There is plenty of sensible advice in straightforward language and the layout makes it easy to travelled round and visited for 15–40 minutes, depending about tooth care, and information about what dentists dip into. I would recommend this book for children around on the section (a lesson in logistics). At each point the attractive ‘giveaways’ (promoting www.biocareers.org.uk do, all helped along by interesting asides such as the 7–11 years old. students were given demonstrations and then the chance and www.microbiologyonline.org.uk) which went down Lucinda Hall, Queen Mary, University of London for some hands-on experience and the opportunity to talk very well! to the scientists. Formulation scientists gave insights into making products, The microbiologists demonstrated a variety of methods ensuring products have the correct appearance, feel and professional development each year, to support microbiological claims on products. We showed function. This led into sensory science and how the senses with additional money allocated to pay the students different bacteria under the microscope and of taste, smell and texture are important, particularly in oral Lords investigate for supply cover. They also called for normal hand ‘flora’ on a large agar plate (prompting many products. Some strange coloured sweets with unexpected the Government to improve the quality students to wipe their hands on something), and talked to flavours were found at this session – fortunately no earwax of careers advice in schools as a matter them about our different career paths and the opportunities flavour! there are to be able to work outside the laboratory. SGM of urgency. A breathalyser from the analytical scientists demonstrated schools science kindly supplied some excellent posters on various aspects The SGM submitted written evidence factors such as sensitivity and specificity, and being able to of microbiology (which the school has kept for science to the inquiry and Sue Assinder, quantify an analyte. With an artist in the innovation and classes), careers leaflets and booklets, as well as some very SGM Education Officer, gave oral marketing session the students’ ideas generated from a evidence as Chair of the Biosciences teaching . product brief were brought to life, ending up with concepts Year 10 pupils at the GSK science fair in October. Kevin Charman Federation Education Committee. The showing how their ideas could turn into a finished product. report specifically notes the concerns Pupils in England find science A-levels too safety fears and a shortage of specialist The process engineering group demonstrated some expressed by the SGM that teachers difficult and other subjects more ‘funky’. teachers. The stress on test results equipment and design considerations in putting the stripes do not always know where to find had created a culture of ‘teaching to the into toothpaste (in school colours, of course). There This was the conclusion of the recent authoritative health and safety advice. test’, forcing teachers into ‘narrow and was even time for ‘dressing-up’ for Good Manufacturing report of the House of Lords Select It urges the Government to act to uninspiring methods of teaching’. The Practice. Health and Safety went off with a bang (literally, Committee inquiry into Science secure the future of practical science in report also expressed concern that the but safely) when illustrating pyrotechnically some of the Teaching in Schools. The Committee schools, including a central website to new ‘light touch’ Ofsted inspections dangers of powders and dusts if not handled correctly. noted that one reason why the number address health and safety fears. of pupils taking A-level sciences had would mean there would be no future The response from the students was excellent, with declined was simply fashion, with evidence base on the quality of science Sue Assinder questions and interest at all the sections. The feedback from teaching in schools. competition from new options such SGM Education Officer the teachers was that there was a lot of positive talk and as psychology and media studies. The Peers recommended a broadening enthusiasm about the fair and they look forward to doing it A more fundamental problem was of the A-level curriculum to ensure Further reading again next year with a new set of potential scientists! that traditional science subjects are that students do not over-specialize House of Lords Science and Technology perceived by pupils as more difficult, before they have seen the merits of Committee (2006). Science Teaching Kevin Charman a perception that the Lords felt was pursuing science. They felt that longer- in Schools: Report with Evidence. 10th Microbiologist, GSK Consumer Health R&D indeed backed up by evidence from term incentives were essential to attract Report of Session 2005–06. London: The (e [email protected]) A-level scores. The problems were science teachers into the profession Stationery Office. compounded by school league tables, and that all teachers should undergo www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_ poor labs, unfounded health and mandatory subject-specific continuing committees/lords_s_t_select/teaching.cfm

32 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 33 gradline

Gradline aims to inform and entertain members in the early Microbiology as a clinical Further information www.mrc.ac.uk specialty www.abpi.org Medical Research Council stages of their career in microbiology. If you have any news All newly qualified doctors receive Association of British Pharmaceutical www.nhscareers.nhs.uk Industry or stories, or would like to see any topics featured, contact training in microbiology during Health Service Careers their foundation training. There www.aclinmicrobiol.org.uk www.nhsclinicalscientists.info Jane Westwell (e [email protected]). are also opportunities for further Association of Clinical Microbiologists Clinical Scientists’ Recruitment training in this specialty. The Royal www.careerscene.com www.rcpath.org College of Pathologists oversees this Job vacancies in biomedical science Royal College of Pathologists training. Day-to-day work of medical www.hpcuk.org a 6-year route which concentrates microbiologists ranges from individual Health Professions Council on achieving state registration by case management in any of the clinical www.hpa.org.uk experience. Applicants must gather Careers in medical disciplines through to laboratory- Health Protection Agency evidence to support their case for based work with non-clinical staff and www.ibms.org registration. liaising with management. Institute of Biomedical Science The Health Protection Agency is microbiology also a major employer of clinical microbiologists, some of whom There are two well-defined career Clinical Scientists work in reference laboratories or as epidemiologists. Work focuses paths for medical microbiologists in the Clinical Scientists generally work in on disease diagnosis, treatment A job in… public sector, one via the Biomedical diagnostic laboratories and pathology Scientist (BMS) route and the other via departments in large hospitals and and surveillance; clinical scientists the Clinical Scientist route. Anyone medical schools. In addition to often collaborate closely with health Medical microbiology wishing to work in either of these laboratory-based research, they give care professionals. There is some I worked with a whole load of roles must be state-registered with the scientific and clinical advice that has opportunity to carry out research Profile and development projects in the folk, many of whom were a little Health Professions Council (HPC). a direct bearing on the management Name Matt Scarborough unconventional, had often travelled of patients. Training towards state specialisms of bacteriology, virology, Present occupation Specialist a great deal and who had a tangible Biomedical Scientists registration is overseen by the mycology and parasitology. Registrar in Infectious Disease and passion for their work. Similarly, the Association of Clinical Microbiologists Microbiology, John Radcliffe Hospital, m Matt with two young patients in Malawi. Biomedical Scientists usually work patients I met often had intriguing Matt Scarborough and can be via one of two pathways: Medical-related research Oxford in NHS trust and Health Protection tales and, generally, presented with Agency (HPA) laboratories, a 4-year structured training which Work in clinical microbiology is Education Queen’s University Belfast, a research project on the control of BSc Hons, MBBCh definable and often completely investigating samples of body tissue includes a Grade A Clinical Scientist not restricted to state-registered curable diseases. hospital acquired infections (such and fluids to diagnose disease, monitor course followed by one or two years Biomedical or Clinical Scientists. as MRSA and Clostridium difficile). What attracted you to treatments or track disease outbreaks. experience in the laboratory whilst There are opportunities for PhD Can you describe a typical Today’s work was diverse, enjoyable microbiology as a specialty? They also find work in other still under supervision. Recruitment and postdoctoral research posts in Q Q day? and hugely educational. Microbiology organizations, including the National to this scheme begins in November HPA, university, MRC and hospital Microbiology offers the combination There isn’t really a typical day. My is very much a team specialty and Blood Authority, pharmaceutical every year and the closing date laboratories. These are usually short- of interesting, interested people with current post rotates between clinical what we learn is, in the main, by true industry, university, MRC and forensic for applications is in February. term contracts, but the experience fascinating and hugely satisfying attachments and microbiology. apprenticeship. labs. Long-term career prospects Competition is very stiff and there can be used to work towards state medical practice. To tell the truth, This morning, I started in the lab Oh yes – and I happen to be on call include laboratory management, is only a handful of microbiology registration as a Clinical Scientist by microbiology was far from being one discussing the identification of some tonight; I’ve just dealt with an enquiry research and teaching. Entry is training placements each year. the 6-year route. of my strengths at university and I bugs with the biomedical scientists about a possible rabies exposure in restricted to graduates, usually with don’t remember considering it as a and deciding on what further tests a patient retuning from Myanmar. I degrees that have been validated by career option at that time. As part we might do to help the clinicians wonder what’ll be next? the Institute of Biomedical Science If you are studying for a BSc, MSc or coming to of an SHO (postgraduate training) manage the patients. I then spent an (IBMS). It is possible to enter the the end of a PhD research project in medical rotation, I worked in genitourinary hour looking through all the culture How do you see your profession with a related bioscience medicine for 6 months where I results from yesterday’s samples. Q future? degree, but the Institute assesses microbiology, you may well be considering your developed an interest in infection From these I ‘cherry-picked’ the cases In the longer term, I suspect that I’ll course content and it is sometimes and particularly HIV. where I thought our input might travel again, maybe to the Far East, to necessary to undertake additional career options in this field. Microbiologists are help the physicians. I spent most of combine clinical service and research study. The IBMS awards a certificate What was your next the afternoon seeing these patients in a developing country. I have no of competence, following a period employed in a range of roles within the healthcare Q step? on the ward, as well as several more idea where it might lead but I know of in-service training in an approved sector; here is a quick guide to help pick your way Since I was also keen to travel, I complex cases referred to us by for sure that I’ll meet some wonderful laboratory, which is required for developed a research project that took the ward physicians. Later in the people, treat some fascinating diseases state registration. through the different career pathways. me to Malawi for 3 years. Whilst there, day, I helped set up a small part of and have great fun in doing so.

34 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 35 hotoffthepress

Science writer Meriel Jones takes a look at some recent Mobile genes and meningitis A ‘tail’ about brain abscess formation papers in SGM journals which highlight new and exciting Dunning Hotopp, J.C., Grifantini, R., Kumar, N. & 9 Townsend, S.M., Gonzales-Gomez I. & Badger, J.L. (2006). other authors (2006). Comparative genomics of Neisseria fliP influences Citrobacter koseri macrophage uptake, cytokine developments in microbiological research. meningitidis: core genome, islands of horizontal transfer and expression and brain abscess formation in the neonatal rat. pathogen-specific genes. Microbiology 152, 3733–3749. J Med Microbiol 55, 1631–1640. Most Neisseria species live harmlessly on warm-blooded The bacterium Citrobacter koseri can cause very serious animals, including people. N. meningitidis is the best known infections, particularly in the brain of new-born and young A soapy solution to HIV? Incubation in Quillaja extract at levels species because it can travel from inside the nose to the children. Most of these meningitis cases occur out of the blue as low as 0.0001 mg ml−1 completely bloodstream and cross the blood–brain barrier. Some strains with no obvious source of infection. Around a third of infected Roner, M.R., Sprayberry, J., Spinks, M. & Dhanji, S. (2007). Antiviral activity blocked the binding of HIV to the of N. meningitidis cause epidemic bacterial meningitis that infants die and many of the survivors have severe neurological obtained from aqueous extracts of the Chilean soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria cells, despite the virus remaining fully can rapidly affect large numbers of people who live in close damage. This is because the infection results in intense Molina). J Gen Virol 88, 275–285. infectious. Less than 0.25 % of the virus contact. However, up to 20 % of people carry N. meningitidis inflammation of the brain, frequently causing abscesses that do The Chilean soapbark tree (Quillaja host cells. Viruses can only replicate attached to the cells and then caused in their upper respiratory tract and remain perfectly healthy. not respond to antibiotic therapy. In fact, C. koseri infections saponaria) is a small evergreen tree found within living cells, so antiviral agents only 4 % of the expected level of active Understanding the nature of potentially pathogenic strains is are more likely to cause brain abscesses than any other in Chile and Peru. Extracts from the bark can be effective by preventing viruses viral infection. therefore important. It is also a challenge because of the way bacterial species. The bacterial cells survive and grow within are used as soap because the saponin attaching to cells or interfering with The most likely mechanism for this that this species can change its complement of genes. It has macrophages, cells of the immune system that are supposed chemicals within it act as detergents. steps within the viral replication cycle. protection against such a wide range a natural ability to take up DNA from the environment and to engulf and digest pathogens at an early stage in the immune They are used in the food and beverages The researchers tested whether Quillaja of viruses is through modification of incorporate it into its own genetic structure. response. A better understanding of the disease process industry in the USA to make frothy saponins reduced infection of human would certainly help to develop improved treatments. surface features that the viruses use The complete genome sequences of three strains of N. foams, and even to create the foam in or animal cell cultures by six viruses, to recognize and enter cells. The fact meningitidis are available. Comparative genome hybridization Researchers have now identified one bacterial gene with a some fire extinguishers.Quillaja extracts including HIV and herpes simplex virus. that the Quillaja extract provided such was used to examine 53 Neisseria isolates, representing the role in the uptake and survival of C. koseri inside macrophages. are also a traditional medicine in South Concentrations of Quillaja saponins effective protection in laboratory tests on whole range of types within N. meningitidis, as well as two They tested the ability of mutant strains of C. koseri to survive America for some chest problems, while below 1.0 mg ml–1 did not affect the cell cultures prompted the researchers strains of N. gonorrhoeae, which causes gonorrhoea, and three with macrophages, and found seven mutants that did not in modern medicine, purifiedQuillaja growth of the cells, but had direct to suggest that it is a good candidate for non-pathogenic species. The technique uses microarrays survive as well as the wild-type, an indication that the mutation saponins are used in vaccines to enhance antiviral activity at a 10-fold lower use within spermicidal agents to protect containing DNA designed to match each of the 2,158 genes had occurred within an important character. They evaluated their protective activity. concentration for five of the six viruses. against sexually transmitted viruses. The within one sequenced N. meningitidis strain along with each mutant in cell cultures and found differences in their Researchers in Texas have been Much more interestingly, treatment of fact that Quillaja extracts are approved additional DNA representing unique regions from other abilities to enter and survive within macrophages. Despite investigating a new role for these the cell cultures with Quillaja saponins for use in food and beverages in the Neisseria genome sequences. DNA extracted from each of the these differences five had the same effects on neonate rats as triterpenoid saponins as antiviral agents for an hour made the cells very resistant USA, indicating their harmless nature to Neisseria isolates was then tested with this microarray to see the wild-type, but one was no longer lethal since the bacteria that appear to work through novel to viral infection for up to 16 hours people, is an important first step towards which genes were in each isolate. were very efficiently removed by the immune system without interactions with both the virus and after the saponins were washed away. this use. any signs of brain damage. The researchers identified the coreN. meningitidis genome from the genes present in all the strains. The data also showed that N. The seventh mutant (SMT350) was much more virulent, meningitidis strains had acquired groups of genes, called genetic killing all the rats within only 2–3 days, before brain abscesses Star Wars fantasy comes true! the sight of up to 20 bacteria packed into the mitochondria islands, from N. gonorrhoeae, non-pathogenic Neisseria species could develop, and leaving most of the bacteria outside the of ovaries in all the females. The bacteria were only found in Sassera, D., Beninati, T., Bandi, C., Bouman, E.A.P., and other bacterial species that colonize the respiratory tract, macrophages. The researchers worked out that this mutant the ovaries of the female ticks. Even though large numbers as well as exchanging them between themselves. The results lacked a protein essential for flagella, the surface structures that Sacchi, L., Fabbi, M. & Lo, N. (2006). ‘Candidatus of mitochondria were invaded and destroyed by the bacteria, Midichloria mitochondrii’, an endosymbiont of the tick suggested that some of these transfers might have involved bacteria use to propel themselves through liquids, and tests the eggs of the infected ticks appeared to develop normally. bacterial viruses or other mechanisms that make DNA more showed that SMT350 were indeed unable to move. This fitted Ixodes ricinus with a unique intramitochondrial lifestyle. ‘Candidatus M. mitochondrii’ proved impossible to grow in the Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 56, 2535–2540. mobile. It was also very clear that there is an efficient system with information from other research groups that flagella seem laboratory, so the researchers used molecular biology methods to restrict the types of DNA that could be taken up by N. to be important for bacteria to invade animal cells. It also hinted A character from the Star Wars films has been discovered to work out the sequences of two of the bacterial genes. These meningitidis. The results also helped to characterize genes that that the flagella might conceal a toxic factor on the bacterial inside ticks on planet Earth. Or, rather, researchers have named turned out to be a good match to sequences from several other determine cell-surface structure and to identify some aspects surface that was exposed in its absence. a remarkable new genus of bacteria after the midichlorians, unculturable bacteria, but were sufficiently different to show of metabolism that may be essential for survival within human Macrophages produce interleukin-12 and -10 as signals imagined by George Lucas as microscopic creatures residing that the researchers had found a new candidate genus and cells. However, one of the most important outcomes of this to the immune system to induce resistance to intracellular within cells and able to ‘communicate with the Force’. The maybe even a new family of bacteria. When male ticks were study is the large amount of data on which genes are present infections. Each interleukin induces a different type of response new bacterium, ‘Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii’, is the tested, 44 % were found to contain these bacteria, even though or absent from which strains – this will be valuable to all and when the researchers measured their levels, it appeared only bacterium known to be able to invade and live inside nothing was visible on electron microscope images. researchers trying to understand the nature of pathogenicity in that the C. koseri flagellum, rather than any other bacterial cell mitochondria, the intracellular organelles that generate I. ricinus ticks are notorious for transmitting Lyme disease and N. meningitidis. component, had a dramatic immunosuppressive effect. This energy to keep cells alive. The bacteria were identified in a other human and animal pathogens. The researchers suggest collaboration between researchers from Australia, Italy and may be why the infection persists so effectively and causes that ‘Candidatus M. mitochondrii’ may interact with pathogens c Acridine orange/DAPI-stained human macrophage containing brain abscesses. The possibility that the flagellum plays a key the Czech Republic who decided that naming them after the transmitted by the ticks. Its presence in the ovaries of all female Citrobacter koseri. S. Townsend, Nottingham Trent University role in determining the course of this infection is a significant midichlorians was particularly appropriate. I. ricinus ticks suggests it may have a role in their biology and b ’Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii’ inside the mitochondria of step forward in understanding this disease. The researchers examined cells from the blood-sucking tick the discovery of the symbiont adds to the information about the the oocytes of the tick Ixodes ricinus. Luciano Sacchi, University of Ixodes ricinus by electron microscopy and they were struck by bacterial community associated with this arthropod. Pavia, Italy

36 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 37 goingpublic

Recently Jo Verran water bottles are cleaned, etc.). I had Evening News ran an accompanying Joanna Verran is Convener of the to wear a lab coat, so that I looked like article. SGM Education & Training Group, got caught up in a a scientist, and I also had to stand up, So, after the initial overflow of mobile- as well as Professor of Microbiology which made me look like a dwarf as related adrenalin, overall I felt that the at Manchester Metropolitan Handbags everyone else was tall. Lorraine Kelly’s University (e [email protected]). news story. Here is media experience hadn’t been too bad. interview style was very informal, but My reputation hadn’t been destroyed. The SGM holds occasional also so helpful, in that she made it easy My university was thrilled with the how she became a one-day media training courses for for me to remember to address all the exposure. I felt more confident members, to help them deal with media star… key points. about talking to the press, and had the press and to promote their and gladrags My final media encounter focused realized I was able to interview live work more widely. Please contact more specifically on makeup bags, for on TV or radio. I had helped promote the External Relations Office if you In my microbiological career to date, and held close to the face. In other with one part of the body, and that was a style programme on local satellite TV microbiology to a wider audience and are interested in attending one I have tended to avoid contact with words, they come into contact with not (usually) the face! ‘Channel M’. The entire interview was got people talking about it. Don’t know (e [email protected]). the media. Germs always seem to get more parts of our body, and a wider Granada TV filmed a short clip in the filmed in the lab, and the Manchester what I was so worried about! such a bad press – nothing is ever good range of bacteria than toilet seats’. The labs for the teatime show, and I was news and no matter what the story, the Daily Mail ran the story on page 3. My interviewed live at lunch! It was OK. main question would be ‘so, will it kill statement had been extended a little, I felt that the main thing was not to On 1 November 2006, me?’ Having lived happily and grubbily and the context was also somewhat over-commit to any statement about with microbes for so long, I didn’t want different from what I had intended… people being killed by mobile phones! the Royal Society of Science and the to be alarmist or cornered into making ‘phones crawling with potentially lethal Exhausted by the end of the day, and a ridiculous quote. bacteria’, ‘S. aureus, causing illnesses after a sleepless night waiting for the Chemistry held its from pimples and boils to pneumonia However, in August, I was asked to mobile phone companies to chase me, annual ‘Science and the comment on a study about mobile and meningitis, and a close relative of I went to work very early next day to Parliament 2006 – phone contamination, since they ‘had the superbug MRSA’. I was immediately avoid any TV cameras and journalists Parliament’ event at Our more germs than a toilet seat’. Feeling besieged by an interested media. I (of course there weren’t any!). sorry as ever for the much maligned felt I had to explain what had been However, via the net, the news had Dynamic Earth, opposite written, rationalizing the statements, a manifesto for toilet seat, and remembering the key gone global. CBS, ABC, CNN, French message from the SGM media training emphasizing the hygiene aspects of and Belgian TV and radio stations the Scottish Parliament course I attended – if you don’t do it, mobile phone use, and mentioning wanted to talk about mobile phones. cross-contamination, so I ‘ran’ with building in Edinburgh. someone else will – I finally entered the I went on holiday. The story quietly science world of the press. the story. disappeared. My quote was as inoffensive as I was on Radio 5 Live, Radio 1Xtra, On return from holiday, queries . Professor Anne Glover delivering her The event, which attracted hundreds that science plays in all aspects of the Radio One and 13 BBC local radio address at the Science and the Parliament of participants from across the science Scottish Executive’s work. Professor possible: ‘Mobile phones are stored in from magazines awaited: Marie 2006 event. Royal Society of Chemistry bags or pockets, are handled frequently stations. I redirected enquiries that I Claire, Readers’ Digest, etc. Long and political communities, strives to Glover, from the University of was too busy to handle to SGM for forgotten colleagues made contact. raise awareness of science issues to Aberdeen, is a long-standing member others to deal with. I believe Hugh An old schoolfriend read about me in MPs and civil servants working in the of the Society and was an elected Pennington was on Radio 5 Live later Strasbourg. A research group looking at Scottish Parliament. With elections member of SGM Council from 1995 in the day. For local radio, I was shut the cross-infection potential of mobile taking place next year, the aim of the to 1998. in a room at the BBC with some phones was also in touch, along with day was to look at key scientific issues Breakout sessions followed the headphones and a glass of water, companies wanting to disinfect phones. that may face those elected next May. presentations, which addressed four fielding questions as the stations came A couple of months later, I had also The event started with addresses from policy areas: enterprise and life-long on line during a 2 hour period. Some become the new ‘how dirty is your a host of first class speakers, including learning, education, environment and of the broadcasts were live, others mobile/handbag/makeup?’ expert, RSC President, Professor Jim Feast, energy. A representative MSP from were recorded and edited. Some of and appeared on GMTV with Lorraine and Deputy First Minister and Science each of the political parties also spoke the interviews were serious, some Kelly (and met Ashley from X-factor!). Minister, Nicol Stephen MSP, who of their party’s policies for science. dismissive, others light-hearted. Radio We looked at contamination of a few appealed to the delegates to make The day ended with an evening Cornwall told their listeners (including handbags, and I was again filmed science more enjoyable for children. reception and exhibition. With hand my family back home) that I was a in the lab as well as being on live The Chief Scientific Adviser for hygiene in relation to hospital-acquired ‘local girl’. I even managed a few laughs television. The brief slots were very Scotland, Professor Anne Glover, also infections in particular, but also food when I remarked, in defence of toilet tightly controlled, the intention being addressed the delegates and spoke production, likely to remain seats, that they only came into contact that specific messages were conveyed passionately about the ‘enviable history a burning issue for any parliament, b Jo during her GMTV interview with (discard old makeup, avoid putting of scientific achievements in Scotland’. SGM was among the many exhibitors Lorraine Kelly. bags on toilet floors, ensure re-used She went on to highlight the role in attendance with a topical display

38 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 39 addresses

on this theme. Flyers on hand hygiene, MRSA and of Physics, Royal Society of Edinburgh, Association of Clostridium difficile, as well as hand-soaps, were available on Science Education, Society of Chemical Industry, SCOTETA council06–07 the stand for the delegates to take away. (Engineering & Technology Association – Scotland), and Officers Members Science and the Parliament 2006 was organized by the Royal SGM, of course! President – Prof. Robin Weiss Prof. Mike R. Barer Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, 46 Cleveland Street, Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, Society of Chemistry in association with the BA, Campaign Faye Stokes London W1T 4JF Medical Sciences Building, PO Box 138, University Road, Leicester LE2 4FF for Science and Engineering, Institute of Biology, Institute Public Affairs Administrator t–0207 679 9554;–f–0207 679 9555;–e–[email protected] t–0116 252 2933;–f–0116 252 5030;–e–[email protected] Treasurer – Prof. Colin R. Harwood Prof. Lorna A. Casselton School of Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle Medical School, Dept of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH t–01865 275109;–f–01865 275074;–e–[email protected] t–0191 222 7708;–f–0191 222 7736;–e–[email protected] Prof. Neil A. R. Gow General Secretary – Dr Ulrich Desselberger School of Medical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, c/o SGM Headquarters Aberdeen AB25 2ZD e–[email protected] or [email protected] t–01224 555879;–f–01224 555844;–e–[email protected] Scientific Meetings Officer – Prof. Hilary M. Lappin-Scott Prof. Iain M. Hagan Helping the Lords Dept of Biological Sciences, Hatherly Laboratories, University of Exeter, Paterson Institute for Cancer Research, Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 4BX Prince of Wales Road, Exeter EX4 4PS t–0161 446 8193;–f–0161 446 3109;–e–[email protected] t–01392 264674;–f–01392 263700;–e–[email protected] Dr Richard M. Hall International Secretary – Prof. George P. C. Salmond Gene Expression & Protein Biochemistry Dept, GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Dept of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Building O, New Frontiers Science Park, Third Avenue, Harlow, Essex CM19 5AW (and Ladies) Downing Site, Cambridge CB2 1QW t–0127 962 7172;–f–0127 962 7014;–e–[email protected] t–01223 333650;–f–01223 766108;–e–[email protected] Prof. Nicholas H. Mann The External Relations Office has an active programme of keeping the profile Professional Affairs Officer – Dr Geoffrey C. Schild Dept of Biological Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL of microbiology high to members of both houses of parliament, policymakers, e–[email protected] t–024 76 523526;–f–024 76 523701;–e–[email protected] opinion-formers and their advisory services. This includes the regular distribution Education Officer – Dr Susan J. Assinder Prof. Tony C. Minson Academic Development Unit, University of Wales – Bangor, Trefenai, Division of Virology, Dept of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, of selected issues of Microbiology Today, briefings on topical issues in microbiology School of Education, Normal Site, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2PZ Cambridge CB2 1QP and other relevant publications, placing targeted advertisements in parliamentary t–01248 382604;–f–01248 370731;–e–[email protected] t–01223 336920;–f–01223 336926;–e–[email protected] Editor, Microbiology Today – Dr Matt Hutchings Dr Catherine O’Reilly publications and holding occasional presentations in national and regional School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Dept of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Cork Road, parliaments. We also offer impartial information on any microbiology topic on Norwich NR4 7TJ Waterford, Ireland t–01603 592257;–e–[email protected] t–+353 51 302858;–f–+353 51 378292;–e–[email protected] request. This is provided through our network of over 2,000 specialists who have Editor-in-Chief, Microbiology – Prof. Charles J. Dorman Prof. Petra C. F. Oyston agreed to help with enquiries. Dept of Microbiology, Moyne Institute, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland TL Molecular Bacteriology, Dstl, B07A Microbiology, Porton Down, Salisbury SP4 0JQ t–+353 1 608 2013;–f–+353 1 679 9294;–e–[email protected] t–01980 613641;–f–01980 614307;–e–[email protected] SGM is clearly now becoming an accepted one-stop shop for parliamentarians Editor-in-Chief, JGV – Prof. Geoffrey L. Smith Prof. Rick E. Randall wishing to raise particular microbiological issues and seeking the facts to back them Dept of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Campus, School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, University of St Andrews, up. A good example recently concerned the somewhat unlikely topic of chewing Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST t–0207 594 3972;–f–0207 594 3973;–e–[email protected] t–01334 463397;–f–01334 462595;–e–[email protected] gum. Editor-in-Chief, JMM – Prof. Ian R. Poxton Prof. Bert K. Rima Medical Microbiology, Centre for Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh School of Biology and Biochemistry, Medical Biology Centre, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, The Chancellor’s Building, The Queen’s University of Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 7BL

Sticking to the point Photodisc Room SU311, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB t–028 9097 5858;–f–028 9097 5877;–e–[email protected] t–0131 242 9122;–f–0131 242 9122;–e–[email protected] Prof. Katherine A. Smart Division of Food Science, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, On 31 October Lord Selsdon asked public? He phoned the SGM to find recently sent us a copy of Hansard Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough LE12 5RD a Parliamentary Question in the out. We were able to put him in touch which includes the discussion of t–01159 516214;–f–01159 516162;–e–[email protected] House of Lords, ‘To ask Her Majesty’s with experts who could answer all her question ‘What actions are [Her groupconveners Government what steps they will take these queries. The question provoked Majesty’s Government] taking to Cells & Cell Surfaces – Dr Ian R. Henderson Fermentation & Bioprocessing – Prof. Chris J. Hewitt to reduce the level of urban pollution a good deal of debate in the Lords, as prevent the spread of Clostridium Division of Immunity and Infection, University of Birmingham Medical School, Dept of Chemical Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU caused by the illegal depositing of recorded in Hansard, and in writing to difficile in hospitals and in the Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT t–01509 222503;–e–[email protected] t–0121 414 4368;–f–0121 414 3599;–e–[email protected] Food & Beverages – Prof. Bob A. Rastall used chewing gum on pavements and thank us for the help, Lord Selsdon was community?’ Clinical Microbiology – Prof. Dlawer Ala’Aldeen Dept of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, PO Box 226, Reading RG6 6AP streets.’ delighted to say that the response had Molecular Bacteriology and Immunology Group, Division of Microbiology, t–0118 378 6726;–f–0118 931 0080;–e–[email protected] Anyone wishing to receive a copy of School of Molecular Medical Sciences, University Hospital, Nottingham NG7 2UH been covered on Radio 4 and by BBC Irish Branch – Dr Evelyn Doyle What has this got to do with the SGM briefing on C. difficile should t–0115 823 0748/0771 (secretary);–f–0115 823 0759;–e–[email protected] School of Biology and Environmental Science, Ardmore House, Online. As a result of highlighting this Clinical Virology – Prof. Judy Breuer University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland microbiology? Lord Selsdon wanted to contact [email protected] issue he hopes that the Government ICMS Centre for Infectious Disease, Barts and the London Medical School, t–+353 1716 1300;–f–+353 1716 1183;–e–[email protected] find out what the health hazards were 4 Newark Street, London E1 2AT Microbial Infection – Dr Nick Dorrell Janet Hurst & Faye Stokes t–0207 882 2308;–f–0207 882 2181;–e–[email protected] from deposited chewing gum – did it will fund research that will lead to safer Pathogen Molecular Biology Unit, Dept of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, deposition of used gum by the public. External Relations Office Education & Training – Prof. Joanna Verran London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT harbour pathogens, could it transmit Dept of Biological Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, t–0207 927 2838;–f–0207 637 4314;–e–[email protected] disease; if so, how long would so- Baroness Masham of Ilton also Manchester M1 5GD Physiology, Biochemistry & Molecular Genetics – Prof. George P. C. Salmond t–0161 247 1206;–f–0161 247 6325;–e–[email protected] Dept of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Building O, called ‘gum turds’ be a danger to the welcomes SGM information and Environmental Microbiology – Prof. Geoffrey M. Gadd Downing Site, Cambridge CB2 1QW Division of Environmental and Applied Biology, Biological Sciences Institute, t–01223 333650;–f–01223 766108;–e–[email protected] School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN Systematics & Evolution – Prof. Niall A. Logan t–01382 344765;–f–01382 348216;–e–[email protected] Dept of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow Caledonian University, Eukaryotic Microbiology – Dr Alastair Goldman Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow G4 0BA Molecular Biology & Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, t–0141 331 3207/8510 (admin assistant);–f–0141 331 3208;–e–[email protected] Sheffield S10 2TN Virus – Prof. Rick E. Randall t–0114 222 2779;–e–[email protected] School of Biology, Biomolecular Sciences Building, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST t–01334 463397;–f–01334 462595;–e–[email protected]

40 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 41 reviews

If you would like your name to be added to our database of Exposure: A Guide to multi-authored with 17 chapters which light the structure and metabolism of Sources of Infections takes the reader through the overall the diverse treponemes from the human book reviewers, please complete the book reviewer interests morbillivirus family, the genome, genital and oral cavities. Powerful By D. Sturchler the clinical and pathological disease, molecular and genetic tools, well form on the SGM website. A classified compendium of reviews Published by ASM (2006) the immunology and also vaccine illustrated through the chapters, are US$129.95 pp. 910 progression from the earliest times to the encouraging for future discoveries even from 1996 to the present is also available on the website. ISBN 1-55581-376-3 present molecular candidates; these offer if it is pointed out that the cultivation the potential for ‘marker’ vaccine status. of the aetiologic agent of syphilis is The rationale for this book is that, still impossible. A historical part, going given that exposure is the first step Understandably, there is a fine review back to the fifteenth century when Whilst concentrating on infections, the has no scientific background, because in infection, exposure history is an of the outstanding programme (Global sexual transmission of syphilis or book also covers epidemic diseases that these explain the basic principles that important part of the diagnosis of Rinderpest Eradication Programme – ‘French disease’ was unknown, gives proved not to be caused by ‘germs’, make it easier to understand the rest, infectious diseases. This aspect is GREP) that has brought the world to also a sociologic perspective. This but by other creatures such as worms then they could end up somewhat rarely dealt with in detail in traditional the very brink of global eradication of compilation will serve as an essential and insects, and factors like vitamin confused. microbiology text books, but this this great scourge of animal health and reference for students and scientists deficiencies. impressive review of the ways in which welfare. Interspersed with the science Despite this drawback, it is worth in microbiology and immunology and humans can be exposed to infectious are fascinating chapters on the history There is an enormous amount of persevering to navigate the book because will broaden the readership to those agents redresses the situation. Coverage of the plagues and their therapies fascinating information packed into this there is so much to learn! Humans were interested in very fastidious bacteria is comprehensive, detailing agents from throughout the centuries, particularly book. The author has chosen not to healthy for millennia when they were which are still challenging. treat his material chronologically, but to hunter-gatherers. Then evolutionary and prions to parasites and exposure routes the 19th and 20th centuries; where, at divide it into chapters on topics, some of climate changes led to the formation via natural and man-made environments times, 80 % of livestock died from the Isabelle Saint Girons, Institut Pasteur which cover individual diseases, selected of settlements, which affected the as well as via other living organisms emerging pandemics. This makes the for their value in providing lessons in patterns of disease. Changes in diet to (human and animal). The subject has international cooperation of GREP (and Reviews on the web medical microbiology or other branches meat eating and the domestication of been very thoroughly researched – the the related earlier control programmes) of science. Each plague is described in animals exposed hominids to parasites author says he has reviewed more than all the more impressive; it is aimed Reviews of the following books are its historical context, written in a story and it was down hill from then on. In 13,000 publications, 8,430 of which to eradicate the disease worldwide by available on the website at www.sgm. form that captures the reader’s attention, antiquity all diseases were called plagues are cited. I like the different ways you 2010! This is a good read and worthy ac.uk/pubs/micro_today/reviews.cfm as well as giving the clinical details of (from the Latin ‘plaga’ meaning ‘to can use this book – by turning to the of all virologists’ attention. Pathogenesis of Human Pulmonary the disease, how the causative agent was strike a blow that wounds’). Smallpox sections on the exposure route or the Joe Brownlie, Royal Veterinary College, Tuberculosis: Insights from the Rabbit discovered and what can be done to and malaria came early, but the causes agent, or by using the comprehensive Hatfield Model index. Overall, a useful reference book The Power of Plagues prevent and treat it. Important findings of many severe epidemics described Probiotic Dairy Products relating to the particular plague that by ancient writers and confirmed by and good value for money. By Irwin W. Sherman Pathogenic Treponema Diagnostic Bacteriology Protocols broadened our general knowledge are archaeological evidence, cannot be Published by ASM (2006) Pat Goodwin, The Wellcome Trust 2nd edn also included. deduced today. Some diseases, for Molecular and Cellular US$39.95 pp. 431 Biology Manufacturing Yogurt and Fermented This structuring means that each example, bubonic plague, kept coming ISBN 1-55581-356-9 Rinderpest and Peste des Milks chapter stands alone and need not back with devastating effect on the Edited by J.D. Radolf & S.A. Lukehart Plagues – severe outbreaks of epidemic be read in the sequence presented. world’s population, yet remained Petits Ruminants Published by Caister Academic Press Microbiology and Technology of diseases – have shaped history, continue dormant for centuries in between However, those just dipping into the Edited by T. Barrett, P.P. Pastoret & (2006) Fermented Foods to surprise and challenge us despite outbreaks. book could miss a lot; it is necessary W.P. Taylor £140.00/US$280.00 pp. 466 Gastrointestinal Microbiology recent huge advances in science and to read it right through to gain the full This book does not just dwell on the Published by Elsevier Academic Press ISBN 1-90445-510-7 medicine, and will bedevil humankind Handbook of Plant Virology picture. For example, the spontaneous past; it takes each disease up to the (2005) for as long as it exists. Where other Written by leading experts in the Bacterial Genomes and Infectious generation theory is covered in the present day and also includes sections £56.99/US$89.95 pp. 288 books on plagues have tended to focus field, this comprehensive review reveals Diseases chapter on cholera, because it was on current plagues like AIDS, resurgent ISBN 0-12088-385-6 on their historical impact, in this volume the main breakthroughs of research disproved at around the time in the diseases such as TB and puzzles such Biological Safety Principles and Practices biologist Irwin Sherman also considers This is a good monograph; no, it is on pathogenic Treponema that affect late 19th century that an epidemic of as spongiform encephalopathies. The 4th edn them from a scientific perspective. He an excellent monograph. It is one public health worldwide. Its scope is the disease was raging. Variolation and reader is also left in no doubt that there Alpha Herpesviruses Molecular and provides a potted history of medical within the series entitled Biology of widened by comparison to bacteria of vaccination are unsurprisingly included are many plagues still to come. Cellular Biology microbiology and describes the work of Animal Infections that have emanated closely related families, such as Lyme along with the smallpox story, yet a the pioneering scientists who made the This interesting and thought-provoking from the Institute for Animal Health. disease or leptospiral agents: this unveils Gene Therapy for Neurological later chapter ‘preventing plagues’ covers discoveries that led to our understanding book is an excellent read. It is also It is not surprising that the two patterns common to other pathogenic Disorders the immune system (by analogy to a of infectious disease and pathogens, and illustrated throughout with appropriate ruminant morbilliviruses (Rinderpest and motile spirochetes. Their pathogenic Agrobacterium Protocols 2nd edn medieval castle!). If the reader skips who developed methods of control. line drawings, photographs and other and Peste des Petits Ruminants) have mechanisms, consisting of the intricate Volume 2 the last paragraph in the preface that illustrations. been selected; they are both capable of innate and adaptive immune responses recommends reading chapters 1, 2, 10 Emerging Infections 7 causing plagues of great severity with elicited by treponemes are precisely and 11 first, especially if he or she Janet Hurst, SGM Rinderpest being the greatest animal outlined. The comparative genomics plague of all time. The monograph is data summarized in this book bring to

42 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 43 letters/opinions

The November issue of Microbiology Today on a Systematics are not defined when they are used or familiar terms are ‘hijacked’ and used to badge different assemblages of organisms. theme was very well received. The articles also provoked some As a result, Amoebozoa, Plants, Protozoa, Heliozoa, and Fungi The species all have more than one meaning and their use in dialogue interesting debate. The following items have been selected for about eukaryotic evolution remains confusing. The resolution of the early and main branches of the tree of concept publication. eukaryotes is not yet in consensus. There is a continuing need for It was good to read the interesting articles on systematics in investment in the exploration and resolution of deep branches of the November issue of Microbiology Today. The admirable the eukaryotic tree of life. Within the US, several major studies discussions on the species concept, however, suffer from a supported, but not sufficiently as to opportunity has been provided to test within the NSF Assembling the Tree of Life programme embrace fundamental misconception that is seen in almost all contri- silence dissenters who regard plants the hypotheses. The instability of many the microbial eukaryotes. We remain optimistic that increasing butions to this topic in microbiology in recent years. This is Classifying as forming the sister group to the taxa, whether indicated by their short taxon sampling combined with dispassionate evaluation of all the advocacy of a single molecular measure to define species. animals. The deep elements of the tree life as taxa or by the need to continually available evidence will bring more robust understanding of the The term ‘species’ was taken from Latin by the early protists of eukaryotes are difficult to resolve for a redefine the concepts (as with Loukozoa origin and diversification of eukaryotic life. But not for a few botanists and zoologists in the sense of the smallest distinct diversity of reasons. The heterogeneous or the now lapsed Archezoa), is evidence more years at least. groups of individual organisms, that is, the members of The November 2006 issue included rates of evolution present problems of premature actions. As an example, a group were not only very similar to each other, but the a commentary on our understanding to the algorithms that are designed to the distinction between unikonts and David J. Patterson, Debashish Bhattacharya, Jeff Cole, group was also distinct from nearby groups. of the diversity of ‘Protozoa’. It was reconstruct phylogeny. This problem bikonts is weak because the argument Micah Dunthorn, John Logsdon, Laura Katz & Laura The earliest usage did not prescribe in what manner editorially heralded with the statement is compounded by lateral gene transfer, depends on features of flagellar (in the Wegener Parfrey groups were distinct, though it was usually based on some ‘After decades of radical reform, protozoan excessive paralogy, and, we believe, – article referred to as ciliary – revealing Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, USA form of overall morphological similarity. The groups thus systematics has reached a consensus’. If most significantly – by taxonomic a further absence of consensus) trans- corresponded to primary clusters. These were the smallest consensus means that data provide undersampling. formations, a process that has been clusters that were clearly distinct from others. The same can congruent insights and/or that most Uncertainty arises from other areas as studied in too few microbial eukaryotes hold good today for groups from molecular sequence or other researchers agree on what the insight well. There is an over-readiness to use for us to be confident of patterns. Tom Cavalier- data. At this taxonomic level it is scarcely material whether is, then consensus has not arrived on hypothetical synapormorphies as bases Instability also emerges from a lack of the computer analyses are phenetic or phylogenetic. either front. for new taxonomies before adequate nomenclatural discipline. Many terms The concept of primary distinct clusters has been retained The article mentions 54 suprafamilial Smith replies: by botanists and zoologists to this day, though sometimes taxa. We have assigned these to broad qualified by additional criteria. Thus, in plants an extremely Table 1. Categorization of suprafamilial taxa reflecting degrees of ‘consensus’ categories (Table 1). The qualifications This letter mixes sense, over-simplification, tendentiousness, homogeneous group, whose members are scarcely distinguish- for placing each taxon in a column are Widely accepted In use but In use but Widely rejected as quibbles and misleading error. I entirely agree over the difficulty able, is a ‘microspecies’. In zoology two groups that do not inter- precluded because of space. ambiguous consensus lacking monophyletic taxa of resolving basal eukaryotic branches and the need for much breed but are otherwise scarcely distinguishable are ‘sibling Over half of what is referred to as part Alveolata Apusozoa Amoebozoa Algae more megaphylogenetic research and better taxon sampling, species’. of the ‘settling down’ of the consensus but disagree with numerous other judgements. As was noted in these discussions, the concept of a ‘biological Animals Cercozoa Bikonts Amoebae* remains in debate. There is consensus, I do not use algae, bikonts, unikonts, opisthokonts, chrom- species’ as a group that does not interbreed with others can- but it is with the taxa established by the Ants Chrysomonads Cabozoa Heliozoa alveolates, cabozoa, corticates as taxa; nor do I reject Sporozoa. not be used in bacteria. But the corollary, that now we can end of the 20th century on the basis of Apicomplexa Choanozoa Corticates Flagellates* Fungi and Plantae in my sense since 1981 are actually widely measure molecular relationship a species should be defined accepted as mono/holophyletic taxa, not rejected. Heliozoa as I anatomical studies (Patterson, 1999, The Choanoflagellates Dinozoa Chromalveolates Fungi by some single chosen level of similarity, is unsound. This diversity of eukaryotes. Am Nat 154, S96– use it refers only to Centrohelea (holophyletic), plus perhaps a cannot accommodate both variable and homogeneous primary Chlorarachnean Glaucophyta Chromista Plantae microheliozoan (needs more research). No taxon in column 2 is S124). The lack of consensus at higher algae clusters. It is ironic that, having found an objective measure levels is remarkable given that the logic ambiguous as I define them, but some changed circumscription of relationship, it should be advocated in this manner for the Ciliates Heterokonta Diphyllatea Protozoa for using comparative sequence analyses historically, which is only natural, and is also true of many taxonomic category to which it is least applicable. to infer phylogenies seems unassailable. Cryptista Foraminifera Discicristata Sporozoa* in column 1, and partly why some taxa are in columns 3–4. Under the definition of a species as a primary cluster, only We have shown, through meta-analysis Dinoflagellates Jakobea Excavata Glaucophyta is totally unambiguous; Cercozoa is too, despite a single strain (the type strain) is needed to anchor it un- crazily erratic misuse by some. ambiguously in the system. One may have to work with more of a large number of molecular surveys, Euglenoids Malawimonadea Loukozoa that the monophyly of emergent super- Nobody claims that Protozoa is a holophyletic taxon, but it strains to find the similarities between them all, and so to obtain Euglenozoa Opisthokonta Metamonads groups ‘Amoebozoa’, ‘Chromalveolates’, is a perfectly respectable paraphyletic one (see Cavalier-Smith, primary clusters, but it gives a sounder taxonomy. Taxonomy is ‘Excavates’, ‘Plantae’ and ‘Rhizaria’ is Haptophyta Percolozoa Radiozoa 1998, A revised six-kingdom system of life. Biol Rev 73, 203– an information system. Primary clusters are indispensible for contra-indicated by many comparative Mastigamoebae Rhizaria Retaria 266.). this, both for information retrieval and nomenclature. molecular studies (Parfrey & others, Microsporidia Thecamonadea Unikonts 2006, Evaluating support for the cur- Tom Cavalier-Smith FRS Peter Sneath rent classification of eukaryotic divers- Myxozoa Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, ity. PLoS in press). The remaining Rhodophyta Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK University of Leicester, UK supergroup, the opisthokonts, lacks a Suctoria clear identity. In the sense of a Viridaeplantae group that brings together animals and true fungi, it is very frequently *Taxa rejected in the Microbiology Today article.

44 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 45 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

b Fig. 1. Images of dinoflagellates that have been identified as Amphidinium operculatum. But there are ~150 other described species in the genus; are all these the same species? Barcoding should help to resolve such uncertainties. (a) Illustration for the type description of A. operculatum Claparède & Lachmann 1859; (b) graphic image (http://microscope.mbl.edu); (c) light micrograph of CCMP strain 123 (http://microscope.mbl.edu); (d) light micrograph of CCAP strain 1102/06 (Edmund Nash); (e) non-motile cell (Mona Hoppenrath & Shauna Murray). Sorting out what we mean by a problem for such groups has, however, been somewhat side- Barcoding is a benchmarking process. type locality (Norway). If all the A. culture-based cross-referencing. Such stepped; first, by use of the ‘candidatus’ label for taxa that On their own, barcodes cannot confer operculatum strains match by barcoding, an advance will re-invigorate and have yet to be cultured (and hence don’t fully comply with the new species status, nor evaluate phylo- that will be reassuring. If they don’t, potentially revolutionize the study of species, and bringing order to higher current ICSP Code); and second, by a range of de-replication genetic relationships. Nevertheless, some further work – with more detailed protists, whilst greatly enhancing the procedures, including ribotyping (using 16S and 18S rRNA when used with an appropriate bio- characterization – will be necessary, value of relevant culture collections. level groupings, are important tag sequences) and whole-cell fingerprinting (e.g. based informatics database, relatively short since it is not obvious which strain on mass spectrometry). Although ribotyping isn’t generally DNA sequences (a few hundred base should retain the A. operculatum name Phil Williamson activities for microbial taxonomists. known as barcoding – the shorthand term for the molecular pairs) offer rapid and effective identifi- and be declared the epitype, as the School of Environmental Sciences, sequencing identification framework for higher plants and cation with good species separation new standard for future reference. The University of East Anglia, Norwich Phil Williamson animals (www.barcodinglife.org) – it is basically the same (unambiguous outcomes for >90 % of original (1859) type illustration of A. NR4 7TJ (e [email protected]) But and his thing: characterization using a short and species-specific case studies to date). Costs are current- operculatum is shown in Fig. 1, together DNA sequence from a standard position in the genome. ly $3 per DNA extract, with the anal- with some other images of organisms Robert A. Andersen colleagues argue that the real priorities ysis process taking a couple of hours. currently considered to be that species. Provasoli-Guillard National Center Protist issues The aim is to achieve at least an order of for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton, are more prosaic, yet pragmatic: For protists (used broadly, not implying monophyly), at magnitude reduction in costs and time International co-operation Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean least 200,000 species have been formally described, based within a decade, so that bio-barcode A co-ordinated, international approach Sciences, West Boothbay Harbor, ‘what exactly is out there?’ and ‘what on phenotypic features, and several thousand representative analysers can be routinely used in every to protist barcoding led by culture ME 04575, USA (e randersen@ strains are maintained in culture. But the evolutionary history science laboratory and school, and collections, and assisted by other mole- bigelow.org) of protists is extremely complex, and while phylum-level taken on every field-collection trip. cular and non-molecular approaches, features should we use to routinely identities are reasonably clear, relationships between taxa are For animals, the COI (cytochrome will have other desirable outcomes. In Frithjof C. Küpper far from straightforward. Other major problems include the c oxidase I) locality is the preferred particular, barcodes will provide a robust NERC Culture Collection for Algae distinguish organisms of different near-impossibility of long-term culture of many parasitic, and gene region, while the suitability of a quality control of what is kept in culture, and Protozoa, Scottish Association highly host-specific, groups (yet these are arguably of greatest chloroplast gene is currently being whilst avoiding unnecessary replication. for Marine Science, Oban PA37 1QA kinds?’ economic importance); a lack of congruence of ICBN and investigated for plants. For protists, the This is important since collections pro- (e [email protected]) Why every protist needs a barcode odern systematics isn’t stamp-collecting. ICZN protocols in the protist realm (14 % of generic names Canadian Barcode of Life Network will vide the reference for species identity; Further reading Even for microbial taxa of relatively limit- for plants have also been used for non-plants); and a lack of initially compare COI data for around they also serve as patent depositories Hebert, P.D.N. & Gregory, T.R. (2005). ed known diversity, no-one expects to consensus on suprafamilial systematics (despite claims to the 1,000 DNA extracts (for ~100 species, (under the Budapest Treaty of 1977) and Syst Biol 54, 852–859. encounter the complete set. Efficient contrary in the November 2006 issue of Microbiology Today). ~10 strains of each). If that target does provide model organisms for physio- Jørgensen, M.F., Murray, S. & identification systems are, however, Furthermore, most original descriptions for protist species are not give good separation, other markers logical and biochemical studies. Mis- Daugbjerg, N. (2004). J Phycol 40, essential to link biodiversity and eco- based on light microscopy and ink drawings, not only making will be tested; alternatives anyway will labelling of cultures due to human error 351–365. Msystem services, to help achieve effective disease control and species identification for some groups an inherently subjective be necessary for protists lacking mito- can occur, even in extremely well- Patterson, D.J. (1999). Am Nat 154 to exploit biotechnological resources. All these applications and specialist occupation, but also potentially hiding major chondria suitable for rRNA analyses. managed collections. Without a routine suppl., S96–S124. require unambiguous and standardized naming frameworks, genetic diversity. genetic identity check, such mistakes Pedrós-Alió, C. (2006). Trends Microbiol anchoring the name to a real specimen or culture. That Testing the system are likely to be perpetuated. 14, 257–263. standard framework is currently provided by the International The barcoding solution Having several, independently collect- Sogin, M.L., Morrison, H.G., Huber, Codes for Botanical and Zoological Nomenclature, and the To help resolve many of the contradictions and uncertainties ed isolates of what is considered to In conclusion J.A., Welch D.M., Huse, S.M., Neal, be the same species is clearly of great International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes in protist taxonomy, genetic barcoding is the way forward, Gene sequencing approaches to taxono- P.R., Arrietta, J.M. & Herndl, G.J. (ICBN, ICZN and ICSP). Unfortunately, there are serious starting with material, particularly type strains, in inter- value to launch (and test) a protist my are not without critics, who have (2006). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, mismatches between the operational requirements of these nationally recognized culture collections. Such an approach barcoding initiative. For example, there expressed concern that principles are 12115–12120. Codes and microbial reality. At the current rate of progress, was unanimously agreed by 40 protist experts from 12 are currently at least eight strains of being sacrificed for the sake of expedi- it will take more than 600 years to properly describe the countries (Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, the marine dinoflagellate considered ency. But barcoding is intended to com- ~10 million ‘known unknowns’, and potentially an order of Japan, Malaysia, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, UK and USA) to be Amphidinium operculatum (and plement, not replace, traditional meth- magnitude higher for ‘unknown unknowns’. at a workshop last November in Portland, Maine, funded by many other strains of ‘Amphidinium ods for understanding and classifying For prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), diversity issues are the Sloan Foundation and co-organized by the Culture Center sp.’) in seven culture collections in five whole organisms. For protists, the emph- particularly acute. In a single litre of seawater, there can be for Marine Phytoplankton (hosted by Bigelow Laboratory for countries. This material has been collect- asis is on facilitating identification, con- three times more prokaryotic operational taxonomic units Ocean Science) and the NERC Culture Collection of Algae ed from many locations, including the firming in hours what otherwise might than the global total of ~6,000 recognized species. The naming and Protozoa (Scottish Association for Marine Science). south-west Pacific, but none from the take many months of paper-based or

46 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 47 Chlamydia trachomatis I was fortunate in having excellent help from the ARI, Bioinformatics and post-genomics and reproduction in Iran especially Dr Chamani and Dr Aarabi, in co-ordinating the molecular biology training in Africa lecture programme and practicals, respectively. From the Over the last few years Chlamydia tracho- discussions following each lecture, there was no doubt that The SGM Fund provided bursaries for young African micro- matis has emerged as the most common there was great interest from the participants, and in the biologists to attend an international course organized in bacterial cause of sexually transmitted last lecture which looked at the feasibility of a Chlamydia Kampala, Uganda, by Professor Keith Gull and members disease in the UK. Indeed rates of infec- Screening Programme in Iran, this initiated great excitement, of his lab from the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, tion have increased dramatically during although we realized that much needed to be done before University of Oxford. this time. It is therefore not surprising this could realistically be considered. Keith and three Research Fellows, Bill Wickstead, Eva that a National Chlamydia Screening Despite having devised a demanding practical programme, Gluenz and Catarina Gadelha taught a course on Bioinform- Programme is now in place in an attempt it was reassuring to see that all the diagnostic tests worked atics and post-genomic molecular cell biology of African trypano- to reduce the number of infections and and that C. trachomatis was cultured at the ARI for the first somes and malaria. The course involved lecturers from the so help prevent important sequelae such time – a notable success for which my technical colleague in USA and Belgium in addition to local Ugandan and Kenyan as ectopic pregnancy and infertility. Sheffield, Mr Geary deserves much of the credit. scientists. It included a mixture of lectures, seminars and Following an academic visit to the One of the outcomes of the Workshop was the desire to computer exercises. 25 students from Uganda, Kenya, South Avesina Research Institute (ARI), Tehran, hold more such activities in Iran so that knowledge and Africa, Mali, Nigeria, Cameroons Malawi and Ethiopia in 2004, I was invited to take part in expertise could be shared. It was even suggested that an attended the course which was heavily over-subscribed with a WHO-funded study investigating the annual Chlamydia update meeting be held to report on local over 250 applications for places. The course was very timely prevalence of C. trachomatis in females activities. Of course, this was all very satisfying to me and I since the , major and T. cruzi attending obstetrics and gynaecology wish them every success with these endeavours in the future. genome sequences have been published over the last few clinics in Tehran. Surprisingly, we dis- However, none of this would have been possible without the years. Genome information about these and other parasitic covered a high prevalence which inspir- support of the SGM and it clearly illustrates the importance protozoa is having an important impact on drug and vaccine ed us to collaborate on a similar study in of their International Development Fund. There is no doubt research, in addition to our knowledge of the basic biology men. These findings of our collabora- in my opinion that there is much to be gained from further of these parasites. tive studies led me to propose running a studies on the importance of C. trachomatis in the Middle There is great interest in Africa in modern parasitology Chlamydia workshop in Tehran to raise East as a whole. research and teaching. This course provided an insight into the profile and awareness ofChlamydia both techniques and applications of bioinformatics, but in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Adrian Eley placed that information in the context of how it enables It was therefore appropriate that the e [email protected] discovery biology in these neglected diseases. ARI, headed by Dr Akhondi and which International is the most comprehensive clinic for I am grateful to Dr Kokab, my PhD student and native Farsi speaker, for Keith Gull treatment of infertility in Iran, hosted his many efforts in helping to make this workshop a success. e [email protected] the workshop in May 2006. Eighteen scientists and physicians who were mostly based in Tehran and members Development of staff from the ARI attended the five- day event which was opened by Dr Zali, the Chancellor of Shahid Beheshti University, where the ARI is located. We were pleased that this Workshop Fund reports was included in the CME (Continuous Medical Education) credit programme offered by the Iranian Ministry of The International Development Fund provides Health and Medical Education. All the participants and lecturers gained the small grants to members to help microbiologists in relevant certification. The aims of the Workshop were to b Opposite page. Adrian Eley addresses participants in the Chlamydia workshop provide a comprehensive lecture pro- developing countries and Eastern Europe. Closing held at the Avesina Research Institute in gramme on the clinical importance of C. Tehran in May 2006. Adrian Eley trachomatis and to provide an in-depth date for 2007: 21 September. See the SGM series of practicals and demonstrations b This page. African microbiologists on the malaria bioinformatics course held on the diagnosis of C. trachomatis in a in Kampala, Uganda, being tutored by website for details. clinical laboratory. Dr Eva Gluenz. Keith Gull

48 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 49 elections07

A number of members of Group Committees retire in September 2007 at the end of their K. Robinson* University of Nottingham Fermentation and Bioprocessing Neisseria, Helicobacter, immunity, vaccines terms of office. Nominations are now required to fill the vacancies arising. Where the number of 3 vacancies K. Stevenson* Moredun Research Institute, Midlothian Molecular pathogenesis, mycobacteria, proteomics nominations to a Group Committee exceeds the number of vacancies, there will be an election by C. Hewitt (C) University of Loughborough N. Waterfield* University of Bath Process monitoring, flow cytometry, Escherichia coli postal ballot. The current members of each Group Committee and number of vacancies are listed Genomics, toxins, pathogen evolution, invertebrates, innate P. Bentley Pierre Guerin Technologies, Tewkesbury immunity below. In making nominations, members are particularly asked to bear in mind the desirability Sales, industrial/lab supplier, scale-up (C) Convener M.R. Barer (CR) University of Leicester of a breadth of scientific interest on each committee. Nominations, including up to five words D. Charalampopoulos University of Reading (CE) Convener Elect Protein expression, cell response, modelling, bioprocess, describing the general area of interest of the nominee, should be sent to reach the appropriate (CR) Council Representative renewables (CIR) Co-opted Industry Representative Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular R. Dennett* Eden Biopharm, Ellesmere Port Group Convener no later than 16 April 2007 (contact details on p. 41). * Retiring 2007 Recombinant proteins, business development Genetics 4 vacancies M. Ganzlin AstraZeneca, Macclesfield G.P.C. Salmond (C)* University of Cambridge Protein characterization, laboratory scale, process development Quorum sensing, virulence, antibiotics, phages Cells and Cell Surfaces 3 vacancies Education and Training 1 vacancy D.J. Glover (CIR) UCB Celltech, Slough G.W. Blakely University of Edinburgh Fermentation, cell culture, scale-up Recombination, pathogenesis, comparative genomics I.R. Henderson (C) University of Birmingham J. Verran (C) Manchester Metropolitan University P.A. Hoskisson* University of Aberdeen Protein secretion, type V secretion, autotransporters, pathogenicity Applied microbiology, biofilms, group work D. Clarke* University of Bath Chemostats, development, gene expression, actinomycetes Signal transduction, symbiosis, pathogenicity, biofilms A. Cunningham University of Birmingham R.P. Allaker Queen Mary’s University of London B. McNeil* University of Strathclyde Salmonella, mycobacteria, innate immunity, surface antigens Oral microbiology, dental student education J.A. Downie John Innes Centre, Norwich Fermentation, physiology of cultured cells, bioreactors Rhizobium, quorum sensing, legume nodulation, secreted S. Cutting* Royal Holloway, London W. Ashraf University of Bradford S. Stocks Novozymes A/S, Bagsvaerd, Denmark proteins Sporulation, development, vaccines, cell signalling, proteolysis e-learning, CPD, widening participation, podcasting Industrial fermentation, scale-up, enzymes, process development D.H. Edwards University of Dundee J.R. Fitzgerald University of Edinburgh S. Burton University of Exeter K.A. Smart (CR) University of Nottingham Cell division, chromosome segregation, sporulation, antibiotics Bacterial pathogenesis, genomics, evolution, surface proteins Environmental microbiology, under- and postgraduate programmes D. Lamb* University of Wales, Swansea R. Massey University of Oxford R. Dixon University of Lincoln Functional genomics, molecular genetics, Streptomyces Staphylococcus aureus, attachment and invasion, evasion Ancient DNA, antibiotics, membranes, e-learning Food and Beverages 4 vacancies P. Lund* University of Birmingham T. Palmer* John Innes Centre, Norwich R.M. Hall (CIR) GlaxoSmithKline, Harlow Chaperones, stress responses, protein folding Protein transport, Tat pathway, membrane proteins Recombinant proteins, E. coli, fermentation, pharmaceuticals R.A. Rastall (C)* University of Reading L.M. Lawrance* University of the West of England Functional food ingredients, probiotics F. Sargent University of East Anglia G.M. Preston* University of Oxford Medical/molecular microbiology, postgraduate/generic skills Respiration, membranes, biosynthesis Pseudomonas, plant–microbe interactions, protein secretion M.A. Collins* Queen’s University Belfast M.J. Tully De Montfort University of Leicester Lactic acid bacteria, food fermentations R.M. Hall (CR) GlaxoSmithKline, Harlow S.G. Smith Trinity College Dublin Pharmaceutical and cosmetic microbiology, basic skills Pathogenicity, adhesion and invasion, genomics, proteomics K. Grant* HPA Colindale B.A. Unsworth Leeds Metropolitan University Food-borne pathogens, molecular detection, epidemiology P.C.F. Oyston (CR) Dstl Porton Down Applied microbiology, lab classes, SCL K. Jones University of Lancaster Systematics and Evolution 2 vacancies S.J. Assinder (CR) University of Wales, Bangor Pathogens in agriculture and water N.A. Logan (C) Glasgow Caledonian University W. Morrisey Green Isle Foods, Naas, Ireland Classification and identification of Bacillus Clinical Microbiology 3 vacancies Environmental Microbiology 2 vacancies Food spoilage yeasts and bacteria S.P. Cummings* University of Sunderland M.W. Peck Institute of Food Research, Norwich N-fixing, psychrophylic and cyanide-degrading bacteria D. Ala’Aldeen (C) University of Nottingham G.M. Gadd (C) University of Dundee Food safety, Clostridium botulinum, physiology R. Goodacre University of Manchester Bacterial infections: pathogenesis and immunity Geomicrobiology, metal–microbe interactions, sulfate reduction, C. Rees (CE) University of Nottingham Whole organism profiling, spectroscopy, chemometrics M.R. Barer* University of Leicester fungi Listeria, low temperature adaptation, bacteriophage L. Hall Barts and the London School of Medicine Mycobacteria, viability, unculturables, microscopy, image analysis D.W. Hopkins University of Stirling Antibiotic resistance, evolution, mutation, mobile elements S. Collier (CIR) University College Hospital, London C/N cycling, decomposition, extreme environments J.F. Rigarlsford (CIR) Tansley, Derbyshire Consultant, food hygiene Training and education R. Howarth (CIR) WSP Environmental, Leeds P.A. Lawson* University of Oklahoma, USA S. Lang Glasgow Caledonian University Bioremediation, microbial ecology C.R. Harwood (CR) University of Newcastle Molecular systematics, phylogeny, taxonomy, 16S rRNA Staphylococci, Streptococci, virulence J.W. McGrath Queen’s University Belfast M. Upton Manchester Royal Infirmary D. Mack University of Wales Swansea Environmental microbiology, pollution, biodegradation Irish Branch 3 vacancies Molecular epidemiology, phylogeny of bacterial pathogens Staphylococcus, biofilms, antibiotic resistance, diagnostics A.M. Osborn University of Sheffield A. Willems University of Gent, Belgium T.D. McHugh* Royal Free & University College, London Biogeochemistry, molecular ecology, pollution E.M. Doyle (C) University College Dublin Taxonomy, diversity, phylogeny, Proteobacteria, rhizobia Tuberculosis, molecular epidemiology, molecular diagnostics G.I. Paton* University of Aberdeen Biodegradation, bioremediation J.P.W. Young University of York S. Patrick Queen’s University Belfast Toxicity testing, microbial biosensors, bioremediation, soil ecology C.C. Adley University of Limerick Bacterial genetic diversity, genome evolution Anaerobes, opportunistic infection, normal microbiota R. Pickup Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster Food-borne pathogens, biofilms, Ralstonia pickettii C. O’Reilly (CR) Waterford Institute of Technology D. Ready Eastman Dental Hospital, London Natural attenuation processes, bacterial pathogens, catchments J. McGrath Queen’s University Belfast Oral microbiology, control, antibiotic resistance, biofilms K.T. Semple* University of Lancaster Phosphorus metabolism, wastewater treatment, biodegradation Virus 5 vacancies M. Tunney* Queen’s University Belfast Biodegradation, pollutants, ecotoxicology, bioremediation J.R. Marchesi* University College Cork Biofilms, antibiotic resistance, anaerobic infection C. Whitby University of Essex Unculturables, ecology, gut ecosystems, biodegradation R.E. Randall (C)* University of St Andrews I.R. Poxton (CR) University of Edinburgh Bioremediation of hydrocarbons and herbicides, C/N cycling A. Moran* National University of Ireland Galway Paramyxoviruses, /immunity and vaccines N.H. Mann (CR) University of Warwick Glycobiology, physiology, pathogenesis, biofilms, microaerophilics S. Brookes* Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge J. Morrissey University College Cork Virus morphogenesis, pathogenesis, zoonotic viruses, lissaviruses Eukaryotic Microbiology 2 vacancies Fungal pathogenesis, bacterial–fungal interactions, microbial ecology M. Cranage St George’s, University of London Clinical Virology 1 vacancy C.D. Murphy* University College Dublin HIV, retroviruses, virus vaccines A. Goldman (C) University of Sheffield J. Breuer (C) St Bartholomew’s Hospital, London Secondary metabolites, biosynthesis, dehalogenation S.V. Graham University of Glasgow Saccharomyces cerevisiae, meiosis, recombination Diagnostics, epithelia infections, HIV2, CNS infections C. O’Byrne National University of Ireland, Galway Papillomaviruses and cancer S. Crosthwaite University of Manchester P. Cane Health Protection Agency, Porton Down Molecular response to stress in bacteria N. Mabbott* Institute of Animal Health, Edinburgh Neurospora, molecular basis of circadian rhythmicity Viral evolution, RSV, HIV, drug resistance C.J. Dorman (CR) Trinity College Dublin Prions A. Harwood University of Wales, Cardiff A.R. Fooks Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Weybridge Dictyostelium discoideum, cell signalling and development B.A.B. Martin University of Birmingham Zoonoses, emerging and exotic viruses, RNA viruses New virus agents, antivirals P. McKean* University of Lancaster Microbial Infection 3 vacancies W.L. Irving University of Nottingham Trypanosomes, cytoskeleton L. Roberts University of Surrey Viral hepatitis, herpesviruses E.J.C. Mellor University of Oxford N. Dorrell (C) London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Translation mechanisms. caliciviruses, picornaviruses E. MacMahon St Thomas’ Hospital, London Chromatin structure and transcription Pathogenicity, Helicobacter, Campylobacter, microarrays S.G. Siddell* University of Bristol Pathogenesis, clinical correlates, transplantation, HHV N.D. Read* University of Edinburgh H. Allison University of Liverpool Coronaviruses, positive-strand viruses E. O’Kelly National Virus Reference Laboratory, Dublin Cell biology of filamentous fungi Bacteriophages, virulence, toxins, food-borne disease A.J. Sinclair University of Sussex Tissue culture, diagnostics, emerging infections, respiratory viruses O.A.E. Sparagano University of Newcastle P.H. Everest University of Glasgow Gamma herpesviruses, oncogenic viruses, transcription, cell cycle D. Pillay University College London Tick-borne pathogens, zoonoses, diagnostics Campylobacter, Salmonella, cellular microbiology, host response J.A. Walsh Warwick HRI HIV, antivirals, drug resistance, molecular epidemiology S.K. Whitehall University of Newcastle B. Kenny University of Newcastle Plant viruses S.J. Skidmore* Princes Royal Hospital, Telford S. pombe HIRA nucleosome assembly, Zn-responsive gene Host–bacterial interaction, Escherchia coli, type III secretion G.W.G. Wilkinson* University of Wales College Medicine, Cardiff Hepatitis C and E expression P.R. Langford Imperial College London Cytomegalovirus, adenovirus vectors, immune evasion G.L. Smith (CR) Imperial College London N.A.R. Gow (CR) University of Aberdeen Bacterial pathogenicity, veterinary diagnostics, proteomics B.K. Rima (CR) Queen’s University Belfast

50 microbiology today feb 07 microbiology today feb 07 51 XDR TB is a serious and

emerging public health threat.

But what is XDR TB and how

can it be controlled? Ibrahim

Abubakar takes a look at comment recent developments. XDR tuberculosis – untreatable disease or the X factor in mycobacteriology?

It appears that not only TV producers cases of XDR TB have been reported XDR TB under the new criteria. There use the letter X to attract public from most parts of the world, the is no suggestion that XDR TB cases are attention. International tuberculosis true extent of XDR remains unclear at increasing in the UK. (TB) experts are also following this moment; the original report showed The WHO has outlined the steps trend. The identification of strains of that 19, 4.1 and 15 % of multi-drug required to control further spread Mycobacterium tuberculosis resistant resistant (MDR) cases in Latvia, USA of these strains. The recommended to isoniazid, rifampicin and at least and South Korea, respectively, met the measures include improved case three additional classes of second-line definition of XDR TB. detection for MDR TB, accelerating drugs (aminoglycosides, polypeptides, Results from various countries are access to rifampicin resistance testing, fluoroquinolones, thioamides, difficult to compare due to the lack of effective treatment of MDR in all cycloserine and p-aminosalicyclic acid) international standards and the limited patients, implementation of infection raises the spectre of a post-antibiotic reproducibility of drug susceptibility control measures and strengthening era for TB. The authors of the first testing for second-line drugs. In view of surveillance. published report on this phenomenon this and the shortcomings of the initial XDR TB is a serious and emerging used the term extensively or extreme definition, a WHO working group public health threat. The problem has drug-resistant TB and coined the has revised the laboratory definition arisen because of failures in the public interesting acronym XDR. of XDR TB. It is now agreed that XDR health infrastructure and in delivering If the infecting organism is TB refers to MDR TB (disease caused an effective case management system. susceptible to three or fewer classes of by organisms resistant to isoniazid Urgent public health action is necessary second-line anti-TB drugs, treatment is and rifampicin) that is also resistant in settings with high drug resistance, unlikely to meet international standards. to a fluoroquinolone and at least one and continued vigilance and preventive However, this definition does not of three injectable second-line anti-TB measures are required globally if we are consider important differences in the drugs (capreomycin, kanamycin and to combat this threat. roles of the drugs in the treatment of amikacin). Ibraham Abubakar TB. In the UK, first-line drugs HPA Centre for Infections, XDR TB gained considerable media susceptibility testing is available at the 61 Colindale Avenue, London attention in August 2006 following Mycobacterium Reference Unit (MRU) NW9 5EQ, UK the presentation of data at the World and at Mycobacteriology Centres. A (e [email protected]) AIDS Conference in Toronto on an national drug susceptibility testing outbreak with very high mortality and service for second-/third-line drugs Further reading HIV co-infection rate in South Africa. is provided by the Health Protection CDC (2006). Morbid Mortal Wkly Rec 55, Recently, more details of this outbreak Agency’s MRU. The MRU is a WHO 301–305. have been published, confirming the SupraNational Reference Laboratory CDC (2006). Morbid Mortal Wkly Rec 55, high mortality and presenting evidence and European Co-ordinating Centre 1176. of nosocomial transmission. Although within the Global Programme on Drug Gandhi, N. & others (2006). The Lancet, Resistance and operates an EQA for 368, 1575–1580. drug resistance on behalf of the WHO. m False-coloured transmission electron A very small proportion of UK MDR micrograph of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Please note that views expressed in Comment do not Alfred Pasieka / Science Photo Library TB cases would now be classed as necessarily reflect official policy of the SGM Council.

52 microbiology today feb 07