A Snapshot in Time: Adolescents' Communicative Preferences Through Technology

A Snapshot in Time: Adolescents’ Communicative Preferences through Technology

Manfred H.S. Lai

December 2018

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The Australian National University

We live in the moment but with [sic] 1 eye toward the future.

GEN Z2

1 This quote is reproduced accurately but its non-adherence to traditional grammar is noted. 2 http://reports.sparksandhoney.com/campaign/generations-z-2025-the-final-generation

Declaration

I certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of the Australian National University and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree. I give consent to this copy of my thesis when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I acknowledge that copyright of published works contained within this thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of those works. I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search engines, unless permission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a period of time.

……………………………………………….

Manfred H.S. Lai

December 2018

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Acknowledgements

This research is supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. I would like to acknowledge the care and guidance I have received, both academic and personal, from those around me.

This thesis weaves together research in multiple fields, including new media technology, visual arts education, and youth and adolescence, and draws upon my knowledge, expertise and experience gained from my education and teaching career in Singapore and Australia over the past 20 years. I would like to express my appreciation for the support of my teaching colleagues and student participants from Singapore and Australia and their contribution to the fieldwork in this study, especially Melanie Bezear (Senior ICT Project Officer, Digital Transformation, Information and Knowledge Services, Education ACT Government) for her technical support, and Joshua Garretson and Tennille Duffy for their support in data processing and transcription. I thank Candida Spence (Information Literacy Program, ANU) for thesis formatting consultation.

I would like to express my particular appreciation and respect to Professor Diana Davis for her invaluable guidance as a teacher and a mentor. I am enormously grateful to my chair supervisor Professor Paul Pickering, and panel adviser Dr Margaret Kiley, for their patience, continuous support and guidance despite the many obstacles I encountered. It has been a long and at times bumpy road; I really value their support during this journey.

I have been very fortunate to have the support of the ANU Centre for European Studies. Their warm hospitality, the fabulous morning teas on every Tuesday and most of all, their guidance and support are very much appreciated.

Dr Campbell Aitken of Express Editing Writing and Research provided professional editing services in accordance with the Institute of Professional Editors’ Guidelines for editing research theses. However, any errors in the text are my own.

I am most indebted to both my late parents who always emphasised the importance of education and supported my pursuit of knowledge. Although they did not live to see me

complete this milestone on the path I have chosen in life, I would like to think that they would be proud.

Throughout these years, my friends have been central to helping to me maintain a balance between my research and social life. A big heartfelt thank you for never once losing interest in talking about my topic and for being constantly positive and empathetic through the ups and downs of my PhD candidature.

Most significantly, I would like to thank my life partner, Chris Waters, for his encouragement, critical but constructive feedback at every stage of my progress in this study and his endless support, which has been above and beyond the call of duty.

Abstract

Generation Z (Gen Z) is the new transitional generation in terms of technological exposure and usage. Members of Gen Z may be seated side by side, but it is their mobile digital devices that connect, thumbs tapping incessantly. What are their communicative preferences? How comfortable has this generation been in engaging online? This research seeks to provide benchmarking answers to these questions.

This thesis analyses the digital technological engagement of 92 Australian and Singaporean high school and college students (aged 14–17 in 2011). Specifically, it examines communicative preferences, technology consumption habits and technological comfort zones through a survey, interviews and analysis of a series of mediated blogs. Examining the findings through the concept of visuacy and the theories of Goffman (1959) and Erikson (1968), the research suggests that Gen Z experience cognitive and affective dissonance between their acknowledged necessity for digital connectedness and their concurrent need for direct interaction (e.g., face-to-face verbal communication and direct hand/eye technologies such as drawing, painting, and photography). Facebook was the most popular social networking site (SNS) among the research subjects, and their online usage of it aligned with other research at the time. The findings suggest that the students were more likely to be spectators in the mediated online environment than active participants. There were also differences in engaging in mediated versus non-mediated environments (with Australia students preferring the latter and Singaporeans the former). These benchmark findings are compared to subsequent research, reaffirming that the cohort’s need for face-to-face communication remains unchanged.

This thesis contributes substantially to the body of knowledge as the timing of the data collection occurred during a pivotal period both in terms of technological exposure (availability, usage and the rise of several key SNS sites) and the burgeoning interest of Gen Z in participating online. Developments in this field occur very rapidly, and this research provides an important benchmark. The research outlines an understanding of the impacts of mediated academic/social technology environments on adolescent development and learning in the early 21st century, providing a reference point for future researchers, educators and information technology professionals seeking to design digital platforms and systems.

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 The technological cusp ...... 1 1.2 SNS – an overview, 1991–2018 ...... 3 1.3 Connectedness and media perceptions ...... 10 1.4 Artistic expression ...... 14 1.5 Virtual learning communities and digital potentialities for learning ...... 15 1.6 Research question, aims and rationale for the study ...... 19 1.7 Organisation of the thesis ...... 21 CHAPTER 2 Communicative Frameworks and the Internet ...... 23 2.1 Scope of the Chapter ...... 23 2.2 Communicative preference: evolving or revolving? ...... 23 2.3 Visuacy: the importance of the visual in a digital world ...... 29 2.4 Erikson: adolescence as a critical stage ...... 35 2.5 Identity vs. role confusion: scoping opportunities for resolution in the Internet age .. 37 2.6 Identity: presentation of self as performance – Goffman’s stage metaphor ...... 42 2.7 What does research tell us about adolescence in a digital age? ...... 47 2.7.1 Journals focusing on adolescence and youth ...... 49 2.7.2 Journals in other fields ...... 53 2.7.3 Research on blogs as a communication medium ...... 58 2.8 Synthesis and Discussion ...... 60 CHAPTER 3 Design and Methods ...... 63 3.1 Scope of the Chapter ...... 63 3.2 Direction from the literature ...... 63 3.3 Rationale for research framework ...... 66 3.4 Aims and research strategies ...... 69 3.5 Development of research instruments ...... 70 3.5.1 Background survey ...... 70 3.5.2 Interview proforma ...... 71 3.5.3 Artwork Submission Questionnaire ...... 74 3.5.4 Artwork Brief ...... 74 3.5.5 Blogs ...... 74 3.5.6 Reflective journals ...... 75

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3.6 Research setting ...... 75 3.6.1 Selecting countries ...... 75 3.6.2 Accessing schools ...... 81 3.7 Cross-cultural interactions ...... 84 3.7.1 Creating an academically/socially mediated technological environment ...... 84 3.7.2 Social networking protocols for student participants (blog interaction) ...... 86 3.7.3 Researcher monitoring and self-regulated surveillance ...... 87 3.8 Administrative and Ethical Clearances ...... 87 3.8.1 Australian National University Human Research Ethics Committee ...... 87 3.8.2 DET/ACT and MOE/SIN approval ...... 87 3.9 Fieldwork plan ...... 88 3.9.1 Art production and interview (Stage 1) ...... 88 3.9.2 Cross-cultural interactions and modification of artistic representations (Stage 2) ...... 89 3.9.3 Technical backup strategies ...... 90 3.10 Implementation of Fieldwork ...... 90 3.10.1 Commuting between Singapore and Canberra ...... 90 3.10.2 Responses from Singaporean schools/junior colleges ...... 90 3.10.3 Responses from Australian high schools/colleges ...... 91 3.11 Data collection ...... 92 3.11.1 Trial period and time frame extension for blog interactions ...... 96 3.11.2 Artwork requirement ...... 96 3.11.3 Online exit survey (post participation questionnaire) ...... 96 3.11.4 Reflective journal entries ...... 97 3.11.5 Other deviations ...... 97 3.12 Data analysis plan ...... 97 3.13 The background survey ...... 98 3.14 The small group interviews ...... 99 3.14.1 Transcription principles (small group interviews) ...... 99 3.14.2 Creating units for analysis (small group interviews) ...... 101 3.14.3 Units for analysis (small group interviews) ...... 102 3.15 The artworks ...... 103 3.15.1 Themes...... 104 3.15.2 Expressive forms ...... 104 3.15.3 Artwork titles ...... 105

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3.16. The blog interactions ...... 105 3.16.1 Transcription principles (blog interactions) ...... 105 3.16.2 Creating units for analysis (blog interactions) ...... 106 3.16.3 Units for analysis (blog interactions)...... 106 3.17 Exit survey (post-participation questionnaire) ...... 109 3.18 The reflective journal ...... 110 CHAPTER 4 Profiling the Sample ...... 113 4.1 Scope of the chapter ...... 113 4.2 Demographics ...... 113 4.3 Engagement with technology ...... 116 4.3.1 Computer and mobile devices ...... 116 4.3.2 Social Networking...... 125 4.4 Artistic profile and preferences ...... 127 4.4.1 Experience of the visual ...... 128 4.4.2 Art preferences ...... 134 4.4.3 Personal artistic qualities ...... 138 4.5 Communicative preferences ...... 141 4.6 Leisure preferences ...... 142 4.7 Synthesis and discussion ...... 144 CHAPTER 5 Australian and Singaporean Students’ Expressive Profile: A Snapshot ...... 149 5.1 Scope of the chapter ...... 149 5.2 The data: an overview ...... 149 5.3 Personal engagement with the visual ...... 153 5.3.1 Artistic preferences ...... 153 5.3.2 Personal artistic qualities ...... 154 5.3.3 Personal synergy between technology and art ...... 156 5.4 Conceptual engagement with the visual ...... 159 5.4.1 Meaning of artistic ...... 159 5.4.2 Being artistic ...... 161 5.4.3 Artistic vs. creative ...... 164 5.4.4 Use of the words ‘artistic’ and ‘creative’ ...... 166 5.5 Communicative style ...... 167 5.5.1 Communicative preferences ...... 167 5.5.2 Social networking ...... 171

5.6 Technology and leisure ...... 176 5.6.1 Engagement with technology ...... 176 5.6.2 Leisure preferences ...... 177 5.7 Synthesis and discussion...... 180 CHAPTER 6 Interpretations of Self in a Technologically Mediated Social/Academic Environment and Reflections on the Process ...... 185 6.1 Scope of the chapter ...... 185 6.2 Overview of responses ...... 185 6.3 Themes of artworks ...... 195 6.4 Blog participation...... 196 6.5 Analysis of blog interactions ...... 200 6.5.1 Blog one ...... 202 6.5.2 Blog two ...... 203 6.5.3 Blog three...... 205 6.5.4 Comparison of blogs one, two and three ...... 206 6.6 Reflective Journals ...... 207 6.6.1 Analysis of reflective journals ...... 207 6.6.2 Post-participation questionnaire ...... 213 6.7 Synthesis and discussion...... 223 6.8 Synthesis of findings from Chapters 4, 5 and 6 ...... 227 6.9 Reflections on the Research Process ...... 234 6.9.1 The research process ...... 234 CHAPTER 7 Bookending the Study: Research from 2011–18 ...... 237 7.1 Scope of the Chapter ...... 237 7.2 A Comparison of Research in 2006–10 and 2011–18 ...... 237 7.2.1 Journals in other fields that intersect with the findings ...... 240 7.3 Benchmark findings comparisons discussion ...... 243 7.3.1 Preferred SNS and online usage ...... 243 7.3.2 Logon rates, active participation and mediated vs. non-mediated blogs ...... 245 7.3.3 Preference for face-to-face communication ...... 246 7.3.4 Cohort preference for hand technologies for artwork ...... 248 7.3.5 Self exploration – dominant theme of artworks ...... 249 7.3.6 Difference between boys’ and girls’ computer skills and participation ...... 249 7.3.7 Attendance at Art Galleries ...... 249 7.4 Directions ...... 250

CHAPTER 8 The Benchmark Study: Reflections, Directions and Implications ...... 251 8.1 Scope of the chapter ...... 251 8.2 The Aims Realised ...... 251 8.3 Visuacy as a communicative conduit ...... 256 8.4 Implications for education practice ...... 261 8.5 Implications for further research ...... 264 Bibliography ...... 267

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACMA Australian Communications and Media Authority ACT Australian Capital Territory ANU Australian National University AUS Australia CIT Canberra Institute of Technology (CIT) C/JC college/junior college CLC Connected Learning Community DET Department of Education and Training FB Facebook HH/SS high school/secondary school HREC Human Research Ethics Committee IA Interaction Analysis ICT Information and communications technology IM Instant Messenger ISS Internet Skills Survey IT information technology MOE Ministry of Education NIE National Institute of Education SIN Singapore SMS Short Message Service SNS social networking site/s 3D three-dimensional UK United Kingdom US/USA United States/ United States of America

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List of Appendices

Appendix

A Scoping Literature on Youth & Adolescence Research ...... 331 B Scoping literature from Other Sources ...... 389 C Media Perceptions of Adolescents and Social Media References ...... 445 D Background Survey ...... 447 E Interview Questions ...... 449 F Artwork Submission Questionnaire ...... 451 G Artwork Brief for Student Participants ...... 453 H Journal Entries/Self-Reflections ...... 457 I Official Consent/Support Documents for the ‘Blog’ Research Project ...... 459 J Social Networking Protocols for Student Participants (Blog Interactions) ...... 475 K Research Proposal Approval ...... 479 L Records of Contact with School (SIN, Singapore) ...... 489 M Records of Contact with School (ACT, Australia) ...... 491 N Data Collection Detailing the Location, Time Frame & Duration ...... 493 O Small Group Interview Schedule & Level of Participation ...... 495 P Small Group Interview Transcription Time Sheet ...... 497 Q List of Emoticons Used by Student Participants in the Blogs ...... 499 R Matching Key Findings with Aims of the Study ...... 501

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List of Tables

1.1 Timeline of major SNS ...... 4 1.2 The evolution of MySpace and Facebook ...... 8 2.1 Exemplars of technology-assisted communication tools and their original primary purposes ...... 28 2.2 Definitions of the word ‘see’ ...... 30 2.3 Online visual communication modes, visual devices and functions ...... 31 2.4 Emoticons commonly used in text messages in the early 2000s ...... 34 2.5 Abbreviations commonly used in text messages in the early 2000s ...... 35 2.6 Stages of human development and the associated psychological crises (Erikson, 1959) ...... 36 2.7 Categories of research topics derived from article titles – key foci of published articles ...... 47 2.8 PART ONE: Categories of articles in major youth and adolescence journals, 2006–2010, and their prevalences ...... 50 2.9 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in seven major youth and adolescence journals, 2006–2010 ...... 51 2.10 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in non-youth-and- adolescence-specific journals, 1998–2010 ...... 53 2.11 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace & Journal of Cyberpsychology and Behavior ...... 56 3.1 Research aims and mixed methodological strategies ...... 68 3.2 Research aims, questions and methodological strategies ...... 69 3.3 Strength and weakness of interview guide approach ...... 72 3.4 Candidate comparison countries’ compliance with the selection criteria ...... 76 3.5 Social and technological compatibility between SIN and AUS ...... 77 3.6 Timeline of the implementation of ICT education in AUS and SIN ...... 78 3.7 Participants by country, learning institution and gender ...... 82 3.8 Guidelines for informed consent ...... 83 3.9 Documents used in seeking official consent and support for the research project ...... 83 3.10 Types of blogs, blog activities and levels of access ...... 85 3.11 Interaction procedure A – invitation, consent, background survey, interview and art production (Stage 1) ...... 88 3.12 Interaction procedure B – cross-cultural interactions and modification of artistic representations (Stage B) ...... 89 3.13 Research aims, data collection ...... 92 3.14 Execution of data collection and deviations from the initial plan ...... 94 3.15 Overview of stages of data processing and analysis ...... 98 3.16 Sample of a completed T-unit analysis for one small group interview ...... 102 3.17 Categories of content with corresponding examples from interview transcription .... 103 3.18 Merging themes of artworks and their corresponding key words and phrases ...... 104 3.19 Expressive forms of artworks and their corresponding key words and phrases ...... 104 3.20 Title categories and corresponding samples of artwork titles ...... 105 3.21 Sample of a T-unit aspects of a blog interaction ...... 106

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3.22 Samples of completed T-unit analysis for blog interactions ...... 108 3.23 Sample of a completed T-unit analysis for the exit survey ...... 109 3.24 Sample of a completed T-unit analysis for the reflective journal ...... 111 4.1 Participants by country, school and gender ...... 114 4.2 Participation in the background survey (Singaporean schools) ...... 114 4.3 Participation in the background survey (Australian schools) ...... 114 4.4 Level of participation in Interview (Singapore schools) ...... 115 4.5 Level of participation in Interview (Australia schools) ...... 115 4.6 Perceived level of computer skills by country, school level and gender ...... 116 4.7 Age when first used a computer by country, school level and gender ...... 117 4.8 Purposes of computer use by country, school level and gender ...... 118 4.9 Access to technology by country, school level and gender ...... 119 4.10 Frequency of computer use at home by country, school level and gender ...... 120 4.11 Percentage agreement that computers aid self-expression, by country, school level and gender ...... 120 4.12 Percentage agreement that computers aid understanding of others by country, school level and gender ...... 121 4.13 Categories for perceptions of the most exciting aspect/s of computers and corresponding examples ...... 123 4.14 Perceptions of the most exciting aspect/s of computers by country, school level and gender ...... 123 4.15 Categories of perceptions of the most disliked aspect/s of computers, and examples 124 4.16 Most disliked aspect/s of computers by country, school and gender ...... 125 4.17 Use of social networking sites by country, school level and gender ...... 125 4.18 Social networking sites used by participants by country, school level and gender..... 126 4.19 Categories of favourite websites and online games used by participants, and examples ...... 127 4.20 Categories of favourite websites and online games used by participants by country and school level ...... 127 4.21 Categories of perceptions of what it means to be artistic and corresponding examples ...... 128 4.22 Perception of what it means to be artistic by country, school level and gender ...... 129 4.23 Categories for perceptions of earliest memories of being artistic or doing something artistic and corresponding examples ...... 130 4.24 Earliest memories of being artistic or doing something artistic activity by country, school level and gender ...... 131 4.25 Earliest memories of artistic activity by country, school level and gender (Chronology/location specific ...... 132 4.26 Earliest remembered typed of art activity (genre) by country ...... 133 4.27 Frequency of visits to arts institutions by country, school level and gender ...... 134 4.28 Choice of favourite artists (genre) by country, school level and gender ...... 136 4.29 Choice of favourite artists (era) by country and school level ...... 137 4.30 Choice of favourite artists (nationality) by country school level and gender ...... 138 4.31 Students’ perceptions of their own most artistic qualities...... 139 4.32 Categories of artistic qualities that participants perceived themselves to possess by country, school level and gender ...... 140

4.33 Preferred communicative mode of self-expression by country, school level and gender...... 141 4.34 Categories of free time activities and examples ...... 143 4.35 Categories of free time activities and examples ...... 143 4.36 Categories of websites and online games used by participants by country and school level ...... 144 4.37 Categories of websites and online games used by participants by country and school level ...... 144 4.38 Summary of participants by country, school level and gender ...... 145 5.1 Overview of the category ‘communication gaps/disruptions’ during the interview by country/school/gender level ...... 150 5.2 Overview of students ‘responses in small group interviews by country/school/ gender level ...... 151 5.3 Artistic preferences categories and exemplars ...... 153 5.4 Dimensions of students’ artistic preferences by country, school level and gender .... 153 5.5 Personal artistic qualities identified by students, with examples ...... 154 5.6 Categories of personal artistic qualities by country, school level and gender ...... 155 5.7 Personal synergy between technology and art categories, and examples deriving from students’ small group interviews...... 157 5.8 Percentages within each subcategory of personal synergy between technology and art by country, school level and gender ...... 157 5.9 Students’ responses indicating their sense of the meaning of artistic ...... 159 5.10 Students’ sense of the meaning of artistic by country, school level and gender...... 160 5.11 Students’ responses to the notion of being artistic ...... 162 5.12 Categories of perceptions of being artistic by country, school level and gender ...... 162 5.13 Examples of interview responses to the artistic vs. creative dilemma ...... 164 5.14 Artistic vs. creative response categories by country, school level and gender ...... 164 5.15 Exemplar responses to the use of the words ‘artistic’ and ‘creative ...... 166 5.16 Students’ perceptions of the use of the word ‘artistic’ or ‘creative’ by country, school level and gender ...... 166 5.17 Communicative preferences categories and exemplars deriving from the interviews ...... 167 5.18 Categories of students ‘communicative preferences responses by country, school level and gender ...... 168 5.19 Social networking categories and examples derived from the interviews ...... 172 5.20 Students’ responses to social networking by country, school level and gender ...... 173 5.21 Examples of students’ engagement with technology derived from the interviews .... 176 5.22 Categories of engagement with technology by country, school level and gender ...... 176 5.23 Examples of students’ leisure preferences ...... 178 5.24 Categories of leisure preference by country, school level and gender ...... 179 5.25 Overview of dominant categories ...... 181 5.26 Overview of differences in the four major categories across the country, school level and gender ...... 182 6.1 Gender composition of participants ...... 185 6.2 Percentage of participants posting or attempting to post artworks, by country, school level and gender ...... 186 6.3 Participation in the stages of the study by school level, country and gender ...... 188

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6.4 Artworks posted by the participants ...... 189 6.5 Artworks unsuccessfully posted by the participants ...... 192 6.6 Range of expressive forms in artworks posted in the blogs ...... 193 6.7 Artwork titles posted in the blogs and their categories ...... 194 6.8 Themes that emerged from the descriptions of artworks and their distribution ...... 195 6.9 Percentage of active interaction in the blogs by country ...... 197 6.10 Percentage of active interaction in the blogs by school level ...... 197 6.11 Percentage of active interaction in the blogs by gender ...... 197 6.12 Categories of T-units derived from students’ interactions in the blogs ...... 200 6.13 Percentages of participants posting responses across the three blogs...... 201 6.14 Response categories for blog one by country, school level and gender ...... 202 6.15 T-unit response categories in blog two by country, school level and gender ...... 204 6.16 Analysis of T-unit categories in blog three by country, school level and gender ...... 205 6.17 Distribution of responses by categories across blogs one, two and three ...... 206 6.18 Categories of reflective journal entries and examples ...... 208 6.19 Percentages of participants posting in the reflective journal, by country, school level and gender ...... 208 6.20 Categories of reflective journal entries by country, school level and gender ...... 209 6.21 Response to the post-participation questionnaire by country, school level and gender ...... 213 6.22 Post-participation questionnaire items answered by country ...... 214 6.23 Artwork title categories by country, school level and gender ...... 215 6.24 How and what to communicate to international peers when participating in blog interactions, by country, school level and gender ...... 216 6.25 Difficulties encountered during participation, by country, school level and gender .. 217 6.26 Most outstanding artistic qualities in artworks, by country, school level and gender ...... 219 6.27 Most important aspect of artwork, by country, school level and gender ...... 219 6.28 Explanation for the choice of a traditional medium to be combined with technology to create artwork, by country, school level and gender ...... 221 6.29 Most interesting aspect of the project by country, school level and gender ...... 222 6.30 Discovery of self while creating artwork for this project by country, school level and gender ...... 223 6.31 Overview of findings from the data components in the study ...... 224 6.32 Synthesis and discussion of findings from Chapters 4, 5 & 6 ...... 229 7.1 Categories of articles in major youth and adolescence journals and their prevalences, 2011–18 and 2006–10 ...... 238 7.2 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in seven major youth and adolescence journals, 2011–18 and 2006–10 ...... 239 7.3 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in Cyberpsychology and Behavior and Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 2011–18 and pre-2011 ...... 241 8.1 Mapping key findings to study aims ...... 252

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List of Figures

Figure

1.1 Head, heart and hand triangulation model (Rees, 2005, p.8) ...... 15 1.2 Overview of the interconnectedness of key components of the study ...... 21 2.1 A model of verbal communication (Davis, 1973, p.68) ...... 24 2.2 Major communicative modes ...... 27 2.3 Pre-Internet communication and the channelling of communicative modes t owards visuacy ...... 33 2.4 The individual's presentation of self to the world ...... 40 2.5 Theoretical frameworks used to analyse research data ...... 61 3.1 Timeline of developments in SNSs since the data for the current study was collected ...... 66 3.2 Blog interaction using the CLC platform ...... 85 6.1 Active participation across all the blogs for both national groups ...... 199 8.1 Diagrammatic representation of analysis, and a snapshot of the digital behaviours of Australian and Singaporean adolescents in 2011 ...... 254 8.2 Potential for extension beyond the current study’s sample ...... 265

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List of Plates

Plate

Plate 1.1 Snapshot of media perceptions of adolescents and social media ...... 13

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CHAPTER 1 Introduction

1.1 The technological cusp

In the year 2000 there were 400 million Internet users globally; a decade later, their number had grown to approximately 2.3 billion. Of those, 45 per cent were below the age of 25 (International Telecommunications Union, 2011). In the Australian context, the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) (2013) found that:

The vast majority of [Australian] eight to 17 year olds are online, and their likelihood of accessing the Internet significantly increases with age. The importance they place on the Internet also increases with age, and the Internet is significantly more important to children and young people in 2012 than it was in 2009. (p. 21)

Similarly in Singapore, in 2008, the Infocomm Development Authority survey reported that over 99 per cent of youth between seven and 24 years of age had used computers with Internet access, 35 per cent had used the Internet for instant messaging, 13 per cent for blogging, and 30 per cent for social networking (Zheng, Cheok, & Khoo, 2011). In 2012, more than 80 per cent of Singaporeans had household Internet access and around 31 per cent of Singaporean Internet users were aged between 15 and 24 (Rock Publicity, 2012).

As a visual arts educator with 20 years of experience working in the education system both in Australia and Singapore, the researcher has witnessed the rise of the Internet and social networking sites (SNS) both professionally and socially. Coincident with both have been increasing numbers of (mostly) negative depictions of young people’s consumption of technology and mass media. This has impacted on the formal education system as technology has made information more readily available and there is, in the researcher’s view, pressure for educators to strive to be early adopters of any new technology so they remain relevant to students.

How do young people reconcile their increasing use of technology with negative perceptions of its use and the impacts on themselves? Furthermore, what are their own perceptions about operating in this increasing technologically enhanced virtual world? How do they manage and monitor their engagement? What do we know about a generation – Generation Z – that more naturally gravitates towards online communication than earlier generations, who have to make a conscious effort to use it?

Generation Z (commonly abbreviated to Gen Z) is the birth cohort following Generation Y (Gen Y). There is no generally accepted range of birth dates for this cohort; some authors suggest that Gen Z includes people born between 1990 and 1999, others between

19952 and 2009 (Bascha 2011). However, all authors agree that members of Generation Z,

unlike previous generations, are highly technologically connected to each other and have potential to reach a wider network and greater use of technology around the clock.

Gen Zers’ learning styles highlight their preferences for more visual and hands-on methods of learning, which differs from traditional classroom practices of teachers delivering lessons verbally. This cohort multitasks and looks for content to be delivered quickly, with more graphics to assist in learning. Moreover, this new generation is steering education towards project-based learning (Institute of Emerging Issues, 2012). Bascha (2011) contended that “transparency, self-reliance, flexibility, and personal freedoms are all non-negotiable aspects” (p. 2) of Generation Z.

Since this study focuses on Gen Z as a transitional generation in terms of technological consumption (exposure and usage), it provides a benchmark in a rapidly evolving space. So swift is its evolution that any data collected is almost instantly obsolete, a momentary snapshot in time. This study is no exception. However, the thesis is organised so that the benchmark data are clearly seen to be so. The review of the literature that precedes the methodology and report of the study’s findings deals with only that which informed the study. The findings once presented are discussed and placed in the context of research published subsequent to it.

However, in order to scope the field, subsequent sections of this chapter encompass developments in the field to the present time. Section 1.2 scopes the rapid development

2 Chapter 1 of social networking sites (SNS), followed by insights into the connectedness of young people. This is followed by an analysis of media portrayal of young people’s high, and increasing, SNS usage (1.3). Subsequent sections briefly explore artistic expression and connectedness (1.4), virtual learning communities and the digital potentialities for learning (1.5). Following the rationale for and aims of the study (1.6), the chapter concludes with a brief overview of the organisation and structure of the thesis (1.7).

1.2 SNS – an overview, 1991–2018

This section aims to map the rapid development of SNSs, their role in the digital world, and locate adolescents’ involvement with them. SNSs were initially designed for adult consumption (e.g. Classmates.com), hence the social activities (such as dating sites) and the contexts of early SNSs were inappropriate for underage users. Adults were unlikely to encourage young people to use SNSs, let alone explicitly teach them how to use SNSs or even communicate with them via SNSs. The sudden influx of underage users joining in the 2000s could be attributed to the emergence of SNSs that were more visual-audio stimulus driven.

Social network sites including Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, Tumblr and Snapchat have attracted millions or even billions of users around the globe. Boyd and Ellison (2008) pointed out that, while the technologies used in each platform are similar, the communities that arise in each are different; some SNSs successfully reached out to different audiences while others attracted a particular cohort, such as social groups, particular genders or religious groups. These sites incorporate information in different ways: some are primarily for sharing photos or music, others are for blogging, private messaging or downloading videos.

Table 1.1 presents a timeline of major SNSs and their development, from 1991 to 2015. SNSs that have been shut down are highlighted in yellow.

Table 1.1 Timeline of major SNS

YEAR DEVELOPMENT 1991 World Wide Web (WWW)

Classmates.com (as Classmates Online, Inc.) - Nov 1996 Google Search Engine started in January 1997 Six Degrees.com (one of the earliest social network services) AsianAvenue - July 1998 The Google Company – Sept Yahoo Messenger (Y!M) – March Xanga (blogging and networking profiles) – April 1999 QQ (instant message platform)– Feb Live Journal (a social networking service with a blog, journal or diary)– April BlackPlanet (a social networking website targeted to African-American) – Sept Cyworld (a South Korean social network service)

2000 Six Degrees Closed MiGente.com (Spanish SNS)

LunarStorm (Swedish SNS for adolescents) Wee World (social network targeted towards teens and tweens) – March DeviantArt (online art community website) was launched – August 2001 Wikipedia (free encyclopaedia that anyone can edit) – March StumbleUpon (search engine) –Nov Ryze (SNS for professionals) – Oct 2001 2002 Friendster (started as a SNS but relaunched as a social gaming site) – March Last.FM (online music sharing) – March Fotolog (SNS photo sharing) – April Skyblog (French SNS) – Dec

2003 LinkedIn (employment-oriented social networking service) – May MySpace.com (social networking website) – August Skype (video chat and voice call application – August 2004 Orkut (SNS, meet and rate friends, change themes, etc.) – Jan Hi5 (SNS) – June Facebook (social networking service) – Feb (Harvard only) Flickr (photo and video platform) – Feb

YEAR DEVELOPMENT 2005 Reddit (Entertaining & social networking platform) – June Bebo (social networking site) – July www.youtube.com (first organised video streaming & video sharing platform– Feb Yahoo! 360° (social networking and personal communication portal) – March 2006 By Sept 2006, everyone at age 13 and older with a valid e-mail address could access Facebook (Facebook – Best performing SNS platform till date with 1.44 billion active users) Window Live Spaces originally released in early 2004 and re-launched in 2006 Twitter (microblogging platform with a Q&A format) – July 2007 Tumblr (microblogging and social networking website) 2008 We Heart It (SNS particularly for images)

2009 FledgeWing (Online community aimed at entrepreneurial university students) – Feb Foursquare (Local search-and-discovery service mobile app) – March Sina Weibo (Chinese microblogging website) – Aug 2010 Whatsapp Messenger (IOS, Android and Windows based app for personal and group chat) – Jan

LunarStorm was shut down – August

5 Pinterest (web and mobile a photo sharing application) – March

Instagram – Oct Viber (texting, voice call and photo-sharing application) for iPhone – Dec 2011 Google+ (an interest-based social network with video chat) – June Snapchat/Snap (image messaging and multimedia mobile application) – Sept 2012 Tinder (social discovery application for IOS and Android users) –Sept 2013 Pheed (social media platform with live broadcast option) – Nov Vine (multiple platform video-sharing social application) – June 2014 Pheed shut down – April Orkut shut down – Sept 2015 Moments (Android/IOS applications for managing photos online) – April

Friendster shut down – June

Sources:https://www.internetsociety.org/internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet/, hhtp://1stwebdesigner.com/history-of-social-networking/, http://www.webdesignerdepot.com/2009/10/the-history -and-evolution-of-social-media/, http://historycooperative.org/the-history-of-social-media/

Classmates.com was one of the earliest online sites, launched in 1995 as a directory of school affiliates offering a ‘virtual reunion’. This platform was aimed at adults who were looking to locate past school members; it was very successful, and by 2016 had many users (over 57 million account holders) (Digital Trends, 2016). According to Boyd and Ellison (2008), the first recognisable SNS (launched in 1997) was SixDegrees.com. Unlike Classmates.com, SixDegrees.com enabled users to create their own profiles, develop their own group of friends and allow users to search the site. Initially it had many users, but the website closed down in 2000; this was due in part to its release at a time when people had few friends using the Internet. However, it had limited functionality, merely allowing users to accept requests from others to become ‘friends’ (Boyd & Ellison, 2008). Perhaps, at this early stage, “not enough people were comfortable living their social lives online” (Shirky, 2010, p. 193).

Between 1997 and 2001, several SNSs began to include combinations of online communication tools allowing users to create profiles and search for friends. In doing so, SNSs were seeking to emulate online community sites, such as AsianAvenue (an targeted to the Asian-American community); Black Planet (targeted to the African-American community); and MiGente (targeted to the Hispanic community). All three are still active and now primarily host dating/matchmaking activities. In fact, “dating sites are sometimes considered the first social networks. The first dating sites started cropping up almost as soon as people started going online” (WebdesignerDepot, 2009, para, 1). Similarly, in 1999, LiveJournal enabled users to list others as friends; this also allowed them to regulate who could view their journals. Cyworld (a Korean website) and LunarStorm (a Swedish web community) also launched in 1999, and became SNSs in 2000 (Boyd & Ellison, 2008). These sites are often referred to as some of the earliest SNSs, and were arguably designed for adult users more than for underage users because of the nature and purpose of the social interaction, for example, dating and finding old classmates (WebdesignerDepot, 2009).

After the year 2000, SNSs targeted at young people or adolescents began to emerge. These sites were more product-driven than previous SNSs; for example, WeeWorld's target demographic was teens and tweens, and the website advertised and sold virtual products that appealed to young people, such as virtual goods for their online avatars

6 Chapter 1 (WeeWorld, 2009). Moreover, WeeWorld claimed that their games inspired social creativity, and have entertained more than 60 million mobile and web players (ibid).

In 2001 Ryze.com (an early version of LinkedIn) was launched to help develop business networks. The site allowed users to build their business/professional profiles, add friends and send messages. While Ryze.com never acquired mass popularity, LinkedIn (launched in 2003) became a powerful business service and is still current (Boyd & Ellison, 2008). In addition to Ryze.com, the company created a social component called Friendster, launched in 2002 (before Facebook and MySpace). It was initially very successful, and at its peak had over 100 million users (arXiv, 2013), however, it experienced technical problems and as a result lost users to competing websites, and closed in 2011 (Garcia, Mavrodiev, & Schweitzer, 2013). Again, these SNSs were mainly designed for adults who wanted to connect their business networks with social networks.

As evident from Table 1.1, from 2003 onwards, many new SNSs were created. As their popularity grew, traditional websites focusing on media sharing started to amend their platforms to include more advanced SNS features (such as private messaging, video and music sharing). Given their visual/audio content appeal, this new generation of SNSs appealed to young people and adolescents. For example, MySpace, originally aimed at adults, added a music component in an effort to attract more users. Young people began joining MySpace in large numbers in 2004 (Boyd & Ellison, 2008), primarily due to the platform’s connection of music and favourite musicians online. Three distinct cohorts of MySpace users appeared: young people (including adolescents), adults, and the musicians themselves. Evidence suggests that music was the common element, and little engagement outside of this occurred between the groups (Boyd & Ellison, 2008).

Facebook was originally designed in 2004 for Harvard students (Cassidy, 2006). It soon grew to include students from other colleges. At the beginning of September 2005, Facebook expanded further to include high school schools, and eventually permitted anyone of the age of thirteen and older to join (Boyd & Ellison, 2008).

Both Facebook and MySpace rapidly became popular SNSs among adults and young people, with more than 100 million visitors per month (Schonfled, 2008). In 2010,

Myspace was dominated by teenagers, and Facebook by adults (Rabu, 2010). One may speculate that at different age or life stages users are attracted by different features of these SNSs, hence people use them in different ways and for different purposes. Table 1.2 compares the evolution of Myspace and Facebook.

Table 1.2 The evolution of MySpace and Facebook

Year MySpace Facebook 2003 MySpace was popular with high school students when launched (August) 2004 Estimated 1 million users (February) Facebook was initially popular with college students (e.g., Estimated 5 million users (November) Harvard, Yale, Stanford and Columbia) (March) Facebook reached one million members (December)

2005 Facebook launched in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand (October) 2006 Most popular SNS in the United States Facebook launched its news feed application (September) 2007 Considered leading SNS Enabled others to use Facebook for games (such as Farmville) (July)

2008 Decline in membership starting to occur Refinements and enhancements added (April) Most (April) popular SNS (April) Allowed users to use Facebook login to access other applications (July) 2009 Relaunched with a focus on music 2010 500 million active users (July) 2011 Estimated 10 million users left between January and February 2011 (March) 2012 2013 36 million users (October) 2014 2015 2016 Ranked 2,154 in terms of total web 1.79 billion monthly active users traffic (October) Additional functionality allowing users to buy swap and sell goods (October) 2017 80,000 users in Australia 15,000,000 monthly active users

Sources: http://www.infoplease.com/science/computer/social-meda-timeline.html#Present https://www.statista.com/statistics/264810/number-of-monthly-active-facebook-users-worldwide/ www.diffen.com/difference/Facebook_vs_MySpace/ https://www.socialmedianews.com.au/social-media-statistics-australia-october-2017/

As can be seen from Table 1.2, between 2005 and 2008, MySpace was the largest SNS in the world; however, by 2008, Facebook had overtaken it as the dominant SNS. Roblyer, McDaniel, Webb, Herman, and Witty (2010) noted that Facebook is credited with bringing SNS into the mainstream.

Not all SNS succeed. For example, a Swedish SNS called LunarStorm, launched in 2007 and aimed at teenagers, soon had 1.2 million users (70 per cent were aged 12–17);

8 Chapter 1 however, it ceased operations in 2010 as people left the site for other SNSs and it became economically unviable (LunarStorm, 2016).

As mentioned earlier, in the early days of social media, online activities were very much an adult domain. The interfaces and content were not yet appealing to children, many of whom were fixated on audio gadgets such as the Walkman (late 1970s–2010s), Discman or CD Walkman (adopted worldwide in late 2000), MP3 players (released in 2005) and electronic games and computer games.

The literature suggests that adolescents were not interested in SNSs until the 2000s. From 2003 onwards, teenage-oriented SNSs emerged (e.g., Facebook, Orkut, Hi5 and Flickr) with added features like image and music sharing (see Table 1.1). Boyd and Ellison (2008) pointed out that young people began to join MySpace in large numbers in 2004 to connect with their favourite bands, forcing MySpace to change its user policy to include underage users.

In just two decades, SNSs have come a long way and continue to evolve. There are thousands of social media platforms globally; most can be linked to applications such as photo sharing, video sharing or music sharing, and allow cross-posting, creating a mediated environment in which users can reach a large number of people at any time. Many people, especially young people, not only communicate with each other but also get news and information through online devices. Social media has increasingly become mobile, moving from PCs to laptops to electronic gadgets such as tablet computers and smartphones. The rapid development of wireless technology, the convenience of electronic gadgets and their increasing ubiquity in our lives, have left us little choice but to be part of it or be left behind. Young people are under pressure to participate in social media and use these online communication devices almost around the clock.

As illustrated above, several SNSs were created around 2011 that remain very popular today. In 2010, WhatsApp, Instagram and Viber were all launched, and Snapchat in 2011; these, along with Facebook, represent some of the most popular SNSs today. For example, in the month of October 2018, Instagram, WhatsApp and Snapchat were the 3rd, 4th and 5th most visited SNS in Australia; and Facebook and YouTube were the most popular

(Cowling, 2018). In Singapore, in the third quarter of 2017, the four top-leading SNSs were WhatsApp, YouTube, Facebook and Instagram (Statista, 2018). Benchmarking young people’s digital communication behaviours in a period in which leading SNSs were gaining popularity is obviously important.

1.3 Connectedness and media perceptions

The researcher argues that connectedness means young people are intuitively drawn to multitasking when they are engaging in SNS, for example, updating Facebook status, texting, tweeting, skyping, checking out images/photos on Instagram, downloading videos/music, chatting with friends online or sending e-mails, all while listening to music and working on their school assignments. In the era prior to the Internet, our social awareness and knowledge were dependent on our accessibility and exposure to new life experiences and textual/printed materials. We consumed and internalised information at a less intense pace. We maintained connections with others by writing letters, sending greeting cards and making telephone calls. A new era – an information age of electronics and digitisation – began just over two decades ago. We cannot overlook or undervalue the extent of this change at a socio-cultural level. We need to explore the dynamics of information technology (IT)-enabled social networks to create a constructive dialogue among our young people, to understand how they connect with each other and the rest of the world, and how their methods of connection facilitate the exploration of their own presentation of self. One can speculate that new technology might limit the complexities of human communication, as it is focused on the visual and textual. Young people may focus too much on the visual and textual and neglect the auditory and verbal aspects of communication.

In Hamlet’s Blackberry: A practical philosophy for building a good life in the digital age, William Powers (2010) perceived that information overload was a far greater problem than when Alvin Toffler (1970) coined the term in Future Shock. Powers (2010) argued that we are living in the digital age, meaning that everything we do is now can have a digital aspect (e.g., even leisure activities), and expressed concerns relating to short attention spans and constant distraction similar to those mentioned earlier. For example, he argued that people have trouble concentrating for long periods of time and are easily

10 Chapter 1 distracted, and that the “digital consciousness can’t tolerate three minutes of pure focus” (p.46). The behaviour Powers (2010) described seems appropriate to young people who are constantly connected with their devices; if they are disconnected, they find it difficult to stay focused on non-online activities such as sustained quiet reading or a manual task.

The speed at which young people connect through technology is definitely more immediate and faster than in the pre-Internet era, and their inability to disengage with technology also raises concerns in the adult world. Nicholas Carr (2010) expressed concerns that electronic devices are overworking the brain “like a high-speed data processing machine, a human HAL” (p. 16). Carr stated that he was losing his ability to perform deep reading, and becoming as shallow as the websites that he visited and browsed regularly:

When I’m online or not, my mind now expects to take in information the way the Net distributes it: in a swiftly moving stream of particles. Once I was a scuba diver in the sea of words. Now I zip along on the surface like a guy on a jet ski. (pp. 6– 7)

Technology both brings people together and keeps them apart. At times, it seems people are so busy communicating online that they have less time for other types of direct engagement. Blyth (2008) lamented that as a society we might be losing the sophisticated communication medium of conversation due, in part, to digital technology. This could, in the future, lead to people having trouble in obtaining fulfilment and maintaining their individuality.

Young people are seduced by the colourful and energetic sensory interactivity that advanced digital technology can facilitate on a screen. It may be argued that screen culture is the pop culture of the 21st century but one operating in a totally artificially constructed environment – cyberspace (also known as the virtual world) – which is constantly in flux. The impacts of these unprecedented advances in technology on the social, economic, cultural and cognitive aspects of our lives mean it is not surprising that many adults and young people are overwhelmed by unlimited access to online information that can be unreliable and potentially very confusing. This connectedness presents new challenges

11 for young people who are constructing their own conceptual frameworks of the world they are living in and seeking to make informed choices. Davidson (2011) asserted that young people were constrained by the threat of strangers. This changed the way children socialised with their peers, deterring parents from allowing them to play with friends outside, wander in public places or hang out with their peers without supervision. The connectedness of SNSs offers children a new playground in which to explore away from adults and learn from their peers.

This new connectedness undoubtedly offers a place for experimentation, such as negotiating identity or presenting one’s self as an outlet for escapism. For others, it has become the infrastructure that facilitates and promotes artistic refinement, or a strategic advantage in economic competition to be constantly monitored and sustained in the pursuit of prosperity and efficiency. Cheng (2008) described the advancement in technological infrastructure as a major means of facilitating and sustaining an aesthetically and culturally vibrant society, and as a significant element in developing creative excellence in Singapore. According to Cheng (2008), the use of technology that was introduced into Singapore’s secondary school visual arts syllabus was a significant factor. Whether the desired outcome of creativity in students’ artistic representations has been achieved, and how the technological environment has contributed to the development of the students’ identities, remain unexplored and undocumented.

Notwithstanding the many advantages of this greater connectedness, there remains concern on the part of parents and the media about the potential exploitation of young people online. Boyd and Ellison (2008), citing earlier research including Wolak, Mitchell, and Finkelhor (2006) and Lenhart and Madden (2007), argued that concerns about the inappropriate conduct and exploitation of minors online were vastly over-amplified. The National School Boards Association of the United States (2007) found that only 0.08 per cent of students had met someone following an online encounter without permission from a parent (as cited in Boyd & Ellison, 2008). However, media portrayals of SNSs still often describe them as dangerous or risky places where young people can become vulnerable to predators, or raise issues concerning unsupervised or excessive social media consumption, addiction or ready access to inappropriate content, and potential exposure

12 Chapter 1 to violence. Plate 1.1 presents a snapshot of the media’s perceptions of young people (Generation Z).

Source: Refer to Appendix C Plate 1.1 Snapshot of media perceptions of adolescents and social media

Nevertheless, adolescents show a healthy degree of scepticism about SNSs and online information. Research by Kalmus (2007) explored Estonian adolescents’ attitudes towards the Internet and found that only 40 per cent trusted the information they found online. Parents, teachers and television were their preferred sources of “truth”.

Viviek Wadhwa (2011), in his article “Social media: Is it the end or start of a golden age?” argued that the Internet is not harming our children and that technology will better connect people with each other. He acknowledged that the Internet and social media can make life more complex, but asserted that it is valuable for assessing new sources of information, obtaining knowledge, and for connectivity with family and the global community:

I get far too many e-mails and have to respond to hundreds of messages on Twitter and Facebook. Still, these tools have opened new worlds. They offer new sources of information, expand my thinking, and connect me to millions of people worldwide. They have allowed me to make a greater impact that was imaginable even a decade ago. And I can reach my family from anywhere at any time. I love

the photos and videos they send. These have helped my spiritual evolution, not hindered it. (Wadhwa, 2011, para. 2)

1.4 Artistic expression

Prior to Gen Z no one experienced instant connection with the world around us at a click of a mouse. The increasing global commodification of our society is signalled by economic jargon such as creative economies, the creative class and creative clusters (Florida, 2003, 2005, 2009). These terms suggest that advancement in technology is vital for creative success, but what about the subtleties of artistic qualities? Is being creative the same as being artistic? In Florida’s (2003, 2005, 2009) world of the creative economy, the creative approach focuses on problem-solving, paradigm shifting in the mindset of looking at a problem, open-mindedness, social tolerance and the ability to be connected with the environment using technology to enrich the quality of life. However, the researcher has observed that these creative qualities seem more driven by the egocentric dynamics of institutional information processing systems and management and do not reflect personal uniqueness or the subtle qualities of being artistic.

In contemporary art, artistic expression is increasingly driven by the clever manipulation of technology, for example, in time-based art, new media art and digital art. There is a lack of physical, tactile connection between the human brain and the physical form of the artwork. The hand and head are almost divorced. Rees (2005) argued that the mechanisms of the artist’s head, heart and hand create the personal receptacle from which artistic expressions are conceived. It is likely that Rees’ construct was influenced by the work of Patrick Geddes (1854–1932) who was concerned that the introduction of newly invented machinery during the industrial revolution would inhibit humans’ creativity and compromise craftsmanship. Similarly, in The Craftsman, by Richard Sennett (2008), there is an emphasis on the importance of the human hand and how it speaks to the mind, as the best craftsmanship is the result of many years of practice and fine-tuning of complex skills of the hand and the imagination. Therefore, artistic practice is guided by balancing the head, heart and hand, as illustrated in Rees’ (2005) later adaptation of this principle (see Figure 1.1).

14 Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Head, heart and hand triangulation model (Rees, 2005, p.8)

In the pursuit of artistic expression, to what extent is it true that a knowledge of art as part of self-representation and understanding becomes less important to individuals when they are immersed in the sophisticated technological environment? Did adolescents prefer to create their art using media such as digital photography, selfies and life streaming videos on social media in 2011? At that time did they have a use for traditional media such as drawing and painting? These questions are addressed later in the thesis.

1.5 Virtual learning communities and digital potentialities for learning

In Who’s Your City?, Richard Florida (2009) argued that cities have personalities just like people do. The individual personality of each city is a reflection of the collective characteristics of its people. In the context of this study, the cities of Gen Zers are arguably virtual. Therefore, the current virtual world of youth will be adults’ cities of tomorrow.

Their virtual cities are virtual learning communities. The following section argues that the practice and knowledge in these virtual learning communities is not passive but a continuous active process of sharing and renewing. In such interactive spaces, young people not only feel more motivated to learn, they have more opportunity to express themselves and develop their artistic selves than their counterparts in the pre-Internet era.

The concept of learning communities can be interpreted as communities of practice; the concept was developed by Lave and Wenger (1991), who defined it as:

…a set of relations among persons, activity, and world, over time and in relation with other tangential and overlapping communities of practice. A community of practice is an intrinsic condition for the existence of knowledge, not least because it provides the interpretive support necessary for making sense of its heritage. (p. 98)

Many successful virtual learning communities engage and support young people in their artistic pursuits or self-discovery. For example, the Inter-Life Project (2008–11), a virtual research community, studied how young people might develop life skills to help them manage life transitions (Sclater & Lally, 2013). Sclater and Lally examined 15–17-year- olds and how practices involving fashion, photography and digital film might assist their transitions to adulthood. Inter-Life was a virtual space that provided a safe arena for the cohort to better understand their interaction with others. The results indicate the potential benefits of using virtual worlds as learning environments. In another study, Lu (2010) surveyed students who had visited virtual exhibitions; the participants were highly motivated and engaged in discussing art, due, in part, to the anonymous nature of the engagement. Virtual learning communities also allow the community to be much larger than traditional knowledge communities in the pre-Internet era. The size of the community is vital for the sharing of knowledge, because “there can be information no one knows, but there can’t be knowledge no one knows” (Shirky, 2010, p. 140). As Jenkins (2006) pointed out:

None of us can know everything: each of us knows something: we can put the pieces together if we pool our resources and combine our skills…. Collective intelligence can be seen as an alternative source of media power. We are learning

16 Chapter 1 how to use that power through our day-to-day interactions within convergence culture. (para. 4)

Noting that virtual learning communities in 2011 were a relatively new learning paradigm, how did this phenomenon affect how young people learned? Drawing on constructivist theories, researchers (Ashton-Hay, 2006; Dole & Sinatra, 1998; Palincsar, 2003; Swan, 2005) focused on the cognitive and social components that make up learning. They argued that, in the digital world, learning can be defined in relation to cognitive and social engagement. Cognitive engagement refers to the process of analysing and interpreting data, with a view to offer a critique or an argument (Zhu, 2006). Whereas social engagement relates to emotional expression, open communication, group cohesion, and establishing a sense of a learning community (Arnold & Ducate, 2006).

The cognitive process relates to mental activities that create new meanings from additional information or experiences (Dole & Sinatra, 1998). Motivation is key to cognitive development. According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2002), students who are motivated tend to utilise the full spectrum of intellectual processes, including analysis, evaluation, interpretation and synthesis.

Many studies support the notion of using SNSs in facilitating learning. For example, in a Facebook study, Hewitt and Forte (2006) found that two-thirds of the student participants they surveyed were relaxed about the university being on Facebook, thus potentially opening Facebook up as an SNS for university learning. Another study found that 39 per cent of students wanted regular online engagement with their tutors/lecturers (Fischman, 2008). Weber and Mitchell (2008) studied adolescents’ identities and digital works and found that learning was a running theme across their four cases. They observed that adolescents and young adults learned online in a variety of ways, including through trial and error, experimenting with different techniques and engaging with others; they were self-motivated and developed new technical skills. Moreover, the experience enhanced their media literacy skills and enabled them to experiment with different identities as they developed the pieces of work.

DeGennaro (2008) studied whether Instant Messenger (IM) (an SNS platform) could assist in learning in an after-school laboratory management club. The results indicated systems such as IM are useful because they enable personal interactions and provide a platform for users to work on a problem together. IM also provided a space for students to engage with another purpose (as opposed to the social use of IM) with teachers and other students on a subject (laboratory management) in which they have a direct stake. According to Lewis and Fabos (2000), young people self-consciously use digital technology to their own artistic advantage in three ways: language use, social practice and surveillance. Adolescents moderate their language use (in terms of choice of words, visuals, subject matter, tone, etc.) to suit their communication needs. Regarding social practice, the students Lewis and Fabos studied varied their communication patterns on IM to further their social standing and relationships, and monitored the IM platform to ensure their interests are protected.

Despite numerous positive examples, young people’s reactions to using SNSs or new media technologies for formal educational purposes can be equivocal. Concerns mentioned in earlier research include privacy and anxiety issues when engaging with lecturers through SNSs (Hewitt & Forte, 2006). Selwyn (2007) argued that “rather than attempting to appropriate Facebook for educationally ‘appropriate’ or ‘valid’ uses, … university authorities and educators are best advised to avoid educationally appropriating these backstage [social spaces]” (p. 21).

The way adolescents and young adults learn online and subsequently their ability to understand, remember and apply their knowledge and skills is similar to how their physical senses operate (discussed further in Chapter 2). A high percentage of adolescents’ and young adults’ sensory learning is visual, and this was the case even before the Internet (Patterson, 1962; Rigg, 1971; Spencer, 1991). Adolescents and young people increasingly see the digital world as vital to unlocking their learning potential. This includes learning new skills, engaging in broader experiences and creating new opportunities to enrich themselves and their communities.

The discussion in this section clearly demonstrates the ubiquity and reach of digital communication strategies, for Gen Z in particular. Extant research has focused on the

18 Chapter 1 social communicative aspects; few researchers have probed the technology’s potential for scholarly learning. The importance of the visual aspect of the technology has been identified, particularly in relation to young people’s use of photographs and selfies as visual self-expressions and introductions (noting that in 2011 very few SNSs easily allowed visual sharing), but there has been little attention to the learning possibilities for artistic representations of self and communication in the digital context.

The term ‘mediated academic/social technological environment’ used in this study is a subset of the concept of virtual learning communities. Most research on virtual learning communities has focused on the social communicative aspects. Few researchers have studied the subject from the scholarly learning perspective, particularly with respect to learning in a mediated environment from visual perspectives.

1.6 Research question, aims and rationale for the study

Considerable research about adolescents and SNSs relates to issues that concern parents and teachers alike, such as the health, wellbeing and psychological impacts of SNS usage, cyberbullying, gaming, mobile phone texting, self-presentation and self-disclosure, online and offline identity. Little research on mediated environments exists, and few researchers have compared participation across cultures. Moreover, there is little or no historical data that provides a benchmark for comparing engagement and communication preference in mediated environments with more recent developments. This is the gap in the research that this thesis seeks to fill.

As noted previously, 2011 was a critical period of time because the numbers of young people online already represented 45 per cent of total usage. Moreover, it was the time when the next generation (Generation Z) were of an age to engage online. Finally, it was a period of time when many of the SNSs and applications were created and/or their usage significantly increased. It was and remains a critical topic of concern, because self- presentation is a very significant aspect of adolescent development. Understanding the impacts of mediated academic/social technology environments on adolescent development and learning at that crucial time provides a benchmark that will further assist

19 educators and information technology (IT) professionals design future technology platforms and systems.

This leads to the key research question of the thesis: What were the communicative preferences of Gen Z adolescents in 2011 with respect to the construction of visual self when negotiating a mediated academic/social technological environment? In exploring this question, the thesis examines how students communicated, negotiated and presented themselves visually in the artistic realm at that time. It also asks and answers the sub-questions: how did the rise of digital communication technologies change the way adolescents expressed themselves in 2011? What impacts, if any, did the use of mediated technology environments have on adolescent engagement? Hence, this benchmark research aimed to:

1. a) identify adolescents’ preferences and consumption habits in relation to art and technology; and b) compare these preferences and consumption habits across two countries; 2. explore the ways in which adolescents from two different countries presented themselves to their peers in a technologically mediated social/academic environment in relation to: i) their communication behaviour; ii) their technological comfort zone; and iii) their visual and verbal presentation of self.

Figure 1.2 provides an overview of the study and scopes the communicative preferences and consumption habits of the cohort. Moreover, it illustrates the theoretical frameworks used to analyse the findings of the research.

20 Chapter 1

Figure 1.2 Overview of the interconnectedness of key components of the study

To explore these issues, in 2011 students aged 14–17 from Singapore and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) were invited to participate in the study, and a closed blog was created on the website of the ACT Department of Education Community Learning Centre. Prior to opening the blog, the participating students (n=92) were interviewed to gauge their communicative preferences and exposure to art. On the blog, students were invited to post artwork and then engage in discussions, both formally (i.e., in nominated pairs) and then in a more open environment. Students were aware that the blog was mediated and that it could be moderated. Their communicative preferences in a non-mediated environment (stated in interviews and background surveys) and what was seen in the mediated blog were compared.

1.7 Organisation of the thesis

The remaining chapters of the thesis are organised as follows in accordance with the rationale provided in 1.1.

Chapter Two focuses on the theoretical frameworks used in the study. The emerging importance of the visual in this terrain is acknowledged and the consequences of this for the traditional communicative silos of literacy and oracy are examined both generically and specifically in relation to digital potentialities for learning. Leading on from this, the concept of visuacy is explored along with the key dilemmas of adolescence as a critical stage of development, especially in relation to the construction of self-identity and the

21 presentation of self, supported by Goffman’s (1956) social stage theory. Erikson’s (1968) critical stage of adolescence is also explored, as it provides the basis of their behaviour when negotiating in a mediated academic/social technological environment. The chapter contains an extensive review of research about adolescence in a digital age and the use of blogs as a medium for communication prior to 2011.

Chapter Three details the scope and methodology of the study in the context of previous research. It outlines the development of the relevant instruments, the process of setting up the technology platform for the blog interaction, plans for data collection and fieldwork, and the data analysis strategy.

Chapter Four presents data derived from the background survey of participants, organised under the following headings: demographics, engagement with technology, artistic profile and preferences, communicative preferences and leisure preferences.

Chapter Five expands upon the data presented in Chapter Four through an analysis of small group interviews conducted with students.

Chapter Six examines adolescents’ interpretations of self in the context of how they navigated/negotiated the technologically mediated social/academic environment.

Chapter Seven examines the benchmark findings of this study in the context of subsequent research.

Finally, Chapter Eight examines the extent to which the aims of the research were met and the significance of the key findings, reflections on the process of the project, and the limitations of the study. The implications of the study for educators and directions for further research are also explored.

CHAPTER 2 Communicative Frameworks and the Internet

2.1 Scope of the Chapter

This chapter scopes research on the communicative preferences of adolescence (Section 2.2) and the centrality of visuacy in the increasingly digital world (2.3), noting Erikson’s theoretical framework underpinning the challenges faced in adolescence (2.4 & 2.5). These include adolescents’ identity vs. role confusion, through coping strategies and social sources of influence in relation to the mediated academic/social technological environment. Section 2.6 further explores adolescents’ identities from the perspective of Goffman’s stage metaphor. The final section (2.7) explores the research up to 2010 about adolescence in a digital age, focusing on seven key publications in the field of youth and adolescence as well as extant research from cognate fields on the use of blogs as a communication medium.

2.2 Communicative preference: evolving or revolving?

This section contends that, although advancements in digital technologies to 2010 have extended young people’s perceptions of the traditional definitions of speaking and listening, their level of comfort when negotiating in the mediated academic/social technological environment remains open to question. How confident and comfortable are adolescents when using this new mode of communication? Given the emphasis on the visual identified in Chapter One and the characteristics of Gen Z learners, to what extent did this impact on traditional communication modes, both receptive and expressive? Prior to the Internet era, the traditional model of communication was as much verbal as the other forms, as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 A model of verbal communication (Davis, 1973, p.68)

Davis and Taft (1976) argued that there are distinct differences in acquiring and using speaking and writing skills. For example, the act of writing can be a solitary experience with minimal time pressure. Feedback (if any) is often delayed, and when received can be considered in private. In contrast, speaking occurs mostly in a public setting; it requires a quick assessment (if participating in a conversation), with the speaker receiving instant feedback (both verbal and non-verbal cues). While some find instant feedback a positive thing, others may recoil from engagement because of it. Moreover, speaking is less constrained by rules than writing. Finally, speaking is mostly unrecorded and dissipates as soon as it is spoken, whereas writing by its nature is permanent and can be retrieved at a later time.

Earlier, Davis (1973) developed and applied an inventory to determine subjects’ preferred communication modes, finding that people with high-quality oral expression tended to prefer speaking over writing and were more social. However, there was a bias for people who were more social to prefer speaking, probably due to their level of confidence, social norms and expectations. Davis and Taft (1976) posited two reasons for the correlation between high-quality oral expression and a preference for speaking. Firstly, people who

24 Chapter 2 are good at something naturally prefer it. Secondly, in the adolescent cohort they studied, it was generally more acceptable to speak.

Wilson and Wilson (1977) linked drawing and language development, suggesting that children learn to draw in much the same way as they learn to speak and write. They claimed that in both cases, imitation of the models provided by others facilitates the learning:

In the process of learning to speak, to use verbal signs, the word ‘cloud’ (or indeed any other word) is learned through listening to others use the word – the sign – and then imitating the sounds heard, perhaps while also pointing to the referent – the cloud. Learning to draw configurational signs is much more like learning to use verbal signs than is generally thought to be the case. Just as it is with the learning of verbal signs, so it is with the making of configurational signs; through no amount of looking at clouds will one learn to draw clouds. (Wilson & Wilson, 1977, p. 6).

Taking a similar line, Graham (1982) worked with 240 children from grades three to six in two Melbourne schools to establish their preferences for writing or drawing. The results indicated that the younger cohort preferred drawing more than the grade six students. In addition, there was a greater difference between the subjects’ performance levels in writing and drawing in the lower grades.

Studies of listening since 1999 suggest that the communicative landscape has changed dramatically and continues to do so. Bohlken (1999) found that his college (university) students spent 53 per cent of their total communication time listening and 22 per cent speaking. Davis (2001) noted that university students spent 45 per cent of their time listening and 31 per cent speaking. By 2009, however, Janusik and Wolvin (2009) reported that, while speaking face-to-face and listening remained the dominant communication preference, students were starting to replace it with online activities such as the Internet or e-mail. Redpath’s (2010) study built upon Janusik and Wolvin’s (2009) findings by looking at data usage on digital devices to assess their impacts upon higher education students. Redpath (2010) posited that students identified as ‘multimodal’ listeners, meaning that they engaged in many different modes of listening depending on

the circumstances of the social situation. Redpath’s empirical results confirmed this supposition, demonstrating patterns of listening characterised by mediated listening, multitasking and face-to-face communication. These studies suggest that the communicative terrain of the future will be infinitely more complex and fluid, a world away from the communication silos scoped in pre-Internet research studies. Figure 2.2 is the researcher’s attempt to illustrate some of this complexity in the pre-Internet age.

26 Chapter 2

Figure 2.2 Major communicative modes

Oracy, literacy and visuacy are three key communication modalities with which we communicate or express ourselves to others. However, since the emergence of new media technology, visuacy has increased in importance, arguably altering the dynamics of young peoples’ interactions, especially given the interdependence between the three

communicative modes. Some of this interdependence and divergence in the Internet era is presented in Table 2.1. All of these technology-assisted communication tools were operational during the benchmark data collection period.

Table 2.1 Exemplars of technology-assisted communication tools and their original primary purposes

TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIVE MODES COMMUNICATION TOOLS Listening Speaking Reading Writing Hand Viewing Technologies Mobile phone texting    Blogging    Twitter    WhatsApp    E-mail    Tumblr     YouTube     MySpace    Facebook    Instagram    Pinterest    Skype    

Technology-assisted communication tools evolve over time to facilitate other communicative modes, for example, the visual and audio aspects of self-expression. The dominant communicative modes are writing, reading and viewing; few of the tools listed in Table 2.1 use listening or speaking, and none use hand technologies. However, Redpath and Davis (2013) found that “texts/SMS [short message service] simulate speech and listening – and are deliberatively perceived as such by both senders and recipients” (p. 165). Therefore, arguably, texting reflects speech and hence involves listening.

Although it is evident from pre-Internet studies that students have a preference for speaking and listening, the functionality of technology-assisted communication tools encourages more writing (texting) and visual stimulus (reading and viewing), but less speaking. Therefore, listening becomes a complex merger of contexts, activities and behaviour. The question is, how comfortable or constrained were students in 2011 when SNSs were starting to appear?

28 Chapter 2 2.3 Visuacy: the importance of the visual in a digital world

This section briefly scopes the development of visuacy and argues that as young people turn more to their digital devices for communication and information, presentations on screens, especially self-presentations, are increasingly becoming more visual than verbal, with increasing emphasis on visuacy and less on oracy and literacy. As a result, not only is face-to-face time reduced but also, the quality of their verbal language is reduced to more basic expressions (for example, techno-jargons like emoticons and abbreviations).

Humans have always used images as a form of self-expression and to send messages. Debes (1969b) first coined the term ‘visual literacy’ (Fransecky & Debes, 1972) to encompass the complexities associated with the cognitive processing of what is seen rather than what is read or heard. Debes (1969b) noted:

‘Visual Literacy’ refers to a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. The development of these competencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed, they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions, objects, symbols, natural or man- made, that he encounters in his environment. Through the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. Through the appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to comprehend and enjoy the masterworks of visual communication. (cited in Avgerinou & Ericson 1997, p. 281)

A more recent and explicit definition of visual literacy, by Felten (2008), is that:

‘Visual literacy’ involves the ability to understand, produce, and use culturally significant images, objects, and visible actions… With training and practice, people can develop the ability to recognize, interpret, and employ the distinct syntax and semantics of different visual forms. The process of becoming visually literate continues through a lifetime of learning new and more sophisticated ways to produce, analyze and use images. (p. 60)

Furthermore, Felten (2008) argued that with the advent of technologies that enable text and images to be blended, it might be time to reconsider the notion of literacy.

Part of the definition for visual literacy involves ‘seeing’. Davis (2008) argued that the concept of ‘seeing’ was still not adequately defined in educational literature, but added that the terms ‘visual’ and ‘view’ could be a subset of the definition once determined. However, the terms ‘numeracy’ and ‘literacy’ are well understood and are thoroughly addressed in school curricula worldwide. Visual presentations are an inescapable part of our everyday lives. From billboard ads and posters to films and mass media, visual presentations are all around us. Table 2.2 presents various definitions of the word ‘see’ to illustrate the multiple usages of the term.

Table 2.2 Definitions of the word ‘see’

To perceive (light, colour, external objects and their movements) with the eyes… To behold (visual objects) in imagination, or in a dream or vision To perceive objects by sight To perceive mentally; to apprehend by thought… To perceive, apprehend, or appreciate in a particular manner To perceive by visual tokens To learn by reading To direct the sight (literal or metaphorical) intentionally To look at, contemplate, examine, inspect, or scrutinize To visit (a place) To attend (a play etc.) as a spectator To ascertain by inspection, inquiry, experiment or consideration To make sure by inspection that certain conditions exist To know by observation (ocular and other); To witness…to observe, find… Source: Davis, 2008, p. 9, adapted from The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 1973:1928

Davis (2008) also noted issues with adopting the term ‘visual literacy’ and proposed the following definition:

The essence of visual in the 20th century should be encapsulated in the new term ‘visuacy’ which is defined here as involving the ability to create, process, critique and appreciate the spectrum visual phenomena in the individual’s external and internal environment. (p. 11)

In the digital world, visuacy can encompass capacities such as the process of learning by seeing, as well as individuals learning more quickly and easily if the information in front of them can be processed visually. Visual devices can be used to communicate, inform and persuade; these skills are highly applicable in the context of our experience of the visual world of digital technology. Table 2.3 presents the expanding array of different

30 Chapter 2 online visual communication modes, the visual devices that support them, and their functions prior to the benchmarking data collection.

Table 2.3 Online visual communication modes, visual devices and functions

VISUAL COMMUNICATION VISUAL DEVICES FUNCTIONS MODES E-mail Computers, laptops, tablets, Modern version of a letter. Can include smartphones attachments – pictures, photos, audio or multimedia files

SMS (Short Message Smartphones, mobile Send short text messages and images Service, aka mobile phones phone texting) Instant messaging Mostly a smartphone app Exchange of private text messages, can include attachments – pictures, photos, audio or multimedia files

Chat rooms Computers, laptops, tablets Hosting text conversations

Bulletin boards Computers, laptops, tablets Online public posting and reading of messages

Blogs Computers, laptops, tablets Online publication of posts, with public or private access

SNSs Computers, laptops, tablets, Hosting online profiles (public or private), smartphones interactions with friends, posting & sharing messages, photos or videos, provision of news and advertisements

Video sharing Computer, laptops, tablets, smartphones Uploading, viewing and sharing video clips

Photo sharing Computers, laptops, tablets, Uploading, viewing and sharing photos with public smartphones or private access

Online computer games Computers, laptops, I-pads, Online, multiple players smartphones Virtual worlds Computers, laptops, tablets Provision of online simulated 3D environments that allow players to interact via avatars

Source: Subrahmanyam and Greenfield (2008) p. 121.

Mediated academic/social technological environments such as chat rooms, blogs, online bulletin boards or SNSs have an additional interactive element to the total visual experience and visual communication that previously only television offered; that is, users are both the audience and the performer, as the medium allows users to present themselves through words. Depending on the platform used, photographs can also be

uploaded. Adolescents and young adults typically spend a lot of time deciding on which photo to use as their profile, highlighting the importance they place on establishing their identity and maintaining social networks (Salimkhan, Manago, & Greenfield, 2010). Such visual presentations on SNSs are better known as ‘selfies’.

Selfies are considered intimate as they are taken specifically to share with others and they also reflect a personal experience. In a study by Manago, Graham, Greenfield, and Salimkhan (2008), young adults were interviewed in focus groups on their strategies when placing photos on MySpace. Both males and females thought the females put greater emphasis on choosing attractive pictures. Both sexes used stereotypical images of strong men and attractive women to depict themselves. Siibak (2009) surveyed Estonian teenagers using SNS, and also found that girls more often selected more attractive photos of themselves than boys. Similarly, Kapidzic and Herring (2011) looked at teen chat sites and found that 71 per cent of girls used seductive photos, compared to 28 per cent of boys; however, boys tended to depict themselves in dominant poses, and often their photos were of them in the distance looking away from the camera.

One can speculate that media portrayals are likely to have influenced young people’s visual presentations of self. For example, Leit, Pope, and Gray (2001) pointed out that all forms of media have a disproportionate tendency to show muscular male bodies. Furthermore, the boundaries of artistic expression are not always distinct. In a digital world, visuacy encompasses all aspects of both the intentional and unintentional aspects of visual communication.

Given that increasingly interactive social media experiences are so different from the spectator orientation of traditional film and television, a new model of visuacy, which takes this into account is needed. Figure 2.3 presents the researcher’s view of the pre- Internet traditional model of communication and then compares it with the 2011 Internet version that includes visuacy.

32 Chapter 2

Pre-Internet 2011 - Internet Age ORACY LITERACY ORACY LITERACY

VISUACY

Traditional Communicative Modes Online Visual Communicative Modes (e.g. Letters, telephone, face-to-face) (e.g. Selfies, emoticons, techno-language)

Figure 2.3 Pre-Internet communication and the channelling of communicative modes towards visuacy

Communicative modes have always influenced and shaped oracy and literacy. In the 2011 Internet age model, visuacy disrupts the traditional communicative modes of literacy and oracy and encompasses a much more fluid communicative structure in which visuacy may act as the communicative organiser.

According to Fleming and Levie (1993), one of the many ways users perceive, select and process online images can be explained through the basic principles of perception. The way users perceive, select and process online images can be overwhelming, given the amount of information available. This can influence our learning, problem solving ability, development of critical thinking and concept formation (Fleming & Levie, 1993, as cited in Avgerinou & Ericson, 1997). Avgerinou and Ericson (1997) further argued that people tend to underestimate the role of visual mental imagery (as a cognitive process) when discussing learning.

The online world is a comfortable environment for many adolescents and young adults, and as a result, it is creating visual learners who communicate visually and are much more visually literate than their parents (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). However, Felten (2008) asserted that adolescents’ and young adults’ visual literacy does not mean they are visually sophisticated. Visuacy skills need to be explicitly taught and learned, as is the case with literacy, oracy and numeracy.

Presentations on the screen are increasingly more visual than verbal, with increasing emphasis on visuacy and less on oracy and literacy as we proceed through the different stages of the information age. For example, Internet technologies are more visual than aural, and this has fashioned our rhetorical grammar in subtle ways. These changes do not occur suddenly, but rather, they slowly appear into our reality, little by little, day by day. Visual language and verbal language/literacy development have become intertwined. Although the literature from the pre-Internet era (e.g., Barley, 1971; Debes, 1968; Flory, 1978; Hortin, 1994; Johnson, 1977) suggests that visual language can support the development of verbal language/literacy, this may not be the case in this increasingly digital world.

As young people turn more to their digital technology for social connections, not only is their face-to-face verbal communication time reduced tremendously but the quality of their verbal communication is reduced through the increasing use of basic techno-jargon such as emoticons and abbreviations. Tables 2.4 and 2.5 present examples of emoticons and abbreviations of key phrases that were prevalent in the very early 2000s.

Table 2.4 Emoticons commonly used in text messages in the early 2000s

EMOTICONS DEFINITIONS :-) Smiling face ;-) Smile with a wink :-( Frown :-# My lips are sealed :-D Laughing :-O Shocked B-) Cool :-@ Screaming :P Sticking tongue out :/ Confused Source: Kay (2002). Emoticons and Internet shorthand. Computerworld, Vol. 36, no. 3, p. 42.

34 Chapter 2

Table 2.5 Abbreviations commonly used in text messages in the early 2000s

ABBREVIATIONS DEFINITIONS AAMOF As a matter of fact AFAIK As far as I know BTDT Been there done that BTW By the way BRB Be right back F2F Face-to-face G2G (GTG) Got to go IKR I know right IDC I don’t care IDK I don’t know LMHO Laughing my head off LOL Laugh out loud ROTFL Rolling on the floor laughing Source: Kay (2002). Emoticons and Internet shorthand. Computerworld, Vol. 36, no. 3, p. 42.

Emoticons and abbreviations make communication direct, simple and accessible to those in the know, but they may also constrain the repertoire of human communication and fail to convey the complexity of human emotions and the flow of thoughts and ideas. In 1945, Hadamard noted that language could interfere with or constraint one’s creative thoughts, yet has the potential to categorise the world. However, mental pictures can help one break out of these language constraints (as cited in Knowlton, 1996).

2.4 Erikson: adolescence as a critical stage

In light of the discussion on communication, this section now focuses more specifically on adolescents’ development of identity and their exploration and expression of self in their mediated social/academic technological environment, and reflects on adolescents’ critical stages (Erikson, 1968) and development of relationships (Selman, 1981). Then it discusses the literature on their coping strategies and social sources of influence in relation to their mediated academic/social technological environment, infomed by Goffman’s (1956) social theory of presentation of self. According to Selman (1981), adolescents are capable of sophisticated and complex knowledge of self and to understanding interrelationships and the perspectives of others. Therefore, adolescents should have adequate control over their social media choices and self-expressions when negoitating and navigating their mediated academic/social technological environment.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adults. (Erikson, 1963, p. 245, as cited in McLeod, 2008b)

During this transitional phase from child to adult, it is not surprising that adolescents face important challenges in their development of self – such as realising their individual self, personal abilities and ambition in relation to the world they live in. According to Erikson (1958, 1963), there are eight stages of life development, as shown in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 Stages of human development and the associated psychological crises (Erikson, 1959)

STAGE PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS AGE 1 Trust vs. mistrust Infancy (0–1½) 2 Autonomy vs. shame Early Childhood (1½–3) 3 Initiative vs. guilt Play Age (3–5) 4 Industry vs. inferiority School Age (5–12) 5 Ego identity vs. role confusion Adolescence (12–18) 6 Intimacy vs. isolation Young Adult (18–40) 7 Generativity vs. stagnation Adulthood (40 –65) 8 Ego integrity vs. despair Maturity (65+) Source: McLeod (2008b)

Each stage represents a crisis which must be resolved if the individual’s development is to proceed smoothly. Stage five is the one relevant to this study, because it is the critical stage for identity and role development. At this stage, adolescents experience not only physical changes but psychological and emotional changes as they learn to manage transitions in their social environment (e.g., transitioning from primary to secondary school, and from secondary school to college or university – Eccles, 1999). This period of development provides opportunities to adolescents to further develop their childhood identity and understand the accepted social norms and practices of the adult world. McLeod (2008b) pointed out that adolescents want to be able to enjoy their freedom and at the same time be accepted by the people around them – such as their family, peers and teachers – and to fit into society. This is the time for them to question, explore and discover themselves; such as thinking in abstract perspectives occurs in what Piaget and Cook (1952) termed the ‘formal operational stage’, which runs from approximately age

36 Chapter 2 11 to young adulthood. This development allows adolescents to become more conscious of themselves and their physical and social environment.

Thinking abstract thoughts and understanding and defining oneself may represent an advance in an adolescent’s cognitive development, but they can also be burdened with uncertainty and anxiety (Larson & Richards, 1994, as cited in Arnett, 1999). As adolescents interact with others, and participate in social activities and accept social responsibilities while learning to be sensible and mature adults, they will encounter difficulties, especially when they must reconcile what they believe or perceive themselves or their roles to be with others’ expectations and views of them. It is during this period that adolescents are forced to re-examine and reconstruct their selves and find out who they really are, what they really want and where they are heading.

The interpersonal orientation of Selman’s (1981) level four of development integrates with Erikson’s abovementioned levels (Erikson’s psychosocial stage 5, see Table 2.6). According to Selman (1981), at this level, “affective and cognitive aspects of conduct are integrated by the self’s capacity to identify self and other the relation between action and underlying affect and motives” (p. 415). Therefore, adolescents have a refined and multifaceted understanding of self and others, and the relationship between both.

The theories of Erikson (1959) and Selman (1981) suggest that adolescents at this critical developmental stage should be able to manage their social media choices and their socialisation from these online sources in constructing their presentation of self.

2.5 Identity vs. role confusion: scoping opportunities for resolution in the Internet age

Adolescents’ cognitive and social development, as discussed in the previous section, equips them to cope with their mediated academic/social technological environment. Adolescence is a key period for identity development (Weber & Mitchell, 2008). What role does identity play in engaging in the Internet? How might identity theory explain the influence of communicative behaviours, adolescents’ technological comfort zones and their visual and verbal presentation of self? How do adolescents portray their identities

online? How might these portrayals of identity differ from those in mediated academic/social technological environments? This section explores these issues, using research into how adolescents express their identity online in forums such as blogs, Facebook and Second Life.

‘Who am I?’ This is one of the fundamental questions of identity. It requires multifaceted and complex responses. One of its components is personal identity, which is built up over time through individual projects and pursuits that are not for a community, but for one’s self (Mayer, Greenbaum, Kuenzi, & Shteynberg, 2009). Another component, social identity, looks at the part of one’s self that is drawn from engagement with groups with many different social categories. Personal and social identities should not be seen as discrete concepts; they overlap and are intertwined. Humans have a strong desire to belong, feel accepted and gain standing and status. We are social creatures who mainly live, play and work in groups (Bukowski & Sippola, 2001). Identity communication refers to a person’s effort to express and present themselves with the view of reaching a shared understanding of others (Ma & Agarwal, 2007). Identity is not permanent; it is fluid, often changing and can be renegotiated (Weber & Mitchell, 2008).

How people identify themselves and how others identify them will vary depending on the context (Brubaker & Cooper, 2000). Social interaction is based on the idea that everyone respects the identity to which they lay claim (Swann, Pelham, & Krull, 1989). There are numerous everyday contexts in which this occurs, both formal and informal; moreover, in the last two decades, more and more of these contexts are online. Brubaker and Cooper (2000) argued that the state is a powerful identifier, because it has the symbols, classification schemes and systems to which actors must conform; it could be argued that online applications have similar structures in place to which people engaging their identity have to adhere. Whilst there is flexibility (e.g., you do not have to select your true gender in an online profile), there are boundaries. This idea is further explored later.

During adolescence, individuals tend to compare who they are now to who they were when they were when younger. Moreover, they look at how they are perceived by others in different social contexts (Davis, 2010). Unlike in previous stages of development, in

38 Chapter 2 adolescence peer interaction tends to take place with minimal adult guidance or supervision and is more likely to involve engagement with the opposite sex (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006). This pathway is consistent across most cultural groups. In addition, the role of parents decreases, as friends become the primary source of social support (Collins & Steinberg, 2006). Adolescents are usually members of one or more peer groups. Although common interests and/or shared activities (e.g., playing sport) are key reasons for membership, a peer group also provides an environment in which to establish social hierarchies (ibid.). Traditional peer groups have similar characteristics: they are cohesive, homogenous and evolve at a controlled and measured pace (Bukowski & Sippola, 2001). Those who do not contribute tend to be victimised. However, adolescents who are more confident with their identity may think associations with peer groups are less important. Moreover, crowd membership (which is assigned by the peer group and not the individual) is linked to how adolescents perceive themselves (Rubin et al., 2006). Being part of the crowd may limit exploration of new identities and discourage shifts to other crowd memberships. As they grow older, adolescents create their own personal morals and values and no longer feel the need to belong to (and/or broadcast their membership of) a particular crowd (ibid.). Therefore, adolescents may be strongly influenced by their peer groups and the distractions around them (Eccles, 1999), and arguably, are ultimately responsible for the making of their self. Ma and Agarwal (2007) argued that individuals – regardless of whether they are on or offline – always want to be recognised by others as the person they think they are. On this basis, identity is more than just what others think but also the way one thinks of oneself and how one chooses to relate and present self to others.

Ylvisaker, Hibbard, and Feeney (2006) posited that “self-identities, especially those of young people, are dynamic or in flux” (para. 2). Young people constantly look at options and start to create their own identities based on what they discover. Ma and Agarwal (2007) examined the role knowledge contribution online has in verifying one’s identity and “how perceived identity verification is enabled by the use of IT in an online community” (p. 43). They posited that there are four community IT artefacts that provide identity verification: virtual co-presence, persistent labelling, self-presentation and deep profiling. They found that technology factors have two important roles:

One, they support identity communication through self-presentation. Two, they help reduce attribution differences so that the sender and receiver can achieve a shared understanding. (p. 49)

The inability to create a sense of identity within a society can lead to role misunderstanding. This leads to individuals not knowing where they fit into society (McLeod, 2008). Individuals may have control over some parts of their identity, but it is also influenced by the world in which the individual lives. Figure 2.4 offers the researcher’s view of how an adolescent may present the self in a digital world. They can have two identities (or many more) and have multiple roles both in the off and online realms. The world, with the advent of SNS, has multiple audiences, both seen and unseen.

Figure 2.4 The individual's presentation of self to the world

Debate concerning the honesty and authenticity of online compared to offline identity continues. Some are suspicious of online identity, while others perceive that it is the nature of the mediated academic/social technological environment that facilitates the individual’s versatility and imagination of the self. For example, Cabrina (2008) noted that virtual worlds can play a positive role in developing identity, particularly when people are socially, emotionally and/or cognitively isolated. Cabrina looked at whether participation in virtual communities (such as Second Life) could “ease the harmful effects of real life marginalization” of adolescent gay and lesbian adolescents (p. 4). He found that the structure and design of virtual worlds enabled participants to test and explore their personalities in ways, which are not easily done in the real world. There was also evidence of transferable positive real-world benefits that users gained from the virtual world. However, other researchers of virtual worlds such as Second Life are more cautious. The creation of a virtual life in Second Life is more complex than on other platforms (such as Facebook), because users are unable to use their own names and additionally are required to create three-dimensional (3D) characters. Whilst this might appeal to some (as Cabrina

40 Chapter 2 showed), it can be an issue for others (Boon & Sinclair, 2009). Researching another virtual world called LambdaMOO3, Curtis (1997) studied 3,500 different players from a dozen countries. This game allowed for perfect anonymity as it did not allow users to be identified by other players. He found that some players changed their (online) sex so as to entice male participants. For some, this was to test out fantasies and to see how it felt to approach other men in a safe environment.

According to Siibak (2009), the impetus for the adolescents to create an SNS profile is to provide a social focus, especially in the case of girls. In Siibak’s research, which examined 713 11–18-year-olds from Estonia, also found that girls are more conscious of creating their visual self, which is aesthetic, emotional and more self-representative than their male counterparts. Siibak then argued that their visual impression management in SNSs varies according to the expectations of their peer groups, as their profile images may constantly evolve based on their values and current climate of what is on ‘trend’. In contrast, Back et al. (2010) suggested that people did not use their online profiles to promote an idealised virtual identity; instead, they argued that online profiles were an efficient medium for expressing and communicating real-life personalities. Their research involved 236 online users aged 17–22 years in the United States (using Facebook, n=133) and in Germany (using StudiVZ, n=103). Back et al. (2010) posited that it was harder to create an idealised identity than a real one because the profiles include reputational information (such as photographs and posts) and friends provide accountability and feedback.

Similarly, Davis (2010) studied girls who had been long-term bloggers, finding they used their blogs “to engage in the important developmental tasks of identity expression and social interaction” (p. 164). However, Boon and Sinclair (2009) asserted that Facebook does allow for individuals to create a more realistic portrayal of one’s self. They further argued that there are strong cultural and societal norms that tempt users to be more creative, for example, by presenting themselves as younger and/or better qualified than in reality. These findings show that the interactive features and connectedness of new media technology such as SNS provide an interwoven experience of emotional support,

3 Which is an online community / virtual world founded in the 1990s.

experimentation and peer validation that adolescents want and value; arguably this space is an extension of their peer group, particularly school life, in which adolescents can continue their identity exploration.

As illustrated so far, the area of identity and self-presentation is very well researched. The section above gives a snapshot of some of the key elements, particularly for adolescents, who are the focus of this research. The intent was to provide a prism through which the influence of the research subjects’ communicative behaviour, technological comfort zone and their visual and verbal presentation of self could be viewed. This research helps inform adolescents’ communicative preferences when negotiating a mediated technological environment. From the above, it is clear that different technological platforms enable different degrees of flexibility for adolescents in presenting and testing their identities online. Some (such as Facebook and some blogs) are used to record daily activities. Whilst these provide some scope to embellish one’s identity, systems and processes moderate such behaviour (e.g., the fear of being ‘called out’ by friends for a boastful post). Virtual worlds provide venues for identity exploration in a safe, anonymous and controlled environment. Although not without risks, there is some evidence of positive benefits gained from achievements in the virtual world feeding into real life. This is an important distinction, and it may help explain some of the findings of this research.

2.6 Identity: presentation of self as performance – Goffman’s stage metaphor

This section provides an overview of Goffman’s theories relating to the development of adolescents’ self-identity and their presentation of self, sense of audience and participation in the context of the mediated academic/social technological environment. As discussed in the previous sections, the mediated academic/social technological environment offers developmental pathways to adolescents, in Goffman’s term, a stage with a wider audience (not available to generations from the pre-Internet era) to which they can play, including exploring their identities and experimenting their presentations of self. However, from the researcher’s observations, the on-stage boundaries, such as the public identity (online identity) and private off-stage identity (offline identity), and the

42 Chapter 2 differences between self-presentation and self-disclosure in the mediated academic/social technological environment, remain tricky for adolescents. Furthermore, episodes of adolescents’ life experiments in the digital age are captured and amplified in the mediated academic/social technological environment. As a result, adolescents’ identities and presentations of self are constantly challenged. To what extent are they comfortable when negotiating or navigating in the mediated academic/social technological environment?

Goffman (1956) proposed that our real-life interactions are like a ‘performance’ in which the performer–environment–audience relationships are important:

When an individual plays a part he implicitly requests his observers to take seriously the impression that is fostered before them. They are asked to believe that the character they see actually possesses the attributes he appears to possess, that the task he performs will have the consequences that are implicitly claimed for it, and that, in general, matters are what they appear to be. In line with this, there is a popular view that the individual offers his performance and puts on his show ‘for the benefit of other people’. (p. 10)

Goffman (1956, 1974) argued that individuals as performers take on many different roles in constructing and convincing the audience of their social identities in a theatrical metaphor. This enables performers to frame the interaction (with the audience) and understand their roles (contexts) appropriately. In other words, performers are given the freedom to exercise discretion and manage boundaries so that they can produce a convincing performance according to their audience and environment. To develop the theatrical metaphor further, Goffman (1956) described everyday life as having a front stage and back stage. There is no audience backstage, so individuals (performers) can construct their onstage persona freely. On the front stage, in front of an audience, individuals manage their self-presentations and behave differently, and their performances differ according to different audiences. The individuals’ self-assurance comes from getting the audience to accept the performance (presentation of self) as presented on stage:

A tacit agreement is maintained between performers and audience to act as if a given degree of opposition and of accord existed between them. Typically, but not

always, agreement is stressed and opposition is underplayed. We find that the resulting working consensus tends to be contradicted by the attitude toward the audience which the performers express in the absence of the audience and by carefully controlled communication out of character conveyed by the performers while the audience is present. (Goffman, 1956, p. 152)

Given Goffman’s (1956) theory, one might speculate that adolescents in their developmental stage of searching for identity might be trying to establish these frames or roles on their stage. Very often, as Benson (2009) pointed out, one of the issues of the online stage is that there is a lack of privacy; allowing audience access to the backstage might put their onstage performance in jeopardy. In other words, in an online stage the audience is omnipresent, therefore there is no opportunity for a dress rehearsal to test a role.

In the context of the mediated academic/social technological environment, the parameters of Goffman’s (1956) front stage and back stage concept are ambiguous, because contemporary adolescents may disagree with what is frontstage and what is backstage. For example, Facebook is a public onstage space where personal information that may have traditionally been considered backstage is often shared.

The presentation of self in the mediated academic/social technological environment is arguably more deliberate and calculated than our informal behaviours in real life, and perhaps has more conscious effects on the audience than casual interaction with face-to- face acquaintances. For example, the work of Turkle (1995) explored how the creation of new online personas is used to deal with perceived or real inadequacies. This phenomenon is often cited by the mass media to highlight the problems and issues arising from the screen being the dividing line between who an individual (performer) is and who they desire to be. There are of course more opportunities to experiment with, construct and present self with a larger audience online, thus confirming Goffman’s (1959) complex and overlapping view of the presentation of self as performance, self-regulating and impression management.

44 Chapter 2 Goffman (1956) further pointed out that not only do performers wish to present an ideal self to minimise the embarrassment of a failed performance, but other participants and even the audience are motivated to avoid embarrassment:

In order to prevent the occurrence of incidents and the embarrassment consequent upon them, it will be necessary for all the participants in the interaction, as well as those who did not participate, to possess certain attributes and to express these attributes in practices employed for saving the show. (p. 135)

In this sense, the self is presented for the purpose of interacting with others, and it is important to develop and maintain the cooperation of others through the interaction. However, in the context of the mediated academic/social technological environment, the regulating and controlling forces of any confrontation or embarrassment is less likely, although personal and psychological problems such as self-consciousness, anxiety, disappointment, disillusionment, insecurity, fear and intimidation remain. The results of this study will be viewed in light of these factors.

This sense of precariousness and insecurity may be explained by the fact that the conscious presentation of self in a face-to-face interaction (in the pre-Internet era) can be ‘retired’ once it has performed its purpose. On the other hand, in the Internet era, one’s front is being presented to the entire world continuously, with the consequence that one must consciously and constantly decide how these presentations should appear and consider the extent to which they convey what is intended. Although new media technology, such as SNS, open new opportunities for presentation of self, and can be managed directly by the author, it can be argued that online presentation of self does not offer the rich and complex layers of interpersonal interaction in the performance that Goffman (1981) described. Goffman (1981) outlined a series of system requirements for interactions in which he insisted that verbal or non-verbal behaviour be examined along with the context of that behaviour:

When individuals in the presence of others respond to events, their glances, looks and postural shifts carry all kinds of implications and meaning. When in these settings words are spoken, the tone of voice, manner of uptake, restarts and the variously positioned pauses similarly qualify. (pp. 1-2)

With respect to our everyday face-to-face interactions, Goffman (1981) distinguished between information that is intended to be given and managed, and information that ‘leaks’ unintentionally (through non-verbal cues such as body language). In online presentations of self, it is difficult to establish oneself as a whole person and to avoid unintentional non- verbal cues. The mediated academic/social technological environment provides more opportunities for embodiment than traditional communication channels with less face-to- face interaction, such as sharing photos of self or loved ones, snapshots of vacations, favourite graphics, snatches of speech, and access to a labyrinth of one’s interests and lifestyle. Hence, online there is always the possibility for misrepresentation or misinterpretation, and there is always room for personal information to be distributed – but often this is not the information the author wants to show. This was the case at the time of the research, and perhaps even more in the final years of the second decade of the 21st century.

Goffman’s theories were developed at a time when television was achieving ubiquity (between the 1950s and 2000s) in the Western world. The emphasis in mass media shifted from words (radio) to images (television). This cultural shift affected the way people understood themselves: presentation of self became increasingly more important and more informed by images seen on television, in movies and advertisements. One might argue that in this period people began to gain more personal reinforcement about identity from these visual images in the mass media than from real social groups (Allan, 2010). These developments have been sustained in the new media technology age, as people seek the same verification of identity not only from their visual experience online but from their connections in virtual social groups. As computers become as ubiquitous as television, more research is looking at the effect of computer-mediated communication on impression management and self-presentation (e.g., Albright, 2001; Becker & Stamp, 2001; Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006; Hancock & Dunham, 2001). However, there is little discussion about the presentation of self from the perspective of visualisation as a means of communicating self in relation to preferences in art and technology, particularly among adolescents and youth.

If Goffman (1956) perceived the world as a stage, one might speculate that the screen in new media technology is a mirror. The way adolescents construct their identity and

46 Chapter 2 presentation of self is a reflection of how, and with whom they interact – individuals, social groups and contexts – and thus play multiple roles, and at the same time learn new roles. Contemporary adolescents represent themselves online in a richly layered and complex manner in both visual and verbal modes. Unfortunately, there exists very little research into the purposes and preferences behind the presentation of self and the extent to which adolescents feel comfortable in seeking reinforcement of their identity in this mediated environment. This topic will be explored in this thesis.

2.7 What does research tell us about adolescence in a digital age?

There is a considerable body of research pertaining to adolescents’ behaviour and characteristics, as evidenced by the fact that there are seven major specialist journals focusing on youth and adolescence. How much of that literature, however, engages with the impact of experiencing the adolescent transition in a digital age? Seven journals published over the period 2006–2010 were reviewed in terms of their key focus, resulting in 15 categories. Table 2.7 presents these categories, along with a brief description and a selection of exemplar article titles with key words highlighted in yellow.

Table 2.7 Categories of research topics derived from article titles – key foci of published articles

Categories Description Examples of titles 1. Youth subculture Youth subculture including religion,  A return to the Chicago school? From the hip hop culture, music and youth “subculture” of taxi dancers to the contemporary organisation lap dancer  Departies: conceptualising extended youth parties  Embodying hard core: rethinking “subculture” authenticities 2. Youth transition to Youth aspirations, perceptions of  Value differences between generations in China: a adulthood future, views/opinions/risking-taking, study of Shanghai challenges/engagement/experiences,  Identity and future concerns among adolescents youth transition to adulthood, from Italy, Turkey and Germany: intra-and-between- friendships/peer dynamics/romantic cultural comparisons relationships/dating  Turning points in the romantic history of emerging adults

3. Youth Youth social support, community  An examination of family and social support support development, volunteering leisure, networks as a function of ethnicity and gender: a parental/family support, descriptive study of youths from three ethnic socioeconomic independence, reference groups counselling and relating issues  Parental financial support and filial responsibility in emerging adulthood: a comparative study between the United States and South Korea

Categories Description Examples of titles 4. Youth mobility/ Youth mobility/migration  Becoming a migrant: aspirations of youths during migration their transition to adulthood in rural Mexico  Making sense of migration: young Turks’ experiences in the United Kingdom

5. Alcohol Alcohol consumption, substance  Binge drinking in a sample of Scottish Consumption& abuse (e.g., drug addiction), smoking undergraduate students Substance abuse and related issues  Drug normalisation and Australian youth: a group differences in the social accommodation of drug use  Smoking and adolescence: exploring tobacco consumption and related attitudes in three different adolescent group in Switzerland

6. Youth education/ Youth education, academic  “I just want a job” – what do we really know about employment achievements/performance, young people in jobs without training? school/education policy, youth  Successful placement or displacement in the employment, career, vocational transition from school to vocational training: a case training of lower secondary school pupils

7. Youth at risk Social inequality, marginalisation,  Youth homelessness and individualised subjectivity disadvantage, at-risk youth,  Resilient street youth: a qualitative South African homelessness, discrimination, class, study vulnerable youth, poverty/adversity  Young people and structural inequality: beyond the middle ground

8. Indigenous youth Indigenous youth  Dreams and aspirations of mobile young Aboriginal Australian people  The challenges of reintegrating indigenous youth after their release from detention  Re-working everyday concepts of civic virtue and ethnic belonging among indigenous youth in Chile

9. Youth wellbeing Youth development, body image, self-  Youth perception of suicide and help-seeking: identity, mental health (stress, “They’d think I was weak or “mental” depression, self-injury, suicidal,  Self-control and the fear of death among isolation, sedentary etc.), wellbeing, adolescents in Hong Kong personal safety, sociability, bullying,  Uncontrollable stress, coping and subjective well- self/peer assessment, self- being in urban adolescent control/self-regulation  Investigation the problem of bullying through phot elicitation

10. Youth political/civil Political/social awareness and civil  Ukrainian youth and civic engagement: engagement participation unconventional participation in local spaces  Examining citizenship participation in young Australian adults: a structural equation analysis  Students’ political engagement: a comprehensive study of University of Ottawa undergraduate students

11. Youth sexuality Gender, sexuality, health, LGBTQI and  The perpetuation of hegemonic male power and loss related domestic issues of boyhood innocence: a case study from the music industry  Girls, computer and “becoming”: The Pink Voice writing project  Sexual perceptions and practices of young people in Northern Thailand  Perspective of LGBTQ emerging adults on the depiction and impact of LGBTQ media representation

48 Chapter 2

Categories Description Examples of titles 12. Juvenile Juvenile delinquency, violence,  Gambling as a social problem: on the social delinquency gangster, anti-social behaviour, conditions of gambling in Canada gambling, aggression, intervention  Rethinking youth violence and healing  The role of delinquency, proactive aggression, psychopathy and behavioural school engagement in reported youth gang

13. Cyberbullying/ Inter Cyberbullying, cyberbystanders,  Empathic responses by cyberbystanders: the net addiction aggression online, internet addiction, importance of proximity inappropriate online behaviour (e.g.  Talking smack and telephone game: conceptualizing sexting) cyberbullying with middle and high school youth  “It’s just drama”: teen perspectives on conflict and aggression in a networked era

14. Digital world Youth engagement with the digital  The challenges of participatory research with “tech- (internet & social world, internet and social media savvy” youth media)  How do young people identify with online and offline peer groups? A comparison between UK, Spain and Japan  “I was bored so…”: motivational accounts of participation in an online emo group

15. Others Others  The end of the long baby-boomer generation The brain in the jar: a critique of discourses of adolescent brain development  Reflections on the use of spatial and relational metaphors in youth studies

2.7.1 Journals focusing on adolescence and youth Over 2006–2010, 4352 articles were published in the seven journals listed in Table 2.8, which presents a breakdown of the content of each journal in 15 major categories, and for all journals together for the period. The specific journal raw data is presented in Table A.1.1–A.1.7 and the consolidated raw data in Table A.1.8 (Appendix A). The categories highlighted in yellow are those relevant to the digital age.

Table 2.8 PART ONE: Categories of articles in major youth and adolescence journals, 2006–2010, and their prevalences

Journal of Journal of Journal of Youth & Journal of Journal of International TOTAL Research on Youth Adolescent Society Adolescen Youth & Journal of Adolescence Studies Research ce Adolescence Adolescence % & Youth Youth subculture 1.73 5.61 5.33 4.27 0 1.25 3.45 2.28 %

Youth transition 9.83 15.31 22.67 9.40 7.42 9.39 3.45 10.80 to adulthood % Youth support 18.50 12.76 22.00 12.82 17.03 14.20 13.79 15.81

% Youth mobility/ 0.58 3.57 2.67 1.71 0 2.71 0 1.76 migration % Alcohol 6.36 6.12 2.67 11.11 7.42 8.56 1.72 7.09 consumption/ Substance abuse % Youth education/ 9.25 8.16 6.00 11.97 4.12 4.18 39.66 7.35 employment % Youth at risk 6.36 10.71 2.67 7.69 1.92 3.34 51.17 4.62 %

Indigenous youth 0 0.51 0 0 0 0 0 0.07 %

Youth 22.54 6.12 8.00 11.11 40.66 30.48 12.07 24.53 well-being % Youth 1.16 6.63 0.67 2,56 1.37 1.25 0 1.95 political/civil participation % Gender/health/ 10.98 11.22 15.33 10.26 9.62 10.86 8.62 10.93 sexuality % Juvenile 10.40 6.12 6.00 12.82 6.04 11.69 8.62 8.91 delinquency % Cyberbullying/ 0 0 0 0.85 0.55 0.21 1.72 0.33 internet addiction % Digital world 1.73 4.08 4.67 3.42 2.75 1.04 0 2.41 (internet & social media) % Others 0.58 3.06 1.33 0 1.10 0.34 1.72 1.17 %

Digital world & new media technology

Between 2006 and 2010, almost two and a half per cent of articles in the seven major youth and adolescence journals focused on issues relating to the digital world/new media technology, and most of those related directly to the digital world/internet/social media. The most common focus was ‘youth well-being’ (nearly 25 per cent) followed by ‘youth support’ (nearly 16 per cent). Most of the articles in these categories described studies of

50 Chapter 2 generic behaviours (e.g., “Assessing causality in the relationship between adolescents’ risky sexual online behaviour and their perception of this behaviour” – Baumgartner, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2010); investigations of a specific teaching method, such as pedagogy studies (e.g., “The role of community technology centers in promoting youth development” – London, Paster, Servon, Rostener, & Wallace, 2010); or research in specific disciplinary contexts, such as clinical psychology (e.g., “Use of information and communication technology (ICT) and perceived health in adolescence: The role of sleeping habits and waking-time tiredness” – Punamaki, Wallenius, Nygard, Saarni, & Rimpela, 2007).

Table 2.9 shows the number of articles in each of five main categories relating to the digital world/internet/social media published in the period (2006–2010). A summary of each article is presented in Appendix A.

Table 2.9 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in seven major youth and adolescence journals, 2006–2010

Internet/Social Facebook Gaming Romantic Perception of Others Media Relationships/ Social Consumption Friendships Media/Internet/ Technology JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE TOTAL=10 7 0 2 1 0 0

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE & YOUTH 0 0 0 0 0 0 TOTAL=0

JOURNAL OF YOUTH & ADOLESCENCE 1 0 3 1 0 0 TOTAL=5

YOUTH & SOCIETY TOTAL=4 2 0 1 0 0 1

JOURNAL OF RSEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 1 0 0 2 0 0 TOTAL=3

JOURNAL OF YOUTH STUDIES 0 TOTAL=8 7 1 0 0 0

JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT RESEARCH 4 1 2 0 1 0 TOTAL=7

TOTAL=37 22 1 8 4 1 1

TOTAL 59.46 2.70 21.62 10.81 2.70 2.70 %

The proportion of articles related to the digital world/internet/social media is small (3 per cent), but nearly 60 per cent deal with topics or issues relating to Internet and social media consumption. The focus here is mainly on issues concerning adolescents’ well- being or health in relation to Internet/social media/technology consumption. For example, between 2006 and 2009, the following articles on ‘problematic cell phone use’ and related issues were published:

2006 Teenage girls and cellular phones: Discourse of independence, safety and ‘rebellion’ (Campbell) 2007 How do adolescents perceive the risks related to cell-phone use? (Martha & Griffet) 2008 Over-connected? A qualitative exploration of the relationship between Australian youth and their mobile phones (Walsh, White, & Young) 2009 Symptoms of problematic cellular phone use, functional impairment and its association with depression among adolescents in southern Taiwan (Yen et al.)

Adolescents’ Internet usage in relation to civil and political engagement is another focus, for example:

2008 The Internet, youth participation polices, and the development of young people’s political identities in Australia (Collin) 2008 The online citizen-consumer: Addressing young people’s political consumption through technology (Ward) 2008 Young women, late modern politics, and the participatory possibilities of online cultures (Harris)

In 2009, research in this subfield became more focused on the personal and socioeconomic factors affecting adolescents’ consumption of the Internet and social media, for example:

2009 Screen media time usages of 12–16-year-old Spanish school adolescents: Effects of personal and socioeconomic factors, season and type of day (Devís-Devís, Peiró-Velert, Beltrán-Carrillo, & Tomás)

2009 Adolescents’ online networking following the death of a peer (Williams & Merten)

52 Chapter 2 2009 Different types of internet use, depression, and social anxiety: The role of perceived friendship quality (Selfhout, Branje, Delsing, ter Bogt, & Meeus)

See Appendix A – A1.17 for full article details.

2.7.2 Journals in other fields This section describes research, published in journals other than the seven specialist youth and adolescence journals described previously, that touch upon youth and adolescents in relation to the digital world/Internet/social media. The research includes journal publications in the fields of developmental psychology; cyber-psychology and behaviour; computers and human behaviour; computer-mediated communication; behaviour and IT; new media and society; educational computing research; science, technology and society; youth care; and international nursing studies.

Twenty-seven relevant articles were identified, published between 1998 and 2010. An initial search found the first relevant article was from 1998 and subsequent studies up until 2006 have also been included. Table 2.10 presents the number of articles published in sources other than specialist youth and adolescence journals from 1998 to 2010 in each of the main categories relating to the digital world/internet/social media. A summary of the analysis of individual research articles is presented in Appendix B. Articles highlighted in grey are relevant to the current study.

Table 2.10 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in non-youth-and- adolescence-specific journals, 1998–2010

1998–2010 Internet/Social Facebook Gaming Romantic Perception of Others Media Relationships/ Social Consumption Friendships Media/Internet/ Technology

Total = 27 12 3 0 2 8 2

Total 44.45 11.11 0 7.41 29.62 7.41 %

The prevalence of Internet/social media consumption (44 per cent) is similar to that seen in Table 2.9. The major difference between Tables 2.9 and 2.10 is the second highest percentage, namely perception of social media. Some adolescents and young people experience mental health issues (social anxiety, loneliness, self-esteem, suicidal ideation,

depressed mood) as a consequence of their engagement with new media technologies (captured under the first and fifth categories), and this is reflected in the research, for example: 2006 Internet addiction in Korean adolescents and its relation to depression and suicidal ideation (Kim et al.) 2009 Social anxiety and technology: Face-to-face communication versus technological communication among teens (Pierce) 2010 The relationship of loneliness and social anxiety with children’s and adolescents’ online communication (Bonetti, Campbell, & Gilmore)

‘Facebook’ and ‘Romantic relationships’ constitute the next largest categories (over 11 and 7 per cent respectively). These studies demonstrate that the availability of social media and online communication enables adolescents to broaden and intensify their connectedness with their peers and incorporate such interactions into central parts of their lives. Valkenburg, Peter, and Schouten (2006), for example, found that most of the adolescents they studied (78 per cent) got positive responses on their profiles. Jung, Kim, Lin, and Cheong (2005) pointed out that online tools can create a paradox for social connectedness: they elevate the ease with which individuals can create online groups and communicate and establish friendships, but can also create alienation and ostracism.

Other interesting articles examined the disclosure and risk issues that adolescents and young people face online. Some pressing concerns about risky behaviours and security matters concerning disclosure of personal information online are examined in articles in this category, for example: 2006 Characteristics and motives of adolescents talking with strangers on the internet (Peter, Valkenburg & Schouten) 2008 Taking risky opportunities in youthful content creations: teenagers’ use of social networking sites for intimacy, privacy and self- expression (Livingstone) 2009 Texting, sexting and social networking among Australian youth and the need for cyber safety education (McLoughlin & Burgess)

54 Chapter 2 These studies suggest that most teenagers face problems in managing their privacy online, mostly because of their poor Internet literacy and the interface design of the SNSs and their settings. For example, Miller, Parsons, and Lifer (2010) found a paradox in that students did not check who wanted to access their site, but strove to ensure that their personal information was secure by locking their profiles. They also observed that the students in their study appeared to know what they should be doing online but their actual online behaviour often did not reflect this knowledge (Miller et al., 2010).

Finally, another interesting subcategory not specifically identified that emerged from the analysis was ‘online/offline issues’, which includes articles such as: 2005 Adolescents’ identity experiments on the internet (Valkenburg, Schouten, & Peter) 2008 Online and offline social networks: Use of social networking sites by emerging adults (Subrahmanyam, Riech, Waechter, & Espinoza)

Most of the studies in this category conclude with a common understanding that online and offline behaviour and identity are interconnected. For example, Subrahmanyam (2007) found that the virtual world may actually serve as a screen for playing out issues from the real world. Teenagers and young people use IM and SNSs to interact selectively with people from their offline world to strengthen offline connections that may not be that strong in their face-to-face lives (Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter, & Espinoza, 2008).

Following from discussions above, another important category is the communicative preferences of adolescents, particularly with the rise of SNSs. Wolak et al. (2002) looked at the communicative preferences of 1,501 adolescents from the United States. Over 41 per cent of their online relationships also involved face-to-face communication; however, the participants reported close relationships online without having any face-to-face engagement. King et al. (2006) explored the motives and experiences of young people accessing online counselling as opposed to face-to-face interaction. They interviewed 39 participants from Australia who had accessed the Kids Help Line. They found that there were three main reasons for using online counselling: privacy and an emotionally safe environment, communication through text, and time. Engaging online was considered safer and more private than attending face-to-face consultations. However,

communication though text was perceived both positively and negatively. A positive aspect was that one could order one’s thoughts, but the message might be misconstrued (negative). The last consideration was time; participants reported that it was faster to obtain help online than to make an appointment and attend in person. Heerwegh and Loosveldt (2008) also explored face-to-face versus online engagement. They surveyed 3,255 Belgian university students and compared online with face-to-face responses, and found the face-to-face results more comprehensive and of a higher quality.

Two cyber-specific journals were also reviewed, namely the Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace and Journal of Cyberpsychology and Behavior, due to potential linkages with the study. Table 2.11 provides a snapshot of the key themes found in articles published up to 2010.

Table 2.11 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace & Journal of Cyberpsychology and Behavior

Year Internet/Social Facebook Gaming Romantic Perception of Others Media Relationships/ Social Consumption Friendships Media/Internet/ Technology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 4 2 2 0 4 0 2007-2010 = 12

% 33.33 16.67 16.67 0 33.33 0

Journal of Cyberpsychology and 42 0 14 6 6 15 Behavior

1998-2010 = 83

% 50.60 0 16.87 7.23 7.23 18.07

In the early editions of the Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, there were only a few articles relating to adolescents online. Of the 40 articles published between 2007–2010, only 12 related to this topic, and only two related to cyberbullying. Examples include:

2007 Estonian Adolescents’ Expertise in the Internet in Comparative Perspective (Kalmus)

56 Chapter 2 2008 Exploring the Relationships among Internet Usage, Internet Attitudes and Loneliness of Turkish Adolescents (Erdoğan) 2009 Virtual Environment and Lying: Perspective of Czech Adolescents and Young Adults (Konečný) 2010 Conceptual Approaches to Adolescent Online Risk-Taking (Stamoulis & Farley)

During the period 1998–2010, the Journal of Cyberpsychology and Behavior published 943 articles, with only just over eight per cent related to adolescents and online engagement. The vast majority of the research focussed on university, adults and mature age engagement online. Of the 83 articles identified as relevant, the vast majority related to Internet consumption; nine related to cyberbullying. Examples include:

1997 Usage and Perceptions of the Internet: What Has Age Got to Do With it? (Teo & Lim) 2001 Child Seduction and Self-Representation on the Internet (Quayle & Taylor) 2004 Back from the Beach but Hanging on the Telephone? English Adolescents’ Attitudes and Experiences of Mobile Phones and the Internet (Madell & Muncer) 2004 Adolescents’ Perceptions Toward the Internet: A 4-T Framework (Tsai) 2005 Teen Internet Use: Relating Social Perceptions and Cognitive Models to Behavior (Eastin) 2006 Characteristics and Motives of Adolescents Talking with Strangers on the Internet (Peter et al.) 2008 Personality Differences between Online Game Players and Nonplayers in a Student Sample (Teng) 2009 Factors Associated with Internet Addiction among Adolescents (Lam et al.) 2010 The Relationship of Loneliness and Social Anxiety with Children’s and Adolescents’ Online Communication (Bonetti et al.)

The first article mentioned in the examples above relates to one of the cohorts of this study, namely Singapore. Teo and Lim (1997) examined the usage and perception of the Internet amongst 1369 Singaporeans. They noted that most of their Internet users were less than 21 years old. Younger users also used the Internet as a communication medium

more than older participants. The researchers posited this was because more mature participants were more comfortable with traditional means of communication. Speed of access and web design were identified as the most important considerations affecting an enjoyable Internet experience.

In conclusion, the articles above demonstrate that research focusing on youth and adolescents in the area of the digital world/internet/social media places great emphasis on the societal attitudes and perceptions of adolescents, as well as their issues and interventions designed to modify their behaviour, with focus on the detrimental effects rather than the positive outcomes of online engagement. Very little research published between 1998 and 2010 examines young people’s perception of social media/internet/digital technology; there is a little evidence from adolescents and young people about their own issues and concerns arising from the digital world/internet/social media.

2.7.3 Research on blogs as a communication medium This section begins with discussion of the concept of blogs as a communication medium within a mediated academic/social technological environment, and then examines some of the current research on blogs in relation to adolescents’ communicative behaviour and consumption habits. Most of the research, including the articles examined in this section, focuses on gender-specific social and emotional aspects of adolescents’ behaviour, for example, extra-familial relationships (including friendships and peer groups) in relation to online and offline interaction. The articles describe both positive and negative findings regarding adolescents’ responses when negotiating in this type of mediated social technological environment, but none of them considers the individual aspects of their communicative preference from the perspectives of adolescents’ artistic and visual expression of self (on which this study concentrates). Moreover, the researcher located no studies of these aspects in an academic mediated environment.

Blogs are journal-type entries published on the Internet either via SNSs or public hosted websites (Mazur & Kozarian, 2010). Unlike other social profiles, they tend towards commentary and are published in reverse chronological order. Blogging provides a medium in which to express oneself and to construct a representation of self. Like

58 Chapter 2 participation in many other online forums, blogging can be either solitary or interactive. However as Stern (2007) noted, “Knowing-and-hoping that others will encounter their online expression is the fundamental appeal of publishing … personal sites for young authors” (p. 103).

As noted above, traditional blogs tend not to receive many comments, even though the platforms used may allow for them. Mazur and Kozarian (2010) examined 124 blogs, authored by people aged between 15 and 19 years, published on public websites, and found most received no or one comment. Comments were mostly supportive. Male participants’ blogs received significantly fewer comments than female participants’, suggesting that commenting on blogs is a gendered activity. This finding is supported by Davis (2010), who stated that “adolescent girls have emerged as the largest demographic [of blog writers] in the United States” (p. 145). Interestingly, whilst girls are more likely to publish blogs, boys are more likely to own and maintain a home page. Stern (2004) examined 233 home pages (of publishers aged between 14 and 18) and found that 70 per cent were created by boys.

As indicated earlier in this chapter, some research contrasts online and offline communication styles. Mazur and Kozarian (2010) found that their participants wrote “within the standards of offline civility” (p. 140). Joinson (2004) found that depending on the scenario determined the level of comfort of online to face-to-face communication. Two hundred and sixty-five participants were asked to rank their communicative preference for four scenarios (asking for a pay rise, asking for a date, lying, and disclosing intimate information). For the first two scenarios, face-to-face was rated as the preferred mode of communication. Davis (2010) noted that other researchers had found that adolescents tended to express themselves online in a manner similar to their offline identity. In the offline sphere, people to tend to share flattering rather than unflattering information with friends, males more so than females (Dolgin & Miniwa, 1997). Stern (2008) noted that young blog authors presented a ‘touched-up’ version of themselves.

Research indicates that what is written in blogs changes as the authors age. Davis (2010) noted that during adolescence writing is often emotionally charged; this changes as the cohort moves into adulthood, when the writing is more stable and there is a shift in

attention from personal topics to broader societal ones. This correlates with Mazur and Kozarian’s (2010) study, which found that emerging adults (18–19 years) were more likely to talk about careers and academic endeavours than younger participants.

The body of research considered here explored adolescents’ use of blogs in light of developmental issues. However, the research does not focus explicitly on adolescents’ personal or inward explorations, such as their level of comfort when negotiating or navigating in an academically constructed environment, or their interactions as a form of expression of the self from the visual and artistic perspectives. The current study seeks to fill this gap. At the time of writing, there was no published empirical work regarding the academic, creative and social activities of young people, especially in the area of visualisation as a means of communication in relation to presentation of self in the mediated academic/social technological environment.

2.8 Synthesis and Discussion

This chapter argues that Gen-Zers are cognitively and emotionally equipped to face the challenges of a digital world; as Erikson asserted, they do this during a critical stage of development. Moreover, their awareness and exploration of identity in relation to their development and their understanding of their role in this virtual environment was discussed and analysed through the lens of Goffman’s theories. The visual aspect of the technology was identified, particularly in relation to their use of selfies as visual self- expressions and to present their identity to the world. These frameworks focus on the social aspects of their development but do not explain adolescents’ personal explorations, such as their level of comfort when negotiating or navigating in this constructed environment, and their interactions as a form of expression of the self as a visual and artistic presentation. The current study will address this aspect of their communicative preferences and technology consumption habits, and view the results through the prism of the aforementioned frameworks and theories. Figure 2.5 shows how research data will be viewed and analysed using the theories detailed in this chapter.

60 Chapter 2

Figure 2.5 Theoretical frameworks used to analyse research data

Finally, the body of research considered here explored adolescents’ use of blogs in light of developmental issues. However, the research does not focus explicitly on adolescents’ personal or inward explorations, such as their level of comfort when negotiating or navigating in an academically constructed environment, or their interactions as a form of expression of the self from the visual and artistic perspectives. The current study seeks to fill this gap.

CHAPTER 3 Design and Methods

3.1 Scope of the Chapter

This chapter elucidates what is known from the extant literature (Chapters 1 and 2) and locates the purposes of the current study as a potential new contribution to the field in section 3.1. The aims of the study (presented in Chapter 1) are multidirectional and call for a mixed methods research design, as explained in Section 3.2. As part of this design a range of research instruments were developed, as described in Sections 3.3 and 3.4. Sections 3.5 to 3.8 present the research plan. The implementation of this plan and deviations from it are reported in Sections 3.9 to 3.10. The data analysis plan is presented in Section 3.11 and its subsequent implementation is reported in Chapters 4, 5 and 6.

3.2 Direction from the literature

While the literature exploring the behaviour of adolescents and young adults in relation to the digital world is significant in both reach and scope, to date it is largely concerned with measuring participation rates, for example, with respect to:

 cellular phone usage (e.g., Campbell, 2006; Martha & Giffet, 2007; McLoughlin & Burgess, 2009);  screen media usage (e.g., Devís-Devís et al., 2009; Marshall, Gorely, & Briddle, 2006);  playing video games (e.g., Gentile & Gentile, 2007; Goodman, Bradley, Paras, Williamson, & Bizzochi, 2006; Olson, Kutner, & Warner, 2008; Padilla-Walker, Nelson, Carroll, & Jensen, 2010); and  participation in online civil/political activities (e.g., Collin, 2008; Lin, Cheong, Kim & Jung, 2010; Olsson, 2008).

These and the other studies cited in here are summarised in Appendices A and B. There is a tendency for the research to focus on negative impacts, such as in the fields of social/clinical psychology or computers and human behaviour, which mostly explore mental health and well-being issues (e.g., Donchi & More, 2004; Gross, Juvonen, &

Gable, 2002; Kim et al., 2006; Miller et al., 2010; Pierce, 2009; Skoog, Stattin, & Kerr, 2009; Subrahmanyam & Lin, 2007; Wallenius, Punamäki, & Rimpelä, 2007; Williams & Merten, 2009; Yen et al., 2009).

Other studies have a pedagogical focus (e.g., Gentile & Gentile, 2007; Goodman , Bradley, Paras, Williamson & Bizzochi, 2006; Kelly, Pomerantz, & Currie, 2006; Mallan, Singh, & Giardina, 2010; Messersmith et al., 2008), where the emphasis tends to be on the students’ participatory or engagement levels when technology is used as a pathway for learning.

Another strand of research on the online communication and behaviour of adolescents and young adults focuses on its relationships to:

 peer bonding (e.g., Liu, 2009; Szwedo, Mikami, & Allen, 2010);  romantic relationships/friendships (Blais, Craig, & Pepler, 2007; West, Lewis, & Currie, 2009);  risky behaviour (e.g., Baumgartner, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2010); and  online and offline behaviour (e.g., Mesch, 2005; Mesch & Talmud, 2007).

Such research gives a rather grim view of contemporary adolescents and young adults, suggesting that they are facing increasingly significant challenges – especially in relation to their personal well-being and their explorations of self – arising from the ongoing advancements in technology, information overload online, and the rapid changes occurring in their social/academic mediated environments. These studies tend to examine negative or abnormal behaviours such as symptoms of problematic consumption of technology, access to inappropriate information, functional impairment and addiction. Prior to 2011 no researchers had published articles discussing positive or empowerment aspects of online engagement such as young people’s creative approach to online interactions, their capacity to use their online identities as artistic expressions of the self or, most importantly, their enhanced visualisation ability as a mode of communication within the spectrum of ‘normal’ adolescent behaviour. (Research since 2011 is discussed in Chapter Seven). Further, the body of literature on SNSs argues that they provide young people with a platform for digital play, allowing experimentation with self-identity and

64 Chapter 3 hence valuable opportunities to realise possible selves (e.g., Manago et al., 2008; Valkenburg et al., 2005; Walther, 2006).

With the emphasis on technological advancement in our society and the increasingly high level of SNS activity amongst adolescents and young people, one might question whether there are any connections between creativity and identity, such as the expression of the self. In the context of the world of technological gadgets, if the commonly-used term ‘creativity’ primarily refers to the level of technical competency and ability needed to manipulate data and solve problems in a technologically enhanced environment, how might we use technology and its infrastructure to create a conducive and sustainable environment for facilitating the negotiation and navigation of young people in relation to their exploration of identity and self-presentation?

In order to broaden and deepen our understanding of adolescent preferences and communicative behaviour in relation to art and technology in a digital world, this research examined adolescents’ preferences and communicative behaviour in relation to art and technology in a social/academic technologically mediated environment. It focused on Erikson’s fifth critical stage of development, which relates to an age group largely consistent with the general consensus that Generation Z includes people born between 1990 and 2009. This study took a cross-cultural focus aiming to give young people a voice to express themselves artistically, be heard and to enable examination of the nature and reach of these voices driving the social phenomenon of technological culture. Young people constitute an important part of our society and deserve to have their voices recognised; in addition, they can teach us about how they consume and use technology. The orientation of this research is positive in terms of exploring how young people use technology and their perceptions of its benefits and potentials.

The rapidly developing SNS phenomenon requires contextualisation. Figure 3.1 depicts a section of Table 1.1; it shows when the data for this study was collected and subsequent developments (updates). It serves to remind the reader that this study is a snapshot of a moment in time.

YEAR DEVELOPMENT/RELEASE DATE 2011 Data was collected for the current research Google+ (an interest-based social network with video chat) – June 2011 Snapchat/Snap (image messaging and multimedia mobile application) – Sept 2011 2012 Tinder (social discovery application for IOS and Android users) – Sept 2012 2013 Pheed (social media platform with live broadcast option) – Nov 2012 Vine (multiple platform video-sharing social application) – June 2012 2014 Pheed shut down) – April 2014 Orkut shut down – Sept 2014 2015 Moments (Android/IOS applications for managing photos online) – April 2015 Facebook takes live streaming mainstream with an estimated 8 billion video views per day Twitter-owned Periscope with 10 million active users named as best iOS app of 2015 by Apple Friendster shut down – June 2015 2016 Facebook becomes a video sharing and streaming platform, online advertisement and shopping etc. Such features are also available in LinkedIn, Instagram, Pinterest and Snapchat 2017 Facebook introduces Facebook Spaces which includes virtual reality system iMessage introduces Who’s In a new app that allows users to plan events Sources: Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org; http://observer.com/2016/01/5-big-changes-coming-to-social- media-in-2016/; (http://blog.emojipedia.org/final-2017-emoji-list/); https://techcrunch.com/2015/11/04/facebook- video-views/; https://www.practicalecommerce.com/11-new-social-networks-for-2017 Figure 3.1 Timeline of developments in SNSs since the data for the current study was collected

3.3 Rationale for research framework

This section briefly explains the mixed methods research approach. Then it discusses the rationale for the research, and presents a visual framework that illustrates the research aims and mixed methodological strategies of the current study.

Given the multidirectional dimensions of the research aims detailed in Section 1.2, a mixed methods approach was both appropriate and necessary because of the diverse nature of the data sought (written – blogs, questionnaire, oral – face-to-face interviews, and visual – artworks). According to Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, and Turner (2007):

Mixed methods research is an intellectual and practical synthesis based on qualitative and quantitative research; it is the third methodological or research paradigm (along with qualitative and quantitative research). It recognizes the importance of traditional qualitative and quantitative research but also offers a powerful third paradigm choice that often will provide the most informative, complete, balanced, and useful research results. (p. 129)

Johnson et al. (2007) suggested the word ‘methods’ should be understood as more than just ‘methodology’, as proposed in Greene’s (2006) “methodology of mixed methods

66 Chapter 3 social inquiry” (p. 94), which focuses on the interconnecting methodological development domains that “act in concert with one another” (ibid.). Greene pointed out that the wider term (i.e., mixed methods) allows consideration of the research procedures such as the way in which data is collected, analysed and presented and the possible ethical and theoretical issues.

The essence of mixed methods research is to select a mixture of quantitative and qualitative techniques and combine them to provide a better response to the research questions than either strategy could in isolation. It is important to match research methods to research questions in order to collect relevant data (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). Table 3.1 presents each aim of the current research and its mixed methodological strategies.

The mixed methods approach is also an “expansive and creative form of research, not a limiting form of research. It is inclusive, pluralistic, and complementary, and it suggests that researchers take an eclectic approach to method selection and the thinking about and conduct of research” (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004, p. 17). For example, it encourages the researcher to develop a code of behaviour to direct the gathering and analysis of data, such as the “Social Networking Protocols for Student Participants (Blog Interactions)” outlined in Section 3.7.2 and the “Artwork Brief” in Section 3.5.4 designed to facilitate the production of artistic works and dialogues in the blogs. It is pertinent in this study because of the numerous forms of data collected to address the multifaceted research with different audiences. For example, the data collected from blogs was qualitative, because students made their own choice of expression (post, artworks, with whom they wanted to interact) but the analysis was both qualitative and quantitative. The quantitative analysis related to aspects such as the frequency of logins or the number of posts.

Table 3.1 Research aims and mixed methodological strategies Aims Mixed Methodological Strategies Qualitative Quantitative

Background survey –   1. a) To identify adolescents’ preferences designed to ascertain participants’: and consumption habits in relation - demographic information to art and technology - levels of spatial/artistic awareness - extent of engagement in the b) To compare these preferences and social networking space consumption habits across two Interviews (face-to-face):  countries Five questions designed to enable participants to explore issues of spatial/artistic awareness in greater depth.

Artwork submission questionnaire   – designed to determine: - feedback on the process - participants’ overall art-making experience in the project - understanding and perception of their own artwork - level of support (e.g., use of technology, assistance or consulting) - choice of medium (e.g. traditional medium or technology-based medium)

Artworks:   2. To explore the ways in which adolescents Invitation to initiate a dialogue by from different countries present posting an artwork and brief themselves to their peers within a description on a designated blog technologically mediated site.

social/academic environment in relation Blogs:  to: Invitation to initiate a dialogue or respond to their peers’ postings i) their communicative behaviour including texts/artworks/visuals on a designated blog site. ii) their technological comfort zone Reflective journal:  Invitation to self-reflect, document iii) their ‘artistic’ negotiation and post the whole process of the artistic experience, participation feedback on a designated blog site.

Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) noted that researchers who used mixed methods research are “more likely to select methods and approaches with respect to their underlying research questions, rather than with regard to some preconceived biases about which research paradigm should have hegemony in social science research” (pp. 23–24). Researchers need to consider the setting and types of data collected, and determine the appropriate approaches for analysis and presentation of the final results.

68 Chapter 3 Statistical tools and software were not used to analyse the data, as the sample size was too small to produce statistically significant findings.

3.4 Aims and research strategies

Table 3.2 presents the aims of the research and the associated methodological strategies.

Table 3.2 Research aims, questions and methodological strategies

Aims Questions Methodological strategies (Why? How?)

1. c) To identify adolescents’  What communication modes do Background survey preferences and adolescences prefer/use? designed to ascertain: consumption habits in - demographic information relation to art and  What are the dimensions of their - levels of spatial/artistic awareness - extent of engagement in the social technology artistic awareness? networking space

 What qualities in their self- d) To compare these expression do adolescents perceive Interviews (face-to-face) preferences and or value as artistic? Five questions designed to enable consumption habits participants to explore issues of across different countries  What are the parameters of the spatial/artistic awareness in depth technologically mediated social/academic environment in Artwork submission questionnaire which they operate? Designed to determine: - feedback  How do adolescents use - overall art-making experience of in technology as a platform or a tool the project for self-expression, especially of - understanding and perception of their ‘artistic’ self? their own artwork - level of support (e.g., use of  To what extent do adolescents technology, assistance or consulting) understand their role in a - choice of medium (e.g. traditional technologically mediated medium or technology-based social/academic environment? medium)

2. To explore the ways in which  To what extent are there cultural Artworks adolescents from different differences in the ways Invitation to initiate a dialogue by cultures present themselves adolescents: posting an artwork and brief

to their peers within a description on a designated blog site a) present themselves? technologically mediated b) communicate their Artwork brief social/academic environment feelings, thoughts and Instructions for creating artwork to in relation to: ideas, and negotiate post on blog differences? iv) their communicative Blogs  To what extent are social Invitation to initiate a dialogue or behaviour networking spaces preferred as respond to their peers’ postings substitutes for face-to-face including texts/artworks/visuals on a v) their technological interactions? designated blog site comfort zone  To what extent do cross-cultural Reflective journal variances between adolescents vi) their ‘artistic’ negotiation Invitation to self-reflect, document influence their communicative and post the whole process of the behaviour? artistic experience, participation

feedback on a designated blog site

Aims Questions Methodological strategies (Why? How?)  How do adolescents use technology as a platform or a tool to express themselves artistically?

 Is the social networking space constricting or liberating for adolescents? 3.5 Development of research instruments

3.5.1 Background survey This initial survey was designed to establish baseline data about participants, including demographic information, their level of spatial artistic awareness, and extent of engagement in their social networking space. Questions ranged from those seeking factual information to open-ended opportunities to provide quantitative and qualitative data about personal preferences.

The opened-ended questions in the background survey were appropriate for a small cohort study. The research component allowed participants to give individual responses or make personal choices, including ranking their preferences or ticking the boxes. According to Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2000), open-ended questions often contain the most valuable information, as they can “catch the authenticity, richness, depth of response, honesty and candour which … are the hallmarks of qualitative data” (Cohen et al., 2000, p. 255). Moreover, they put “... the responsibility for and ownership of the data much more firmly into the respondents’ hands” (ibid.).

It was also important that the survey be as structured as possible, comprehensive, avoid highbrow or confusing questions, and be positive, simple and short, so that participants could see what was required at a glance and feel motivated to answer it. Hence, the survey was designed to maintain a balance between short structured questions and those designed to elicit more expansive answers. For example, questions 1 and 2 were structured to invite participants to express their understanding of the term ‘artistic’ and their earliest memories of ‘doing something artistic’. Questions 11 and 12 were structured to prompt participants to give honest responses in relation to their engagement with and perceptions of computers. Space was provided in questions 13 and 14 to encourage participants to expand upon their responses rather than just give a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

70 Chapter 3 The survey was trialled with teaching colleagues and with the researcher’s supervisors in 2010, which led to changes to enhance the precision of the questions, reduce repetition, and reduce their length (to fit onto a single A4 sheet). For example, question 5 was reworded to improve clarity about the type of response required:

First Draft: What are your artistic qualities? Second Draft: Describe your artistic qualities? Final Draft: Use five words to describe the artistic qualities you possess.

The first draft was too vague and unstructured. In the second draft, ‘What are’ was replaced with ‘describe’ to indicate how the question could be approached. In the final draft, ‘use five words’ provided a specific instruction as to how to respond.

Following suggestions and feedback from teaching colleagues, the order of the questions in the survey was adjusted to create a more logical introduction by starting with factual questions which would give participants confidence. These questions asked for the participant’s name, age, gender, school, suburb and home postal code. The rationale for this was that when completing a survey participants need to become at ease and assured as they engage with the task, so that they will eventually feel comfortable in responding to more challenging questions. Therefore, the opening questions were constructed to be simple yet engaging, encouraging high-quality participation (Cohen et al., 2000). (See Appendix D for the background survey. Please note that, in this and other cases, the format of the document has been altered to eliminate the space left for responses.)

3.5.2 Interview proforma The researcher planned individual interviews lasting 10–15 minutes per student with a standardised question format. Given that the adolescent participants were likely to be inexperienced with interviews and have difficulty focusing their thoughts and ideas, there was a need to keep control of the discussion without restricting their freedom to express themselves as fully and spontaneously as possible. Therefore, the key questions were designed to act as a guide. Patton (1980) argued that an interview guide along with an open-ended method is effective as it allows:

…the interviewer more flexibility in probing and more decision-making flexibility in determining when it is appropriate to explore certain subjects in greater depth, or even to undertake whole new areas of inquiry that were not originally included in the interview instrument. (p. 204)

In addition, this approach enables participants to discuss their understanding and responses of the key questions of the research, and express their subjective views and opinions. These two approaches operate as set out in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Strength and weakness of interview guide approach

Type of Interview Characteristics Strength Weakness

Interview guide Topics and issues to be The outline increases the Important and salient approach covered are specified in comprehensiveness of the topics may be advance, in outline form; data and makes data inadvertently omitted. interviewer decides collection somewhat Interviewer flexibility in sequence and working of systematic for each sequencing and wording questions in the course of respondent. Logical gaps in questions can result in the interview data can be anticipated and substantially different closed. Interviews remain responses, thus reducing fairly conversational and the comparability of situational responses

Standardised open- The exact wording and Respondents answer the Little flexibility in relating ended interview sequencing of the same questions, thus the interview to particular questions are determined increasing comparability of individuals and in advance. All responses; data are circumstances: interviewees are asked the complete for each person standardised wording of same basic questions in on the topics addressed in questions may constrain the same order the interview. Reduces and limit naturalness and interviewer effects and bias relevance of questions and when several interviewers answers are used. Permits decision- makers to see and review the instrumentation used in the evaluation. Facilitates organization and analysis of the data

Source: Table 7.1 Variations in evaluation research interview instrumentation, Patton (1980), p. 206.

The face-to-face small group interview was based on a set of five questions tailored to enable the participants to examine the topics presented in the background survey. In addition, it offered the opportunity for participants to discuss their artistic experience in greater detail and to clarify any questions or queries relating to their initial responses (See Appendix E for the Interview proforma).

72 Chapter 3 In any research there is always the potential for bias that would affect the validity of the results. If it is anticipated that the bias could be an issue, measures can be put in place to ameliorate and reduce the potential impacts on the data. It is harder to manage bias when it is unforeseen and appropriate measures are not put in place. Therefore, it is important to test the validity of results in such a way that they can be tested and are not as a direct result of how the data was collected (Maxwell 2005). Also, according to Maxwell (2005), during interviewing participants can display what he termed ‘reflexivity’ and ‘reactivity’. Reflexivity refers to the influence that the researcher has on both the participants and the analysis of the data. The researcher’s own views and biases can influence the responses. Reactivity refers to the actual process of data collection and how this is perceived by the participants. Appropriate actions taken to alleviate and deal with potential bias from such sources are as follows:

 Clear and direct instruction

As adolescents may be inexperienced interviewees, they may not understand the appropriate social protocols and expectations when engaging in interview dialogue. Their nervousness and potential nervousness about what is really happening may influence their responses and confidence. Hence, on the Interview proforma sheet presented to the participants at the beginning of the interview, the social protocols and expectations were clearly stated. The interviewer referred to these protocols and expectations before the interview to help to ease any tension, reiterating that the participants could decline to respond if they felt uncomfortable or unsure, and that there were no wrong or correct answers.

 Communicate in simple language

It was inevitable that some participants would have a non-English speaking background, and thus their level of listening comprehension and ability to articulate could have hindered the expression of their thoughts and ideas in English. Simple and direct language was used to avoid confusing and intimidating them. Another strategy was using a consistent approach, maintaining consistent phrasing and intonation, advising that it was acceptable to ask the researcher (interviewer) to explain or repeat the question, and giving

73 them time to think before responding. This proved particularly helpful to those who might find terminology like ‘artistic qualities’ or ‘creativity’ confusing.

 Adopt a neutral persona

The researcher (interviewer) is a middle-class, middle-aged, English-speaking (albeit with an accent) male of East Asian appearance, all of which could have influenced participants’ responses. Furthermore, as an adult, stranger, visitor/guest, teacher, the researcher was likely to represent an authority figure to adolescents, potentially causing shyness, and may also have provoked the tendency for some to try to ‘please’ and want to do the ‘appropriate’ or ‘right’ thing. While the natural features of the researcher were unalterable, he tried to project an amiable and non-threatening impression and thus reduce perceptions of formality, seriousness, or social divergence between himself and the participants. For example, he dressed simply, casually but neatly, and avoided display of electronic gadgets, with equipment restricted to a small notebook, pencil, interview questions sheets and a handheld voice recorder.

3.5.3 Artwork Submission Questionnaire The Artwork Submission Questionnaire was intended to offer further opportunities for participants to document their thoughts, ideas and processes in relation to their artwork. (See Appendix F for artwork submission questionnaire.)

3.5.4 Artwork Brief The artwork brief consisted of important information for the participants about the artwork requirement, guidelines for writing a rationale for artwork, and information about cultural awareness and sensitivity to be observed and considered when planning artwork. The researcher explained this to participants during the first face-to-face meeting, and gave a hardcopy to every participant and their teachers. Finally, the backup copy was accessible on the Connected Learning Community (CLC) homepage. (See Appendix G for the detailed Artwork Brief.)

3.5.5 Blogs Creating an interactive online environment are discussed in detail in Section 3.7.1.

74 Chapter 3

3.5.6 Reflective journals During the period when the blogs were active, an online reflective journal was set up on the CLC network to encourage student to reflect on and document the process of their artistic experience. This included planning and creating their artwork, any highlights of their encounters or self-discovery along with their interactions, responses to the artworks of their peers, and transformation of their own artworks as a result of their interactions (exchange of ideas and inspiration) in the blogs. They could also provide feedback to the administrator (the researcher) if they experienced any social problems (e.g., bullying or other anti-social behaviour). Access to the reflective journal was limited to the researcher. (See Appendix H for details of guidelines for journal entries/self-reflections).

3.6 Research setting

3.6.1 Selecting countries For a cross-cultural comparison, the compatibility of the two countries from which the participants come is crucial. The following criteria were used to select a country from which to select students for comparison with Australian students:

 technological sophistication of the students;  an education system similar to Australia’s;  English being the main medium for instruction/learning; and  a culturally and racially diverse society.

Table 3.4 presents the seven countries which satisfied the first criterion of technological sophistication, and the status of each of these countries in terms of meeting the remaining three criteria.

Table 3.4 Candidate comparison countries’ compliance with the selection criteria

Criteria Australia India Japan Malaysia Singapore South Korea Taiwan Thailand Technological         sophistication

Elementary – 8yrs Primary – 6yrs Primary – 6yrs Primary – 6yrs Elementary – 6yrs Elementary 1 – 3yrs Compatibility with the   Australian education Secondary – 4yrs Middle – 3yrs Middle – 3yrs Middle – 3yrs Junior H S – 3yrs Elementary 2 – 3yrs Secondary – 3yrs Secondary – 2yrs Secondary – 3yrs Senior H S– 3yrs Secondary – 3yrs system

Main medium for English Hindi Japanese Bahasa Malaysia English Korean Mandarin Thai instruction/learning (English)

Diverse Monoculture Monoculture Monoculture Monoculture Culturally and racially    diverse society Indian groups Japanese Korean Taiwanese Thai

Source: http://www.classbase.com/Countries

Chapter 4 As Table 3.4 demonstrates, only one country –Singapore – meets all four criteria. Table 3.5 elaborates upon Singapore’s and Australia’s compatibility.

Table 3.5 Social and technological compatibility between SIN and AUS

Criteria SIN (Singapore) AUS (ACT – Canberra) Technological sophistication Schools equipped with online Schools equipped with online facilities facilities Education system Primary – 6 yrs Primary – 6 yrs Secondary (Special, Express & Secondary – 4 yrs Normal Stream) – 4 or 5 yrs College – 2 years College – (2–3 yrs) Main medium for English English instruction/learning Ex-British colonial country Ex-British colonial country Culturally and racially diverse society Multi-racial (Malay, Chinese, Diverse in Indian & Eurasian) nationality/race/cultural background Source: http://www.classbase.com/Countries

The researcher’s familiarity with and prior knowledge of each country’s bureaucracies, ideology and socio-cultural backgrounds was important in understanding and interpreting participants’ behaviour and responses.

Information and Communication Technology has been a part of Australian school systems for nearly 20 years, although the way in which ICT learning is delivered in schools is very different from the Singaporean approach. Table 3.6 presents the timeline of the implementation of ICT education in Australia and Singapore from 1997 to 2010.

Table 3.6 Timeline of the implementation of ICT education in AUS and SIN

AUSTRALIA YEAR SINGAPORE 1997  The 1st Masterplan for ICT in Education (1997–2002) To build a foundation for schools to provide basic ICT infrastructure and equip teachers with a basic level of ICT integration competency. Achieved widespread acceptance in education. 1998  National Online Curriculum began in 1999 1999 Proposed by the Federal Government, this was a federal, state and territory government collaboration. 2000  Infocomm 21 (Information Communication 21) Over the next 5 years, to develop an ICT industry competitive at the international level and transform Singapore into a global information communication capital.

 Learning Federation started in 2001. A school online curriculum content initiative. 2001 2002 2003  The 2nd Masterplan for ICT in Education (2003–2008) To promote use of ICT in education by actively integrating ICT into the curriculum, setting ICT competencies for students, and encouraging inventive use of ICT in schools.

2004 2005 2006  IN2015 (Intelligent Nation 2015) The Government of Singapore to outline a 10-year masterplan for Infocomm.

78 2007

 The Digital Education Revolution early 2008 2008 An education policy announced by the Australian Government.

 ICT Trends in Education Australian Council for Education Research, Gerald White (30 June 2008)

 Preparing Australian Students for the Digital World: Results from the PISA 2009 digital reading literacy 2009  The 3rd Masterplan for ICT in Education (2009-2014) assessment. Sue Thomson, S. & Lisa De Bortoli, L. (2012) Following up from the first and second Masterplans, to refine the ICT learning environments of our students so that they can acquire the vital ICT competencies to excel in the Infocomm economy.

AUSTRALIA YEAR SINGAPORE  Australian Education Review 2010 Building Innovation: Learning with Technologies Australian Council for Educational Research Kathryn Moyle (2010)

Sources: http://ictconnection.moe.edu.sg/masterplan-4/our-ict-journey/masterplan-1; http://ictconnection.moe.edu.sg/masterplan-4/our-ict-journey/masterplan-2; https://www.imda.gov.sg/infocomm-and-media-news/buzz-central/2008/9/singapore- unveils-third-masterplan-for-ict-in-education; https://www.mci.gov.sg/web/department/infocomm/developing-infocomm/infocomm-masterplans/intelligent-nation-2015-in2015; http://ictconnection.moe.edu.sg/masterplan-4; www.thelearning federation.edu.au; http://research.acer.edu.au/digital_learning/2; http://www.acer.edu.au/documents/PISA2009_PreparingAustralianStudentsForThe DigitalWorld.pdf; www.ndlm.edu.au; http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=policyinsights; Cheng (2008) p.150.

Table 3.6 shows that the Australian approach focuses on providing an overall ICT framework to enable schools in six states and two territories to develop individual ICT programs and pathways tailored to the needs of students and staff. In contrast, the Singaporean approach emphasises the systematised implementation of ICT initiatives which support the schools to work towards achieving specific goals in ICT education that align with the national vision of an Infocomm economy.

In Australia, education systems do not standardise teaching and learning programs and management across all schools (Puteh & Vicziany, 2004). On the other hand, the Singapore education system is highly centralised and regulated.

As in Singapore, the proportion of Australian students in 2011 attending private schools had increased over recent years. Private schools have larger budgets than public/state schools and have developed idiosyncratic ICT programs. For example, in an ICT program launched in one of the largest private schools in Melbourne, every student from Grade 5 onwards was required to have their own electronic device, such as a laptop computer (Puteh & Vicziany, 2004). In Singapore, in 2008, only four elite privatised schools offered the Art Elective Program which “actively pursue[s] the digital media as a means of artistic expression” to adhere to the new national IT agenda (Cheng, 2008, p. 154). In addition, private schools may involve specialist private firms or vendors to facilitate their ICT programs by providing the appropriate infrastructures to equipment and/or delivering specialist ICT skills.

All Singaporean teachers are trained in one institution – the National Institute of Education (NIE), administered by the Ministry of Education (MOE). A centralised education system makes implementation of policies easier, and there is a high level of cooperation between NIE and Singaporean schools.

By contrast, implementation of the curriculum in Australian schools is the responsibility of professional classroom teachers. Even with the adoption of the Australian National Curriculum, individual schools and teachers still have considerable freedom to create their own curricula. Australian teachers can use the national digital learning resources network to create and share digital teaching resources. Both digital student resources and teacher support materials are available through the education intranet access, giving them

80 Chapter 3 the option to explore and adapt these resources to create new and appropriate teaching materials to accommodate the individual needs of students.

According to Puteh and Vicziany (2004), the provision of online support for teachers to create appropriate and engaging ICT learning in Australia can be traced back to the Learning Federation’s (Cooper, et al. 2001) School Online Curriculum Content Initiative, which made online learning materials including graphics, texts, audio and animations that are relevant to the school context accessible to teachers across Australia. In Singapore, during the launch of the 1st Masterplan for ICT in Education, teaching staff engaged in creating and implementing pilot IT-based teaching projects, then conducted an IT ‘open house’ to showcase their projects to the general public, including parents and other teaching staff.

3.6.2 Accessing schools This study focused on public (government-run) schools located in local neighbourhood/sub-urban residential areas, because students from such schools are likely to be more representative of all students in their respective countries. Such schools also typically cater for girls and boys, while many private schools are single gender. Girls and boys may have different understandings of, responses to and preferences for interaction modes, artistic media, and presentation of self when they are negotiating a technologically social/academic mediated environment. Therefore, the gender of the participants was considered an important demographic variable. For the purposes of this study, gender was categorised into two biological groups: ‘male’ and ‘female’.

A random selection of 60 students aged 16 years and above from six selected schools, three from SIN (Singapore) and three from AUS (Canberra, ACT), was planned in accordance with the sampling grid detailed in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7 Participants by country, learning institution and gender

Type & No. of Country School Targeted learning No. of boys & No. of zone/ participant group: institutions girls participants cluster (School/College) Boys Girls AUS ACT Senior High School Students School A 5 5 10 Metropolitan Schools (Yrs 9–10) School B 5 5 10 Cohort College Students College C 5 5 10 (Yrs 11–12) SIN West Zone Senior Secondary School School D 5 5 10 Cluster Schools Students School E 5 5 10 Cohort (Secondary 3–4) Junior College Students Junior College F 5 5 10 (Junior College 1–2) Total: 6 30 30 60

3.6.3 Informed consent Diener and Crandall (1978) defined informed consent as the “procedure in which individuals choose whether to participate in an investigation after being informed of facts that would be likely to influence their decision” (p. 34). In this study, obtaining informed consent was obtained in two stages.

First, the researcher sought permission from the institutions responsible for the prospective subjects. Prior to approaching the schools, an official application for permission to conduct research study in schools was made to the MOE in Singapore and the Department of Education and Training (DET) in the ACT (see also Section 3.8 – Administrative and ethical clearances).

Second, once schools had been selected, the principal, executive teacher, subject head or classroom teacher (depending on the school) invited students to participate. The first point of contact for the researcher was the school principal who, if willing to support the research, appointed a staff member to liaise with the researcher subsequently.

Table 3.8 presents the guidelines for informed consent that the researcher followed when drafting the documents for use in the fieldwork.

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Table 3.8 Guidelines for informed consent

 A fair explanation of the procedures to be followed and their purpose.

 A description of the attendant discomforts and risks reasonably to be expected.

 A description of the benefits reasonably to be expected.

 A disclosure of appropriate procedures that might be advantageous to the participants.

 An offer to answer any inquiries concerning the procedures.

 An instruction that the person is free to withdraw consent and to discontinue participation in the project at any time without prejudice to the participant. Source: United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Institutional Guide to DHEW Policy 1971, United States Department of Health, cited in Cohen et al. (2000), p.51.

Table 3.9 details the administrative documents used in obtaining official consent and support. (See also Appendix I.)

Table 3.9 Documents used in seeking official consent and support for the research project

Document Recipient Purpose Letter to Principal of Participating Principals of potentially  Introduce researcher Schools participating schools  Seek principals’ support for the (see Appendix I.1) research project Outline of Research Project Principals of potentially Give brief description of research (see Appendix I.2) participating schools project, including:  aims  what the research involves  when the research project will commence  how students can benefit from the research  how the school can benefit from the project Participation invitation Student participants  Introduce the researcher Consent to participate in research AUS (Canberra, ACT)  Outline the research project project form  List the activities involved (see Appendix I.3)  Show how to enrol Participation invitation Student participants  Seek formal consent Consent to participate in research SIN project form (see Appendix I.4) Confirmation of participation in Student participants’ parents  Introduce researcher research project  Outline research process, (see Appendix I.5) protocols & activity schedule  Seek support and consent from participants’ parents Art project brief for student Student participants Describe: participants  the stages of the research project (see Appendix G)  what to expect  requirements  activities  social networking protocols

Document Recipient Purpose Social networking protocols for Student participants  Describe the social networking student participants protocols and expectations (Blog interaction)  Protect the interest of the (see Appendix J) participants and provide the option for withdrawal from the research

3.7 Cross-cultural interactions

3.7.1 Creating an academically/socially mediated technological environment For the purposes of the research, an appropriate academically/socially mediated technological environment was required to facilitate interactions between the SIN (Singapore, West Zone Cluster) participants and AUS (Canberra, ACT) participants. Sixty participants were given the opportunity to express and exchange their artistic thoughts and ideas in an environment that was familiar and conducive for them. After some initial research, three SNSs were identified as potential environments: Facebook, Deviant Art and Tumblr. Since participants were likely to know and be familiar with them, they were considered likely to feel motivated, confident and enthusiastic about participating in the interactions and as a result, be more likely to invest time engaging through these SNSs. The disadvantage of these SNSs was that, as public domains, they did not offer a secure platform for the research. Moreover, such sites would be unlikely to meet the research ethics clearance guidelines and the child protection standards in relation to confidentiality and security.

Given such constraints, in 2011 the researcher set up a safe site administered through the secured server in the DET (ACT) school network (the CLC website), as this could only be accessed by authorised people using a password. Prior to gaining access, all the students had to complete the background survey before being given a User Identifier and password to access the blog. While the CLC was not familiar to the SIN students, Singapore’s MOE operates a similar networking platform, enabling the nominated schools in Singapore and Australia (Canberra, ACT) to be connected.

Figure 3.2 represents the proposed operation of the blog interaction between Australian and Singaporean schools using the CLC networking platform.

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SIN CLC AUS (Singapore) Connected Learning (Canberra, ACT) Community School A Blog One & Blog Two School D Random Paired Interaction School B Blog Three School E College C Open Interaction College F Reflective Journal

Figure 3.2 Blog interaction using the CLC platform

The social networking process involved students sharing their artworks or a personal choice of a visual representation (for example, a picture, a photograph or an article), interacting and discussing their artistic expressions and negotiating their individual artistic identity via a blog. Individual participants could also choose to post self- reflections from this art-making/artistic interaction experience over a specified time frame (four to six weeks). There were three interaction opportunities across three different types of blog: blogs one and two (random paired interaction), blog three (open interaction) and the reflective journal. Table 3.10 presents the different types of blog set up, the blog activity and those able to access each blog.

Table 3.10 Types of blogs, blog activities and levels of access

Blog: Type of blog Blog activity Access Random paired  Participants paired randomly with their  designated One and interaction international peers international two  Each interacts only with the designated partner partners  Given two interaction opportunities to network  Teacher of the with two random partners in the two blogs students’  Encouraged to post their own artwork or a visual participants stimulus to initiate a discussion  Researcher  Encouraged to use a range of technology tools in the CLC platform to communicate/negotiate their artistic expressions including, social networking in a blog and journal entries  Paired interactions or ‘closed’ correspondence between participants, to allow them to build interpersonal communication skills, such as negotiating differences, expressing points of view without disrespect, developing mutual understanding and give them opportunities to sole technical problems or subjective issues they encounter in their artistic representations

Blog Type of blog Blog activity Access Three Open interaction  Student participants were encouraged to engage  All student and share their artistic expressions and participants experiences openly. For example, the senior  Teachers of secondary/high school students could interact participants with peers of their own choice and learn about  Researcher their artistic experiences. The college students could take on the roles of peer tutor or coach to explain how they are inspired by their life experience, conceptualise these experiences and express them in their art-making processes  The issues and concerns generated in the blog were resolved amongst the students themselves. This process kept everyone informed and on task  By reading the interactions of others, participants thought about their own responses. This is how they learnt and built on their experience and knowledge  The open interactions or ‘open’ correspondence amongst the student participants helped them to build more confidence in choosing to interact with peers or be an observer in the blog

Reflective Personal  The participants were invited to reflect on their  Individual student Journal documentation personal experiences and learning process in the participants could journal entries, which were available on the CLC access only their own journal entries  Teachers of student participants  Researcher

3.7.2 Social networking protocols for student participants (blog interaction) To minimise prospects for psychological harm and personal emotional strain among the participants, they were briefed carefully about what to expect during the interactions, how to respond and how to deal with difficult situations. The following safeguards were put in place:

 all student participants were advised to observe the ‘Social Networking Protocols’, for example, always use respectful and polite language, show empathy and goodwill, do not make derogatory remarks and do not discuss information of a personal/private nature;  all student participants were provided with a list of prompting questions to facilitate the interactions, for example: - Why did you choose this title for your artwork? - What did you do to further develop this idea or concept? - What do these symbols and images represent? - How do you want your audience to interact with your artwork?

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 all student participants were given a list of prompting questions for engaging with an artwork. For example: - What is the first impression of the artwork? (Personal response) - What can you see in the artwork? (Visual response) - What feelings do the artwork evoke? (Emotional response) - Can you relate your own life experience to what the artist is going through as depicted in the artwork? (Empathetic response)  all participants were assured that, if they feel uncomfortable with the interaction, they could exit from the blog immediately, and receive counselling if necessary.

See Appendix J for further detailed information about the social networking protocols.

3.7.3 Researcher monitoring and self-regulated surveillance The discussions in the blog were monitored over the specified time frame (4–6 weeks) by the researcher and the teachers-in-charge from the participating schools/college. The researcher and the teachers were given administrative access to the CLC network, permitting observation of the interactions between participants and keeping students on task. These observations in blogs acted as self-regulated surveillance. If students know that their peers are watching and reading what they write, they are likely to do their best to save face.

3.8 Administrative and Ethical Clearances

3.8.1 Australian National University Human Research Ethics Committee Ethics approval for this study, protocol number 2010/347, was received from the Australian National University (ANU) on 3 March 2011. (See Appendix K.1 for approval letter.) The National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007), to which the ANU Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) conforms, requires that researchers report any concerns that may have bridged ethical protocols during the research or that prevented the research from being carried out according to the original proposal (Australian National University, 2011, Monitoring, para 1). No such breaches or deviations occurred.

3.8.2 DET/ACT and MOE/SIN approval As noted earlier, the researcher was required to obtain approval to conduct research from the educational authorities in the ACT and Singapore. Approval from DET/ACT was

received on 10 June 2011 and approval from Singapore’s MOE was received on 6 April 2011. (See Appendices K.2 & K.3 for copies of the approval letters.)

3.9 Fieldwork plan

The methodological approach was executed in two stages, presented in Tables 3.11 and 3.12:

Interaction Procedure A: Invitation, consent, background survey, interview and art production Interaction Procedure B: Cross-cultural interactions and modification of artistic representations

3.9.1 Art production and interview (Stage 1)

Table 3.11 Interaction procedure A – invitation, consent, background survey, interview and art production (Stage 1)

SIN – School A, B & C AUS – School D, E & F

Activity Researcher’s task Time Resources frame required:  Send invitation to participate in research project; Collect 1 hour Parent/Guardian researcher/teacher-in-charge present to answer students’ documentation Class Consent questions) time Background  Students complete consent to participate in research survey project form  Students complete background survey  Send official letter of confirmation to inform parent/guardian of those students who have agreed to participate in the research project

 Plan, design and create visual representations Observation/ 5–6 Computer lab  Write a rationale for their visual representations documentation hours  Students complete artwork submission questionnaire of the process Class  Document art-making process and reflect on personal Check journal time experiences in journal entries (CLC) entries in CLC

 Conduct interviews (face-to-face) with individual student Collect audio- 3–5 Classroom/ participants to discuss interview questions (refer to recordings of minutes Conference room Appendix E) interviews/ per transcriptions of student interviews Class time  Pair the students with international peers Work with CLC 1 hour Computer lab  Connect students with their working partners (via e-mail) Coordinator/DET School ACT time

 Set up the CLC system for the cross-cultural interaction Work with CLC 2–3 Computer lab Coordinator, hours DET ACT, IT School teacher/IT time support staff

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3.9.2 Cross-cultural interactions and modification of artistic representations (Stage 2)

Table 3.12 Interaction procedure B – cross-cultural interactions and modification of artistic representations (Stage B)

Cross-cultural interactions One, Two & Three

Activity Researcher’s Time Resources task frame required  Communicate with the participating schools Work with visual 1 hour Computer lab arts/IT teacher Class time  Start cross-cultural interactions 1 Monitoring the 24 hours Computer lab  Students work in their designated pairs interactions in Between Students’  Students exchange artwork the closed blog class & access to  Students could operate in closed blog interaction when at in CLC home internet at home after school within specific timeframe Printing time home interactions  Revision 1 – if none, justify Take note of any 2 hours Computer lab modifications Class time

 Personal reflections in journal entries Check CLC 1 hour Computer lab Printing Class reflections time

 Cross-cultural interactions 2 Monitoring the 24 hours Computer lab  Re-pairing (students work with a different partner from interactions in Bet. class Students’ the same group) the closed blog & home access to  Students exchange artwork in CLC time internet at  Students could operate in closed blog interaction when Printing home they are at home after school within a specific timeframe interactions

 Revision 2 – if none, justify Take note of any 2 hours Computer lab modifications Between class & home time

 Cross-cultural interactions 3 Monitoring the 24 hours Computer lab Students may upload their artwork on an opened blog interactions in Bet class Students’ Students may undertake open blog interaction when the opened blog & home access to they are at home or during school time within a specific in CLC time internet at timeframe (36–48 hours) Printing home interactions  Personal reflections in journal entries Check CLC 1 hour Computer lab Printing Class reflections time

 Revision 3 – if none, justify Take note of any 2 hours Computer lab modifications Class time

 Personal reflections in journal entries Check CLC 1 hour Computer lab Printing Class reflections time (responses)

3.9.3 Technical backup strategies Technical support from the IT advisor from the Learning Technologies department, DET, ACT4 was arranged to support students and teachers who experienced technical problems with the CLC network during the blog interaction period. The e-mail address of the IT advisor was given to the teachers and students, and they were advised to contact either the researcher or the IT advisor regarding any technical problems.

To facilitate the smooth running of the blog interactions, the researcher also organised a trial run of the blog so that the students could test logging on and discover how to navigate in the blog, and advise the researcher or IT advisor of any problems before the actual running of blog interactions One, Two and Three.

3.10 Implementation of Fieldwork

At this point of the research project, the greatest challenge was getting through the bureaucracy, coordinating with the secondary schools/high schools and colleges in Singapore and Australia to participate in this project, and also handling the administration procedure for research approval from the MOE and ACT DET.

3.10.1 Commuting between Singapore and Canberra When the research project was planned, the researcher was resident in the ACT and planned to travel to Singapore to meet the student participants and conduct the survey and the interviews, and meet the teaching staff supporting the project to finalise the procedure and protocols to ensure the smooth running of the final online interactions on the blog. However, when the research project commenced the researcher was residing in New Delhi, India, which necessitated travel to both Singapore and Australia, complicating the logistics due to travel time, differences in time zones and technological environments.

3.10.2 Responses from Singaporean schools/junior colleges Initial correspondence with the schools was conducted via e-mail and phone. E-mails were followed by a phone call to the principal or the head teacher of each school’s visual arts department.

4 Learning Technologies Officer, Learning Technologies Section, ACT Department of Education and Training.

90 Chapter 3 Most of the Singapore secondary schools and colleges contacted showed very little interest in the research project. Of the three schools selected initially, secondary school A was unable to participate due to lack of interest from the students. Other schools/colleges declined giving reasons such as their heavy school curriculum, exam schedules, that the students were too busy or the school did not have time to accommodate the research.

After several unfruitful attempts to recruit schools, the researcher decided to utilise prior teaching contacts in Singapore, beginning with the head teacher of visual arts in secondary school B. After much persuasion, secondary school B decided to join in the research.

The researcher also contacted an ex-colleague with whom he had been to art college in Australia, but who was then teaching in secondary school H in Singapore. This ex- colleague agreed to take part, and suggested the researcher might establish further contacts by attending their West Zone Sharing Session. The contacts from the West Zone Sharing Session eventually led to the participation of secondary school K and junior college N.

It was a challenging experience for the researcher to approach these secondary schools and colleges to convince them to participate in the research project. Even with official approval from the MOE to conduct the research, there was a lack of enthusiasm to support research projects and a priority on students’ academic performance.

The researcher contacted 15 secondary schools and junior colleges before four (three secondary schools and one junior college) eventually agreed to participate in the research project (one subsequently withdrew, as noted earlier; details can be found in Appendix I).

3.10.3 Responses from Australian high schools/colleges The researcher began contacting the principals and teaching staff of ACT high schools and colleges located in the Canberra metropolitan region via e-mail and phone calls in March 2011, using a list obtained from the DET. The principals and the teaching staff of high schools P and Q and college R – the first three schools contacted – expressed interest and responded positively to the invitation to participate. Meetings were arranged to discuss and finalise details regarding the blog interaction schedule, instructions for logging on to the CLC site and student participant numbers. (Details can be found in Appendix J.)

3.11 Data collection

The first part of the data collection (Interaction Procedure A – Table 3.11) was conducted in Singapore and Canberra, and the second part (Interaction Procedure B – Table 3.12) was conducted online via the CLC site. Table 3.13 expands Table 3.2 to include details of the data collected.

Table 3.13 Research aims, data collection

Aims Questions Data

1.  What communication  Understanding of artistic a) To identify adolescents’ modes do adolescences expression (e.g. meaning preferences and prefer/use? of artistic, being artistic, consumption habits in  What are the artistic vs. creative) relation to art and dimensions of their  Value placed on artistic technology artistic awareness? representation b) To compare these  What qualities in their  Source of artistic ideas preferences and self-expression do and inspirations consumption habits across adolescents perceive or  Types of artistic different countries value as artistic? experience  What are the  Preferred medium for parameters of the creating artistic mediated expressions social/academic  Levels of engagement in technological their social networking environment in which space they operate?  Feedback about their  How do adolescents participation experience use technology as a platform or a tool for self-expression, especially their ‘artistic’ self?  To what extent do adolescents understand their role in a mediated social/academic technological environment?

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Table 3.13 (Continued)

Aims Issues Data

 To what extent might there  Artworks posted on the 2. To explore the ways in be cultural differences in designated site which adolescents from the ways adolescents:  Responses to the different cultures present a) present themselves artworks of peers themselves to their peers b) communicate their  Artists’ responses to within a technologically feelings, thoughts and their own artworks and mediated ideas negotiate artworks of their peers social/academic differences (comments/feedback) technological  To what extent might the  Artists’ responses to the environment in relation social networking space be whole process of their preferred to face-to-face to: artistic experience in the engagement? project and participation i) their communicative  To what extent might feedback behaviour cross-cultural variances in ii) their technological the adolescents influence their communicative comfort zone behaviour? iii) their ‘artistic’  How do adolescents use negotiation technology as a platform or a tool to express themselves artistically?  Is the social networking space constricting or liberating for adolescents?

Table 3.14 presents the execution of the data collection procedures and deviations from the initial plan. Further details of the stages of the data collection, including the location, time frame and duration, can be found in Appendix N.

Table 3.14 Execution of data collection and deviations from the initial plan

Interaction Procedure A: invitation, consent, background survey, interview & art production (Stage 1) – conducted in the participating schools Activity Status Deviations  Invitation to participate in research project  (researcher/teacher-in-charge) to be present to answer students’ questions)  Complete consent to participate in research project  The teachers volunteered to handle the form administration, including identifying participants for the project and completion of consent documents prior to the meeting  Complete background survey   Send official letter of confirmation to inform  The teachers supported the administration parent/guardian of those students who have agreed process to take part in the research project  Plan, design and create visual representations  Artwork submission questionnaire used as  Write rationale for their visual representations  post-participation questionnaire (online exit survey)  Complete an artwork submission questionnaire   Documenting art-making process and reflecting on D Most students only attempted the reflective personal experiences in journal entries (CLC) journal at the end of the project  Conduct interviews (face-to-face) with individual D One-on-one interviews were changed to student participants to discuss interview questions small group interviews (refer to Appendix)  Pair the students with their international peers   Notify students of their working partners (via e-mail) D Researcher arranged the pairing but the teachers from the respective schools notify their own students  Set up the CLC network for the cross-cultural  Melanie Bezear (Learning Technologies interaction Officer from ACT DET) supported the CLC network (Blogs, Reflective Journal & Exit Survey)

() = executed as planned () = not able to execute due to unforeseen circumstances D = deviated from original plan

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Table 3.14 Execution of data collection and deviations from the initial plan (Continued)

Interaction Procedure B: Cross-cultural interactions & modification of artistic representations (Stage 2) – conducted in the CLC network (online) Activity Status: Derivations:  Communicate with the participating schools 

 Start cross-cultural interactions 1 (blog 1)   Students work in their designated pairs   Students exchange artwork   Students may operate in closed blog interaction when  they are at home after school within specific timeframe  Revision 1 – if none, justify  Students from both countries only posted their artwork. There was no evidence of modifications  Personal reflections in journal entries D Most students only attempted the reflective journal at the end of the project  Cross-cultural interactions 2 (blog 2)   Re-pairing (students work with a different partner from  the same group)  Students exchange artwork   Students may operate in closed blog interaction when  they are at home after school within a specific timeframe  Revision 2 – if none, justify  Students from both countries only posted their artwork. There was no evidence of modifications  Start Cross-cultural interactions 3 (blog 3)  The time frame was extended to the first Students may upload their artwork on an opened blog week of June (Please refer to Section 4.9.3 Students may operate in opened blog interaction for further details) when they are at home or during school time within a specific timeframe (36–48 hours)  Personal reflections in journal entries D Students only attempted the reflective journal at the end of the project  Revision 3 – if none, justify  Students from both countries only posted their artwork. There was no evidence of modifications  Personal reflections in journal entries  Collect and print journal entries and Exit Survey responses from the CLC network

() = executed as planned () = not able to execute deal to unforeseen circumstances D = deviated from original plan

The deviations noted in the third column of Table 3.14 meant that:

 it was not possible for the researcher to observe and document the students’ art- making process;  student participants were unable to complete the art submission questionnaire and write a rationale for their artwork. Subsequently, the art submission questionnaire was used as the online post-participation questionnaire (exit online survey);  the researcher decided to post the questionnaire on the CLC network, so that the students could log on to complete it during their spare time; and

 it was not possible for the researcher to conduct one-on-one interviews with the participants. With very limited time allocated to the project, the researcher decided to conduct small group interviews instead (the time frame and the venue for the small group interview sessions can be found in Appendixes L, O & P).

The following sections discuss issues arising from various aspects of the data collection.

3.11.1 Trial period and time frame extension for blog interactions The blog interactions started with a trial period of five days to allow the student participants to sort out technical issues and become familiar with the CLC site. The initial ‘formal’ blog interactions began between 23th May 2011 and 29th May 2011 (seven days). This time frame was extended to June, due to disruptions such as the Singaporean college participants having to prepare for mid-term assessments, going on school camp and a mid-term school break, and the Australian participants striving to meet deadlines for assignments, assessment tasks, and projects. The extension allowed the student more time to interact and engage in the blog project.

3.11.2 Artwork requirement The original plan was to conduct an in-class session with the participants in which the researcher could collect data relating to planning, design and execution, and the students could write rationales for their visual representations and complete artwork submission questionnaires. On the blogs, after each interaction with their international peers, student participants were encouraged to enhance or modify their artwork (if necessary) to increase the audience’s engagement and understanding of their intentions. However, after much negotiation with the teachers in charge of the project at the respective schools, this became impossible, because the students were already busy with their own art projects and had no time to embark on another. Teachers were also reluctant to give the researcher more time to conduct another class session on top of the time already allocated for the introduction and interview sessions. As a result, the researcher had to compromise, using the students’ existing art projects as the subject of interaction on the blog.

3.11.3 Online exit survey (post participation questionnaire) The art submission questionnaire was administered as an online exit survey (post- participation questionnaire) to be completed after the blog interactions. The final questionnaire was slightly different to the initial one due to technical issues. For example, question 8, formerly a multiple-choice question, was changed to an open-ended question, as was question 4.

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3.11.4 Reflective journal entries Self-reflective journal entries were intended to be ongoing throughout the three blog interactions to allow participants to document the process of their artistic experience, including the artwork planning–research–creation process, cross-cultural interactions, feedback about the project, and transformation of artwork as a result of modification after negotiating their ideas and concepts on the blogs. However, students did not make journal entries until towards the end of blog three.

3.11.5 Other deviations The initial plan was to include students with an arts and non-arts backgrounds. However, all the participating schools/college from both countries made the executive decision that this was an ‘art research project’, and therefore included only students taking visual arts as a subject, which had the added consequence that girls outnumbered boys.

3.12 Data analysis plan

Given the unpredictable nature of the final dataset, the plan was to derive appropriate categories and analysis based on the data collected. In the search for emerging themes, thematic analysis was used. A collection of T-Unit categories was sourced from the data for each of the 11 categories. Hunt (1970) defined T units as “the shortest units into which a piece of discourse can be cut without leaving any sentence fragments as residue” (cited in Bardovi-Harlig, 1992, p. 390). Table 3.15 presents an overview of the phases of data processing and scrutiny.

Table 3.15 Overview of stages of data processing and analysis

Background Small group Blog interaction Artwork Reflective journal Post-participation survey interview questionnaire The coding Transcription of Transfer of Images of Transferred Students’ process is students’ students’ students’ artworks students’ journal responses are managed by dialogues from postings from CLC posted on the entries from CLC retrieved from the manual counting interview audio system into Word blogs are system and CLC system and a & recorded in an recordings document transferred and compiled in Word summary is Excel spreadsheet presented in Word printed

Not all the Students’ Students’ Students’ Students’ journal Students’ questions can be dialogues postings classified artworks classified entries are responses for presented in classified into according to into successfully/ divided into T- each question quantitative categories blogs 1,2 & 3 unsuccessfully units divided into T- statistical format posted units

Different Segment T-units Blogs 1, 2 & 3 Student’ artworks T-units further Segment T-units approaches and and data-driven divided into T- classified analysed and data-driven methods were categories units according to according to their categories considered to themes, respective best represent expressive forms thought-unit the data & artwork titles categories

T-units further analysed into categories

Each of these research instruments and categorisation strategies is discussed in detail in following sections.

3.13 The background survey

The background survey data was reduced to a table and graphic format for analysis. As the sample size was small (<100), the coding process was manageable by manual counting. External providers were sourced and contracted to transcribe results into data. The researcher then , prior to the coding process, checked the background survey forms to test reliability and also to identify and exclude unintended or careless errors made by the participants. Moser and Kalton (1977) emphasised three key components in reviewing data: completeness, accuracy and uniformity. These tasks are outlined below.

 Completeness The researcher checked all the survey forms for completeness. Incomplete answers were crossed-checked against other sections of the survey or clarified with the participant during interview. Accuracy

98 Chapter 3 The researcher was vigilant to ensure that accuracy was maintained throughout the data collection process. The researcher checked the completed surveys to ensure they were answered appropriately, and the participants were encouraged to be attentive and try their best to answer all the survey questions as clearly as possible and to the best of their knowledge. It was important to identify errors in the editing phase as any oversight could have reduced the legitimacy of the final data.

The researcher also checked the transcribing of the information into data by checking against the actual survey forms to ensure reliability of the coding.

 Uniformity The researcher checked the participants had understood instructions and interpreted the questions as intended, and provided explanations if necessary. For example, in Question 6A, the term ‘favourite artists’ proved confusing for some students; the researcher clarified that any type of artist could be identified (e.g., visual artists, fine art artists, musicians, writers and performing artists).

Not all the data collected using the background survey could be reduced to statistics, notably the open-ended questions. Appropriate approaches and methods were considered to best represent the information.

3.14 The small group interviews

3.14.1 Transcription principles (small group interviews) Transcription is the process of transforming spoken words into writing. Clearly the accuracy of the transcription is vital to the validity of the results. Poland (1995) suggested that “the very notion of accuracy of transcription is problematic given the intersubjective nature of human communication, and transcription as an interpretative activity” (p. 292). There are two main types of transcription: verbatim or clean read. Verbatim is the recording of every utterance (including ‘fillers’ such as ‘um’, ‘er’ and ‘ah’) word for word; clean transcription ignores such utterances. The following examples from the research illustrate the difference between the two styles of transcription.

Paraphrased Speech AUS/HS (Male) I use technology because I like to write down my opinion on what is going on in the world in an online site like a forum site. I use technology to draw little things and occasionally, I feel like putting it onto the internet to get a laugh out of some people looking at my weird little drawings. I also look at news articles and read other people’s opinions and think about them and then write my own. Verbatim Speech AUS/HS (Male) Ah, yep. Um. I use technology because I, like, I write sometimes I’ll go to, like, an online site like a forum site and just write down my opinion on what’s happened or express my opinion on what’s going on in the world and stuff or…like, use technology to draw little things, like occasionally… and just, like, if I feel like it, putting it onto the internet to maybe get a laugh out of some people looking at my weird little drawings (Grim on the face). And, um, umm. And other than that, I just, like, look around on the internet and I look at things like news articles or I read other people’s opinions and then I just think about them and then, I might write my own, or stuff like that, and that’s about it. There is some debate about whether non-verbal cues (such as grimacing, sighing or coughing) should be recorded in transcripts. In this research these cues were included, as they potentially provided insightful context to the responses.

Maclean, Meyer, and Estable (2004) emphasised the importance of spot-checking the transcript and the recording to ensure quality. This is equally important regardless of who performs the transcription (in this case, the researcher).

In this research, fillers (such as ‘um’ and ‘you know’) were transcribed.

Student Content Line Ref. Recording Participant/ Time Interviewer DC13(F) All right, haha (laughs). Umm, for what artistic means, um, I dunno, generally 4 0:05 people classify people as artistic if they like art, doesn’t matter if they’re 5 good at it but if they enjoy it, I think that’s still artistic, like if they can still do 6 it. 7

Student Content Line Ref. Recording Participant/ Time Interviewer DC13(F) Umm, people do use it loosely a lot but…I dunno, there’s not like…I guess 26 1:46 there is, I dunno, I think it could be use like, in a less loose term. 27 28

100 Chapter 3 The transcripts for this research captured environmental sounds, including interjections by others, for example:

Student Participant/ Content Line Ref. Recording Interviewer Time DC09(M) Yeah, that’s my name. I think artistic qualities are what an artist or someone who is 96 8:33 artistic possesses that are, they’re basically like character traits, I guess, of like being 97 artistic and being an artist, so I’ll use David Bowie as an example. 98 99 (Outside voice) Hopefully, there isn’t a copyright! (Non-participating student shouting.) 100 8:49 101 DC09(M) Um…(Turning back and waving to his mates signalling to them to be quiet), so his 102 8:51 qualities are, like imagination, being like brave, revolutionary thinking… 103 104

The interview transcriptions were recorded in the following format below:

FOLDER 5/SIN/SS/110525_001.MP3 Student Participants Content Line Recordin /Interviewer ref. g Time YI05(F) When we are using technology...? (Slightly puzzled, looking at the other girls) 211 22:09 Interviewer What do you use to express your artistic self? Do you use Facebook or other social 212 22:20 media apps? (Prompting) YI05(F) FB. 213 22:22 Interviewer Then tell me more about how you use it to express yourself, how do you use it to 214 22:30 express your artistic self? 215 YI05(F) Um, I use FB when it’s concerning an artwork. There was an art piece that I was 216 22:35 working on for the exams, I was doing a lot of thinking about it, ah, and I described 217 how I use, and what were the mediums I wanted to use so that my friends can see 218 and comment. I also get to express myself on Twitter, it’s covered on FB, if it’s not 219 covered in the examination thing, ya. YI06(F) Ah, when using technology I usually use Facebook. Ah, in Facebook, ah, I can 220 23:06 share, ah, pictures that I snap, like for example the art pieces that I like, I can also 221 snap the photo and place it on Facebook so my friends can know what I want, what 222 I like, what I express, what are my feelings and how do I express them, ah, telling 223 why, ah, commenting that, ah, artworks also express my feelings to what artistic is. YI07(F) Ah, when I use, ah…(Giggles, looking at the girls)…ya, ah…(looking at 224 23:54 interviewer) Interviewer What sort of technology do you use to express your artistic self? 225 24:06 YI07(F) Ah, Facebook. (Smiling, looking at the girls) 226 24:08 Interviewer And how to do you use it? 227 24:08 YI07(F) Ah, I don’t really put my personal things, personal information there, when I, 228 24:11 someone, some people just post everything, what they do, who they are, what they 229 feel, everything, it’s on Facebook, yep, so they don’t really care of their personal 230 things.

The transcription of the small group interview sessions took longer than anticipated. The overall time taken to complete the transcription is triple the anticipated time. A detailed list of the recording time taken for all the transcriptions to be completed can be found in Appendix P.

3.14.2 Creating units for analysis (small group interviews) The transcripts needed to be divided into units, which could be further categorised and quantified. Hunt (1965) spoke about the concept of the ‘minimal terminable unit’ or ‘T unit’ to examine sentence development in the writing. While the original purpose of a T unit was to demonstrate the writer’s level of competence, this unit of analysis can be adapted to the analysis of written responses, interviews and blog dialogue. For example,

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by deconstructing the student’s run-on utterances in the interview into T-units, the content of the shortest discourse can be interpreted and further classified into thought-unit categories, as exemplified in Table 3.16.

Table 3.16 Sample of a completed T-unit analysis for one small group interview

‘Being artistic’ categories

Distinctiveness of personal presentation DPP

Maker and producer and creator MPC Generating emotions GE Habit of mind, instinctive, attitude, second nature HM Communicative gaps/disruptions CG

Being artistic (2) Gender Country School DPP MPC GE HM CG T-unit Level I think to me being artistic is like being original and not M AUS C  deliberately trying to be something different just for the sake of it, But, M AUS C  it’s like because M AUS C  it’s a different way of thinking. M AUS C  It just comes up. M AUS C  TOTAL: 1 0 0 2 2

3.14.3 Units for analysis (small group interviews) Before segmenting the interview transcripts of the small group interview session into T- units, categories were derived as exemplified in Table 3.17.

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Table 3.17 Categories of content with corresponding examples from interview transcription

Content categories Examples 1. Meaning of artistic I think the word artistic has a different meaning to different people so I think that when, if somebody was to say that person is really artistic, they could just mean that person is different or that person, I like what they do, or that person is being expressively creative. 2. Being artistic I think to me being artistic is like being original and not deliberately trying to be something different just for the sake of it, but it’s like because it’s a different way of thinking, it just come up… 3. Artistic vs. creative I think artistic and creative are kinda different because you can have… like a creative mind but you don’t know how to express it and I think when you express it, it’s artistic. 4. Personal artistic qualities Yes, I’m a very, very much a perfectionist. I like all my lines nice and straight. I don’t…I make sure my camera angle is quite perfect, um, I also, um, I’m very…yes, that also crosses to my writing, I’m very detailed in describing things. 5. Use of the words ‘artistic’ I think it’s (artistic) probably, like thrown around quite loosely. I think it can or ‘creative’ be used in a positive way but I don’t think people really think about what it means, or you know, the kind of almost confidence that they could be giving to a person by using the word, like it’s quite a powerful compliment. 6. Personal synergy with I experimented with digital music before, this is a totally new platform of technology and art expressing myself, the way I look at the world, so it just gives me an outlet to escape to my imagination. 7. Art preferences I think that I appreciate a large range of art, artistic forms and that…yep, I…um, do a lot of music as well as art and painting and I’m also studying both photography and fashion. I think definitely having an open mind about people’s view of my artwork and also other people’s artwork and um, being…yea, definitely just having an open mind about it and viewing different things in the world that are… that can be seen as artistic that other people might not. 8. Engagement with Technology allows me to experience things that I might not otherwise be able technology to, like, in a world where we didn’t have such, like, strong global communication and stuff. 9. Social networking I love social networking, I’m kind of addicted to FB because I’m a teenager and I like to meet new people and I like to go on and meet other people that know other people and, you know, that sort of stuff. 10. Communicative Ah, I would rather use technology to meet new people as I wouldn’t feel preferences shy and I would be more comfortable with, ah, not with talking to people…Yea, and I could type and use my words to express myself. 11.. Leisure preferences I play the piano. Ah, it’s good for entertaining people, I guess…I play for like my family or people that come over a lot, so not, not like serious stuff, just…

Table 3.17 shows the 11 categories of content derived from the interview data. Students’ interview dialogues were segmented into individual T-units and categorised as ‘distinctiveness of personal presentation’, ‘maker and producer and creator’, ‘generating emotions’, ‘habit of mind’, instinctive, attitude, second nature’ and ‘communicative gaps/disruptions’ .

3.15 The artworks

The artworks posted by the students from both countries in the three blogs were explored with respect to themes, expressive forms and artwork titles.

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3.15.1 Themes The themes were derived from analysis of the participants’ descriptions of their own artworks posted on the blogs. The participants’ descriptions of their own artworks were deconstructed to brief units of key words or phrases. The resultant themes and corresponding key words and phrases are presented in Table 3.18.

Table 3.18 Merging themes of artworks and their corresponding key words and phrases

Themes Key words & phrases

Self-exploration Feel awful lonely, solitary, share the pain, freedom, complexities of our personalities Reflections of life Life stories, crossroads, different paths, life’s journey, everything strange in this world, past memories Relationship Closer into people’s awareness, broke my heart, dissolve, fell in love, show affections, special gift Social environment Building in the city, depicting scenes from my fantasy, typical Australian landscape, skyscrapers, tsunami waves Interest & choices Lifestyle in the countryside, trend, healthy lifestyle, fashion Miscellaneous Millinery, sculptural, interesting and colourful materials, unique, figure drawing, design, enigma, (Sketches, plan, abstract, church layout, costume design, local newspaper concepts, sources)

3.15.2 Expressive forms The expressive forms were derived from participants’ descriptions of their own artworks and verified by the researchers’ observation of the physical images of the 34 artworks uploaded to the CLC. The expressive forms included drawing, painting, photography, collage, 3D form, computer-generated images and computer-generated audio. Table 3.19 shows the expressive forms of the artworks and their corresponding key words and phrases.

Table 3.19 Expressive forms of artworks and their corresponding key words and phrases

Expressive forms Key words & phrases

Drawing Sketch with charcoal, figure drawing, pencil sketch, sketching, crayons, amazing drawing skills Painting Painting, canvas, simply paint, acrylic, Chinese ink, painting mask/face Photography Black and white photo, photo montage, photographed Collage Collage with different paper, overlapping 3-dimensional Sculptural, costume, textiles, modelling, paper-made airplanes of different sizes Computer-generated image This took me a week to pixel, Photoshop Computer-generated audio Musical composition, digital music

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3.15.3 Artwork titles It was possible to analyse 56 artwork titles, because all the titles were visible despite not all images being uploaded successfully. The titles of the artworks were categorised as shown in Table 3.20.

Table 3.20 Title categories and corresponding samples of artwork titles

TITLE CATEGORIES: Samples of Artwork Titles

Communicative Breakthrough, Mask of Emotion, Reach Out for My Dream, Stories of Skyscraper Title as task Figure Drawing, Collage Figure, CLC Artistic Piece, Sufficient Art Piece Concept Metamorphosis, Disaster, Lone Toothbrush, Flightless, Memories Descriptor Forest Through the Trees, Favourite Sneakers, Cheetah Chase, Purple Head

3.16. The blog interactions

The three blog interactions posted by the students from both countries were transcribed and segmented into T-units.

3.16.1 Transcription principles (blog interactions) Verbatim transcription, as used for the interview data, was deemed appropriate for the posts from the blog interactions. The blog posts are typed text that can be interpreted as utterances captured exactly the way they were meant to be spoken, but excluding external sounds and nonverbal cues such as eye contact, facial expressions and body language. In these blog interactions, emoticons were often used to convey nonverbal cues, and they were noted. (A list of emoticons used by the student participants can be found in Appendix Q.)

The postings were taken directly from the blogs in the CLC network, which also recorded other information containing how many students had viewed the post (‘View’), the number of students who commented on the post (‘Comment’), and the comments themselves, which were also transcribed, as shown on the next page.

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Blog Interaction 3 Post Topic View Comment Details of comments 22. My final artwork is inspired by the wonder of Taylor 17 4 Comment 1 Swift. Is that a teardrop on the guitar? Very As I cannot manage my time well and I learn from my wonderful! mistake that I have to manage my time well. I do not know that I can use pencil colours or crayons so for Posted by AUS/HS/UCK70/M the next exam, I will not only use painting, I will use 24 May 2011 14:57 pencil colours or crayons. Comment 2 Posted by SIN/SS/YI55/F That is a really cool picture. I really 23 May 2011 11:36 like how you put reference to songs in it such as the one mentioned in the previous post.

Posted by AUS/HS/UCK72/M 26 May 2011 13:21

Comment 3 I love the use of tears in the artwork. It creates a sense of emotion in the music.

Posted by SIN/JC/PC028/M 26 May 2011 16:22

Comment 4 The guitar with eye and the mouth is awesome! What a great idea 

Posted by AUS/C/DC022/F 26 May 2011 18:15

3.16.2 Creating units for analysis (blog interactions) In this study, the T-unit method was adopted to analyse the content posted on the blogs (refer to 3.14.2 for explanation of the T-unit and the process used).

3.16.3 Units for analysis (blog interactions) Unlike the interview data, the data across the three blogs are constant, therefore, the same set of T-unit categories was maintained throughout the analysis of blogs. The T-unit categories derived from the students’ responses in the blogs are illustrated in Table 3.21.

Table 3.21 Sample of a T-unit aspects of a blog interaction

Thought-unit categories for blog interactions

Introduction INTRO Didactic DID Self-orientation – personal SOPER Self-orientation – plans SOPL Interactive invitation I INV Over to you – explicit OYE Over to you – implicit OYI Request/response RP Communicative gap/interruption/disruption CL Emoticons EMO

106 Chapter 3 Each student’s post in each blog was deconstructed into T-units. The content of the shortest discourse can be interpreted and further classified into the appropriate thought- unit categories, as shown in Table 3.22.

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Table 3.22 Samples of completed T-unit analysis for blog interactions

POST 62 Gender Country School INTRO DID SOPER SOPL I INV OYE OYI RP CI EMO T-unit level My final artwork inspired by the wonder of Taylor Swift. F SIN SS  As I cannot manage my time well and I learn from my mistake that I have F SIN SS  to manage my time well. I do not know that I can use pencil colours or crayons F SIN SS  so for the next exam, I will not only use painting, I will use pencil colours F SIN SS  or crayons. TOTAL: 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

POST 63 Gender Country School INTRO DID SOPER SOPL I INV OYE OYI RP CI EMO T-Unit level Is that a teardrop on the guitar? M AUS HS  Very wonderful! M AUS HS  TOTAL: 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

108 POST 64 Gender Country School INTRO DID SOPER SOPL I INV OYE OYI RP CI EMO level

T-Unit That is a really cool picture. M AUS HS  I really like how you put reference to songs in it such as the one M AUS HS  mentioned in the previous post. TOTAL: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0

POST 65 Gender Country School INTRO DID SOPER SOPL I INV OYE OYI RP CI EMO T-Unit level I love the use of tears in the artwork. M SIN C  It creates a sense of emotion in the music. M SIN C  TOTAL: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0

POST 66 Gender Country School INTRO DID SOPER SOPL I INV OYE OYI RP CI EMO T-Unit level The guitar with the eye and the mouth is awesome! F AUS C  What a great idea  F AUS C   TOTAL: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1

Chapter 3

3.17 Exit survey (post-participation questionnaire)

Given the diversity of the content of responses to each question in the post-participation questionnaire, the plan was to derive appropriate thought-unit categories and analysis based on the data collected. Table 3.23 shows a sample of a completed T-unit analysis for the post-participation questionnaire (Question 1: What is the title of your artwork?)

Table 3.23 Sample of a completed T-unit analysis for the exit survey

POST PARTICIPATION QUESTIONNAIRE 1 T-Units Gender Country School Artwork Equivocal No title Level titled in relation to artworks 1. Nil M SIN SS  2. I have uploaded two, F AUS C  and neither of them have names as of yet. F AUS C  But, the first is the teapot sketch F AUS C  and the second is the collage of a figure. F AUS C  3. Purple Head F AUS C  4. at the moment it's 'charcoal drawing 1', F AUS C  but I’m thinking of calling the three F AUS C  pictures 'forest through the trees' 5. Nil F SIN SS  6. Circe F AUS C  7. It's called mask of emotion F SIN SS  8. Reach Out For Your Dream F SIN SS  9. the title of my artwork is M51, which is a M AUS HS  galaxy currently crashing into another 10. Nil F SIN C  11. Flowery nation F SIN C  12. On Hold M SIN C  13. The History Anthem of Singapore M SIN SS  TOTAL: 8 6 3

POST PARTICIPATION Country School Level Gender QUESTIONNAIRE 1 AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: Artwork named 3 5 4 4 3 5 8 Equivocal relation to 6 0 0 6 0 6 6 artworks No title 0 3 2 1 1 2 3 Total: 9 8 6 11 4 13 17

POST PARTICIPATION Country School Level Gender QUESTIONNAIRE 1 AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: % % % % % % % Artwork named 33.33 62.50 66.67 36.36 75.00 38.46 47.01 Equivocal relation to 66.67 0 0 54.55 0 46.15 35.29 artworks No title 0 37.50 33.33 9.09 25.00 15.38 17.65

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3.18 The reflective journal

The approach to the reflective journal entries was very similar to that for the blog interactions. The transcripts were collected and documented in a similar format, as indicated below.

Reflective Journal Post Topic 1. I think that the open blog is good way of letting other people give comments about your work so that you can improve on it based on their comments and suggestions. Despite so I think that the open blog might not be a good source of comments because they might not be giving your comments based on what they really feel about your artwork, it might not be 100% true because you do not know that person well. I like the closed blog because you get to talk to one person and only one person throughout, hence getting to know that person more and getting more accurate comments on what they really feel. Though, it would have had been effective if we had a fixed timing for discussion because up till now my work has not been commented at all. I think that giving a reflection on the reflective journal is a good way to record down my views and feelings because it feels like any other blog that I have and hence I can express myself freely without feeling uncomfortable.

Posted by SIN/SS/BP092/M 17 June 2011 05:15

The T-units were divided into T-unit categories (with examples) derived from the students’ responses as illustrated in Table 6.15. Each student’s journal entry was deconstructed into T-units; the content of the shortest discourse was interpreted and further classified into the respective thought-unit categories, as shown in Table 3.24.

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Table 3.24 Sample of a completed T-unit analysis for the reflective journal

T-unit categories for reflective journal Arguments for the open blog (positive) AO (+ve) Arguments for the open blog (negative) AO (-ve) Arguments for the closed blog (positive) AC (+ve) Arguments for the closed blog (negative) AC (-ve) Open vs closed blog environment OVC Reflections on own artwork (theme) RA(T) Reflections on own artwork (medium) RA(M) Responsiveness R(+ve) Responsiveness R(-ve) Emoticons EMO

Reflective journal post 1 G C Sch AO AO AC AC OVC RA RA T T R R EMO T-unit Level (+ve) (-ve) (+ve) (-ve) (T) (M) (+ve) (-ve) (+ve) (-ve)

I think that the open blog is good way of letting other people F SIN SS  give comments about your work so that you can improve on it based on their comments and suggestions.

111 Despite so I think that the open blog might not be a good F SIN SS 

source of comments because they might not be giving your comments based on what they really feel about your artwork, it might not be 100% true because you do not know that F SIN SS  person well. I like the closed blog because you get to talk to one person and F SIN SS  only one person throughout, hence getting to know that person more and getting more accurate comments on what they really feel. Though, it would have had been effective if we had a fixed F SIN SS  timing for discussion because up till now my work has not been commented at all. I think that giving a reflection on the reflective journal is a good F SIN SS  way to record down my views and feelings because it feels like any other blog that I have and hence I can express myself freely without feeling F SIN SS  uncomfortable. TOTAL: 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0

CHAPTER 4 Profiling the Sample

4.1 Scope of the chapter

This chapter provides a profile of the participants. The use of questionnaire provides a baseline data for the cohort to note their individual experiences in the mediated environment, their communicative preference, technology consumption habits, level of confidence and competence in relation to their artistic preferences. This exercise also provides the participants the opportunity to express themselves in a written response, in which the results could then be compared to what they said in their face-to face (verbally) small group interview and their behaviour/interactions during the blogging sessions. Art works were required for the blog interactions. This was to provide a point of reference for the discussions when the participants were interacting in the blog. Thus, a number of questions in the questionnaire focused on exploring their artistic preferences. Their demographics are presented, followed by an analysis of their engagement with technology and social networking. Their artistic, communicative and leisure preferences are also discussed.

4.2 Demographics

The plan was to study 60 students from Australia (students from metropolitan schools in the ACT) and Singapore (students from West Zone Cluster schools), with an equal gender balance (see Table 3.2). However, ultimately the participants were specialist art and design students, and while the eventual sample size was larger (N=92) than the planned 60, the numbers by gender and class size were unequal. The greatest imbalance was in the students’ gender, so while the participants are described by gender in the following tables, the results which follow do not distinguish between genders at country or school level.

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Table 4.1 shows the cohort of students who initially volunteered for the study by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.1 Participants by country, school and gender

Country HS/SS C/JC Male Female Total AUS (Canberra, ACT) 24 22 19 27 46 SIN (Singapore) 30 16 16 30 46 TOTAL: 54 38 35 57 92

HS/SS = High School/Secondary School C/JC = College/Junior College AUS= ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort

Tables 4.2 and 4.3 show the actual level of participation in the background survey by country. Six of the students who volunteered previously were absent on the day the survey was administered, so 86 students completed it.

Table 4.2 Participation in the background survey (Singaporean schools)

Student Student Actual Actual Actual Actual School participants participants participation participation participation participation initially initially (by gender) (by gender) identified identified % % (by gender) Gender M F TOTAL M F TOTAL M F TOTAL SIN SS 1 3 11 14 2 10 12 17.00 83.00 86.00 SIN SS 2 5 5 10 5 5 10 50.00 50.00 100.00 SIN SS 3 3 3 6 1 3 4 25.00 75.00 67.00 SIN JC 4 5 11 16 5 11 16 31.00 69.00 100.00 TOTAL: 16 30 46 13 29 42 31.00 69.00 91.00

SS = Secondary School JC = Junior College M = Male F = Female

Table 4.3 Participation in the background survey (Australian schools)

Student Student Actual Actual Actual Actual School participants participants participation participation participation participation initially initially (by gender) (by gender) identified identified % % (by gender) Gender M F TOTAL M F TOTAL M F TOTAL AUS HS 1 5 5 10 5 5 10 50.00 50.00 100.00 AUS HS 2 11 3 14 9 3 12 75.00 25.00 86.00 AUS C 3 3 19 22 3 19 22 14.00 86.00 100.00 TOTAL: 19 27 46 17 27 44 39.00 61.00 96.00

HS = High School C = College M = Male F = Female

114 Chapter 4 Tables 4.4 and Table 4.5 show the participation in the interview phrase. Eighty-three of the 86 students who completed the background survey were present to complete the interview.

Table 4.4 Level of participation in Interview (Singapore schools)

Student Student Actual Actual Actual Actual School participants participants Participation Participation Participation Participation initially initially (by gender) (by gender) identified identified % % (by gender) Gender M F TOTAL M F TOTAL M F TOTAL SIN SS 1 3 11 14 2 10 12 17.00 83.00 86.00 SIN SS 2 5 5 10 5 5 10 50.00 50.00 100.00 SIN SS 3 3 3 6 1 3 4 25.00 75.00 67.00 SIN JC 4 5 11 16 5 11 16 31.00 69.00 100.00 TOTAL 16 30 46 13 29 42 31.00 69.00 91.00

SS = Secondary School JC = Junior College M = Male F = Female

Table 4.5 Level of participation in Interview (Australia schools)

Student Student Actual Actual Actual Actual School participants participants Participation Participation Participation Participation initially initially (by gender) (by gender) identified identified % % (by gender) Gender M F TOTAL M F TOTAL M F TOTAL AUS HS 1 5 5 10 4 5 9 44.00 56.00 90.00 AUS HS 2 11 3 14 9 3 12 75.00 25.00 86.00 AUS C 3 3 19 22 2 18 20 10.00 90.00 91.00 TOTAL 19 27 46 15 26 41 37.00 63.00 89.00

HS = High School C = College M = Male F = Female

The following sections report the results from the background survey under the following headings:

 Engagement with technology;  Artistic profile and preferences;  Communicative preferences; and  Leisure preferences.

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4.3 Engagement with technology

4.3.1 Computer and mobile devices Table 4.6 shows the students’ perception of their level of computer skills by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.6 Perceived level of computer skills by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender Perceived AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total skill level % % % % % % % Excellent 9.10 7.10 10.40 5.30 10.00 7.14 8.13 Very good 25.00 26.20 22.90 28.90 23.33 26.79 25.59 Good 27.30 28.60 25.00 31.60 26.67 28.58 27.90 Average 25.00 33.30 35.40 21.10 30.00 28.58 29.07 Basic 13.60 4.80 6.30 13.20 10.00 8.92 9.30

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Fewer than 10 per cent of the participants perceived their level of computer skills to be excellent. Most of them perceived their computer skills to be between very good and average. Ten per cent of the HS/SS students perceived their level of computer skills to be excellent. Over 30 per cent of high school/secondary school (HH/SS) students perceived their level of computer skills as average. Just 30 per cent of the college/junior college (C/JC) participants perceived their level of computer skills as good, suggesting that such skills improve over time. Most girls perceived their level of computer skills as good or average (57 per cent), while 40 per cent of the boys perceived their level of computer skills as either average or basic. Overall, girls were more confident than boys about their computer skills.

Table 4.7 shows the ages of the students in 2011 when they first used a computer by country, school level and gender.

116 Chapter 4

Table 4.7 Age when first used a computer by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender Age of first use AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total % % % % % % % 3–5 years 20.50 26.20 18.80 28.90 17.24 26.32 23.26 6–9 years 56.80 57.10 62.50 50.00 65.52 52.63 56.98 10 years 20.50 14.30 14.60 21.10 17.24 17.54 17.44 11–13 years 2.30 2.40 4.20 0 0 3.51 2.33

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Over 80 per cent of the students first used a computer when aged 3–9 years. Only about two per cent did not use a computer until the age of 11–13 years. Between-country differences were minimal. Although nearly 30 per cent of C/JC level students had first used a computer by age five, there was minimal difference between the usage levels by age nine. Over 60 per cent of the HS/SS participants first used a computer when aged 6– 9 years. More boys first used a computer at age 3–9 years and fewer than five per cent of the girls did not use a computer until between 11–13 years.

Table 4.8 shows the students’ responses about purposes of computer use by country, school level and gender. Students were able to select more than one response.

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Table 4.8 Purposes of computer use by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender Purpose for computer use AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: Responses = 250 Responses = 226 Responses = 265 Responses = 211 Responses = 159 Responses = 317 Responses = 476 % % % % % % % Work Homework 8.40 8.40 6.8 10.4 7.55 8.83 8.40 Internet 15.20 15.50 15.8 14.7 16.35 14.83 15.34 School project 12.00 12.40 11.3 13.3 10.06 13.25 12.18 Other (work) 0.40 0.90 0.8 0.5 1.26 0.32 0.63 Sub-Total: 36.00 37.20 34.70 38.90 35.22 37.23 36.55 Communication Social networking 12.00 15.50 14.7 12.3 11.32 14.83 13.66 E-mail 10.40 7.10 7.5 10.4 8.18 9.15 8.82 Skype 3.20 3.10 2.6 3.8 4.40 2.52 3.15 Other (communication) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sub-Total: 25.60 25.70 24.80 26.50 23.90 26.50 25.63 Leisure Play games 11.20 9.30 11.7 8.5 14.47 8.20 10.29 Listen to music 13.60 15.50 15.8 12.8 14.47 14.51 14.50 Watch movies 12.00 12.40 12.8 11.4 11.95 12.30 12.18 Other (leisure) 1.60 0 0 1.9 0 1.26 0.84 Sub-Total: 38.40 37.20 40.30 34.60 40.89 36.27 37.81

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

118 Chapter 4 Across the three categories of work, communication and leisure, students’ usage patterns were very similar, with SIN students reporting slightly higher work usage and AUS students slightly higher leisure usage. College students’ usage was higher for work and lower for the leisure categories. More boys used computers for leisure than girls; more girls used computers for work and communication.

Table 4.9 shows the participants’ access to technology by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.9 Access to technology by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender IT devices AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: Responses Responses = Responses = Responses = Responses Responses Responses =110 105 122 93 =86 =129 =215 % % % % % % % Computer/PC 32.70 27.60 30.30 30.10 20.93 17.82 19.07 Laptop 32.70 32.40 32.80 32.30 27.90 35.66 32.56 iPad/tablet 3.60 17.50 5.70 10.80 31.39 29.46 30.23 Drawing tablet 0.90 0 0 2.70 10.47 11.62 11.17 iPod/MP3 21.80 16.20 17.20 21.50 2.32 0 0.93 iPhone/smart 8.20 14.30 11.50 27.00 1.17 0 0.47 phone Game console 0 5.00 1.60 0 5.81 4.65 5.11 Other (devices) 0 1.00 0.80 0 0 0.78 0.47

HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort M = Male F = Female

Over 60 per cent of the AUS students had access to a computer/PC or laptop at home, while more SIN students had access to a laptop at home and more reported access to an iPad or tablet computer than their ACT counterparts (see Table 4.3.4). Access to a smartphone was low for both groups, but higher for Singaporeans.

HS/SS and C/JC students reported the same level of access to computers/PCs and laptops. However, access to electronic gadgets such as iPads/tablets, drawing tablets and iPhones/smartphones for C/JC students was almost double that of their HS/SS counterparts. More boys reported access to electronic gadgets than girls, while more girls had access to computers/PCs and laptops.

Table 4.10 shows the frequency of computer use at home by country, school level and gender.

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Table 4.10 Frequency of computer use at home by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: Frequency per week Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses =44 =42 =48 =38 = 30 =56 =86 % % % % % % % Once 2.30 0 2.10 0 0 1.79 1.16 Twice 9.10 7.10 12.50 2.60 10.00 7.14 8.14 3 times 4.50 14.30 14.60 2.60 3.33 12.50 9.30 4 times 4.50 14.30 4.20 15.80 6.67 10.71 9.30 5 times 6.80 9.50 6.30 10.50 10.00 7.14 8.14 More than 5 times 72.70 54.80 60.40 68.40 70.00 60.71 63.95

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Over 70 per cent of the AUS students used a computer at home five or more times per week, compared to 55 per cent of the SIN participants. Nearly 80 per cent of C/JC students used computers at home five or more times a week compared with under 70 per cent for the HS/SS group, plausibly reflecting the higher demands of the college years. More boys used computers at home five or more times a week than girls.

Tables 4.11 and 4.12 show the students’ percentage agreement with the statement that computers aid self-expression and understanding of others, by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.11 Percentage agreement that computers aid self-expression, by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: Perceptions of Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses computers =42 =42 =48 =36 =30 =54 =84 (Self-expression) % % % % % % % 61.90 78.57 66.67 75.00 76.67 66.67 70.24

AUS= ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Over 70 per cent of the participants agreed that computers aid self-expression. Across the three comparisons, more SIN students, C/JC students and boys held this view than AUS

120 Chapter 4 students, HS/SS students and girls respectively. Some examples of their feedback on this statement are as follows:

I can find more words to express myself & not afraid to express myself. (SIN SS Girl)

It helps me to express my emotions and thoughts. (SIN JC Boy)

It allows me to post or upload my comments or drawings onto the internet. (SIN SS Boy)

It helps me to express myself without being criticised face-to-face. (SIN SS Boy)

Some explanations given by AUS participants who disagreed are as follows:

I prefer to express myself verbally and physically. (AUS College Girl)

They open my eyes and suppress me in a way, computers can take away our social skills for face-to-face. (AUS College Girl)

I can’t use the computer that well and what people see online is not always the person that I really am depending on what I’m doing. (AUS College Girl)

I express myself better verbally, it is easier to express myself verbally. (AUS HS Girl)

Table 4.12 Percentage agreement that computers aid understanding of others by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: Perceptions of Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses= computers =42 =41 =47 =36 =30 =53 83 (Understanding % % % % % % % of others) 66.67 85.37 65.96 88.89 70.00 79.25 75.90

Across the three comparisons, more SIN students, C/JC students and girls agreed that computers aid understanding of others. Some examples of their feedback are as follows:

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People’s emotions are made known to you through social media like Facebook or using blogs and Twitter. (SIN JC Girl)

We can able to see and infer how a person is like from what they posted and the photographs they add on FB [Facebook]. (SIN JC Girl)

I can tell whether my friend is more ‘open’ or ‘conserved’ by looking at the photos that they post. (SIN JC Girl)

However, there were also some AUS students who felt that communication via the computer can be problematic:

When you use a computer, you can hide and lie, no one really knows. (AUS HS Girl)

You can’t just read expressions and emotions in front of a screen. (AUS College Girl)

It is hard to show emotion through a computer, so you can’t understand how someone is feeling. (AUS HS Girl)

To see them face-to-face is easier to judge their character and personality. (AUS HS Boy)

I don’t understand others by just looking at their picture on a computer screen. (AUS HS Boy)

Sometimes some people don’t really explain themselves in an understandable manner. (AUS HS Boy)

In essence, while most participants shared a positive view of computers in this regard, more SIN students’ views were positive than AUS students’, and more college level students views were positive than high school students’.

122 Chapter 4 Table 4.13 presents the categories created for students’ perceptions of the most exciting aspect/s and corresponding examples. The categories were derived from the students’ responses; the ‘miscellaneous’ category includes responses such as ‘nil’ and no response.

Table 4.13 Categories for perceptions of the most exciting aspect/s of computers and corresponding examples

Categories Examples 1. Communication Connectedness  Talking to friends  Connects you with everything  Being able to communicate with people around the world

2. Information Accessibility  You can know a lot of things by searching on the net.  I’m able to read a wide range of subjects.  The most amazing resources to be found online.

3. Functionality  They do exactly what they are programmed to do.  How easy it is to do things.  I can do what I want with it.

4. Entertainment  Recoding music  Playing games online  Watching videos like digital TV stuff.

5. Miscellaneous  Nil  No response

Using these five categories, Table 4.14 shows students’ perception of the most exciting aspect/s of computers by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.14 Perceptions of the most exciting aspect/s of computers by country, school level and gender Most exciting Country School Level GENDER aspect/s AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: computer % % % % % % %

Communication 28.26 16.67 22.45 23.08 9.68 29.82 22.73 Connectedness

Information 28.26 35.71 28.57 35.89 29.03 33.33 31.82 Accessibility

Functionality 13.04 11.90 14.29 10.26 19.35 8.77 12.50

Entertainment 15.22 11.90 14.29 12.82 16.13 12.28 13.64

Miscellaneous 13.22 23.81 20.41 17.95 25.81 15.79 19.32

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

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While almost 30 per cent of AUS students perceived ‘communication connectedness’ to be the most exciting aspects of computers, only 16 per cent of SIN students did so; the latter regarded ‘information accessibility’ as by far the most exciting aspect of computers. AUS students saw them as equally exciting.

Both school groups perceived ‘information accessibility’ to be the most exciting aspect of computers, although more C/JC students did so than HS/SS students (see Table 4.3.9). While ‘information accessibility’ was dominant for both girls and boys, ‘communication connectedness’ was almost as important for girls; for boys, ‘functionality’ was next in importance.

Table 4.15 presents the categories of students’ perceptions of the most disliked aspect/s of computers and corresponding examples. These categories were derived from the students’ responses; the ‘miscellaneous’ category includes comments such as ‘nil’ and no response. The category ‘nothing’ reflects that some participants dislike nothing about computers.

Table 4.15 Categories of perceptions of the most disliked aspect/s of computers, and examples

Categories Examples 1. Technical issues  Logging on problems  Viruses  When they freeze or shut down

2. Fear related  Harmful to the eyes  Hackers  Loss of privacy

3. Complexity issues  They can be difficult to use  Complicated to use  Not user-friendly

4. Psychological issues  It’s addictive, kind of a waste of time  People become obsessed with computer games  It is a distraction from our studies

5. Nothing  Disliked nothing about computers

6. Miscellaneous  Nil  No response

Using the same six categories, Table 4.16 shows students’ most disliked aspects of computers by country, school level and gender respectively.

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Table 4.16 Most disliked aspect/s of computers by country, school and gender

Most disliked Country School Level Gender aspect/s of AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: computers % % % % % % %

Technical 51.02 55.56 57.69 47.62 60.00 50.00 53.19 Issues

Fear Related 6.12 8.89 3.85 11.90 0 10.94 7.46 Issues

Complexity 18.37 0 5.77 14.29 3.33 12.50 9.57 Issues

Psychological 8.16 17.78 11.54 14.29 6.67 15.63 12.76 Issues

None 6.12 2.22 7.69 0 13.33 0 4.26

Miscellaneous 10.20 15.56 13.46 11.90 16.67 10.94 12.76

AUS= ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

‘Technical issues’ was the category disliked most prevalently overall and in every student group. Almost 20 per cent of the ACT participants reported complexity issues, whereas none of their SIN counterparts did so. Psychological issues (see Table 4.3.10) had low prevalences of dislike. Higher proportions of girls than boys reported dislike of fear- related issues, complexity issues and psychological issues associated with computers.

4.3.2 Social Networking Table 4.17 shows the students’ use of SNSs by country, school level and gender. Table 4.17 Use of social networking sites by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses=86 Use of SNSs =44 =42 =48 =38 =30 =56

% % % % % % % 86.36 95.24 85.42 97.37 76.67 98.21 90.70

AUS= ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High School/Secondary School C/JC = College/Junior College M = Male F = Female

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Almost all of the JC/C students acknowledged that they used SNSs. Over 95 per cent of the SIN students reported use of SNSs, as did almost all girls, reflecting their higher positive regard for the technology.

Table 4.18 shows the different SNSs used by students by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.18 Social networking sites used by participants by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: SNSs Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses =36 =40 =39 =37 =22 =54 =76

% % % % % % % Facebook 77.80 72.50 71.80 78.40 86.37 70.37 75.00

Twitter 0 17.50 12.80 5.40 4.54 11.11 9.21

Tumblr 5.60 5.00 0 10.80 0 7.40 5.27 Deviant Art 8.30 0 5.10 2.70 4.54 3.70 3.94

YouTube 2.80 2.50 5.10 0 4.54 1.86 2.63

Blogging 0 2.50 2.60 0 0 1.86 1.31

MSN 2.80 0 0 2.70 0 1.86 1.31 Gmail 2.80 0 2.60 0 0 1.86 1.31

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High School/Secondary School C/JC = College/Junior College M = Male F = Female

Facebook was the SNS of choice for students in all groups by a very large margin. Only one participant reported using blogging.

The students were invited to provide a list of their favourite websites and online games in the background survey. The list was then categorised into three different types of websites and online games. The ‘educational’ category includes websites and online games related to their school curricula; ‘informative’ refers to websites and online games that enriched their general knowledge and skills, and ‘neither’ refers to websites and online games that did not fit either of the previous categories. Table 4.19 presents the categories of favourite websites and online games, and examples.

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Table 4.19 Categories of favourite websites and online games used by participants, and examples

Categories Examples Educational Deviant Art Fan Art Fan Fiction Informative Facebook Tumblr YouTube Google Wikipedia BBC MSN Neither Gmail Hotmail

Table 4.20 shows the categories of websites and online games accessed by the participants by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.20 Categories of favourite websites and online games used by participants by country and school level

Country School Level Gender Categories of AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: websites & Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses online games =110 =110 = 116 = 104 =73 = 147 =220

% % % % % % % Educational 37.27 25.45 31.90 30.77 39.72 27.21 31.36 Informative 62.73 73.64 67.24 69.23 60.28 72.10 68.18 Neither 0 0.91 0.86 0 0 0.69 0.45

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High School/Secondary School C/JC = College/Junior College M = Male F = Female

Nearly 70 per cent of the websites and online games reported are informative and most of the remainder are educational. Differences are minimal at school level, but the favourite websites and online games of AUS students and boys were more likely to be educational whilst those of SIN students and girls were more likely to be informative.

4.4 Artistic profile and preferences

The researcher sought an initial impression of the participants’ preferences and consumption habits in relation to art, for example, the dimensions of their artistic awareness, what was important to them in their own self-expression, and most of all, the

127 extent of cultural influence on their artistic preferences and consumption habits. These issues are discussed below under the following headings:  experience of the visual;  art preferences; and  personal potential and artistic qualities.

4.4.1 Experience of the visual Table 4.21 presents categories of students’ perceptions of what it means to be ‘artistic’ and corresponding examples. The categories were derived from the participants’ responses; the ‘miscellaneous’ category includes ‘nil’ and no response.

Table 4.21 Categories of perceptions of what it means to be artistic and corresponding examples

Categories Examples 1. Person as maker, creator, unique  Someone who creates art perspective  Discovering the unknown that is within you  Seeing things from different perspective 2. Expressive state of mind/feeling  Drawing from your heart  Being able to express your thoughts  Describe your own feelings  The use of imagination to create 3. Ability, capacity, skill, talent, gift  Having a talent in art  Having the skills to create something visually pleasing  The ability to construct things creatively 4. Product oriented  A piece of art  Artwork is accurate and very detailed  Something beautiful that is created 5. Process oriented  Deliberately demonstrates or experiments  Putting down your ideas  Showing creativity 6. Miscellaneous  Nil  Blank

Table 4.22 uses these six categories to show students’ perspective on what it means to be artistic by country, school level and gender.

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Table 4.22 Perception of what it means to be artistic by country, school level and gender

Perception of Country School Level GENDER what it means AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: to be ‘artistic’ % % % % % % %

Person as 15.49 14.06 12.50 17.46 11.11 16.97 14.81 maker, creator, unique perspective Expressive 35.21 48.44 41.67 41.27 35.56 44.44 41.48 state of mind/feeling

Ability, 9.86 14.06 12.50 11.11 15.56 10.00 11.85 capacity, skill, talent, gift

Product 5.63 9.38 11.11 3.17 11.11 5.56 7.41 Oriented

Process 29.58 14.08 19.44 25.40 22.22 22.22 22.22 Oriented

Miscellaneous 4.23 0 2.78 1.59 4.44 1.11 2.22

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Overall, and for each student group, ‘expressive state of mind/feeling’ (e.g., being open- minded, freedom of expression, expressing emotions, way of thinking, traditional thinking, passionate, self-expression, beautiful expressions, own feelings, inner thoughts and feelings) was the highest category of perception of ‘artistic’. Nearly 50 per cent of SIN students selected this answer, compared to just over 30 per cent of their AUS counterparts.

Twice as high a percentage of AUS students perceived being ‘artistic’ as ‘process oriented’ (e.g., being creative, showing creativity, creative ways, creativity, creative manner, experiment, discernment and judgement) as their SIN counterparts. An equal proportion of boy and girls chose this answer. However, the male college students’ perceptions of ‘artistic’ were classified more evenly than the HS/SS students’ across four categories, each with over 20 per cent of respondents: ‘Person as maker, creator, unique perspective’, ‘Expressive state of mind/feeling’, ‘Ability, capacity, skill, talent, gift’ and ‘Process Oriented’.

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Table 4.23 presents the categories of students’ perceptions of earliest memories of being artistic or doing something artistic and corresponding examples. The categories were derived from the participants’ responses; the ‘miscellaneous’ category includes other comments and ‘nil/never’ includes responses such as ‘nil’, ‘never’, ‘not able to recall’ and no response.

Table 4.23 Categories for perceptions of earliest memories of being artistic or doing something artistic and corresponding examples

Categories Examples 1. Subject matter oriented  Kampong house  Pictures of people  Family portrait  My blue cat  Things that matter to me 2. Materials oriented  Using scrap materials  Crayons  My own paint set  Blow through a pen  Paint with my fingers  Special art paper 3. Chronology/location specific  When I was little  When I was in kindergarten  When I was young  When I was in pre-school  All of my life 4. Genre related  Doodling  Drawing  Colouring  Printing  Sewing 5. Context/person related  Playing with my father  My uncle’s painting  With my grandmother  With Pup in the balcony 6. Never/nil  Nil/never  blank 7. Miscellaneous  playing pretend  When I was bored  Playing a drum

Table 4.24 shows the categories of students’ earliest memories of being artistic or doing something artistic by country, school level and gender.

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Table 4.24 Earliest memories of being artistic or doing something artistic activity by country, school level and gender

Earliest Country School Level GENDER memories of AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: being artistic % % % % % % % or doing an artistic activity

Subject matter 10.26 11.11 8.75 12.86 4.26 13.59 10.67 oriented

Materials 5.13 9.72 6.25 8.57 6.38 7.77 7.33 oriented

Chronology/ 38.46 37.50 33.75 42.86 40.43 36.89 38.00 location specific

Genre 25.64 27.78 28.75 24.29 27.66 26.21 26.67 related

Context/ 10.26 9.72 10.00 10.00 4.26 12.62 10.00 person related

Never/nil 3.85 2.78 6.25 0 6.38 1.94 3.33

Miscellaneous 6.41 1.39 6.25 1.43 10.64 0.97 4.00

AUD = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Overall, ‘chronology/location specific’ was the highest category for students from both countries and both genders. The next most common category was ‘genre related’ (e.g., drawing/painting, finger painting, colouring and printings).

At the school level, a higher proportion of C/JC students connected their earliest memories of being artistic or doing an artistic activity with ‘chronology/location’ than did their HS/SS counterparts (see Table 4.23). At the gender level, ‘miscellaneous’ encompassed more male than female students’ responses; the former’s responses included “splice the sprites”, “War hammer 40,000”, “playing pretend” and “birth is an art”.

Table 4.25 shows participants’ earliest memories of artistic activity (chronology/location specific) by country, school and gender.

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Table 4.25 Earliest memories of artistic activity by country, school level and gender (Chronology/location specific

Country School Level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total Time Period Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses =30 =31 =31 =30 =20 =41 =61 % % % % % % % Preschool 40.00 19.40 25.50 23.20 20.00 26.82 24.59 2.5–4 years old Kindergarten 3.30 9.70 12.90 10.00 15.00 9.76 11.48 5 years and above Childhood 20.00 25.80 25.80 20.00 15.00 26.82 22.96 (unspecified) Primary school 23.30 38.70 22.60 40.00 40.00 26.82 31.14

High/Secondary 13.30 6.50 12.90 6.70 10.00 9.76 9.83 school

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

About 43 per cent of AUS participants’ earliest memories of artistic activity related to preschool (2.5–4 years old) and kindergarten (5 years and above) as opposed to 30 per cent of their SIN counterparts. Most SIN participants’ earliest memories of their artistic experience were from primary school (nearly 40 per cent).

HS/SS and C/JC participants’ responses were evenly distributed between ‘preschool’ and ‘childhood’ (see Table 4.4.5). However, a higher proportion of the C/JC students’ earliest memories of artistic activity involved primary school. Almost twice the proportion of HS/SS students as C/JC students attributed their earliest memorable artistic experience to high/secondary school.

Forty per cent of the boys’ earliest memories of artistic activity involved primary school, whilst girls’ earliest memories were more evenly distributed across categories. Overall, the single largest category of earliest memory of artistic activity was ‘primary school’ (see Table 4.24).

Tables 4.26 shows the earliest remembered art activity by country, school level and gender respectively. The category of ‘competition’ refers to art-making contests, colouring-in contests, or drawing/painting competitions. The category of ‘educational’ refers to art activities that added value to the experience, for example, artist talks, art

132 Chapter 4 studio visits or art camps. The category of ‘others’ included performing, role playing, acting, sewing, sports, gaming, face painting, creative writing and miniature model construction.

Table 4.26 Earliest remembered typed of art activity (genre) by country

AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total Activity Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses =38 =34 =34 =38 =17 =55 =72 % % % % % % % Drawing 23.70 38.20 26.50 34.20 29.41 30.91 31.56 Painting 23.70 17.60 20.60 21.10 0 27.28 20.83 Printmaking 0 5.90 0 5.30 5.89 1.81 2.78 Finger-painting 15.80 5.90 14.70 7.90 11.76 10.90 11.11 Craft 13.20 0 2.90 10.50 5.89 7.28 6.94 Art Journals 2.60 0 0 2.60 0 1.81 1.38 Art Appreciation 0 2.90 2.90 0 5.89 0 1.38 Educational 10.50 17.60 14.70 13.20 11.76 14.55 13.89 Competition 0 5.90 2.90 2.60 0 3.64 2.78 Music 5.30 2.90 8.80 0 17.64 0 4.17 Other 5.30 2.90 5.90 2.60 11.76 1.81 4.17

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Drawing and painting were the earliest remembered artistic experiences for large minorities of students from both countries (see Table 4.4.6). Nearly 40 per cent of the SIN students reported that their earliest remembered art activity was drawing, almost double the proportion of their AUS counterparts. Nearly 20 per cent of the SIN students reported their earliest remembered art activity as educational, whilst the AUS students were relatively focused on hands-on activities such as finger-painting and craft.

At school level, drawing and painting remained the most prevalently indicated activities for both school levels with more C/JC students than HS/SS students identifying their earliest remembered art activity as drawing; more equal percentages of the latter reported drawing and painting. Small proportions of HS/SS and C/JC students’ earliest remembered art activities were educational.

Large minorities of both boys and girls identified drawing as their earliest artistic experience. However, nearly 30 per cent of the girls reported painting, and none of the

133 boys, more of whom identified hands-on activities such as finger-painting, printmaking and other activities, such as music (Table 4.26).

4.4.2 Art preferences Table 4.27 show the frequency of the students’ visits to arts institutions by country, school level and gender respectively.

Table 4.27 Frequency of visits to arts institutions by country, school level and gender

Frequency Group/ Institution of Visit Total: Art Gallery Museum Theatre Library Almost AUS 40.90 40.90 40.90 13.60 Never % SIN 35.70 33.30 57.10 2.50 HS/SS 56.30 47.90 66.70 10.60 C/JC 15.40 23.10 28.20 5.3 M 53.33 45.16 62.07 10.34 F 30.36 32.72 42.11 7.27 Total: 38.40 37.20 48.80 8.30 2+ times AUS 25.00 43.20 20.50 13.60 per year % SIN 50.00 50.00 19.80 11.90 HS/SS 35.40 39.60 12.50 19.10 C/JC 41.00 56.40 28.20 2.60 M 30.00 38.71 6.90 24.14 F 41.07 50.91 26.32 5.45 Total: 37.20 46.50 19.80 11.90 4+ times AUS 15.90 9.10 13.60 9.10 Per year % SIN 11.90 14.30 14.30 7.50 HS/SS 6.30 8.30 12.50 6.40 C/JC 23.10 15.40 15.40 10.50 M 10.00 9.68 20.70 13.80 F 16.07 12.73 10.53 5.45 Total: 14.00 11.60 14.00 8.30

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Frequency Group/ Institution of Visit Total: Art Gallery Museum Theatre Library 6+ times AUS 18.20 6.80 25.00 63.60 Per year % SIN 2.40 2.40 9.50 80.00 HS/SS 2.10 4.20 8.30 63.80 C/JC 20.50 5.10 28.20 81.60 M 6.67 6.45 10.34 51.72 F 12.50 3.64 21.05 81.82 Total: 10.50 4.70 17.40 71.40

Country AUS = Canberra, Australia SIN = Singapore School Level HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college Gender M = Male F = Female

Table 4.27 shows that AUS students were more likely to report visiting the art gallery or theatre, whilst SIN students were more likely to visit the library. A similar pattern is visible for school level and gender, with the exceptions that C/JC students were more likely to report visiting the library than their HS/SS counterparts, half of HS/SS students almost never visited the art gallery or museum, and most of them almost never visited the theatre. Girls reported visiting the theatre more often than boys.

To further explore the student participants’ artistic preferences, they were invited to provide a list of their favourite artists. For the purpose of analysis, this list is discussed under the following classification:

 choice of favourite artists (genre);  choice of favourite artists (era); and  choice of favourite artists (nationality).

Table 4.28 shows the students’ choice of favourite artists (genre) by country, school level and gender.

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Table 4.28 Choice of favourite artists (genre) by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender Artist genre Total: AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % Painting (Artist) 19.40 44.00 12.70 50.00 30.14 31.47 31.00 Drawing (Artist) 0 1.00 0 0.90 0 0.70 0.50 Sculptor (Artist) 0.90 2.00 0 2.80 1.37 1.40 1.40 Graphic artist 0.90 7.00 0.90 6.60 2.74 4.20 3.70 Photographer 4.30 0 1.80 2.80 1.37 2.80 2.30 Illustrator 4.30 1.00 3.60 1.90 4.11 2.10 2.80 Fashion designer 1.70 0 0 1.90 0 1.40 0.90 Visual Arts 31.50 55.00 19.00 66.90 39.73 44.07 42.60 Actor 14.70 4.00 16.40 2.80 10.96 9.09 9.70 Comedian 1.70 1.00 2.70 0 1.37 1.40 1.40 Dancer 1.70 0 0.90 0.90 1.37 0.70 0.90 Performer 0.90 0 0 0.90 0 0.70 0.50 Director (Film) 0.90 1.00 1.80 0 1.37 0.70 0.90 Performing Arts 19.90 6.00 21.80 4.60 15.07 12.59 13.40 Classical musician 0 1.00 0.90 0 1.37 0 0.50 Digital artist (Sound) 0.90 0 0 0.90 0 0.70 0.50 Electronic musician 0.90 0 0 0.90 0 0.70 0.50 Hip hop artist 7.80 1.00 8.20 0.90 9.59 2.10 4.60 Pop music artist 12.90 30.00 30.90 10.40 10.96 25.87 20.80 Rock musician 19.80 3.00 14.50 9.40 19.18 8.39 12.00 Music 42.30 35.00 54.50 22.50 41.10 37.76 38.90 Novelist 3.40 4.00 3.60 3.80 1.36 4.90 3.70 Writer/Poet 0.90 0 0.90 0 0 0.70 0.50 Creative Writing 4.30 4.00 4.50 3.80 1.36 5.60 4.20 Cricketer 0.90 0 0 0.90 1.37 0 0.50 Soccer player 0.90 0 0 0.90 1.37 0 0.50 Sports 1.80 0 0 1.80 2.74 0 1.00

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

136 Chapter 4 Visual arts was the most prevalently cited artistic genre, followed by music (Table 4.4.8). Higher proportions of SIN students, C/JC students and girls favoured visual artists than their AUS, HS/SS and male counterparts; AUS students, HS/SS students and males favoured musical artists. Boys showed a preference for rock musicians, whilst girls preferred pop music artists. The category of ‘sports’ was included because some students argued that athletes are performance artists in their own right and highly skilled and talented.

The same list of students’ favourite artists was reclassified as contemporary or historical. ‘Contemporary’ refers to artists who were living and performing in 2011. ‘Historical’ refers to artists from the 1990s era and before. Table 4.29 shows the students’ choice of favourite artists in the categories of ‘contemporary” and ‘historical by country and school level.

Table 4.29 Choice of favourite artists (era) by country and school level

Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: Time Period Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses =115 =100 =109 =106 =71 =144 =215

% % % % % % % Contemporary 76.50 58.00 85.30 50.00 73.24 65.28 67.9 Historical 23.50 42.00 14.70 50.00 26.76 34.72 32.1

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Nearly 70 per cent of the participants’ favourite artists were contemporary. The college participants’ choices were equally divided between the two categories, whilst their HS/SS peers overwhelmingly favoured contemporary artists more.

Table 4.30 shows the students’ choice of favourite artists (nationality) by country, school level and gender. The nationalities of the artists were presented to gain greater insight into the students’ dimensions of artistic awareness or preference for their source of reference, and arguably, which may impact their artistic expressions. However, it was beyond the scope of this study to investigate correlations between the nationalities of artists and students’ artistic influences in detail.

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Table 4.30 Choice of favourite artists (nationality) by country school level and gender

Country School level Gender Nationality AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: % % % % % % % Australia 11.40 1.00 1.80 11.70 2.74 8.57 6.6 Barbados 0.90 2.00 2.70 0 1.37 1.43 1.40 Belgium 0 7.10 0 6.80 1.37 4.29 3.30 Canada 0.90 2.00 2.70 0 1.37 1.43 1.40 China 0 2.00 1.80 0 1.37 0.71 0.90 Finland 1.80 1.00 1.80 1.00 2.74 0.71 1.40 France 2.60 1.00 0 3.90 2.74 1.43 1.90 Germany 0 2.00 0.90 1.00 2.74 0 0.90 Indonesia 0 1.00 0 1.00 0 0.71 0.50 Ireland 0.90 3.00 2.70 1.00 1.37 2.14 1.90 Italy 2.60 4.00 5.50 1.00 5.48 2.14 3.30 Japan 2.60 1.00 3.60 0 2.74 1.43 1.90 Netherlands 5.30 12.10 4.50 12.60 4.10 10.71 8.50 Russia 1.80 0 0 1.90 0 1.43 0.90 Singapore 0 3.00 1.80 1.00 1.37 1.43 1.40 South Korea 1.80 12.10 11.80 1.00 2.74 8.57 6.60 Spain 3.50 3.00 1.80 0 4.10 2.86 3.30 Taiwan 0 1.00 0.90 0 0 0.71 0.50 Thailand 0.90 0 0.90 0 0 0.71 0.50 UK 15.80 4.00 5.50 15.50 5.48 12.86 10.30 USA 47.40 37.40 49.10 35.90 56.17 35.71 42.70

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M = Male F = Female

Nearly half of the AUS students’ and nearly 40 per cent of the SIN students’ favourite artists were from the USA. C/JC students and boys (showed higher preference for US- born artists than did their HS/SS and girl counterparts. Artists identified with the United Kingdom (UK) were also favoured by AUS students, C/JC students and girls relative to their respective comparison categories. Few chose favourite artists from their own countries, suggesting that the students have little knowledge of or exposure to local artists, which might be linked to their low attendance at art galleries and museums (as discussed in 4.4.2). Moreover, there is a preference for foreign artists, especially American artists by the two groups.

4.4.3 Personal artistic qualities Participants were asked to provide five words to describe the most artistic qualities they possessed; these descriptors were categorised, and the categories and examples of each

138 Chapter 4 are provided in Table 4.31. Percentages are of the total number of possible responses (i.e., the total number of participants multiplied by five).

Table 4.31 Students’ perceptions of their own most artistic qualities

Categories Examples % Art/craft genres crafty, drawing, abstract, designing, writing, music 13.02 Expressive/feelings expressive, bold, emo, go-by-feeling, inspired 16.74 Experiential (experiencing art) wacky, different, adventurous, hidden talent 6.98 Character-related qualities (positive) hardworking, outgoing, careful, whimsical, patience, proud 11.86 Character-related qualities (negative) fussed, uncontrolled, crazy, shady 7.67 Intellectual style open-minded, detailed, critical, thoughtful, accurate 12.79 Idiosyncratic fabulous, interesting, textured, bright, beauty 7.21 Miscellaneous average, laid back, Math 3.49 Nil No Response/blank 20.23 Art-related qualities

The single largest category of descriptors was ‘nil’, indicating that some participants could not find five words to describe their artistic qualities. Only three of the nine categories could be argued to relate directly to art – ‘art/craft genre’, ‘expressive/feelings’ and ‘experiential/experiencing art’. However, taken together these qualities accounted for only 30 per cent of the descriptors. Hence, 50 per cent of the descriptors were only indirectly related to artistic qualities.

Table 4.32 shows the artistic qualities that the participants perceived themselves to possess by country, school level and gender.

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Table 4.32 Categories of artistic qualities that participants perceived themselves to possess by country, school level and gender

Perception of their Country School Level Gender own most artistic AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: qualities % % % % % % % Art/craft genres 17.73 8.10 11.67 14.74 17.33 10.71 13.02

Expressive 17.27 16.19 16.67 16.84 9.33 20.71 16.74 /feeling qualities

Experiential 8.64 5.24 8.75 4.74 6.67 7.14 6.98 (understanding art)

Art-related Qualities 43.64 29.53 37.09 36.32 33.33 26.71 36.74

Character-related 8.64 15.24 13.75 9.47 12.00 11.79 11.86 qualities (positive)

Character-related 7.27 8.10 5.83 10.00 8.67 7.14 7.67 qualities (negative) Intellectual style 13.64 11.90 12.50 13.16 12.67 12.86 12.79

Idiosyncrasies 6.82 7.62 4.17 11.05 3.33 9.29 7.21

Nil 15.00 25.71 24.59 14.74 26.00 17.14 20.23

Miscellaneous 5.00 1.90 2.08 5.26 4.00 3.21 3.49

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

SIN students identified a smaller proportion of artistic qualities in relation to themselves that did AUS students (Table 4.32). More of the qualities attributed to themselves by the AUS students related directly to art than did those cited by the SIN students. SIN students identified more character-related qualities.

C/JC students identified a slightly higher proportion of ‘art/crafts genre’ qualities than did their HS/SS counterparts, suggesting that the added maturity and experience of students at college level enabled them to see more artistic qualities in themselves. However, HS/SS and C/JC students had very similar rates of perceptions of their ‘expressive/feelings qualities’ (Table 4.32). C/JC students used a higher proportion of idiosyncratic descriptors than did HS/SS students, suggesting a burgeoning sense of confidence. On the other hand, College students cited a higher proportion of negative

140 Chapter 4 character-related qualities and a lower proportion of positive character-related qualities than did the HS/SS students, suggesting that their added maturity enabled them to be more self-critical.

Boys reported a higher proportion of ‘art/crafts genre’ qualities than girls, who cited a higher proportion of ‘expressive/feeling’ qualities (Table 4.32). It is interesting to note that 26 per cent of boys’ responses were ‘nil’ responses, versus 17% of girls’; perhaps more boys than girls have difficulty finding appropriate self-descriptors.

4.5 Communicative preferences

In order to develop insight into the participants’ preferences for communication mode and examine the parameters of the technologically mediated social/academic environment in which they operate in relation to their preference, students were asked to identify their preferred (most confident) communicative mode. Table 4.33 presents participants’ preferred modes of self-expression (first column) by country, school level and gender; technology-assisted modes are highlighted in yellow.

Table 4.33 Preferred communicative mode of self-expression by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender Communicative modes AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total

% % % % % % % Drawing 24.44 14.63 20.83 18.42 13.33 23.21 19.76 Verbal communication 17.78 21.96 22.92 15.78 23.33 17.86 19.77 Sing or play a song 4.44 9.75 8.33 5.27 10.00 5.36 6.98 Play a musical instrument 4.44 4.88 4.17 5.27 6.67 3.58 4.66 Dance 4.44 2.43 2.08 5.27 6.67 1.79 3.48 Write a letter 6.67 12.20 2.08 18.42 6.67 10.71 9.30 Texting 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E-mail 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Blog 2.22 7.31 6.25 2.63 0 7.14 4.66 Social networking 11.11 14.63 12.50 13.16 13.33 12.50 12.79 Technology-assisted 13.33 21.94 18.75 15.79 13.33 19.64 17.45 communication modes Choice of fashion 8.89 4.88 9.17 10.52 6.67 7.14 6.98 Other 15.56 7.31 16.67 5.27 13.33 10.71 11.62

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

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The preferred mode of self-expression for AUS participants was drawing; however, the SIN participants preferred verbal communication and social networking. Across the three levels of comparison, drawing and verbal communication were the two most preferred communication modes. None of the participants chose texting or e-mail.

Higher proportions of HS/SS students reported preferences for drawing and verbal communication than communicative modes that required writing. In contrast, a higher proportion of C/JC students preferred drawing or writing than verbal communication. A higher proportion of boys preferred verbal communication and lower proportions preferred drawing and writing than girls (Table 4.33).

The ‘other’ preferred modes of self-expression included creative writing, freedom of expression, acting, eating, ‘taking pictures of myself’ (selfies), sports and skating.

4.6 Leisure preferences

It was deemed important to study the leisure preferences of the participants to understand the connections between their free time activities and their preferences and consumption habits in relation to technology.

In the background survey the student participants were invited to list their free time activities, and the responses were categorised into three types of social activities. ‘Face- to-face – interactive’ refers to social activities that require direct human interactions or verbal communications. ‘Not face-to-face – remotely interactive’ refers to social activities that are conducted indirectly via screens or other electronic devices. ‘Solitary’ refers to free time activities that involve solitude and do not require any human interaction. Table 4.34 shows the categories of participants’ free time social activities and examples.

142 Chapter 4

Table 4.34 Categories of free time activities and examples

Categories Examples Face-to-face (Interactive) Going out with friends Chilling out with mates Soccer Playing video games with family

Not face-to-face (remotely interactive) Online chatting Gaming Texting Blogging Twitting

Solitary Sleeping Drawing Reading (books/comics) Browsing the internet Surfing the internet Listening to music (with headphone)

Table 4.35 shows the categories of participants’ free time social activities by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.35 Categories of free time activities and examples

Country School Level Gender Total: AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Types of Responses Responses= Responses= Responses= Responses Responses Responses social =324 167 157 179 =145 =106 =218 activities

% % % % % % % Face-to-face 12.00 6.40 6.10 13.10 3.77 11.93 9.26 (interactive) Not face-to- 6.00 9.60 6.10 9.70 2.83 10.09 7.72 face (remotely interactive) Solitary 82.00 84.10 87.70 77.20 93.40 77.98 83.02

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

A higher proportion of responses from C/JC students were about interactive free time activities than of responses from their HS/SS counterparts. About 80 per cent of reported free time activities were solitary for students from both countries; a higher proportion of boys’ than girls’ activities were solitary (Table 4.35).

The websites and online games used by the participants were categorised into two main types. ‘Social’ refers to websites or online games that are interactive remotely with one

143 person or group but are conducted indirectly via the screen and electronic devices. ‘Not social’ refers to websites or online games that involve solitary engagement or participation (the participant does not interact with anyone). Table 4.36 shows the categories of websites and online games used by participants, and examples.

Table 4.36 Categories of websites and online games used by participants by country and school level

Categories Examples Social Facebook Twitter Warcraft Skype Not Social Wikipedia Google U-Tube

Table 4.37 shows the categories of websites and online games used by participants by country, school level and gender.

Table 4.37 Categories of websites and online games used by participants by country and school level

Country School level Gender Engagement AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: levels of Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses websites/online =110 =110 = 116 = 104 =72 =148 =220 games % % % % % % % Social 64.55 64.55 63.79 65.38 58.33 67.57 64.54 Not Social 35.45 35.45 36.21 34.62 41.67 32.43 35.45

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

At both country and school level, nearly 65 per cent of the websites and online games listed were social. A higher proportion of girls’ than boys’ reported websites and online games were classified as social (Table 4.37).

4.7 Synthesis and discussion

Table 4.38 presents an overview of participants’ profiles consolidated from background survey data. It highlights the key differences by country, school level and gender.

144 Chapter 4

Table 4.38 Summary of participants by country, school level and gender

ENGAGEMENT WITH Country School Level Gender TECHNOLOGY Computer & Mobile AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Devices Level of computer skills Most AUS students More SIN More HS/SS More C/JC More males Females more considered their students students students considered confident in computer skills considered considered considered their computer their level of between average their IT skills their IT skills as their IT skills skills between computer skills and very good between good average between good basic and and average and very good average

Age when first used a First used a First used a More HS/SS More C/JC More males More females computer computer by age 9 computer by students first students first first used a first used a years age 9 years used a used a computer by computer by computer by computer by age 9 years age 5 years age 9 years age 5 years Purpose of computer use Used most for Work and Used most for Used most for Used most for Used most for leisure leisure equal leisure work leisure work usage Used for Used for Used for Used for Used for Used for communication communication communication communication communication Communication (Sometimes) (Sometimes) (Sometimes) (Frequent) (Sometimes) (Frequent) Access to PC/Laptop and Equal access to Equal access to Equal access to Equal access to More access to More access to other electronic gadgets PC/Laptop PC/Laptop PC/Laptop PC/Laptop other PC/Laptop electronic Less access to More access to Less access to More access to gadgets other electronic other other other gadgets electronic electronic electronic gadgets gadgets gadgets Usage of computer at Higher usage of Lower usage of Lower usage of Higher usage of Higher usage of Lower usage of home computer at home computer at computer at computer at computer at computer at home home home home home Perceptions of computers Less positive More positive Less positive More positive More positive Less positive (Self-expression) ≃ 60% ≃ 80% ≃ 65% ≃75% ≃80% ≃65% Perceptions of computers Less positive More positive Less positive More positive Less positive More positive (Understanding others) ≃ 65% ≃ 80% ≃ 65% ≃ 90% ≃ 70% ≃ 80% Most exciting aspect/s of Communication Information Information Information Information Information computer connectedness and accessibility accessibility accessibility accessibility accessibility information most dominant most dominant more than followed by more accessibility communication functionality communication equally exciting connectedness connectedness

Most disliked aspect/s of Fewer identified More More Fewer More Fewer computer technical issues identified identified identified identified identified technical issues technical issues technical issues technical issues technical issues More identified complexity issues No identified Fewer More No fear issues More identified complexity identified fear, identified fear, fear, issues complexity and complexity and Fewer complexity and psychological psychological identified psychological issues issues complexity and issues psychological issues Social Networking

Usage of social networking Lower level of Higher level of Lower level of Higher level of Lower level of Higher level of sites usage usage usage usage usage usage Social networking sites Used Facebook Used Facebook Used Facebook Used Facebook Used Facebook Used Facebook used by participants Few used Tumblr Few used Used more Used less Few used Used both Tumblr Twitter but Twitter and Twitter but Twitter and None used Twitter None used more Tumblr none used Tumblr Used Twitter Tumblr Tumblr Categories of participants’ More Educational More More More More More favourite websites and Informative informative informative educational informative online games

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Table 4.38 (Continued)

ARTISTIC PROFILE & Country School Level Gender PREFERENCES Experience of the Visual AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Perception of what it Mostly relating to More relating Mostly relating Mostly relating Less emphasis More emphasis means to be artistic expressive state to expressive to expressive to expressive on expressive on expressive of mind/feeling state of state of state of state of state of and more process mind/feeling, mind/feeling mind/feeling mind/feeling, mind/feeling oriented ability, capacity and process with more more focus on and process skill, talent, gift oriented, focus on ability, capacity oriented with and more equally focus process skill, talent, gift less focus on product on person as oriented and and process person as oriented maker, creator, person as oriented and maker, creator, unique maker, equal emphasis unique perspective creator, on person as perspective and ability, unique maker, creator, capacity, skill, perspective unique talent and gift perspective Earliest memories of Mostly related to Mostly related Less related to More related More related Mostly related being artistic or doing chronology/ to chronology/ chronology/ to chronology/ to chronology/ to chronology/ something artistic location specific location location location location location specific and some genre specific and specific with specific less specific less and some genre some genre more emphasis genre focused genre focused on genre Earliest memories of Preschool Primary and Even Mostly Primary Mostly primary Even artistic activity childhood distribution – distribution – (Chronology/location (unspecified) preschool, preschool, specific) childhood childhood (unspecified) (unspecified) and primary and primary Earliest typed of art Drawing and Drawing Drawing and Drawing Drawing Drawing and activity painting painting painting (Genre)

Art Preferences

Frequency of visits to More likely to visit More likely to More likely to More likely to Less likely to More likely to arts institutions art gallery and visit library visit library, visit art gallery, visit art gallery visit art gallery, theatre less likely to theatre and and theatre, theatre and visit art gallery library more likely to library and theatre visit library Choice of favourite Higher preference Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher artists (Genre) for music artists preference for preference for preference for preference for preference for visual artists music artists visual artists music artists visual artists Choice of favourite Higher preference Higher Higher Equal Higher Higher artists (Era) for contemporary preference for preference for preference for preference for preference for artists contemporary contemporary both contemporary contemporary artists artists contemporary artists artists and historical Choice of favourite Higher preference Higher Higher Higher Higher Higher artists (Nationality) for foreign artists preference for preference for preference for preference for preference for foreign artists foreign artists foreign artists foreign artists foreign artists Personal Potential & Artistic Qualities

Self-perception of own Art-related Character- Art-related Art-related More Art/Craft More artistic qualities qualities related qualities qualities Genres Expressive / qualities and oriented Feeling oriented intellectual style

146 Chapter 4

Table 4.38 (Continued)

Country School Level Gender COMMUNICATIVE PREFERENCES AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F

Most preferred Drawing most Verbal Verbal Drawing and Verbal Drawing most communicative modes for dominant communication communication writing a letter communication prevalent self-expression preference and technology- most prevalent equally most most prevalent preference assisted preference prevalent preference communication preference equal most prevalent preference

LESIURE PREFERENCES

Types of free time free More likely to More likely to More likely to More likely to More likely to More likely to social activities engage in solitary engage in solitary engage in engage in engage in engage in type of free time type of free time solitary type of interactive or solitary typed interactive or activities activities free time remotely of free time remotely activities interactive activities interactive typed of free typed of free time activities time activities Categories of websites and More likely to More likely to More likely to More likely to More likely to Engaged in online games engage in more engage in more engage in engage in engage in more social social type of social type of solitary type of social type of solitary type of type of websites websites and websites and websites and websites and websites and and online online games online games online games online games online games games

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Student participants from both countries reported that they used digital communications technology and engaged in social media or social networking activities and had similar usage patterns. Although both groups started using computers by the age of nine years, most of them considered their level of technological competence as average; only a few were confident enough to consider their IT skills as excellent. Girls were more confident than boys, and C/JC students were more confident than HS/SS students.

Although both groups were very positive towards the use of digital technology to aid self- expression and to understand others, most of them stressed the importance of face-to-face interaction, especially SIN students, HS/SS students and boys. They stated that when negotiating their artistic expressions, face-to-face interaction enabled them to communicate directly without having to second guess what the person was thinking or feeling and that they were more competent in expressing themselves verbally than in other forms. Most of the participants reported problems with transparency, honesty and identity in screen-based communication. At the same time, some argued that technology-assisted communication has its advantages.Higher proportions of AUS students, C/JC students

147 and females preferred drawing than did their comparison groups, and C/JC students had higher preferences than HS/SS students for both drawing and writing. The current study focused on visual arts and design specialist students, whereas Graham (1982), studied a broader population; however, the preferred communicative modes (drawing in primary school and writing in secondary) were similar. The difference is that the participants in the current study had managed to retain a strong preference for drawing.

All the student participants were art and design specialists, but art-making and art appreciation did not come across in their responses as central to their lives. For example, they did not report visiting the art gallery, museum or theatre. Some of them confessed that they preferred sports and other recreational activities for leisure. Most of them did not perceive themselves as artistic. Most of them used descriptors only indirectly related to art to describe their own artistic qualities, suggesting that they did not view themselves as artistic, especially the SIN students, who perceived their own artistic qualities as related to character and intellect. AUS students’ earliest remembered artistic activity/experience was most often in preschool, but SIN students remembered theirs as occurring in their primary school.

The participants’ preferences and consumption habits in relation to technology were very similar across groups, but there were also slight differences. Most of the participants were more likely to be involved in solitary free time activities such as browsing the Internet and listening to music (with headphones) than social activities, but AUS students were more likely to engage in interactive free time activities than SIN students. Most SIN students reported engaging in remotely interactive free time activities. On the other hand, both groups were very likely to engage in socially oriented websites and online games. A higher proportion of boys than girls engaged in solitary types of websites and online games.

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CHAPTER 5 Australian and Singaporean Students’ Expressive Profile: A Snapshot

5.1 Scope of the chapter

A comparison of Australian and Singaporean students’ expression profiles unfolds in this chapter. Small group interviews were conducted. The same cohort that participated in the questionnaire process (written response) were interviewed in small groups and their verbal responses recorded. These profiles encompass the students’ personal and conceptual engagement with the visual, their communicative style and their technology/leisure preferences.

5.2 The data: an overview

The data discussed in this chapter derives from the small group interviews with student participants from Australia and Singapore. As indicated in Chapter 3, the background survey was followed up by small group interviews. The small group interview strategy rather than the planned individual interviews was necessitated by the limited time available, as explained in Section 3.11; however, each participant was given the opportunity to make an individual response. The interviews augmented the survey data in the following areas:

 personal engagement with the visual;  conceptual engagement with the visual;  communicative style; and  technology and leisure.

As with the Chapter Four, the students’ responses (each interview being transcribed) were collected and analysed. Moreover, as T-Unit analysis was used to review the blog interactions (see Section 6.5), the transcribed interviews responses were divided into T-

149 units which were subsequently analysed into categories derived from the data. Communicative gaps and disruptions were identified and counted separately. Table 5.1 presents an overview of the occurrence of communicative gaps and disruptions across the four categories identified above in terms of country, school level and gender.

Table 5.1 Overview of the category ‘communication gaps/disruptions’ during the interview by country/school/gender level

COUNTRY SCHOOL LEVEL GENDER TOTAL: Communication Gaps/Disruptions AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT WITH THE VISUAL Art preferences 36.56 35.09 35.94 36.05 38.10 35.19 36.00 Personal artistic qualities 37.58 35.07 30.87 39.25 36.44 36.31 36.34 Personal synergy between technology & art 33.08 38.10 24.53 38.57 36.00 34.27 34.72 SUB-TOTAL: 36.58 35.41 30.84 38.79 36.59 35.86 36.05 CONCEPTUAL ENGAGMENT WITH THE VISUAL Meaning of artistic 42.28 30.65 30.21 47.19 33.33 40.63 38.38 Being artistic 37.59 36.39 36.22 37.54 36.29 37.23 36.88 Artistic vs creative 32.28 33.47 27.64 35.42 34.41 32.56 32.99 Use of the words ‘artistic’ or ‘creative’ 24.32 61.54 44.44 27.78 0 42.37 39.68 SUB-TOTAL: 36.30 35.84 34.07 37.70 35.04 36.48 36.05 COMMUNICATIVE STYLE Communicative preferences 40.51 39.40 39.82 39.88 30.37 42.89 39.86 Social networking 40.12 35.16 35.69 39.47 37.40 37.77 37.70 SUB-TOTAL: 40.29 37.36 37.45 39.67 33.83 40.11 38.71 TECHNOLOGY & LEISURE Engagement with technology 40.72 40.27 39.16 42.00 45.39 35.98 40.51 Scoping Leisure preference 28.00 34.18 31.65 30.67 34.38 30.33 31.17 SUB-TOTAL: 36.78 38.16 36.74 38.22 43.48 33.57 37.45

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

The occurrence of these gaps/disruptions during the interviews was consistent across all categories, as would be expected for oral language. As the focus of this study was content oriented rather than linguistic, no additional comment will be made on these phenomena in the sections which follow.

Table 5.2 presents an overview of students’ responses in the small group interviews by country/school/gender level. Since students gave multiple responses, the percentages are of the total number of responses in each comparison.

150 Chapter 5

Table 5.2 Overview of students ‘responses in small group interviews by country/school/gender level

COUNTRY SCHOOL LEVEL GENDER TOTAL: Overview of interview analysis AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT WITH THE VISUAL Art preferences 4.38 2.86 3.92 3.15 3.55 3.51 3.52 Personal artistic qualities 18.18 18.75 17.17 19.77 16.24 19.42 18.50 Personal synergy between technology & art 5.39 2.34 3.31 4.01 3.55 3.72 3.67 SUB-TOTAL: 27.95 24.95 24.40 26.93 23.35 26.65 25.70 CONCEPTUAL ENGAGEMENT WITH THE VISUAL Meaning of artistic 8.08 6.77 8.73 6.02 8.63 6.82 7.34 Being artistic 16.84 22.66 21.08 19.20 22.84 19.01 20.12 Artistic vs creative 9.09 12.50 9.94 12.03 10.15 11.36 11.01 Use of the words ‘artistic’ or ‘creative’ 2.69 0.78 1.81 1.43 0.51 2.07 1.62 SUB-TOTAL: 36.70 42.71 41.57 38.68 42.13 39.26 40.01 COMMUNICATIVE STYLE Communicative preferences 9.76 11.72 10.54 11.17 10.15 11.16 10.87 Social networking 13.80 11.46 12.35 12.61 11.17 13.02 12.48 SUB-TOTAL: 23.57 23.18 22.89 23.78 21.32 24.17 23.35 TECHNOLOGY & LEISURE Engagement with technology 9.43 6.51 8.43 7.16 10.66 6.61 7.78 Scoping leisure preference 2.36 3.65 2.71 3.44 2.54 3.31 3.08 SUB-TOTAL: 11.78 10.16 11.14 10.60 13.20 9.92 10.87

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Australian and SIN students’ total level of ‘engagement with the visual’ (Conceptual and Personal) was very similar – 64.65 per cent and 67.66 per cent respectively. However, a higher proportion of SIN students gave conceptual responses than did AUS students, and concomitantly, a slightly higher proportion of AUS students made personal responses than did SIN students (see Table 5.2).

For the C/JC and HS/SS groups, the response percentages for ‘engagement with the visual’ were the same. Conceptual responses were slightly more common in the HS/SS groups, whereas one might expect – on the basis of maturity alone – that the proportions would be reversed. Again, responses from approximately the same percentages of boys and girls indicated engagement with the visual, with both groups giving almost twice as many conceptual as personal responses.

Participants from both countries reflected upon the importance and ubiquity of their exposure to visual stimuli in social media, for example:

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Well I use it to have access to pictures, um, videos of people doing art work and I think that, that’s sort of what impacts on me, because I see more things, um, also when you’re on Facebook you can express yourself that way you like cause, you know, you can talk people and look at their work from other places um, yea… (AUS HS Boy)

Well I go on like the Internet and like find pictures and like look at like other paintings so I can do something like similar if I like it and that’s mainly all I really use the computer for. (AUS HS Girl)

I search through different art and by observing other people’s art form like all over the world, all different ethnic groups, then it influences what I’m doing and as an artist if I have this motivation to go forward and to like, for myself, my entire artistic focus at the moment. (AUS College Boy)

One way to do that is to use social networking sites such as Facebook and Deviant Art and that sort of thing where you actually share your artistic expression and also communicate with people with the same interest and seek inspiration from them via the computer screen. (SIN JC Boy)

Usually when I see those, like really quirky photos, all those photos that I think are very nice, I’ll just reblog it into my blog and then whenever I’m losing inspiration and I want to look at something nice, I’ll just go back and then revisit these photos. Yea, it’s actually quite a good source of inspiration because, um, without the medium of internet, actually it’s very limited to things you can look for. (SIN JC Girl)

The following sections discuss responses from the four main areas identified in 5.2 in terms of country, school level and gender.

152 Chapter 5 5.3 Personal engagement with the visual

5.3.1 Artistic preferences Table 5.3 presents the categories of responses relating to artistic preferences and exemplar responses for each. Communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

Table 5.3 Artistic preferences categories and exemplars

Response categories Examples Source of inspiration  When you really look at other people’s artworks that helps build up your own style or your artistic qualities. Commentary on own artworks  I wouldn’t draw something or write about something I’m not interested in. Commentary on own artistic preference/choice  I like printing, painting and drawing really.  I think definitely having an open mind about people’s view of my artwork and also other people’s artwork. Others  I think patience is very important.  I do have a blog.  So I’m actually a really heavy browser of things. Communication gaps/disruptions  but when you go, um, when you go for, you know, um, when you go for a walk, you see, like stuff …

Table 5.4 shows the dimensions of students’ artistic preferences by country, school level and gender respectively.

Table 5.4 Dimensions of students’ artistic preferences by country, school level and gender

ARTISTIC Country School level Gender PREFERENCE AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Source of 19.35 17.54 18.75 18.60 11.90 21.30 18.67 inspiration

Commentary 16.13 14.04 12.50 17.44 11.90 16.67 15.33 on own artworks Commentary 23.66 31.58 29.69 24.42 30.75 25.00 26.67 on artistic preference Others 4.30 1.75 3.13 3.49 7.14 1.85 3.33

Communication 36.56 35.09 35.94 36.05 38.10 35.19 36.00 gaps/ disruptions AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

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For both SIN and AUS students, the most prevalent category was commentary on their own artistic preferences. However, responses from SIN students were about eight percentage points higher than for AUS students.

In terms of gender, commentary on their own artistic preferences was the highest-scoring category for both boys and girls. However, female students were twice as likely as male students to comment on their artistic preferences as a source of inspiration. This pattern was repeated at school level, although both groups commented equally on their artistic preferences as a source of inspiration. In commenting on artistic preferences, girls emphasised the importance of “having an open mind” in relation to both others’ views of their own artwork and their perceptions of the artworks of others. Boys pointed out the importance of “looking at a wide range of different types of art so that they can learn from others” and that it can “help to build up their own style or artistic qualities”.

5.3.2 Personal artistic qualities Table 5.5 presents examples of the personal artistic qualities students identified in interviews. The communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

Table 5.5 Personal artistic qualities identified by students, with examples

T-unit categories Examples Expression of self  It’s a lot about expressing yourself and being able to engage people.  It’s important to be who you’re, to be true to yourself. Characterising own/others’ artwork  I like my art pieces to be neat.  I don’t do very much online stuff or drawing.  You think it’s a work of art and you believe that’s what it’s, then it is. Personal art preferences/style  It’s using what you have around you to help form your own ideas.  We’re all made up of all of our experiences and all the people we’ve met and that influence our choice in art. Judgement of own/others’ artistic qualities  I’m very observant about things. (positive)  I reckon it’s a skill, really focus on something and bring it out in my artwork. Judgement of own/others’ artistic qualities  I don’t think I’m very artistic. (negative)  I don’t think to myself [Oh I’m artistic and I’m this and I’m that]. Others  I always have a pen with me.  And I do learn from my own mistakes. Communication gaps/disruptions  It’s easier for me, as in, yeah, ah, but…  Um, yeah, I…, I draw a lot of times.

154 Chapter 5 Table 5.6 shows the different aspects of personal artistic qualities by country, school level and gender respectively.

Table 5.6 Categories of personal artistic qualities by country, school level and gender

PERSONAL Country School level Gender ARTISTIC AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: QUALITIES % % % % % % % Expression of self 13.63 5.20 10.29 9.09 8.05 9.98 9.48

Characterising 8.35 8.14 8.04 8.36 7.20 8.62 8.25 own/others’ artwork Personal art 10.33 7.24 9.65 8.36 11.02 8.62 8.81 preferences/style

Judgement of 22.42 32.81 30.54 25.94 29.66 26.76 27.54 own/other’s artistic qualities (positive) Judgement of 5.93 10.63 7.72 8.53 6.36 8.93 8.25 own/other’s artistic qualities (negative) Others 1.76 0.90 2.89 0.51 1.27 1.36 1.34

Communicative 37.58 35.07 30.87 39.25 36.44 36.31 36.34 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Not surprisingly, positive judgement of their own artistic qualities and those of others was the most prevalent category in all comparisons. Fewer than 10 per cent of students made negative judgements in all but one group. Students from both countries had similar perceptions of their own personal artistic qualities. For example, both groups of students talked about the “ability to think abstract” and “thinking out of the box”, ability to “define myself” and having the “sense of spontaneity” which is not “constraining” or prohibited by the “conformity of society”. However, unlike the AUS students, the SIN students tended to associate their own personal artistic qualities with societal values and expectations. For example, one student noted that:

Artistic qualities are important to me because they help and it leads me to achieve better stuff, because in an industry, you’re competing against a lot of people, so

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if I have my own artistic qualities, they are important cause it will set me apart from the others. (SIN JC Boy)

Another described her personal artistic qualities as her “sense of socialising as an art form”:

I think that in that sense that is how I apply my artistic qualities in real life, by talking to people and relating to their needs and understanding the world around me. (SIN JC Girl)

Australian students’ perceptions of their personal artistic qualities were more emotionally driven and inward-focused. For example, one student referred to her personal passionate ability:

I get passionate about an idea or an issue that’s going on, something that’s really affected me in my life at the time or an issue, just something I’m trying to deal with. I usually like to express that in my art. (AUS College Girl)

Another student felt that his personal artistic qualities related to his capacity for self- expression:

Everybody has their own opinion, everybody has their own emotion, everybody has a different way of expressing themselves, and that’s artistic quality, expressing yourself, it’s just who they are and that’s good. (AUS College Boy)

5.3.3 Personal synergy between technology and art Table 5.7 presents examples of responses reflecting a personal synergy between technology and art. The communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

156 Chapter 5

Table 5.7 Personal synergy between technology and art categories, and examples deriving from students’ small group interviews

PERSONAL SYNERGY BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY & ART T-Unit Categories Examples: Technology as artistic medium (positive)  This is a totally new platform of expressing myself, the way I look at the world. Technology as artistic medium (negative)  But I’m not really into any of those.  As an artist, like when I’m drawing, I would much prefer to so it not on technology. Source of inspiration  People that I don’t know but I to see what they’ve done with technology for inspiration. Others  It’s just there are more effective ways of expressing how my art. So it really depends what you’re doing. Communication gaps/disruptions  yeah, definitely, um…you know, it’s like, you can pick up faults,  and also, like with the internet, you can like, well…  There’s like Photoshop, I suppose, um…

Table 5.8 shows the percentages within each subcategory of personal synergy between technology and art by country, school level and gender.

Table 5.8 Percentages within each subcategory of personal synergy between technology and art by country, school level and gender

PERSONAL Country School Level GENDER SYNERGY BET. AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: TECH & ART % % % % % % % Tech as artistic 46.15 57.14 49.06 50.00 46.00 51.05 49.74 medium (+ve)

Tech as artistic 13.85 3.17 16.98 7.86 14.00 9.09 10.36 medium (-ve)

Source of 0.77 1.59 1.89 0.71 0 1.40 1.04 Inspiration

Others 6.15 0 7.54 2.86 4.00 4.20 4.15

Communication 33.08 38.10 24.53 38.57 36.00 34.27 34.72 Gaps/ Disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

‘Technology as artistic medium (positive)’ was the most prevalent response. SIN students were more than 10 percentage points more likely than their AUS counterparts to give an answer in this category. Some of these technology-related artistic mediums included digital music, digital photography and use of Photoshop to enhance images:

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I experiment with digital music, it just gives me an outlet to escape to my imagination. This is a totally new platform of expressing myself, the way I look at the world. (SIN JC Boy)

The main way I can think of expressing myself with technology is using technology to record my music, experimental and surreal kind of, definitely, cause I’m a musician. (AUS College Boy)

Usually, I will use Photoshop to adjust the contrast and colour to enhance my pictures. It is, um, a platform whereby we are allowed to experiment with our own photographs. (SIN JC Girl)

I think anything that I do technologically is Photoshop, so like photo manipulation, using skills that I’ve acquired, changing it into something that I feel expresses, like, something deeper than just the photo. (AUS College Boy)

Negative responses to ‘Technology as an artistic medium’ varied, with substantially higher proportions of AUS, HS/SS and male students giving them than their SIN, C/JC and female counterparts. For example, an AUS HS male perceived digital technology as “impractical, because they [computers] break and can get viruses”. He also claimed that there are more effective ways of expressing how he feels. Another student had a similar view of technology:

I don’t think that technology is the way to express yourself, ‘cause you can’t say much through technology… (AUS HS Girl)

The lack of personal synergy between technology and art could be because students were not feeling comfortable using technology, felt they were not good with technology or were not competent in using the software. For example, a student confessed:

I don’t normally use technology for my artwork, like using computers, um, I’m not really into using computers so the only one I know for doing art works would be Photoshop and I’m not really good at it cause when I used the mouse, I can’t feel when I’m creating the artwork. I don’t feel myself making the artwork and

158 Chapter 5 everything is, usually goes wrong, ‘cause I can’t feel anything from it. (SIN SS Boy)

In order to express his artistic self, this student’s heart, hand and head obviously need to be synchronised (See Figure 1.1). The whole process of art making is a therapeutic experience for this student.

5.4 Conceptual engagement with the visual

5.4.1 Meaning of artistic

Table 5.9 presents responses reflecting students’ sense of the meaning of ‘artistic’ and examples derived from the interviews. Communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

Table 5.9 Students’ responses indicating their sense of the meaning of artistic

T-unit categories Examples Person as marker, creator, unique perspective  People classify people as artistic if they like making art doesn’t really matter if they’re good at it.  Artistic is also how they can create something.  Somebody who is able to express themselves through imaginative or creative way that is their own. Expressive state of mind/feeling/attitudes/values  Artistic means, like being creative and express your feelings and thoughts when doing art and be inspired.  You can make something out of what you’re feeling and thinking. Ability, capacity, skill, gift, talent  I think artistic means to have a talent in art. Product oriented  I think artistic means that your artwork is accurate and very detailed.  The way it looks or the kind of colour tones or the kind of shapes it has. Process oriented  I think you’re artistic if you’re able to, um, take a new idea and build on it, re-creating it into something new and different, unique and unusual. Others  I think the word artistic has a different meaning to different people.  It doesn’t necessarily always have to mean art.  It doesn’t mean much more that than to me. Communication gaps/disruptions  Um, [and what do I mean when I describe someone as artistic...?]  Um, well, it all comes from what you’ve learn, so I s’pose, oh, it’s just, I dunno,  I guess, um, yeah, just looking for new ideas, like keep information that you need and stuff like that, you know, be open minded, yeah.

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Table 5.10 shows students’ sense of the meaning of artistic by country, school level and gender respectively.

Table 5.10 Students’ sense of the meaning of artistic by country, school level and gender MEANING OF Country School Level GENDER ARTISTIC AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Person as marker, 15.45 17.74 14.58 17.98 21.05 14.06 16.22 creator, unique perspective Expressive state of 14.63 20.97 19.79 13.48 15.79 17.19 16.76 mind, feelings, attitudes, values Ability, capacity, 3.25 9.68 7.29 3.37 12.28 2.34 5.41 skill, gift, talent

Product oriented 8.94 16.13 16.67 5.62 10.53 11.72 11.35

Process oriented 5.69 1.61 2.08 6.74 3.51 4.69 4.32

Others 9.76 3.23 9.38 5.62 3.51 9.38 7.57

Communication 42.28 30.65 30.21 47.19 33.33 40.63 38.38 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Nearly 40 per cent of responses from SIN students perceived ‘artistic’ as relating to an “expressive state of mind, feelings, attitudes, and values” or the “person as marker, creator, unique perspective” compared to about 30 per cent among their AUS counterparts. Students from both countries spoke about the meaning of ‘artistic’ as “expressing self as it represents yourself” and also the importance of being understood, amusing or entertaining. For example, a student explained:

I describe somebody as artistic, I mean that’s somebody who is very passionate and able to do something at the snap of the fingers ‘cause they are able to express it a way that is their own and it can be comprehended by others. (AUS HS Boy)

The importance of being heard and being understood was reinforced by another student:

When someone is artistic like that person is not afraid to, you know, like you don’t hold back when you wanna, like create something but it must be visually enticing and amuse the masses at the same time. (SIN JC Girl)

160 Chapter 5 More SIN students perceived the meaning of artistic as ‘product oriented’ than did their ACT counterparts (Table 5.10). Most of the SIN students tended to equate the meaning of artistic with the aesthetic value, physical form or characteristics of the work:

Referring to some values that the art piece has, like the way it looks or the kind of tones or the kind of shapes it has. (SIN SS Girl)

Almost 20 per cent of the HS/SS students perceived artistic as meaning “expressive state of mind, feelings, attitudes, values”, a higher proportion than their C/JC counterparts (Table 5.10).

Males tended to perceive ‘artistic’ in terms of the “person as marker, creator, and unique perspective”, whereas females perceived it in terms of an “expressive state of mind, feelings, attitudes, values” (Table 5.10). Twelve per cent of boys regarded it as an ‘ability, capacity, skill, gift, talent’ compared with only two per cent of their female counterparts. Responses from boys included the following:

I think artistic means to have a talent in art. You must have a flexible mind and you have to be very good at your drawings. (SIN SS Boy)

Artistic means to me, means that, um, the innate ability to actually draw something realistically, like, to show how you perceive the world around you in a realistic manner. (SIN JC Boy)

Artistic to me means, ah, someone who is talented enough to create something that people see as, like, amazing or makes them feel some sort of emotions. (AUS HS Boy)

5.4.2 Being artistic Table 5.11 exemplifies students’ responses to the notion of being artistic. Communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

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Table 5.11 Students’ responses to the notion of being artistic

BEING ARTISTIC T-Unit Categories Examples: Distinctiveness of personal presentation  Everyone has an artistic quality just different about how they show it.  They want to make a statement. Maker and producer and creator and learner  Being artistic is about doing what you love with a passion for it.  It’s something you learn and you learn it through experience. Generating emotions  Being artistic means that having the ability to express one’s emotions on a piece of canvas. Habit of mind, such as instinctive, attitude,  Artistic qualities come naturally, like how you’re affected by second nature, perception your surroundings.  It also depends on whether you open your eyes to the world around you.  You also need to think-out-of-the-box and have more imagination. Others  Artistic qualities can be anything.  And no one can say that they can be artistic. Communication gaps/disruptions  Umm, I think artistic stuff has to have a bit of thought into it, rather than just,  Yea, [can I put it that way?]  Yea, well, and you can, well, yea, just throughout life.

Table 5.12 presents percentages in ‘being artistic’ categories by country, school level and gender.

Table 5.12 Categories of perceptions of being artistic by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Distinctiveness 19.17 17.28 19.50 16.62 18.57 17.76 18.06 of personal presentation

Maker and 11.28 17.28 13.93 15.69 16.03 14.11 14.81 producer, creator or learner

Generating 6.02 8.64 9.60 5.54 7.59 7.54 7.56 emotions

Habit of mind, 20.68 18.06 16.10 22.15 17.30 20.19 19.14 e.g. instinctive, attitude, 2nd nature, perception

Others 5.26 2.36 4.64 2.46 4.22 3.16 3.55

Communication 37.59 36.39 36.22 37.54 36.29 37.23 36.88 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

162 Chapter 5 Responses across all comparison groups (other than communication gaps/disruptions) were mostly in the categories ‘distinctiveness of personal presentation’ or “habit of mind, e.g., instinctive, attitude, second nature, perception” (approximately 20 per cent each). Most students from both countries described being artistic in terms of being “open- minded”, “free-thinking” or “think-out-of-the-box”, “being ‘original”, being “spontaneous” and “not deliberately trying to be different just for the sake of it”:

Artistic people I know are like more free-thinking and like…. I suppose open- minded as well, willing to experience new things and kind-of-a take them into the way they view life, rather than being closed up from everything. (AUS College Girl)

Some perceived it relating to life experiences and surroundings:

I think being artistic comes naturally, like how you’re affected by your surroundings and experiences in life. Because everyone leads a different life, so we all have different things that make us who we are today, mmm, you learn to be artistic through these experiences. (SIN JC Girl)

According to the students, in the context of being artistic, distinctiveness of personal presentation is not confined to the way they choose to express themselves in their art, but also includes personal presentation:

I think being artistic are, um, individuality, like what really is what sets you apart from the rest, being adventurous, like being very expressive, and this affects me in my everyday life because they, um, in the way I dress and in the way I act, yeah, the way I present myself is important. (SIN JC Boy)

Being artistic is also about expressing yourself in everyday, like whether it be through what you wear or what you paint in your art, like everyone is probably artistic if they’re expressing who they really are inside for everyone else to see, doing things a bit different. (AUS College Girl)

I suppose it’s important because it defines you, like even within the community, the description together with our artistic qualities, I suppose define us, and make us different from others. (AUS College Girl)

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5.4.3 Artistic vs. creative Table 5.13 presents examples of interview responses responding to the ‘artistic vs. creative’ dilemma. The communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

Table 5.13 Examples of interview responses to the artistic vs. creative dilemma

T-unit categories Examples Creative precondition for artistic  Being artistic is definitely hindered by not without creativity. Artistic beyond/above creative  Artistic to me is more than just being creative. Artistic is the same as creative  Artistic is the same as creative because if an artist don’t have a creative mind, he can never come up with new ideas for his art. Artistic links with creative & vice versa  Artistic is somehow linked with creative.  I think there’s a lot of overlap.  But they, they can inter-lap.  They are interlinked.  They can both be intertwined as they both, ah, both expressing the same or similar things. Others  I don’t think it’s the same or different from being creative.  I think it’s like the way people speak and stuff. Communication Gaps/Disruptions  and, ah…you actually, ah, do more work in thinking out of the box and creating new ideas,  yea, but being artistic, ah, that’s not necessarily mean creative,  Um, it does have to involve your own emotions, yea, but you can be creative without being emotional.

Table 5.14 presents students’ responses to the artistic vs creative dilemma by country, school level and gender.

Table 5.14 Artistic vs. creative response categories by country, school level and gender

Country School Level GENDER AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Creative 22.78 5.08 17.07 9.96 16.13 10.96 12.18 precondition for artistic Artistic beyond/ 35.44 52.97 36.59 50.18 33.33 49.83 45.94 above creative

Artistic is the 5.06 7.63 17.07 1.85 15.05 3.99 6.60 same as creative Artistic links 2.53 0.85 0.81 1.85 0 1.99 1.52 with creative & vice versa Others 1.90 0 0.81 0.74 1.08 0.66 0.76

Communication 32.28 33.47 27.64 35.42 34.41 32.56 32.99 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

164 Chapter 5 While over 50 per cent of SIN students, C/JC students and girls regarded ‘artistic’ as meaning ‘beyond/above creative’, only about 35 per cent of AUS students, HS/SS students and boys did so.

Creative means that you’re trying to solve a problem or trying to come up with something, it’s usually to address a problem, to me with new solutions or take out the conventional ways, yea, artistic is to bring out the beauty in something. (SIN, JC Girl)

If artistic and creative is combined together, I think it is possible because, ah, if creativity is more refined, more rounded, it can be artistic. (SIN SS Girl)

‘Something that’s artistic seems quite beautiful or um, yea, pleasing, whereas something can be creative yet not pleasing to the person. You can have a creative solution to a problem but not necessarily aesthetic. (AUS College Girl)

AUS students were much more likely (22.78 per cent) to argue that creativity is a necessary precondition for being artistic than their SIN counterparts (5.08 per cent):

It’s impossible to talk about being artistic without saying the word creative or describing creative without using artistic, so I think in essence that being artistic is just like expressing yourself, like inner expressions and what you’re feeling and ideas, whereas creative is more like the different mediums, different techniques etcetera. (AUS College Boy)

Being artistic and creative, I think there’s a fine line between both because I think being artistic does involve a lot of creativity. (AUS, College Girl)

More HS/SS students and boys than C/JC and girls respectively perceived artistic and creative to be essentially the same:

If you’re an artist and you don’t know how to express yourself through creativeness, then you’re not exactly an artist because you can’t express how you feel. (AUS HS Boy)

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Artistic is the same as creative because if an artist don’t have a creative mind, he can never come up with new ideas for his art. (SIN HS/SS Boy)

5.4.4 Use of the words ‘artistic’ and ‘creative’ Table 5.15 presents exemplar responses to the use of the words ‘artistic’ and ‘creative’. Communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

Table 5.15 Exemplar responses to the use of the words ‘artistic’ and ‘creative

T-unit categories Examples: Artistic used positively  The kind of confidence that they could be giving to a person by using the word, like it’s quite a powerful compliment. Artistic used negatively or indiscriminately  I think it’s probably, like thrown around quite loosely. Creative used positively  I think society views things more as creative that artistic. Creative used negatively or indiscriminately  When they see an artwork is nice and, ah, beautiful, they’ll usually just say, um, [The artwork is creative]. Others - Communication Gaps/Disruptions  Artistic is kind of… like, the word to me…sort of, like, evokes emotions, you know, sadness, happiness and etcetera, etcetera…

Table 5.16 shows students’ perception of the use of the words ‘artistic’ and ‘creative’ by country, school level and gender.

Table 5.16 Students’ perceptions of the use of the word ‘artistic’ or ‘creative’ by country, school level and gender

Country School Level GENDER TOTAL: AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % Artistic used 18.92 0 2.22 33.33 25.00 10.17 11.11 positively

Artistic used 54.05 34.62 51.11 33.33 75.00 44.07 46.03 indiscriminately

Creative used 2.70 0 0 5.56 0 1.69 1.59 positively

Creative used 0 3.85 2.22 0 0 1.69 1.59 indiscriminately

Others 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Communication 24.32 61.54 44.44 27.78 0 42.37 39.68 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Across all comparisons – country, school level and gender – there was a strong perception that the word ‘artistic’ is used indiscriminately; this sense was stronger among ACT

166 Chapter 5 students, HS/SS students and males (Table 6.4.8). Only JC/C students and males perceived ‘artistic’ as being used positively. One student suggested:

People do use it loosely but I think it could be used, like, in a less loose term. I think that it all has a place to be used. I think it covers a broad spectrum of things. (AUS College Girl)

5.5 Communicative style

5.5.1 Communicative preferences Table 5.17 presents exemplars for the communicative preferences categories derived from the interviews. Communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

Table 5.17 Communicative preferences categories and exemplars deriving from the interviews

T-unit categories Examples Importance of face-to-face communication  To me I prefer having face-to-face conversation which I can really, really express my art fully.  Face-to-face is easier to, like talk to them and see their facial expressions.

Issues with face-to-face communication  When face-to-face, you want to but cannot really, ah, talk truly to the person because you’re afraid to hurt his/her feelings.

Issues with technology assisted communication  You can actually hide your feelings, your real identity and everything behind there.

Benefits of technology assisted communication  I would rather use technology to say something like embarrassing where I don’t want to see their face or like things like that.

Others  I wouldn’t say that my art’s private at all.  I draw my emotions and everything.

Communication gaps/disruptions  Yeah, but, ah, and you know, like, in order to do that, you have to like, like go out and meet them,  that way you can sort of…you know, the most powerful because there’s body language.

Table 5.18 shows students’ communicative preferences responses by country, school level and gender.

Overall, there was little difference in the responses across country, school level and gender; ‘importance of face-to-face’ dominated for all groups. Most students emphasised the importance of face-to-face interactions and felt that it established more effective

167 communication through “mutual understanding”, “body language”, “visual cues”, “sincerity”, “honesty” and being “more transparent”, “more real” or “more immediate”.

Table 5.18 Categories of students ‘communicative preferences responses by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender TOTAL: ACT SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % Importance of 25.68 24.48 27.60 23.21 28.89 23.70 24.96 face-to-face

Issues with 4.50 10.45 5.43 9.82 7.41 8.79 8.08 Face-to-face

Issues with 13.96 11.04 11.31 12.80 17.78 10.43 12.21 technology assisted communication

Benefits with 9.01 11.04 10.86 9.82 9.63 10.43 10.23 technology assisted communication

Others 6.31 3.58 4.98 4.46 5.93 4.27 4.67

Communication 40.51 39.40 39.82 39.88 30.37 42.89 39.86 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

This was the case even though most of them also choose to express themselves via technology-assisted communication or were regular users of social media for reasons including “convenience”, “avoiding confrontation”, “open[ing] up new opportunities for new experiences” or “making distant connections”, and because it was “time-efficient” and “more accessible [than face to face]”. For example, one student explained that he might prefer face-to-face interactions like going to a party, but also acknowledged that social media like Facebook provides the opportunity to express and be heard and understood:

Personally, I would really prefer to go to the party, ‘cause I mean there’s no substitute to actually going out and having a good time. In face-to-face conversation, but then again, it can be tricky at times, I mean you can go to the party, but people still won’t actually know what you’re thinking or what you feel,

168 Chapter 5 cause they can’t see your thoughts or anything, but if you go on Facebook and you actually post about what you’re thinking or what you feel, they can actually have an insight to what you’re thinking. (SIN JC Boy)

Another preferred face-to-face interactions but took the pragmatic view that online connections made it possible for her to maintain contact with friends living overseas:

Sometimes it’s not possible to talk to someone face-to-face, especially if they’re on the other side of the world and I’ve several friends who are on the other side of the world. I like to talk to people face-to-face but sometimes it’s not possible, and so I think it’s better to do online, like that’s the next best thing. (AUS College Girl)

Face-to-face is like when I wanna like get to know some or like catch up or meet new people, and communicating with like technology is maybe just like for small things, just like, ah, ‘when are you gonna get there, how are you, stuff like that, or things like, sort of like embarrassing or sad things where I don’t want to see them or talk to them. (AUS HS Girl)

Umm…I would have to say strike a balance between both, yea, it’s like when we actually go out there to have first-hand experience that we probably not able to see from websites and so on, so fifty-fifty may be. (SIN JC Boy)

I’m not saying that it’s difficult but I just feel it’s not as close, not as sincere, but I do have a lot of friends online and in fact there are a lot of jokes that can only come out right online somehow, cause we have a lot of internet inside jokes and that I think, yea, in that sense it’s another way to bond with a person but when you’re truly close with a person you would rather see them in real life. (SIN JC Girl)

If I had to choose I would choose seeing a person in real life as opposed to chatting with them online, um…although I actually think that both, both sides do have their advantages, plus I feel that if I was to meet the person face-to-face, the person may not like me for who I am within that spit second of judgment of

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impression, mmm, well I still prefer to stay behind the computer screen itself cause I think it’s something to do with my insecurities. (SIN JC Girl)

Students also discussed their communicative preferences in the context of demonstrating their artistic self, such as sharing their artwork, most feeling that they preferred to show their artwork face-to-face because it was important for them to experience physical interactions like eye contact, body gestures, and tone of voice, which most online interaction lacks. They pointed out that the reactions or responses from face-to-face communication were more spontaneous, honest and immediate:

When I’m having face-to-face conversation, I want to see how they react, whether they like it or not. It’s more instant in each reaction you get when you are expressing to yourself, so you don’t have to like, once you post this, you got to wait for the next day. (SIN SS Boy)

There was a similar comment on the immediateness and transparency of face-to-face communication:

When you’re talking to someone or showing them your artwork, you can see the expressions on their face and you can read it rather that if you’re typing online, like LOL, they could be saying LOL (laughing out loud) but they’re probably not really laughing so you can’t really tell if they’re serious or not. (AUS HS Boy)

A higher proportion of SIN students (10.45 per cent) had ‘issues with face-to-face’ than did AUS students (4.5 per cent). It was felt that face-to-face interactions could be intense and that very often, people could be judgmental and have seemingly impenetrable expectations:

Once you know, like, what the other person expects of you, you try to meet their expectations, so it’s kind of limiting yourself. I prefer socialising behind the computer because you’re not really being judged, as in nobody really knows who’s there, you can just express yourself freely. (SIN JC Girl)

170 Chapter 5 Social media were lauded as providing a more accessible environment:

I choose to tell them by text or on Facebook, ‘cause I do not like to open up to others a lot, so through this, it’s a better way for me to start. (SIN SS Boy)

On the computer is really the only way I can do that because I’m not very good at expressing myself in general. Sometimes, yes, it does the job. I don’t really express me, I don’t really do it that much so. (AUS HS Boy)

More boys (17.78 per cent) had ‘issues with technology assisted communication’ than did girls (10.43 per cent). Boys reported that technology assisted communication could be “tiring”, “emotionless”, “superficial” and “intimidating”:

Yeah, because it’s tiring texting, everything you try to make it short when you type. Sometimes, like when you can easily get the wrong idea via internet, like what people are actually talking about. (SIN SS Boy)

It’s hard for people to see what you’re thinking, yea, people tend to put on a mask. I think you can express yourself in social networking but it’s rather superficial and I do find it intimidating at times. (SIN JC Boy)

5.5.2 Social networking Table 5.19 presents examples of social networking categories derived from the interviews. The communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

Motivations for students from both countries to use social media were very similar. Their responses were mostly directed at how social networking informed or inspired their art practice. For some, social networking spaces such as Deviant Art, Tumblr, Facebook and MySpace provided opportunities to explore and express their artistic selves, through showcasing their own artworks, exposing themselves to a wider range of other people’s art, voicing their ideas and opinions about art to a wider audience, and learning to accept constructive criticism positively:

I do take it objectively, basically what people say didn’t really make me drop my self-esteem, so I always take it positively, um, I look through the comments

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and I’m able to see things from other people’s point of view, not like, being self- centred, sometimes it does affect me, but I think I’m able to take it. (SIN SS Girl)

Table 5.19 Social networking categories and examples derived from the interviews

T-unit categories Examples Uses for Facebook  When you’re on things like FB, you can express yourself that way, you know, you can talk to people from other places.  I use Facebook to express myself, such like I’ll post, like some poems or quotes to let people know how I feel. Problems with Facebook  Sometimes when you post something up, it can be like misconstrued. Use of Internet/YouTube/other social  I just like looking around on the internet. networking sites  It’s easy getting on to the internet to do whatever you want to do. Problems with Internet/YouTube/other social  I’m not a big fan of technology myself. networking sites  You just sit on a computer and type things up. Relationship with artwork  So you have a wider range of audience to comment on your artwork.  Sometime you can get comments, see what the comments is and you can improve.  I don’t take pictures, I draw and I post there to show what, how I feel.  It gives me ideas and it helps me to form, you know, create upon the ideas that I already have. Others  I just started under the influence of my friend.  We don’t actually have the internet at home ATM. Communication gaps/disruptions  But yea, that feeling behind your computer, right, is…yeah, can be conscious,  It feels like, you know, like not everyone is going to like what you say,  You don’t really meet that person, you know,  Yeah, that’s how I feel about it.

Table 5.20 presents students’ responses about social networking by country, school level and gender.

Most students from both countries indicated their use of social media as a research tool, browsing resources or information or negotiating their ideas and concepts of art with their peers rather than actively sharing their own artworks through posting online:

I go to the Internet and seek for inspiration. I just use it to talk with my friends who also took art as their subject, yeah, and I just ask for advice from them, since they’re older and also, already has more experience than me. No photographs, I sort of feel uncomfortable cause most people are judgemental and feel like you’ll only be criticised, so I’m not comfortable with putting up my work. (SIN SS Boy)

I think it’s interesting just to see what people from so far away, like what their art is like, if it’s similar or not at all, it just interests me, it’s something different, just

172 Chapter 5 see what other people are doing, but personally, not at all, I’ve seen that actually like it does it a lot, imagine if you put something up and nobody commented on it? (AUS College Girl)

Table 5.20 Students’ responses to social networking by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender TOTAL: AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % Uses of 13.89 19.35 17.85 15.43 27.48 13.71 16.56 Facebook

Problems with 10.19 14.19 10.44 13.65 8.40 13.12 12.15 Facebook

Use of other 5.25 7.74 5.72 7.12 8.40 5.96 6.47 social networking sites

Problems with 5.25 3.87 3.70 5.34 1.53 5.37 4.57 other social networking sites

Relationship 21.19 18.06 22.90 17.51 9.92 22.66 20.03 with artwork

Others 3.40 1.61 3.70 1.48 6.87 1.39 2.52

Communication 40.12 35.16 35.69 39.47 37.40 37.77 37.70 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

It was pointed out that social media is useful for finding out what your peers are discussing and observing what kind of art they are making:

And people can also then discuss and analyse that with other people online who do similar things and see other similar works and get a lot of artistic inspirations through technology, like art sites like Deviant Art, but I’m more, for myself, it’s more to witness things like that. (AUS College Boy)

Only a minority of students argued for the importance of sharing online:

If you don’t share it with others online, people can’t view it, they can’t build on your understanding of what you’ve created. If you share it with others, then they

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can add their perspective to it, which can actually make it better, bigger and everything, so I think it’s important to share. (AUS College Girl)

To express myself, I posted my works online, like Deviant Art or Simply More Bloggers, and this is where you gain people’s attention. Ummm, I don’t feel any negative feelings about it cause to me I’m very new, I’m like, so maybe I could work on this part because especially on Deviant Art, you get very constructive comments, like sometimes, they’ll also give you methods, especially in digital media, like they’ll give you, like what settings you can use, that kind of stuff, and in a way, it really helps me. (SIN SS Girl)

Boys, however, appear to have been diverted by the attractions of Facebook. Some pointed out that Facebook not only provided the opportunity to express their artistic self but to explore and mingle or just keep in touch with their peers:

I think most of us use it. It serves as another platform to interact with our friends outside school, cause I say, for us students, do not have time to explore and mingle with our classmates and wouldn’t be able to mingle around at school or with other friends, cause we’re in different classes or schools because we aren’t able to actually, like maybe have time to talk to others, but on Facebook, like almost at the same time, we’re able to like meet or talk, or sometimes, when we actually want to, but too shy to have, like face-to-face contact. It basically opens up opportunities for you to talk, gives you more leeway and things like that. (SIN JC Boy)

Everybody has Facebook! Our class used the Facebook as a platform to discuss our homework. (SIN JC Girl)

There was an art piece that I was working on for the exams, I was doing a lot of thinking about it, ah, and I described how I use, and what were the mediums I wanted to use so that my friends can see and comment. It’s covered on FB, if it’s not covered in the examination thing. (SIN SS Girl)

174 Chapter 5 To these SIN students, having a Facebook presence meant more than the opportunity to express and negotiate their artistic selves; arguably, it had become a social extension of their school/class environment in which they could continue their interactions after school, one even observing that, because of its convenience and accessibility, it had become a “social obligation” to be connected. AUS students seemed more reluctant and more sceptical about their use of Facebook in this context, claiming they did not use it often because of privacy or trust issues or that the social interactions were very much confined to family:

I have a Facebook [account] but I don’t really use it that often. I only use it to keep in contact with my family. (AUS HS Girl)

It’s not my strong thing, and I mean I do use it, not as much as a lot of people here. It’s very fast, easy way to communicate with people, like you can communicate with like a lot of people at once, but I think people sometimes people give out way too much information and I’m like, well, if I can read that, anyone can read it. (AUS College Girl)

Many AUS students vocalised their intention to be discerning about their engagement with social media, and some SIN students also expressed wariness:

There’s good points and bad points. The good points is, mmm, it’s unique and exciting in that sense, where I can convey my own thoughts and feelings though the Facebook, but at the same time, the bad points is, I feel very weird not knowing who is looking. (SIN SS Girl)

It’s not an ideal [mode of communication] because there are a lot of obstacles involved. There’re a lot of complications, it’s going to be inevitable, I mean you could ignore it but it’s still going to be there, we just have to learn to deal with it.’ (SIN SS Girl)

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5.6 Technology and leisure

5.6.1 Engagement with technology

Table 5.21 presents examples of students’ engagement with technology derived from the interviews. The communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

Table 5.21 Examples of students’ engagement with technology derived from the interviews

T-unit categories Examples Positive features of technology  I think these days technology is obviously a really big part of, um, of the world.  Technology allows me to experience things that I might not otherwise be able to, like in a world where we didn’t have such, like strong global communication and stuff like that. Negative features of technology  I wouldn’t say that I express myself through technology at all.  You know the awful ways people use the internet these days. Technology related to art  It lets me reach a wider spectrum of people but also get a lot more artistic messages.  It’s great to get people’s ideas and stuff, opinions on your things through technology.  You can create compositions that would be quite hard to achieve if you just paint. Others  ‘Cause life is getting hectic.  Some people they don’t have time to gather together to talk about that.  You have to be rooted in what you believe and like how you discern your opinions. Communication gaps/disruptions  I think that because, like, as I said, like, you have to be rooted in what you believe and, like, how you discern your opinions.

Table 5.22 shows students’ responses in relation to engagement with technology by country, school level and gender.

Table 5.22 Categories of engagement with technology by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender TOTAL: AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % Positive features 29.95 33.56 30.12 30.00 27.63 32.32 30.06 of technology

Negative 12.57 8.72 8.43 13.33 7.89 13.41 10.76 features of technology Technology 10.18 12.08 11.45 10.67 12.50 9.76 11.08 related to art Others 9.58 5.37 10.44 4.00 6.58 8.54 7.59 Communication 40.72 40.27 39.16 42.00 45.39 35.98 40.51 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

176 Chapter 5 Responses relating to the positive features of technology dominated for each of the three comparison groups, accounting for approximately a third of responses. Students shared similar concepts of what it means to engage in technology, including using it as a tool for communication, as a means to connect with the rest of the world, to keep in touch with friends and family, to organise or make arrangements for routine life matters, to access resources, gaming, download music/movies, to save time, for convenience and increased efficiency. Although students across all groups remained very positive about engagement with technology, very few related this to their own art making. In this context, most indicated that they used technology to engage with the artworks of others, engage in online dialogue with peers to discuss/exchange artistic ideas, or sometimes to share their own artworks online, rather than using technology as a tool in the process of creating their own artworks:

I just, um, look at art blogs a lot to gain ideas about my own art projects, but, yea, I wouldn’t say that I express myself through technology at all. (AUS College Girl)

With the internet, makes me have a better understanding of what other people’s art is and what they wanna to do and just help me as well through what I wanna to do for my artwork. (SIN JC Girl)

I just browse and talk to other people and get inspired and motivated by things, just basically art forms from different places, which I couldn’t get in the library or in books. (AUS College Boy)

5.6.2 Leisure preferences Table 5.23 presents examples of students’ reported leisure preferences. Communication gaps/disruptions are presented in context and highlighted in yellow.

The percentages of AUS students, JC/C students and girls indicating leisure preferences for technology and the arts (art related, music related and creative writing) taken together were higher than for ‘other’ forms of leisure. Interestingly no SIN students selected creative writing as a leisure preference, and they were more interested in music than AUS students. HS/SS students and boys favoured forms of leisure other than the arts: I’m more like a girl jock so I like my sports more than the artistic side of me. (AUS HS Girl)

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When I’m at the skate park, ah, yeah, when I’m on my bike, when I do tricks, I just do what I feel like when I’m in the air, ah, I do it for myself, cause like, but sometimes, people just come watch at the skate park, I like when people are watching, sometimes, you get more confident. (AUS HS Boy)

Table 5.23 Examples of students’ leisure preferences

T-unit categories Examples Technology related  I also have uploaded art.  I use it to play games.  I try to use it as much as possible to do that. Art related  I enjoy drawing for myself.  I’ve drawn pictures and put it up there and to see if I can get something. Music related  Music is pretty much like my hobby.  I play the piano. I like performing sometimes. Creative writing  I also write, mmm, raps.  I can just write something about my day to describe my feelings if I have nothing else to do. Others  When I’m at the skate park, I do it for myself.  Being spontaneous affects my everyday life.  I have to discipline.  I just like to think of little things just to entertain myself for a second. Communication gaps/disruptions  Like, that could be just, you know, entertainment, like, just being myself and whatever…  I think it’s very important because, ah, you know, it really saves a lot of time.

Table 5.24 shows students’ leisure preferences by country, school level and gender. For the purposes of discussion, the highlighted sections are grouped as ‘The Arts’.

Some students used their leisure time to get more in touch with their own thoughts and emotions, for example, “to express myself”, or “just vent out my anger”. Another used her leisure time “to learn how to be disciplined”, to focus on doing her schoolwork. One student stated that it was important to develop personal qualities such as patience and spontaneity during her leisure time, so that she might learn to be more efficient in making decisions and complete her artwork promptly. She was obviously concerned by the need to:

…make a straight decision between what I want to choose between things, I think it’s very important, ah, it really saves a lot of time. (SIN JC Girl)

178 Chapter 5

Table 5.24 Categories of leisure preference by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender TOTAL: AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % Technology 6.67 7.59 11.39 2.67 18.75 4.10 7.14 related

Art 14.67 8.86 10.13 13.33 0 14.75 11.69 related

Music 5.33 16.46 2.53 20.00 3.13 13.11 11.04 related

Creative 12.00 0 3.80 8.00 3.13 6.56 5.84 writing

The Arts 32.00 25.32 16.46 41.33 6.26 34.42 28.57

Other 33.33 32.91 40.51 25.33 40.63 31.15 33.12

Communication 28.00 34.18 31.65 30.67 34.38 30.33 31.17 gaps/disruptions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Leisure time also offered opportunities to seek inspirations and ideas as well as to ‘chill out’:

I like to just think of little things just to entertain myself for a second, I just might, like, tap something out on the table for a minute or so. (AUS HS Boy)

I just do whatever I feel like doing, I just like looked around the newspaper and tried to get something from it. (SIN JC Girl)

Some spent their leisure time playing online games or using social media:

I use the computer a lot to play games. (SIN SS Boy)

I like to write things, like write my opinions and then put them on the internet like FB and look at them at a later date. (AUS HS Boy)

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Some also used music during their leisure time to express themselves or for entertainment/amusement:

I like playing the piano, I normally express myself on piano when I am feeling sad, cause, um, and the pieces that I normally play are those sad pieces, so I actually can relate to those pieces and just play. (SIN JC Girl)

I play the piano, ah, it’s good for entertaining people, I play for like my family or people that come over a lot… (AUS College Girl)

5.7 Synthesis and discussion

Table 5.25 gives an overview of the most important categories of engagement and communication preferences derived from the interview responses. Column one gives the percentages for the four overarching categories and column two shows percentages for the individual categories. The next three columns show the dominant categories for each parameter of engagement. Only the top three categories are included, and categories that accounted for less than 10 per cent of responses are not recorded. The most prevalent category is highlighted in yellow.

Table 5.25 shows that of the total number of responses (excluding communication gaps/disruptions) in the interviews, 40 per cent referred to conceptual engagement with the visual and another 26 per cent to personal engagement with the visual (column one). In terms of conceptual engagement, consideration of what it means to be artistic – the notion that it is either an instinctive habit of mind or a distinctive presentation-of-self – dominated. Almost half of respondents saw ‘artistic’ as being a quality above/beyond creative, while a similar percentage perceived current uses of the term ‘artistic’ to be indiscriminate.

Table 5.26 presents an overview of the major differences in the four major categories presented in Table 5.25 across country, school level and gender. To differentiate the differences, the similarities are highlighted in yellow.

180 Chapter 5

Table 5.25 Overview of dominant categories

Parameters of Dominant categories engagement CONCEPTUAL Meaning of Express state of mind, Person as marker, Product oriented ENGAGEMENT artistic feelings, creator, & unique WITH THE VISUAL attitudes, values perspective % % % % % 7.34 16.76 16.22 11.35 Being artistic Habit of mind, e.g. Distinctiveness of Maker and producer,

40.01 instinctive, attitude, 2nd personal presentation creator or learner nature, perception % % % % 20.12 19.14 18.06 14.81 Artistic vs. Artistic beyond/above Creative precondition creative creative for artistic % % % 11.01 45.94 12.18 - Use of the words ‘Artistic’ used ‘Artistic’ used positively ‘artistic’ and indiscriminately ‘creative’ % % % 1.62 46.03 11.11 - PERSONAL Art preferences Commentary on artistic Source of inspiration Commentary on ENGAGEMENT preference artworks WITH THE VISUAL % % % % % 3.52 26.67 18.67 15.33 25.70 Personal artistic Judgement of Expression qualities own/other’s artistic of self qualities (+ve) % % % 18.50 27.54 - Personal synergy Tech as artistic medium Tech as artistic medium between (+ve) (-ve) technology & art % % % 3.67 49.74 10.36 - COMMUNICATIVE Communicative Importance of Issues with technology Benefits with STYLE preferences face-to-face assisted communication technology assisted % % % % communication % 23.35 10.87 24.96 12.21 10.23 Social networking Relationship with Uses of Problems with artwork Facebook Facebook % % % % 12.48 20.03 16.56 12.15 TECHNOLOGY & Engagement with Positive features of Technology related to Negative features of LEISURE technology technology art technology % % % % % 10.87 7.78 30.06 11.08 10.76 Leisure Others Arts related (visual arts, preferences music, creative writing)

% % % 3.08 33.12 28.57 -

AAAAA Most dominant

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Table 5.26 Overview of differences in the four major categories across the country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender SIMILARITIES & AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F DIFFERENCES

PERSONAL  Focused on  Associate  Made more  Made less  Exposure to a  Emphasis ENGAGMENT expression of personal artistic negative negative wide range of on WITH THE self qualities with technology technology artworks receptiven VISUAL societal values related responses related ess and & expectations responses having an open mind

 Perceived personal artistic  Perceived artistic preference as a source qualities as characterising of inspiration own/others’ artwork

 Perceived personal artistic qualities as characterising own/others’ artwork

 Made positive responses about technology as artistic medium CONCEPTUAL  Perceived  Perceived  Perceived artistic  Perceived artistic  Perceived  Perceived ENGAGEMENT artistic as artistic as as expressive as being the artistic as an artistic as WITH THE being the “product state of mind, maker, creator, ability, capacity, expressiv VISUAL maker, oriented” feelings, attitude unique skill, gift or e state of creator, or values perspective talent mind, unique feelings, perspective attitude  Perceived or values artistic is  Some perceived  Perceived artistic  Perceived  Perceived beyond/above creative as is beyond/above artistic is the creative as creative precondition for creative same as creative precondition artistic for artistic  Perceived  Perceived  Perceived artistic  Perceived artistic is  Perceived artistic is used positively artistic used beyond/a artistic is as “product indiscriminately bove used oriented” creative indiscriminat ely  Perceived  Some perceived artistic used artistic is the indiscriminately same as creative

 Perceived artistic used indiscriminately  Perceived being artistic as distinctiveness of personal presentation

 Perceived being artistic as generating emotions

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

182 Chapter 5

Table 5.26 (Continued) Country School Level Gender SIMILARITIES & AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F DIFFERENCES COMMUNICATIVE  Has more  Had more  Make more  Had more issues  Had more  Make more STYLE issues with issues with responses with face-to- issues with responses about technology- face-to-face about benefits face technology- benefits with assisted with assisted technology- communicatio technology- communication assisted n assisted communication  Made more  Made more communication  Made more responses responses about responses about uses of problems with about uses of  Made more FB FB  Made more FB responses  Made more response relating

relating to response to artworks artworks relating to  Made more artworks responses about  Made more problems with responses about FB  Made more problems with FB responses  Made more about uses of responses FB about benefits with technology- assisted communicatio n  Emphasis on importance of face-to-  Made more responses about benefits face interactions with technology-assisted communication

TECHNOLOGY &  Made more  Made more  Made more  Made more  Made more  Made more LEISURE negative positive responses negative positive positive responses responses relating to responses responses responses about about about technology about features about engagement engagement engagement of technology engagement with technology with with with technology technology  Made more technology  More in favour relating to art responses relating to art of other leisure  Made more relating to the activities responses arts  Made more relating to the responses  Made more  Made more arts relating to the responses responses arts about relating to  Made less importance of technology responses about

face-to-face importance of interactions face-to-face

interactions  More in favour of other leisure activities   Made positive responses about  features of technology  Made responses about technology related to art

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

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The AUS students were more focused on expression of self, self-exploration or were self- centred in relation to their art-making and were more critical of technology. In contrast, the SIN students associated their artistic expression with societal values and expectations, perceived being artistic as oriented in terms of how their artworks engaged the community, and gave more positive responses about the benefits of technology-assisted communication.

There were some similarities between the SIN and AUS students in their reported engagement with art and technology; in particular, both SIN and AUS students had strong preference for face-to-face interactions, despite their involvement with technology- assisted communication and social media. Following the discussion of research on the development of young people’s communicative preferences during the pre- and post- Internet era. It is interesting to note that even though technology has changed markedly in terms of size and complexity and from telecommunication systems to Internet and cyber-communication networks, the participants in this study still expressed a preference for face-to-face interactions. This raises further questions about the extent to which their preference and choice of communicative mode influenced their communicative behaviour when they negotiated a technologically mediated environment. What was their technological comfort zone when operating in this environment? To what extent did the students understand their role in the technologically mediated social/academic environment? These questions are addressed in the next chapter.

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CHAPTER 6 Interpretations of Self in a Technologically Mediated Social/Academic Environment and Reflections on the Process

6.1 Scope of the chapter

This chapter explores the ways in which Singaporean and Australian students presented themselves through the blog interactions. It provides a thematic analysis of the artworks and traces the students’ engagement with each other’s artworks through analysis of their participation in the closed and open blog environments. These results precede a discussion of students’ perceptions of their participation in the research. The findings of all the modes of inquiry detailed in the previous chapters are then threaded together to compare each result. The chapter concludes with some reflections on the research process.

6.2 Overview of responses

One of the primary purposes of this phase of the study was to create an opportunity for participants to use visual means to introduce themselves to their cross-cultural partners. The posting of artworks by participants was thus planned as a pivotal stage in the study. Table 6.1 provides the gender breakdown of students opting into the study (defined as posting/attempting to post an artwork).

Table 6.1 Gender composition of participants

Total number of participants = 92 Country School level Male Female Total % % High School 13.04 13.04 26.08 Australia College 4.35 19.57 23.92

Secondary School 10.87 21.74 32.61 Singapore College 5.43 11.96 16.39 Total 33.69 66.31 100

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Table 6.1 reveals a preponderance of female participants, particularly at the college level. Fifty-six artworks were posted, 28 in blog one, one in blog two and 27 in blog three. Since these artworks were posted anonymously, it is impossible to link individual participants with specific artworks. Moreover each participant was given a unique identifier that did not indicate their name, age, gender or school level. Furthermore, some participants posted more than one artwork. The gender difference favours girls but, given that the ‘opt in’ level of boys was low, this may simply be an artefact of the small male sample size. It was decided at this point that within country/school level/gender comparisons in this regard, could at best, be regarded as indicative. In the results which follow, therefore, the percentages shown are of artworks posted within each category by country, school level and gender.

Table 6.2 presents the number of artworks posted (successfully and unsuccessfully) in each category over the course of the data collection period. An unsuccessful posting was one in which the title and description were available for viewing but the image itself was not.

Table 6.2 Percentage of participants posting or attempting to post artworks, by country, school level and gender

Total number of participants = 92 Country School level Gender Total: ARTWORKS AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % Attempted postings 18.48 42.39 26.09 34.78 19.57 41.30 60.87 Unsuccessful postings 0 23.91 9.78 14.13 8.70 15.22 23.91 Successful postings 18.48 18.48 16.30 20.65 10.87 26.09 36.96 AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

The unsuccessful postings were all by SIN participants. They were less familiar with the CLC environment (they were using it for the first time) than their AUS counterparts, for whom the CLC was part of the classroom learning environment. As indicated above, 56 artworks were posted across the three blogs but only 34 (61%) were uploaded successfully and hence available visually on the blog. Table 6.2 shows the percentage of artworks posted by the participants but not fully uploaded due to technical errors. These artworks were mainly posted on blog one, when the participants first started to interact in the mediated environment and had little or no experience of the technology. Despite technological issues

186 Chapter 6 affecting posting by SIN participants, there was an equal number of successful postings of artworks by SIN and AUS participants. While the artworks were the initial introductory focus, there were several ancillary data collection stages. Table 6.3 gives the percentage of active participants in each stage of the study (excluding the posting of artworks).

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Table 6.3 Participation in the stages of the study by school level, country and gender Total number of participants from both AUS and SIN = 92

School Background Interview Blog 1 Blog 2 Blog 3 Reflective Post- survey journal participation

AUS=44 AUS=41 AUS=36 AUS=45 AUS=46 AUS=44 survey SIN=42 SIN=42 SIN=36 SIN=45 SIN=46 SIN=45 AUS=5 Total=86 Total=83 Total=72 Total=90 Total=92 Total=89 SIN=8 Country % % % % % % Total=13 % Gender M F M F M F M F M F M F M F A 5.43 5.43 4.35 5.43 5.43 5.43 4.35 5.43 5.43 5.45 4.35 5.43 0 0

B 9.78 3.26 9.78 3.26 4.35 0 11.96 3.26 11.96 3.26 10.87 3.26 1.09 0

C 3.26 20.65 2.17 19.57 3.26 20.65 3.26 20.65 3.26 20.65 3.26 20.65 0 4.35 (College)

Australia Total: 18.48 29.35 16.30 28.26 13.04 26.09 19.57 29.35 20.65 29.35 18.48 29.35 1.09 4.35 (by gender) Total: 46.83 44.57 39.13 48.91 50.00 46.83 5.43

D 2.17 10.87 2.17 10.87 3.26 11.96 2.17 13.04 3.26 11.96 2.17 13.04 0 3.26

E 5.43 5.43 5.43 5.43 0 0 4.35 5.43 5.43 5.43 5.43 5.43 2.17 0

F 1.09 3.26 1.09 3.26 3.26 3.26 3.26 3.26 3.26 3.26 3.26 3.26 0 0

G 5.43 11.96 5.43 11.96 5.43 11.96 5.43 11.96 5.43 11.96 5.43 10.87 1.09 2.17

Singapore (College) Total: 14.13 31.52 14.13 31.52 11.96 26.17 15.22 33.70 16.39 32.61 16.30 32.61 3.26 5.43 (by gender) Total: 45.65 45.65 39.13 48.91 50.00 48.91 8.70

Grand Total: 93.48 90.22 78.26 96.83 100.00 96.74 14.13

The participation rate in most stages of the research, with the exception of the post- participation survey, was 90 per cent or higher; the participation rate in blog one was just under 80 per cent. However, for the blogs, participation was defined as logging in; in some cases this was the only evidence of participation.

Table 6.4 shows the 34 successfully posted artworks, classified according to themes derived from the students’ own descriptions.

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Table 6.4 Artworks posted by the participants

Miscellaneous Self-exploration Reflection of life Relationship Social environment Interests & choices (Sketch, plan, concept, sources, etc.)

THEMES

Lone toothbrush ends it all Stories of Skyscrapers Cheetah Chase Fallen 1 AUS/C/F Purple Head AUS/C/F Trend 1 SIN/JC/F AUST/HS/M AUS/HS/M SIN/SS/M

Cliff Drawing Metamorphosis Wonder of Taylor Swift Hopping without hope Circe AUS/C/F Trend 2 SIN/JC/F AUS/HS/M SIN/SS/M SIN/SS/F (Fallen 2) AUS/C/F

189 Sufficient Art Piece Disaster SIN/SS/M Fallen 3 AUS/C/F Supra Shoes SIN/SS/F Trend 3 SIN/JC/F

AUS/HS/M

TITLE ARTWORKS OF

Fran AUS/HS/F Fallen 4 AUS/C/F My Favourite Collectable Trend 4 SIN/JC/F Sneakers SIN/SS/F

Miscellaneous Self-exploration Reflection of life Relationship Social environment Interests & choices (Sketch, plan, concept, sources, etc.)

THEMES CLC Artistic Piece – Audio Forest Through Trees Junk Food SIN/SS/M A Cube SIN/JC/F AUS/HS/M AUS/C/F

College Figure Charcoal Lamp Post Sketch (Concept of Art AUS/C/F AUS/C/F Project) SIN/JC/F

Figure Drawing Teapot Sketch Newspaper Article for AUS/C/F AUS/C/F Inspiration SIN/JC/F

TITLE ARTWORKS OF Flightless SIN/SS/M Waterfall Landscape SIN/JC/F

My Dream House SIN/SS/F

TTL 9 2 3 8 5 7 AUS = Australia SIN = Singapore M = Male F = Female SS = Secondary School HS = High School JC = Junior College C = College

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The dominant themes in the successfully posted artworks were ‘self-exploration’ and ‘social environment’, themes consistent with the developmental stage of the students. These themes are discussed in greater detail in Section 6.3.

Table 6.5 lists the titles of the 22 unsuccessfully posted artworks presented under themes based on the participants’ text descriptions of their artworks.

Table 6.5 Artworks unsuccessfully posted by the participants

Miscellaneous Self-exploration Reflection of Life Relationship Social environment Interest & choices (Sketch, plan, concept, THEMES sources, etc.) Expressing Myself Mask of Emotion Physical Human Church Layout Hello! XD Box in a Box in SIN/SS/M SIN/SS/F Interaction SIN/JC/M SIN/JC/F a box in a box SIN/JC/F SIN/JC/M

Reach Out for my Theater (Theatre) G’day Pirate Breakthrough Hellooooo! Dream Mask SIN/JC/F SIN/JC/M SIN/JC/M SIN/SS/F SIN/SS/M

Parrot Past & Present Concept: Hellooooooooo! SIN/SS/F about Chairs Coexistence of Light SIN/JC/F SIN/SS/F & Shadows SIN/JC/M Memories Art Coursework SIN/SS/F SIN/JC/F

My Views of Being Cube Enigma 1 a Singaporean SIN/JC/F SIN/SS/F

TITLE ARTWORKS OF

Dragon Cube Enigma 2 SIN/SS/M SIN/JC/F

Untitled SIN/SS/F

6 3 2 3 1 7

TOTAL: AUS = Australia SIN = Singapore SS = Secondary School HS = High School JC = Junior College C = College M = Male F = Female

Again, ‘self-exploration’ emerged as the dominant theme, as discussed further in Section 6.3.

192 Chapter 6

Table 6.6 shows the range of expressive forms in the artworks. For the purpose of discussion, the highlighted sections are grouped as ‘technology-assisted medium’.

Table 6.6 Range of expressive forms in artworks posted in the blogs

Total number of artworks = 34

EXPRESSIVE FORM Country School level Gender Total: AUS SIN HS/SS JC/C M F % % % % % % Drawing 58.82 41.18 40.00 56.89 40.00 54.17 50.00 Computer-generated image 16.65 0 20.00 0 20.00 4.17 8.82 Computer-generated audio 5.88 0 6.67 0 10.00 0 2.94 Photograph 5.88 5.88 6.67 5.26 10.00 4.17 5.88 Technology-assisted media 29.41 5.88 33.34 5.26 40.00 8.34 16.64 3-dimensional form 5.88 23.53 0 26.32 0 20.83 14.71 College 5.88 0 0 5.26 0 4.17 2.94 Painting 0 23.53 26.67 0 20.00 8.33 11.76 Others (Newspaper cutting) 0 5.88 0 5.26 0 4.17 2.94 Total: 50.00 50.00 44.12 55.88 29.41 70.59 100.00

The dominant expressive form for participants from both countries was drawing. However, the AUS participants used more technology-assisted media than did their SIN counterparts. Boys and HS/SS participants also used more technology-assisted media than girls or C/JC participants.

While not all images were visible to the researcher, all titles were uploaded successfully and thus are included in the analyses of the AUS and SIN artworks which follow. Titles were classified into four groups. ‘Communicative’ titles were those which showed evidence of reaching out to the blog partner, for example, Reach Out for My Dream and Expressing Yourself. The second group, ‘Title as Task’, included those which appeared to give the title as a matter of form where it was designed to mask or conceal the content, for example, Art Coursework and Untitled. ‘Conceptual’ titles were those based on an idea or concept, for example, Cube Enigma 1 and Coexistence of Light & Shadow. The ‘Descriptor’ group comprised titles which described the content baldly, for example, Parrot and Theater (Theatre) Mask. Table 6.7 shows the percentages of artwork titles in these four categories.

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Table 6.7 Artwork titles posted in the blogs and their categories

Total number of artworks =56

Country School level Gender Total:

Title categories AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F

% % % % % % %

Communicative C 11.76 28.21 28.00 19.35 21.05 24.32 23.21

Title as task TAT 23.53 10.26 12.00 16.13 10.53 16.22 14.29

Concept CON 35.29 35.90 28.00 41.94 36.84 35.14 35.71

Descriptor D 29.41 25.64 32.00 22.58 31.58 24.32 26.79

Total: 30.36 69.64 44.64 55.36 33.93 66.07 100.00

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AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Chapter 6 The dominant category for participants across both countries was ‘Concept’ (see Table 6.7). C/JC participants posted considerably more concept titles than their HS/SS counterparts; descriptor titles were used in about a quarter of cases by both groups. While participants from both countries used ‘Title as task’ titles, there were twice as many from AUS participants. Almost 30 per cent of titles from SIN participants were communicative, compared with just over 10 per cent of titles from AUS students.

6.3 Themes of artworks

Table 6.8 presents the themes emerging from the artworks. The classifications derive from analysis of the participants’ descriptions of their own artworks posted across the three blogs.

Table 6.8 Themes that emerged from the descriptions of artworks and their distribution

Total number of attempted artworks postings = 56 Total number of participants = 92

Country School level Gender Total: AUS SIN HS/SS JC/C M F % % % % % % % Self-exploration 41.18 20.51 52.00 6.45 38.89 21.05 26.79

Reflection of life 5.88 10.26 20.00 0 16.67 5.26 8.93

Relationship 0 12.82 12.00 6.45 11.11 6.89 8.93

Social environment 41.18 10.26 0 35.48 16.67 21.05 19.64

Interests & choices 11.76 10.26 12.00 9.68 5.56 13.16 10.71

Miscellaneous 0 35.70 4.00 41.94 11.11 31.58 25.00 (Sketch, plan, concept, sources, etc.) Total: 30.36 69.64 44.64 55.36 32.14 66.86 100.00

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Overall, ‘self-exploration’ was the major thematic category encapsulating students’ descriptions of their artworks. The within-country profiles are of interest: 13 per cent of SIN participants focused on the theme of ‘relationship’, compared to none of their AUS counterparts. Moreover, social environment was considerably more important to AUS

195 students than their SIN counterparts. Most artwork descriptions from SIN and C/JC participants fell into the ‘miscellaneous’ category, encompassing sketches, plans, concepts and sources. Over half of the artworks dealing with self-exploration were at the HS/SS level, and the interest at that level in ‘Relationship’ was double that of their C/JC counterparts.

6.4 Blog participation

As mentioned in relation to Table 6.9, logging on was the primary means of assessing participation in the blogs. However, many students logged on but did not participate actively, as is evidenced by Tables 6.9, 6.10 and 6.11, which show percentages of active interactions across the blogs by country, school level and gender.

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Table 6.9 Percentage of active interaction in the blogs by country Total number of participants = 92

Paired interactions Open invitation interactions Reflective journal Blog 1 Blog 2 Blog 3 Activities AUS SIN Overall AUS SIN Overall AUS SIN Overall AUS SIN Overall % % % % % % % % % % % % Logged on 45.65 71.74 58.70 43.48 52.17 46.83 41.30 69.57 55.43 46.83 54.35 51.09 Posted responses 4.35 50.00 26.17 2.17 16.39 9.78 28.26 34.78 31.52 6.52 21.74 14.13 Posted artworks 4.35 19.57 11.96 0 2.17 1.09 26.09 21.74 23.91 NA NA NA AUS = Australia (ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort, Canberra) SIN = Singapore (West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort, Singapore)

Table 6.10 Percentage of active interaction in the blogs by school level Total number of participants = 92

Paired interactions Open invitation interactions Reflective journal Blog 1 Blog 2 Blog 3 Activities HS/SS C/JC Overall HS/SS C/JC Overall HS/SS C/JC Overall HS/SS C/JC Overall 197 % % % % % % % % % % % %

Logged on 50.00 71.05 58.70 36.04 63.16 46.83 51.85 60.53 55.43 48.15 55.26 51.09 Posted responses 20.37 36.84 26.17 1.85 21.05 9.78 33.33 28.95 31.52 11.11 18.42 14.13 Posted artworks 14.81 6.89 11.96 0 2.63 1.09 26.78 18.42 23.91 NA NA NA HS/SS = High School/ Secondary School C/JC = College/Junior College

Table 6.11 Percentage of active interaction in the blogs by gender Total number of participants = 92 (M = Male, F = Female) Paired interactions Open invitation interactions Reflective journal Blog 1 Blog 2 Blog 3 Activities M F Overall M F Overall M F Overall M F Overall % % % % % % % % % % % % Logged on 51.61 62.30 58.70 45.16 49.18 46.83 61.29 52.46 55.43 38.71 56.38 51.09 Posted responses 25.81 26.87 26.17 12.90 8.20 9.78 41.94 26.23 31.52 12.90 14.75 14.13 Posted artworks 9.68 13.11 11.96 0 1.64 1.09 32.26 19.67 23.91 NA NA NA

In blog one, many more AUS and SIN students logged on than posted responses or artworks. This suggests that most participants preferred to log on and observe the activities going on in the blog or chose to wait for others to initiate an interaction. Fewer than five per cent of the AUS participants posted compared with 50 per cent of the SIN participants. Fewer than five per cent of AUS participants who logged on posted artworks, compared with 20 per cent of SIN participants. SIN participants consistently engaged at a higher level than the AUS participants across all blogs and the reflective journal.

In blog two, evidence of logging on was much reduced for both groups of participants, although the Singaporean rate remained higher than that of the Australian participants. Again, there was evidence of greater active participation by the Singaporean students in terms of posting artworks and comments. However, the rates of posting responses and artworks were significantly lower than in blog one.

In blog three, the percentages of AUS and SIN participants who logged on were again higher than the percentages posting responses or artworks. While the ‘logged in’ percentage was higher than for blog two, it did not achieve the level of blog one, although more participants posted responses and artworks, especially the Australians. The participants may have preferred the open invitation blog three platform, where they had the freedom to interact with any participants or comment on artworks of their choice rather the designated partner contexts of blogs one and two.

Half of the AUS and SIN participants logged into the reflective journal. However, the level of posting was lower than in the blogs and did not involve posting of artworks or visual images.

Table 6.10 shows that C/JC log on rates remained consistently higher than the HS/SS rates. However, the HS/SS ‘posted artworks’ level was seven percentage points higher than that of their C/JC counterparts in blog one and nearly 30 percentage points higher in blog three. Again, the HS/SS participants may have been more responsive to an open invitation blog platform, or it may simply have taken three blogs for them to feel confident about the interactions. The low and decreasing level of posted responses and artworks in blogs one and two also suggests that HS/SS and C/JC participants were less responsive to the paired interaction platform.

198 Chapter 6 Figure 6.1 shows the levels of active participation across all these blogs for both national groups.

Figure 6.1 Active participation across all the blogs for both national groups

In terms of posting artworks, the SIN rate was nearly 20 percentage points higher than the AUS rate in blog one; they were both very low in blog two, and the SIN rate was lower than the AUS rate in blog three. One might speculate that the AUS students were late adopters, or the SIN students became quickly bored, or that both factors were in play. However, while the SIN rate of posting was always higher than that of the AUS students, by blog three they were almost on par and the SIN participation rate had almost halved since blog one. In relation to the decreasing participation rate of the SIN participants, one can again raise the likelihood of a gradual loss of enthusiasm over the course of the blogging activity and the possibility that the SIN students became disengaged or passive participants in the less structured blog which offered no specific individual with whom to interact. There is also the fact that the rate of SIN successfully posted artworks was low and hence there was less for their AUS counterparts to interact with.

The participants’ challenges reflect the findings of other research on the IT competence of young people. Cheong’s (2008) study of Singaporean young people’s ability to solve

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IT problems found that it was much lower than anticipated. In similar earlier research, Livingstone, Bober, and Helsper (2004) highlighted that most young people used the Internet for a narrow range of activities, therefore a large proportion of their study, participants were challenged by various complexities of Internet access and usage.

6.5 Analysis of blog interactions

Each student’s blog interactions were divided into thought units (T-units) as described in sections 6.5.1, 6.5.2 and 6.5.3. The resultant T-units were classified into categories derived from the students’ responses, as exemplified in Table 6.12.

Table 6.12 Categories of T-units derived from students’ interactions in the blogs

T-unit categories Meaning Example Introductory Greeting, Hey! introduction of self Hi Hello! Didactic Instructional, educational, Kangaroo is unique. intended for instruction, There are 4 sides on the box. instructive, directional or The theme of the design is enigma. procedural The drawing is unclear. Self-orientation - Expression of emotion, I am really stressed out right now. Personal opinion, preference, interest, I feel that the parrot represents me. thought or comment I felt sadness and a bit anger. Self-orientation - Expression of plan, intention, The waves will be constructed using modelling paste. Plans decision, expectations I have to make a garment and two accessories. So I’ll have to do a bit more research. Interactive Invite to respond or I was wondering what medium you are using? invitation contribute to the discussion What are your ideas? Do you have any idea…? You can also help me by telling me anything related to your art piece. Over to you - It’s your turn (direct) I’m waiting for your reply on your ideas eagerly! Explicit I hope you understand my idea. I will like to hear from you soon! I’ll be glad to help you out! Can’t wait to hear from you! I hope you get what I mean. Over to you - It’s your turn (indirect) Thank you! Implicit All the best! Best regards, I’ll appreciate that Request or Making request/response Tell me what you think alright? Response Let’s become good anonymous art buddies. I really hope you can help me… I have read your post. I can see that you really make good observations. That is a really cool picture. Communicative Expressions that disrupt the (Sorry for the low resolution of my scanner) gaps/interruptions flow of the interaction (my teacher’s idea) Hahahaha okay Ooops! Emoticons Emotive symbols =D =) XD LOL   (For full list please refer to Appendix Q)

200 Chapter 6 Table 6.13 provides an overview of the resultant responses units across the three blogs based on the number of posts the participants made.

Table 6.13 Percentages of participants posting responses across the three blogs

BLOG Country School Level Gender Total: AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % 1 14.29 85.71 42.86 56.14 40.00 60.00 28.46 2 11.11 88.89 0 100.00 44.44 55.56 6.32 3 74.68 25.32 56.96 43.04 48.10 51.90 64.23

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

The very high percentage response from SIN participants in blogs one and two compares favourably with that of AUS participants. However, in blog three, the proportion of AUS participants responding was three times higher than that of their SIN counterparts. The response rates of C/JC participants were more consistent and higher across the three blogs than those of their HS/SS counterparts. HS/SS students participated actively in blogs one and three but not at all in blog two. Response percentages were consistent for both genders, but higher proportions of girls than boys responded.

In the following section, Tables 6.14, 6.15 and 6.16 illustrate the percentages of the 11 response categories for blogs one, two and three respectively by country, school and gender. In each case, the categories of ‘communication gaps and disruptions’ and ‘emoticons’ is discussed first if appropriate, followed by category results and then country, school level and gender comparisons.

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6.5.1 Blog one Table 6.14 shows the percentages of T-unit response categories for blog one by country, school level and gender.

Table 6.14 Response categories for blog one by country, school level and gender Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % Introduction 3.85 8.38 8.25 6.37 11.30 6.23 6.57

Didactic 42.51 30.17 43.30 29.20 41.74 28.97 32.34

Self-orientation 14.10 15.36 36.11 8.85 16.39 14.33 15.14 (personal)

Self-orientation 11.54 12.57 0 15.93 8.70 13.71 12.39 (plans)

Interactive 3.85 1.96 0 2.95 2.61 2.18 2.29 invitation

Over to you 1.28 4.19 2.06 4.13 3.48 3.74 3.67 explicit

Over to you 8.74 4.19 4.12 5.31 3.48 5.61 5.05 implicit

Request or 5.13 4.19 1.03 5.31 0.87 5.61 4.36 response

Communication 5.13 10.34 0 12.09 3.48 11.53 9.40 gaps/interruptions

Emoticons 3.85 8.66 4.12 8.85 6.96 8.10 6.80

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

The proportion of emoticons among SIN students’ responses was twice as high as in the responses of their AUS counterparts; communication gaps/interruptions were in similar relative proportions. Girls were more likely than boys to record communication gaps/interruptions (Table 6.14). Emoticons formed a proportion of C/JC students’ responses twice that of HS/SS students, perhaps indicating greater familiarity with the use of the digital space.

Responses in the ‘didactic’ category dominated, accounting for over 42 per cent of AUS responses and 30 per cent of SIN responses. An example of an extended didactic response is the following quote from a student who described the subject of her costume design, the Greek goddess Circe, to her SIN counterpart:

202 Chapter 6 She lived in a palace on an island with wild animals that she kept tame by enchantments. She enjoyed turning people into pigs and some said that she ate the animals that had once been men. It seems like she is meant to be alluring, but also evil. (ACT College Girl)

Another student elaborated on her mid-year coursework (visual arts project) in which her teacher tasked her with creating an artwork based on a wooden cuboid box:

The walls of the labyrinth is just going to make its way out of the box through a small hole created and extended to the starting point of the labyrinth. This is perhaps the simplest way for me to work with the space in the box. (SIN JC Girl)

Approximately 80 per cent of HS/SS responses were either didactic or in the ‘self- orientation, personal’ category, compared to only 30 per cent for C/JC students. C/JC students gave proportionally the most responses in the category of ‘self-orientation, plans’, for example:

I wanted so much for a realistic design for the box. I’m currently playing with ideas of the contrast between humans and their emotions. (SIN JC Boy)

Boys gave more ‘self-orientation, personal’ responses than ‘self-orientation, plans’ responses (Table 6.14). Almost 60 per cent of male responses were didactic or in the ‘self- orientation, personal’ category, compared to approximately 40 per cent for the girls.

6.5.2 Blog two Tables 6.15 shows the category percentages for blog two by country, school level and gender respectively.

In blog two, communicative gaps/disruptions formed 25 per cent of AUS students’ T-unit responses, compared to less than 10 per cent for their SIN counterparts. However, as for blog one, a much higher proportion of SIN students used emoticons (Table 6.15). The proportion of boys using emoticons was higher that of girls.

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Table 6.15 T-unit response categories in blog two by country, school level and gender BLOG TWO Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % Introduction 0 11.69 0 11.11 13.64 10.17 11.11

Didactic 75.00 6.79 0 11.11 0 15.24 11.11

Self-orientation 0 19.49 0 18.52 18.18 18.64 18.52 (personal)

Self-orientation 0 22.08 0 20.99 22.73 20.34 20.99 (plans)

Interactive 0 6.49 0 6.17 4.55 6.78 6.17 invitation

Over to you 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 explicit

Over to you 0 6.79 0 6.41 4.55 8.47 6.41 implicit

Request or 0 6.49 0 6.17 13.64 3.39 6.17 response

Communication 25.00 6.79 0 8.64 9.09 8.47 8.65 gaps/interruptions

Emoticons 0 10.39 0 9.88 13.64 8.47 9.88

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Overall, the ‘didactic’ category was dominant for AUS students, but not for their SIN counterparts (Table 6.15). SIN students’ responses were focused on ‘self- orientation/personal’ and ‘self-orientation/plans’ categories.

At the school level, ‘self-orientation/personal’ and ‘self-orientation/plans’ were the most dominant categories; C/JC students were much likely to use these categories than HS/SS students. Girls gave some didactic responses, boys did not. Boys used the same proportions of emoticons and ‘request & response’ category responses (e.g., “weird question I know, but hopefully you could help me! =)” and “Thanks for your help! =D”; ‘request & response’ responses formed less than 5 per cent of girls’ total responses.

204 Chapter 6

6.5.3 Blog three Tables 6.16 shows T-unit response percentages in each category for blog three by country, school level and gender.

Table 6.16 Analysis of T-unit categories in blog three by country, school level and gender BLOG THREE Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % Introduction 6.50 6.57 6.47 6.59 5.30 6.32 6.53

Didactic 13.50 30.66 26.06 13.77 20.45 20.49 20.47

Self-orientation 13.00 14.60 12.35 14.97 9.09 16.59 13.65 (personal)

Self-orientation 1.50 5.84 2.94 3.59 3.03 3.41 3.26 (plans)

Interactive 2.00 3.65 3.53 1.80 3.03 2.44 2.67 invitation

Over to you 1.00 0 0.59 0.60 0.76 0.49 0.59 explicit

Over to you 6.00 4.38 2.94 6.78 4.55 5.85 5.34 implicit

Request or 49.00 18.25 30.59 42.51 40.91 33.66 36.50 response

Communication 3.00 4.38 4.12 2.99 3.79 3.41 3.56 gaps/interruptions

Emoticons 4.50 11.68 9.14 5.39 9.09 6.34 6.42

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Blog three was characterised by fewer communicative gaps/disruptions across all comparisons. SIN students were more likely to use emoticons than their AUS counterparts (Table 6.16), and this was consistent across the three blogs.

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‘Request or response’ responses formed nearly half of AUS students’ total responses, compared to less than 20 per cent for their SIN counterparts. The ‘didactic’ category remained dominant for SIN participants, at more than double the proportion of AUS participants’ responses.

At the school level, the ‘request or response’ category was dominant for both the HS/SS and C/JC participants (Table 6.16), but formed a higher proportion of total responses for the C/JC students. HS/SS students used twice the proportion of ‘didactic’ responses of their C/JC counterparts.

Boys’ proportion of ‘self-orientation/personal’ responses was about 20 per cent in blogs one and two, but lower in blog three, where the proportion of girls’ responses in this category was higher by eight percentage points. ‘Request or response’ proportions were consistently high in blog three; the boys’ proportion was over seven percentage points higher than the girls’.

6.5.4 Comparison of blogs one, two and three Table 6.17 presents the percentages of responses in the 10 categories of interaction discourse across the three blogs. For the purposes of discussion, the four highlighted sections are grouped as ‘interpersonal communication’.

Table 6.17 Distribution of responses by categories across blogs one, two and three

Categories Blog 1 Blog 2 Blog 3 TOTAL: % % % % Introduction 6.57 11.11 6.53 6.49 Didactic 32.34 11.11 20.47 26.00 Self-orientation personal 15.14 18.52 13.65 14.87 Self-orientation plans 12.19 20.52 3.26 9.60 Interactive invitation 2.29 6.17 2.67 2.81 Over to you explicit 3.67 0 0.59 2.11 Over to you implicit 5.05 6.41 5.34 5.39 Request/response 4.36 6.17 36.49 16.21 Interpersonal 15.37 19.75 45.09 26.52 communication Communicative 9.40 8.65 3.56 6.03 interruption Emoticons 6.80 9.88 6.42 6.85

206 Chapter 6 Over the three blogs, didactic comments and the overall category of interpersonal communication accounted for over 50 per cent of all interactions. However, while didactic comments dominated in blog one, in blog two, responses were evenly divided between the ‘self-orientation, plans’ and ‘interpersonal communication’ categories. In blog three, ‘interpersonal communication’ responses constituted almost 50 per cent of all responses. Participants preferred to use dynamic and instructional responses when interacting in the blogs.

AUS and SIN participants’ responses in the ‘self-orientation/personal’ and ‘self- orientation/plans’ categories formed 12–21 per cent of all their responses in blogs one and two. However, in blog three, they gave a smaller proportion of responses in the latter category (Table 6.17).

6.6 Reflective Journals

6.6.1 Analysis of reflective journals Participants were invited to post reflections of their own personal experiences and learning processes from any stage of the research project (the background survey, small group interviews and blog interactions) in journal entries on the CLC system. In order to manage the reflective journal data, entries were segmented into T-units (as for other data), which were then categorised on the basis of dominant content (Table 6.18).

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Table 6.18 Categories of reflective journal entries and examples

Categories Examples 1. Arguments for the open blog (positive) I think that the open blog is good way of letting other people give comments about your work so that you can improve on it based on their comments and suggestions. 2. Arguments for the open blog (negative) I think that the open blog might not be a good source of comments because they might not be giving your comments based on what they really feel about your artwork. 3. Arguments for the closed blog (positive) I like the closed blog because you get to talk to one person and only one person throughout, hence getting to know that person more and getting more accurate comments on what they really feel. 4. Arguments for the closed blog (negative) However, this being a closed blog, there is less initiative for someone to actually interact as no one else can see if they do or do not. 5. Open vs closed blog environment Expressing our own views about an artwork with people that we don’t know is more comfortable (less intimidating) because you don’t see the person face-to-face. 6. Reflections on own artworks (theme) I enhanced my ideas by looking at newspapers and the web in search of artists who portray similar feminine touches in their work regardless of their gender. 6. Reflections on own artworks (medium) I prefer the traditional way of creating an artwork because it feels more real adding ink on to the blank sheet of paper rather than doing something using a software and printing it out. 8. Technology (positive) We can have a system to show that this participant is online and logged into the account, so that we can easily respond or interact with them. 9. Technology (negative) I didn't know how to use this website. 10. Responsiveness (positive) I believe that it is a wonderful and unique experience to share ideas about art. 11. Responsiveness (negative) I have to admit that I didn't participate actively for the past few blog interactions because I was rather upset and lost hope that someone will reply to my interactions or at least view my work or ideas. 12. Emoticons :D :( (For full list of emoticons, please refer to Appendix N)

Table 6.19 gives the percentages of posts via the reflective journal by country and by school level.

Table 6.19 Percentages of participants posting in the reflective journal, by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender

REFLECTIVE ACT SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: JOURNAL % % % % % % % 29.41 70.59 52.94 46.06 23.53 76.47 18.48

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

The participation rate of the SIN participants was more than double that of their AUS counterparts. Almost equal percentages of HS/SS and C/JC participants posted in the reflective journal; in both cases, the posts were dominated by girls.

208 Chapter 6 Table 6.20 shows the percentages of journal responses in each category by country, school level and gender.

Table 6.20 Categories of reflective journal entries by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % Arguments for 3.23 1.69 5.13 0 10.00 1.25 2.22 open blog

(Positive)

Argument for 0 1.69 2.56 0 0 1.25 1.11 open blog

(Negative)

Arguments for 0 3.39 5.13 0 0 2.50 2.22 closed blog

(Positive)

Arguments for 0 1.69 2.56 0 0 1.25 1.11 closed blog

(Negative)

Open vs. closed 0 5.08 6.69 0 0 3.75 3.33 blog environment.

Reflections on 0 20.33 12.82 13.73 0 15.00 13.33 artwork

(Theme)

Reflections on 0 5.08 5.13 5.88 0 6.25 5.56 artwork

(Medium)

Technology 16.13 1.69 6.69 5.88 20.00 5.00 6.67 (Positive)

Technology 19.35 6.78 10.26 11.76 20.00 10.00 11.11 (Negative)

Responsiveness 32.26 30.51 28.21 33.33 50.00 28.75 31.11 (Positive)

Responsiveness 22.58 16.95 12.82 23.53 0 21.25 18.89 (Negative)

Emoticons 0 5.08 0 5.88 0 3.75 3.33

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

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Journal entries in the ‘responsiveness’ categories (both positive and negative) dominated the responses of students from both countries (Table 6.20). Positive comments encompassed a range of dimensions, as expressed in the following quotes:

The blogs allow me to express myself freely without feeling uncomfortable. (SIN SS Girl)

The reflective journal is a good way to record down my views and feelings. (SIN SS Girl)

The blog is easily accessible to anyone who has it, making our artwork easier to be shared with people overseas. (SIN SS Girl)

Blog interactions also provided learning opportunities:

It is interesting to see what the working peers have put forward on the blog. (AUS HS Boy)

I was able to view others’ artworks and gained more ideas which helped in the ideas development of my own artwork. (SIN JC Girl)

Peer-generated feedback was also described as helpful:

I like all the feedback everyone has given to all the pieces of art. (AUS HS Boy)

My partner gave me some interesting and helpful ideas regarding my questions on architectural details. (SIN JC Boy)

Negative comments related primarily to a sense of doubt when interacting with their peers in the blog, for example:

It might not be one hundred per cent true because you not know that person well. (SIN SS Girl)

210 Chapter 6 In addition, the research project clearly probed questions they had not considered before:

I’ve never thought about what artistic really means. (AUS College Girl)

Overall, the most frequently repeated negative response related to not receiving any responses from partners in the closed blog interactions, for example:

There was no interaction between my partner and I. (SIN JC Girl)

It would have had been more effective if we had a fixed timing for discussion on the blog because up till now my work has not been commented at all. (SIN SS Girl)

At the school level, ‘responsiveness’ categories were also dominant but formed about 15 percentage points more of the C/JC students’ than the HS/SS students’ journal entries. ‘Technology’ response proportions (both positive and negative) for HS/SS and C/JC students were almost equal. There were a higher proportion of technology-positive responses from HS/SS boys (nearly 30 per cent) than from their female counterparts (less than five per cent), but the same was true for technology-negative responses (over 30 per cent for boys, 10 per cent for girls). Some of the technology-positive responses related to enthusiasm about engaging in the blogs, for example:

I think that what I should have done is posted multiple different pieces all very different from each other, just so the viewer is able to understand them better. (AUS HS Boy)

I have enjoyed posting art pieces and comments on other students’ pieces throughout the entirety of this project. (AUS HS Boy)

Most of the negative technology responses concerned technical issues with the CLC system, including:

He does not know how to upload the images. (AUS College Girl)

There were some difficulties. (SIN SS Girl)

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I still couldn’t see any image. (AUS College Girl)

Maybe it should all be tried again with more time beforehand to show people how to use the site properly. (AUS College Girl)

I feel that the experience may be more aesthetically pleasing if the blog worked a little more consistently. (AUS HS Boy)

In addition, one SIN student commented on the timing, arguing that if the blog interactions were to be held during the SIN school holidays, which coincided with the AUS holidays, there would be more time to communicate and rectify technical issues. However, this option was not feasible because participants in one of the schools were attending a leadership camp during the holidays.

There were a higher proportion of boys’ responses in the category of ‘responsiveness (+ve)’ than of girls’ responses (Table 6.20). Conversely, over 20 per cent of the responses from the girls were in the ‘responsiveness (–ve)’ category, compared to none for their male counterparts. Similarly, over 20 per cent of girls’ responses were in the category of ‘Reflections on artwork’ (both theme and medium combined), but no boys made such comments. Most of the responses focused on the theme rather than on the medium (Table 6.20). For example, one student described the theme of her artwork as based on patriotism:

This artwork is based on my views of being a Singaporean. The lightning and the hammer/pickaxe represent the dominant parties that participated in the elections. It represents the pride I have for Singapore because we have to sing the national anthem every morning and I’m always reminded of Singapore’s achievements. (SIN SS Girl)

Another student described how her imagination of “darkness”, “dilemma”, “internal struggle”, “[being] lost”, “entrapment” and “mental torture” had inspired the theme of her artwork, which explored the “ironic setup” of interior and exterior space:

It inspired me and got me started on my artwork titled ‘Escapism’ where it shows the futility of escaping. The interior presents a dark gloomy space. The exterior yet is not an ideal place as it presents a simple setup of an ice cube. (SIN JC Girl)

212 Chapter 6

Other interesting reflections on artwork (medium) demonstrated students’ imaginations and sense of freedom to explore their medium of choice …

In my experience, people tend to say something is artistic if it involves a lot of technical skills, which my novice watercolours really don’t. (AUS College Girl)

… or reflected the processes involved in creating the artwork:

It was drawn on paper, scanned, and then edited on the computer using Photoshop. (SIN SS Girl)

6.6.2 Post-participation questionnaire At the end of the blog interactions, participants were invited to complete a post- participation questionnaire to give feedback on their overall artistic experience and participation in the study. Table 6.21 shows the response to the post-participation questionnaire by country, school level and gender.

Table 6.21 Response to the post-participation questionnaire by country, school level and gender Country School level Gender POST PARTICIPATION AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F Total: QUESTIONNAIRE % % % % % % % 38.46 61.54 46.15 53.85 30.77 69.23 14.13 AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

The low level of response (less than 15 per cent overall) does not permit any in-depth analysis of or generalisation about the study. The SIN students’ participation rate was twice as high as the AUS students’. Girls responded at more than twice the rate of boys. Table 6.22 shows the questions answered by participants from both countries and highlights questions answered by 60 per cent or more of those who participated.

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Table 6.22 Post-participation questionnaire items answered by country

Country School Gender Q1 Q1A Q1B Q1C Q2A Q2B Q2C Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8A Q8B Q9 Q10 Q11 Total: % SIN SS M      29.41 AUS C F             70.59 AUS C F            64.71 AUS C F               82.35 SIN SS F          52.94 AUS C F         46.06 SIN SS F  5.88 SIN SS F          52.94 AUS HS M          52.94 SIN C F         46.06 SIN C F         46.06 SIN C M  5.88 SIN SS M  5.88 Total: 76.92 69.23 69.23 15.38 6.69 30.77 23.08 23.08 23.08 61.54 69.23 6.69 23.08 61.54 69.23 61.54 46.15

214 %

() = question attempted .

Chapter 6 Table 6.22 shows that Q1 had the highest response; as among participants, one completed only six per cent of the questionnaire. Although there were substantial levels of response to Q1, Q1A, Q1B, Q5, Q6, Q8B, Q9 and Q10, most participants gave single-word responses such as “no”, “yes”, “no one”, and “nothing”; other responses were in short phrases such as “it didn’t work”, “not a lot” and “using technology”. The responses were divided into T-units, which were categorised according to the main idea or key words for each survey question in relation to country, school and gender level.

Only survey questions (Q1, Q1A, Q1B, Q5, Q6, Q8B, Q9 and Q10) which were answered by over 60 per cent of the respondents are discussed here.. Table 6.23 shows students’ responses in relation to the status of the titles of their artworks (question 1).

Table 6.23 Artwork title categories by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % Definite title 33.33 62.50 66.67 36.36 75.00 38.46 46.06 Uncertain title 66.67 0 0 54.55 0 46.15 35.29 No title 0 36.50 33.33 9.09 25.00 15.38 16.65

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Almost half of the respondents provided a definite title for their artwork; close to a third indicated that there might still be a change in title. For example:

At the moment it's 'charcoal drawing 1’. (AUS College Girl)

Alternatively, some saw their artwork as a work in progress, for example, working on a series of similar drawings and contemplating an appropriate title:

But I’m thinking of calling the three pictures 'forest through the trees’. (AUS College Girl)

Neither of them have names yet. (AUS College Girl)

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Fewer than 20 per cent responded that their artwork was either untitled or had no title yet. Overall, more SIN HS/SS and male participants had named their artworks than had their comparison groups.

Table 6.24 shows students’ considerations of how and what to communicate to their international peers when participating in blog interactions (question 1A).

Table 6.24 How and what to communicate to international peers when participating in blog interactions, by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Cultural/interpersonal 20.00 50.00 44.44 33.33 0 54.55 40.00 sensitivity Communicative clarity 60.00 10.00 22.22 33.33 25.00 26.27 26.67 Did not consider 20.00 0 0 16.67 0 9.09 6.66 Nil 0 40.00 33.33 16.67 75.00 9.09 26.67

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Most of the AUS students’ responses were about communicative clarity than cultural/interpersonal sensitivity (Table 6.24). In relation to the former, AUS students commented about communicating the concepts and ideas of their artwork, relevance of the artwork and understanding of the artwork, for example:

I had to consider ways to analyse and explain the ideas behind my work, as well as the process in a way that others would be able to understand. (AUS College Girl)

I consider things like what is the best way to describe and evaluate my artwork in a way that the international peers can understand. (AUS College Girl)

In contrast, cultural interpersonal sensitivity dominated female students’ responses (Table 6.24). Female students discussed the need to be sensitive and avoid topics that might cause offence, for example:

216 Chapter 6 I would refrain from referring [to] anything that might be related to religion or cultures. (SIN JC Girl)

Table 6.25 outlines the difficulties that students encountered during the process of students’ participation and their percentage distribution (question 1B).

Table 6.25 Difficulties encountered during participation, by country, school level and gender

Country School Level Gender TOTAL: AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F % % % % % % % Artwork difficulties 40.00 5.56 0 35.71 0 20.83 16.86 Artwork process 20.00 11.11 14.29 14.29 0 16.67 14.29 Technical difficulties 10.00 50.00 64.29 6.14 25.00 36.50 35.71 No difficulties 20.00 0 0 14.29 0 8.33 16.86 Nil 0 26.78 21.42 14.29 75.00 8.33 6.14 Emoticons 10.00 5.56 0 14.29 0 8.33 6.14

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

The difference between artwork difficulties and process is that the first relates to conceptualisation of the task and the latter the processes involved in creating and resolving art from a concept to the actual artwork. Girls again dominated responses to this question. The single largest category of responses from AUS participants related to artwork difficulties, whereas fewer than 10 per cent of their SIN counterparts selected this answer (Table 6.25). Difficulties ranged from the challenge of decision-making to inherent challenges within the artwork itself:

It took me a while to decide what I should do. (AUS College Girl)

Making the sketch look three dimensional. (AUS College Girl)

In terms of ‘artwork process’, the second largest category among AUS college girls, the concerns expressed related to how their choice of medium or techniques would affect the visual impact of their final artwork, for example:

The only difficult part for me was with the collage trying to make sure the shape of the figure didn’t get lost in all the paper. (AUS College Girl)

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Another commented on problems in controlling the tonal qualities of her sketches:

Just getting the picture finished was quite hard because of all the drawing it required, like controlling the different tones etc. (AUS, College Girl)

One student resolved her artwork problem by using the blog as a platform for seeking feedback. The blog interactions also provided opportunities for her to seek support from her international peers:

I could not decide what I really wanted to do for my student-directed task, so I just put my ideas out there and see if anyone responded so that this would help me decide what to actually do for the project. (SIN College Girl)

SIN students faced more technical difficulties (Table 6.25) than artwork/process problems. Nearly 40 per cent of the responses from girls related to technical issues. One problem mentioned related to navigating in the blog due to complications with the format of the image when posting:

I have had extreme difficulties when posting images as they don’t even accept .jpg or .bmp or .png, which means many of my pieces cannot be posted. (SIN SS Girl)

Overall, technical difficulties dominated the responses (Table 6.25), constituting 50 per cent of responses from SIN students but only 10 per cent of those from their AUS counterparts. Almost 20 per cent of SIN students gave ‘nil’ responses, but no AUS students did so.

Table 6.26 shows students’ perceptions of the most outstanding artistic qualities in their artworks (question 5).

218 Chapter 6

Table 6.26 Most outstanding artistic qualities in artworks, by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Genre related 30.00 12.30 0 30.77 0 28.57 22.22 Self-related 60.00 0 20.00 38.46 25.00 35.71 33.33 Didactic 10.00 25.00 20.00 15.38 0 21.43 16.67 Nil 0 62.50 60.00 15.38 75.00 14.28 26.78

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Most boys returned a ‘nil’ response or did not respond to this question. For girls, however, the outstanding artistic qualities reported were either genre related or self-related (Table 6.26). They commented:

I think I’m quite imaginative. (AUS College Girl)

Strong drawing abilities. (AUS College Girl)

The way I used charcoal to express depth. (AUS College Girl)

Neither HS/SS nor boys made any genre-related responses. SIN participants did not make any self-related responses, whereas this was the most common category for AUS students (Table 6.26).

Table 6.27 shows students’ perception of the most important aspect of their artwork (question 6).

Table 6.27 Most important aspect of artwork, by country, school level and gender

POST Country School level Gender PARTICIPATION AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: QUESTIONNAIRE 6 % % % % % % % Materials related 20.00 0 0 12.50 0 11.11 9.09 Subject matter 50.00 50.00 0 68.75 0 61.11 50.00 Effect created 20.00 16.67 33.33 12.50 0 22.22 18.18 Process 10.00 0 16.67 0 25.00 0 4.55 No response 0 33.33 50.00 6.25 75.00 5.56 18.18

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

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Most responses from the girls reflected that the subject matter in their artwork held the highest value for them. For example, an AUS student stated that:

The meaning behind the artwork is the most important part of not only my own artwork but of any artworks. (AUS College Girl)

Symbolic meaning was important in their artwork. For example, an artwork entitled Feathers was inspired by the student’s favourite band. She explained the symbolic connection between music and her artwork:

My favourite band happens to have a vulture as their symbol, thus, it is a reference to the feathers of the vulture, without it, my artwork would have a totally different meaning. (SIN JC Girl)

About 20 per cent of the responses related to the importance of the effect created, for example, a student emphasised the use of overlapping paper to produce an abstract effect:

I think the light and dark papers have effectively created the shape and tone of the figure. (AUS College Girl)

Another student commented on the effective use of materials to enhance the visual impact of her Galaxy artwork:

I really like the abstract effect, makes the galaxy looks cool. (SIN SS Girl)

Only 10 per cent of responses from the AUS students referred to the importance of process in their artwork, and no responses from their SIN counterparts. An AUS student discussed the importance of process in her artwork, pointing out, for example:

The time spent drawing and researching is crucial because it took me a lot of time and patience. (AUS HS Girl)

220 Chapter 6 Students were asked to explain the choice of traditional medium that they used to combine with technology to execute their artwork (question 8B). Table 6.28 summarises their responses.

Table 6.28 Explanation for the choice of a traditional medium to be combined with technology to create artwork, by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Familiarity with medium 46.15 46.15 28.57 52.63 33.33 46.83 46.15 Project requirement 6.69 0 0 5.26 0 4.35 3.85 Experiment with medium 6.69 15.68 14.29 10.53 0 13.04 11.54 Goes with theme of artwork 15.38 0 0 10.53 0 8.70 6.69 Nil (No response) 0 38.46 56.14 5.26 66.67 13.04 19.23 Lack of technology support 15.38 0 0 10.53 0 8.70 6.69 Communication gaps/disruptions/interruptions 6.69 0 0 5.26 0 4.35 3.85

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Over 45 per cent of responses related to ‘familiarity with medium’. Students from both countries mentioned their fondness for and confidence in using drawing in their artwork:

Drawing was a medium that I understood and had used before so by combining it with other medium such a Photoshop gave it an edge. (AUS College Girl)

That is what I’m good at, errrrrrrr, coz it’s easiest. (SIN SS Girl)

One student pointed out that she enjoyed drawing with a pencil on paper because of the tactile experience vis-à-vis a computer application:

You can feel the pencil when you draw, easier to control the pencil than the mouse. (AUS College Girl)

Another student opined that traditional media combined with technology was the way forward in art-making:

It will be impossible to replace tradition medium [sic] entirely in artmaking even as technology advances, so why not combine [a] traditional medium into your

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technology-based artwork, such as starting out with a tradition medium like drawing and later fine-tuning it by editing with Photoshop tools? (SIN JC Girl)

Table 6.29 shows students’ perception of the most interesting aspect of the project (question 9).

Table 6.29 Most interesting aspect of the project by country, school level and gender

POST PARTICIPATION Country School level Gender QUESTIONNAIRE 9 AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Other-oriented 66.67 33.33 56.14 50.00 40.00 56.25 52.38 Self-oriented 8.33 11.11 0 14.29 0 12.50 9.52 The challenge of the project 0 22.22 0 14.29 0 12.50 9.52 Nil 16.67 22.22 28.57 14.29 60.00 6.25 19.05 Emoticons 8.33 11.11 14.29 6.14 0 12.50 9.52

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Across the three groups, the dominant response was ‘other-oriented’, suggesting that students found ‘interactiveness’ the most interesting aspect of the project. For example:

The opportunity to see other’s people’s artwork. (AUS College Girl)

We really got a feel for the different ways (such as styles and ideas) of expressing art in other countries. (AUS College Girl)

It’s amazing to see the works that other people come up with, and quite refreshing. (SIN JC Girl)

Thinking about what to draw for the project, to show how I feel instead of always following the questions set by the art teacher. (AUS College Girl)

Ten per cent of self-oriented responses, which focused on having the opportunity to express self to an international peer audience were from girls: It was interesting to see what people’s perception of art from a different country other than your own. (AUS College Girl)

222 Chapter 6 The part of creating our own artwork for others to comment on is the most interesting part because it made us excited that students from another country would be able to judge our works. (SIN JC Girl)

Table 6.30 shows the extent to which students perceived they had undertaken self- discovery in the course of creating artwork for this project (question 10).

Table 6.30 Discovery of self while creating artwork for this project by country, school level and gender

Country School level Gender AUS SIN HS/SS C/JC M F TOTAL: % % % % % % % Self-oriented artistic 66.67 12.50 20.00 50.00 25.00 40.00 35.71 Not a lot 16.67 12.50 20.00 12.50 0 20.00 14.29 Nothing 0 25.00 20.00 12.50 0 20.00 14.29 Nil 16.67 50.00 60.00 25.00 75.00 20.00 35.71

AUS = ACT Metropolitan Schools Cohort SIN = West Zone Cluster Schools Cohort HS/SS = High school/Secondary school C/JC = College/Junior college M=Male F = Female

Over a third of all responses were in the ‘self-oriented artistic’ category, suggesting that a large minority of students from both countries were able to explore and discover their selves while creating artwork for this project.

6.7 Synthesis and discussion

Table 6.31 presents an overview of findings from the artworks, blogs, reflective journals and post-participation questionnaire.

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Table 6.31 Overview of findings from the data components in the study

Artworks Blogs Reflective journal Post-participation questionnaire  Nearly 40 per cent of artwork  High ‘logged on’ rates  Low response rate  Low response rate posted but not uploaded compared to ‘posted successfully and hence not responses/artworks’ visible rate  Self-exploration is the  ‘posted  Responsiveness (positive  SIN students valued dominant theme responses/artworks’ is & negative) were largest cultural/interpersonal interpreted as ‘active categories sensitivity while AUS participation’ students valued communicative clarity  Drawing was the dominant  ‘logged on’ is  SIN responses higher  SIN students experienced expressive form, followed by interpreted as ‘passive than AUS responses more technical difficulties technology-assisted medium participation’ – indirect than their AUS counterparts engagement such as browsing or observation  Concept titles were the  Didactic and  SIN and female students  AUS students valued self- dominant category Interpersonal reflected more on their related artistic qualities Communication are the themes of their artworks while SIN students valued most domain than AUS and male artistic qualities of a didactic interaction discourse students (not at all) nature category used.  More than 50 per cent of the SIN students did not respond to Q5  SIN participants posted more  Self-orientation  More negative than  Subject matter was the most artworks than AUS (personal/plans) was positive technology important part of an artwork participants the third-most-used responses from both AUS for both SIN & AUS students category and SIN students

 SIN participants focused on  Low participation in  Familiarity with medium was the theme of ‘relationship’ blog two suggests most important for both SIN compared to none of their students dislike ‘closed’ & AUS students AUS counterparts blog format  Over 50 per cent of the  High participation in  Other-orientation was the artworks dealing with ‘self- blog three suggests most interesting aspect of exploration’ came from HS/SS students prefer ‘open’ the project for both AUS & students blog format SIN students

 HS/SS participants’ artworks  SIN participation was  Being able to be a self- dealt with ‘relationship’ twice higher than AUS oriented artist was the most as often as their C/JC participation in blog 1 & important discovery in the counterparts 2 course of the project for AUS students  50 per cent of the SIN students did not respond to Q10

 ACT participation was  SIN responses higher than higher than AUS AUS responses participation in blog 3

224 Chapter 6 The fact that 40 per cent of the artwork posted was uploaded with a title but not the actual image provided an immediate and serious impediment to interaction between the designated cross-cultural partners in blogs one and two. The second factor that negatively influenced against interaction was the disproportionate rates of posting by the SIN and AUS participants. Fewer than 20 per cent of AUS participants posted an artwork, but all did so successfully. More than 40 per cent of SIN participants posted one or more artworks but fewer than half of these did so successfully. Students’ prima facie willingness to participate was evidenced by the high and increasing level of logging on to the three blogs. However, while they entered the space, many did not venture beyond that.

The third and final factor was the technical issues faced by the participants on the CLC network, especially the SIN participants. This obviously discouraged them and prevented their full participation. For example, all the 22 unsuccessfully posted artworks were from the SIN participants. These artworks would have generated more discussion and feedback and created a more extensive cross-cultural dialogue on the blog if they were visible on the screen. A student pointed out:

The fact that you assumed that we are competent in the use of CLC when it isn’t even running on our school website has led to a very steep learning curve in which to master in a limited time with a number of problems and difficulties. (SIN SS Girl)

Despite the technical challenges the SIN participants faced, their participation rate was higher than that of AUS students. Comparisons across school level and gender showed that female participation was higher than male participation, probably because (as indicated in the background survey) girls were more confident in their computer skills. Similarly, C/JC participation was higher than HS/SS participation, with the survey indicating that most HS/SS students considered their computer skills to be average or basic. These participation differences were consistent across the blogs, reflective journal and post-participation questionnaire.

The low level of response in blog two might have been due to participants losing heart because of the technical difficulties encountered on the blog, and for some, it might have

225 been the lack of response from their partners. Some participants expressed disappointment with the lack of response from their cross-cultural partners:

I have to admit that I didn’t participate actively for the past few blog interactions because I was rather upset and lost hope that someone will reply to my posts or at least view my work or ideas. (SIN SS Girl)

It is probable that most of the participants, especially the HS/SS participants, did not favour the closed blog setting, which might have been the cause of low participation in blog two. One student pointed out:

This being a closed blog, only the person who was assigned to you could see your posts or artworks if he or she respond, their views would be more objective or perhaps more precise but there is less initiative for someone to actually interact as no one else see if they do or do not. (SIN SS Girl)

However, technical difficulties remained a serious issue, not only for the SIN participants but for most AUS participants. For example, a student (AUS HS Boy) pointed out that he had experienced great difficulties when posting images as the blog only accepted images with specific format and size. As a result, he had to convert his artwork through four different formats before uploading it successfully. Another student (AUS HS Boy) mentioned that the blog was “laggy”, meaning delays in uploading posts.

As discussed earlier, the high login rates in comparison with the much lower active participation (defined as posting of text, artwork, audio or visual images) rates across the three blogs for both AUS and SIN participants suggested that these participants showed interest in the activities on the blogs. However, the fact that they did not venture beyond that suggested they were beyond their comfort zone and hesitant to engage in active participation. The researcher noted this behaviour in the blogs and interpreted such indirect engagement as passive participation. In the interviews the participants gave explanations for their passive participation, including a sense of insecurity, fear of being misunderstood, not wanting to be judged, fear of hurtful criticism, being self-conscious, and fear of rejection by their peers. Passive participation kept them socially informed and connected with what was happening in their social scene without having to take any risks.

226 Chapter 6 Across the three blogs, didactic and interpersonal communication were the dominant categories of interaction discourse used by both the AUS and SIN participants. ‘Self- orientation (personal/plans)’ was the third most used. However, the AUS participants were less proactive in initiating a dialogue on the blog, while the SIN participants made more efforts to establish interactions in blogs one and two.

The responses to the reflective journal were few in number, which could be explained by the participants’ preference for the more open format of interactions, such as blog three. The participants were arguably less motivated and less comfortable expressing their thoughts when they knew that only the researcher and their teachers would be assessing the information.

The researcher’s intention was for the post-participation questionnaire to be conducted online on the CLC network, so that the participants could log on and complete it in their own time, but this did not work out as planned. Unlike the background survey, which was conducted face-to-face, the researcher was unable to monitor the quality and completeness of the post-participation questionnaire responses. It is possible that the open-ended format of the questionnaire was not suitable for engaging the participants in the final stage of the study, as there is the tendency of avoiding making detailed responses and rushing through the questions.

6.8 Synthesis of findings from Chapters 4, 5 and 6

The following seeks to draw the threads together of the questionnaire (Chapter 4), small group interviews (Chapter 5), blog interactions, reflective journals and post participation questionnaire (Chapter 6).

As demonstrated in the previous chapters, t-unit analysis was used as the primary means to distil the data into thought units (including communication gaps) across all the methods of inquiry (sans the questionnaire). This enabled the researcher to compare the findings from the various methods and come to a consolidated result, which are detailed in Chapter 8. In addition, examples of quotes made by the students (in the blogs, small group interviews or reflection journals) were also used to reinforce the t-unit analysis and

227 provide greater context. As noted earlier, due to the small sample size, statistical analysis was not undertaken as it would not provide reliable statistically significant results.

Whilst the different modes of inquiry were designed to answer specific aspects of the research questions, there was some cross over that enable the researcher to cross-reference the data and findings. For example, the questionnaire (Chapter 4) and small group interviews (Chapter 5) did cover the essence of the first research question. Whereas the artworks and blog interaction (Chapter 6) related almost solely to the second research aim. The reflective journals mostly focussed on the experience of accessing and using the mediated blog. As noted previously, the poor response rate to the post participation questionnaire N=13 responses), provided some additional insights to the findings.

The proceeding chapters detail the key benchmark findings of this study. Table 6.32 lists the key benchmark findings against key of the different modes of inquiry to provide a visual representation of the various methods used.

228 Chapter 6

Table 6.32 Synthesis and discussion of findings from Chapters 4, 5 & 6

Key finding Questionnaire Small group Artworks Blogs Reflective journals Post participation Chapter 4 interviews Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Chapter 6 questionnaire Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Preferred SNS and Facebook was the SNS Facebook was listed online usage of choice for students more than any other in all groups by a very social networking site large margin

Over 70 per cent of the AUS students used a computer at home five or more times per week, compared to 55 per cent of the SIN participants

Both groups perceived Most viewed ‘information technology as a accessibility’ to be the positive artistic most exciting aspect medium of computers

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Key finding Questionnaire Small group Artworks Blogs Reflective journals Post participation Chapter 4 interviews Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Chapter 6 questionnaire Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Active participation Most students from Fifty-six artworks The participation rate Mediated vs. non- both countries were posted, 28 in in most stages of the mediated blogs indicated their use of blog one, one in blog research, with the social media as a two and 27 in blog exception of the post- research tool, three participation survey, browsing resources or was 90 per cent or information or higher; the negotiating their ideas participation rate in and concepts of art blog one was just with their peers under 80 per cent. rather than actively However, for the sharing their own blogs, participation artworks through was defined as posting online logging in; in some cases this was the only evidence of participation.

In blog one, many more AUS and SIN students logged on than posted responses or artworks

230 Chapter 6

Key finding Questionnaire Small group Artworks Blogs Reflective journals Post participation Chapter 4 interviews Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Chapter 6 questionnaire Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Preference for face- When describing free Overall, there was to-face time activities, little difference in the majority prefer face- responses across to-face interaction country, school level (interactive) when and gender; compared on ‘importance of face- remotely interactive. to-face’ dominated for all groups Most noted the value if face-to-face when negotiating their artistic expressions Preference for hand Drawing and painting Some with viewing The dominant Over 45 per cent of technologies for were the earliest technology as an expressive form for responses related to artwork remembered artistic artistic medium in the participants from ‘familiarity with experiences for large negative mentioned both countries was medium’. Students minorities of students their preference for drawing from both countries from both countries drawing. mentioned their fondness for and The preferred mode confidence in using of self-expression for drawing in their AUS participants was artwork drawing; however, the SIN participants preferred verbal communication and social networking

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Key finding Questionnaire Small group Artworks Blogs Reflective journals Post participation Chapter 4 interviews Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Chapter 6 questionnaire Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Self-exploration – Overall, and for each For both SIN and AUS Self-exploration had AUS and SIN Self-related was the dominant theme of student group, students, the most the highest number of participants’ highest category of artworks ‘expressive state of prevalent category successful posts responses in the self- describing the artistic mind/feeling’ (e.g., was commentary on orientation (personal qualities of the art self-expression) was their own artistic Overall, ‘self- and plans) categories work the highest category preferences exploration’ was the formed 12–21 per of perception of major thematic cent of all their ‘artistic’. category responses in blogs encapsulating one and two. students’ descriptions However, in blog of their artworks three, they gave a smaller proportion of responses in the latter category

Difference between Overall, girls were More boys had ‘issues Girls attempted to Girls logged on more Boys were more More girls than boys boys’ and girls’ more confident than with technology post more artworks during the pair negative than girls expressed technical computer skills and boys about their assisted than the boys. interactions (blogs 1 when considering difficulties participation computer skills. communication’ than & 2), whereas boys negative aspects of did girls logged in when it was the technology used. Most perceived their an open Invitation computer skills as interaction. average Girls posted more responses across the three blogs then boys did.

232 Chapter 6

Key finding Questionnaire Small group Artworks Blogs Reflective journals Post participation Chapter 4 interviews Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Chapter 6 questionnaire Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Attendance at Art AUS students were Other types of leisure Galleries more likely to report activities (not the arts visiting the art gallery or technology related) or theatre, whilst SIN was the most students were more dominate preference likely to visit the library

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As demonstrated above the majority of the findings across the different modes of inquiry reinforce each other. There are a few anomalies. For example when exploring computer skills of boys and girls, more girls expressed technical difficulties in the post questionnaire process. However, this can be explained by the small sample size (n=15) and the girls provided more responses.

6.9 Reflections on the Research Process

6.9.1 The research process Even the most rigorous and careful planning cannot guard against every eventuality in the field. This research project encountered many unanticipated challenges. This research undertaking offered the author some salutary research lessons, and in any future research, he would follow the lessons derived from this experience – in particular, allowing more time for each stage of the fieldwork. The major fieldwork disruptions are discussed below.

 Background survey and small group interviews The background survey was planned to be conducted on a separate day from the interviews, in order that the researcher could explain the procedure, clarify any queries arising from any survey questions and monitor the completion of the forms. However, the time frame scheduled by the participating schools required that both stages be completed within two or three school periods. This caused the process to be rushed, resulting in students not understanding, misreading or overlooking the instructions.

The small group interviews were scheduled by the schools’ coordinating teachers. Some student participants who could not attend during the scheduled time were expected to attend the interview session between lessons or during their lunch break. This meant the groups were larger or smaller than planned, for instance, some groups consisted of five or six participants, while others had only one or two. The larger groups were less effective and there was a tendency for some participants to remain silent or merely express agreement with what their peers had said. However, most had positive attitudes and were willing to engage in discussion of the topics, which they had never considered.

234 Chapter 6

 Unexpected withdrawal from participation by one group Following the completion of the background survey and small group interviews, one group of AUS participants decided not to participate in the blog interactions. The reasons for the withdrawal were explained by the coordinating teacher beacause of schoolwork pressures, and that some students had commented that the blog project was far too serious for them, as they thought initially it would just be fun. Nevertheless, with the permission of the coordinating teacher, these students’ background surveys and small group interview data were included in the research.

 Technology access The students’ use of the CLC platform was sub-optimal because no time had been allocated to familiarisation or training. Both the SIN and AUS students experienced technical difficulties with the CLC platform throughout the interactions. This was especially the case for the SIN students who were using it for the first time. Some claimed that they had problems logging on to the CLC site and difficulty in uploading images, even with technical support from the DET IT advisor5. A SIN teacher who e-mailed the images of the artworks told the researcher that, despite several attempts, his students still had no success uploading the images.

 The lack of ‘real time’ in the interactions The ACT is two to three hours ahead of Singapore (depending on daylight saving time) and this time difference restricted the frequency and depth of conversations in the blog format, especially as students only had permission to engage during school time.

With hindsight, the difficulty of recruiting potential participants (See section 3.6.2 - assessing schools) may have been as much a function of perceived student benefit at the time. In a ground-breaking exploration of the potential of intercultural communication in an unfamiliar technological environment, a more detailed explanation of the research should have been given to the school authorities in the initial invitation to participate.

5 Learning Technologies Officer, Learning Technologies Section, ACT Department of Education and Training.

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 Interpreting group differences When interpreting potential group differences it is difficult to determine whether the results were random fluctuations that may occur when sampling populations. As noted earlier due to the small sample size statistical tools or software were not used as it would not have produce reliable statistical significant results.

To mitigate this limitation, other methods were used to ensure the integrity of the findings. Chapter Seven details examples of research carried out during the same period that produced very similar results. Section 7.3 (Benchmark findings comparisons discussion) draws upon other research undertaken around the time of this study and beyond and compares each of the key findings. By drawing on other larger studies (albeit at times different countries and with broader age ranges), this helps reinforces the validity of the findings of this study.

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CHAPTER 7 Bookending the Study: Research from 2011–18

7.1 Scope of the Chapter

This chapter will examine the findings of the current benchmark study in the light of related research published in the period 2011–18, subsequent to data collection, with a view to identifying both consistencies and developments in the field. The first section provides a parallel statistical overview to that provided in Table 2.7 and compares the two periods. Subsequent sections relate to the key findings of this paper’s research in the context of contemporary research.

7.2 A Comparison of Research in 2006–10 and 2011–18

As was the case for research examined prior to the study (2006–10), subsequent research has tended to explore the impact of the digital age on individual’s general well-being and the impacts of excessive usage and cyberbullying. No research published in 2011–18 examined either Australian and Singaporean adolescents or communicative preferences whilst using a mediated blog. The same seven journals that were analysed from the previous period were again reviewed, and the same 15 categories used previously were found to be appropriate. Table 7.1 presents a breakdown of the content of the seven journals across the 15 categories for 2011–18. To facilitate a comparison between the two periods, the corresponding percentages for 2006–10 are provided in the final column. Again, the categories highlighted in yellow are those relevant to the digital age. The journal raw data is presented in Tables A.1.9–A.1.15 and the consolidated raw data in Table A.1.16 (See Appendix A).

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Table 7.1 Categories of articles in major youth and adolescence journals and their prevalences, 2011–18 and 2006–10

Journal of Journal of Journal of Youth & Journal of Journal of International TOTAL TOTAL Research on Youth Adolescent Society Adolescence Youth & Journal of Adolescence Studies Research Adolescen Adolescence 2011- 2006- ce & Youth 2018 2010 % % Youth 26 33 20 14 2 65 12 4.45 2.28 subculture

Youth transition 38 69 23 20 57 52 16 7.12 10.80 to adulthood

Youth support 93 65 32 59 188 189 31 17.02 15.81

Youth mobility/ 3 15 7 0 1 19 1 1.19 1.76 migration

Alcohol 27 32 6 18 59 64 5 5.46 7.09 consumption/s ubstance abuse

Youth 37 67 20 49 44 106 41 9.43 7.35 education/ employment

Youth at risk 20 63 5 20 24 44 9 4.79 4.62

Indigenous 1 6 0 0 2 0 0 0.23 0.07 youth

Youth 77 90 27 34 384 232 57 23.34 24.53 well-being

Youth 2 49 5 9 22 6 4 2.51 1.95 political/civil participation

Gender/health/ 59 50 42 40 66 126 20 10.44 10.93 sexuality

Juvenile 37 30 7 41 55 127 7 7.87 8.91 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 9 0 10 19 24 8 1.66 0.33 Internet addiction

Digital world 4 28 12 8 25 26 9 2.90 2.41 (Internet & social media)

Others 18 10 5 0 6 19 3 1.58 1.17

Digital world & new media technology

As is clear from Table 7.1, since 2011 there has been a slight increase in the proportion of digital world and new media technology articles in these journals, with more relating to both cyberbullying and the digital world. However, their major focus continues to be youth well being (offline), youth support and; gender, health and sexuality. Table 7.2

238 Chapter 7 shows the number of articles in each of five main categories relating to the digital world/internet/social media published in the period 2011–18. Again, the table includes the totals for 2006–10. A summary of each article is presented in Table A.1.18.

Table 7.2 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in seven major youth and adolescence journals, 2011–18 and 2006–10

Internet/Social Facebook Gaming Romantic Perception of Others Media Relationships/ Social Consumption Friendships Media/Internet/ Technology JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE 7 0 2 1 0 0 TOTAL=10 14 4 3 2 1 1 TOTAL = 25

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF 0 0 0 0 0 0 ADOLESCENCE & YOUTH 6 0 1 0 1 1 TOTAL=0 TOTAL = 9

JOURNAL OF YOUTH & 1 0 3 1 0 0 ADOLESCENCE 13 2 8 1 0 2 TOTAL=5 TOTAL= 26

YOUTH & SOCIETY 2 0 1 0 0 1 TOTAL=4 6 0 0 0 1 1 TOTAL = 8 JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON 1 0 0 2 0 0 ADOLESCENCE 3 0 0 0 0 1 TOTAL=3 TOTAL=4 JOURNAL OF YOUTH STUDIES 7 1 0 0 0 0 TOTAL=8 18 4 2 1 2 1 TOTAL= 28 JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT 4 1 2 0 1 0 RESEARCH 5 5 1 1 0 0 TOTAL=7 TOTAL = 12 TOTAL 22 1 8 4 1 1 2006-2010=37 2011-2018 = 112 65 15 15 5 5 7

TOTAL 59.46 2.70 21.62 10.82 2.70 2.70 2006-2010 % 2011-2018 % 58.03 13.40 13.40 4.46 4.46 6.25 Green = 2006 – 2010 Red = 2011 – 2018

While the percentage changes in themes relating to the digital world/Internet/social media between the two periods are small, the total number of articles on these topics increased from 37 to 112. Again, almost 60 per cent of research relates to Internet/social media consumption with a focus on its detrimental effects, for example, “The effectiveness of an intervention to promote awareness and reduce online risk behaviour in early

239 adolescence” (Schilder, Brusselaers, & Bogaerts, 2016) and “Exploring associations between exposure to sexy online self-representations and adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviour” (Van Oosten, Peter & Boot, 2015).

Some research examines why young people access certain social media sites, including what features are the most appealing and the sites visited, as evident in the increase in the research on Facebook (over 13 per cent, compared to just over two per cent during 2006– 2010). Yang and Brown (2016), for example, published “Online self-presentation on Facebook and self-development during the college transition” and discussed development of ‘self-esteem’ in relation to adolescents’ presentation of self on Facebook. They also looked at changes in their attitudes toward self-presentation (disclosure of personal information) over time when emerging into young adulthood. No research in this period specifically examines the influence of more visually focused interactions and its impact on the social practices of adolescents.

7.2.1 Journals in other fields that intersect with the findings As with the 2006–10 review (see 2.7), this section describes research published in journals beyond the seven specialist youth and adolescence journals in Tables 7.1 and 7.2, identifying research on youth and adolescents in relation to the digital world/Internet/social media. Such research was identified in journals in the fields of developmental psychology; cyber-psychology and behaviour; computers and human behaviour; computer-mediated communication; behaviour and information technology; new media and society; educational computing research; science, technology and society; youth care; and international nursing studies.

As noted in Chapter 2 (Section 2.6.2), two cyber-specific journals (Cyberpsychology and Behaviour and Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace) were reviewed for intersections between their content and the findings of this thesis. Some articles from these journals are referenced later in this chapter (Section 7.3). ‘Adolescence’ and its derivatives and ‘online’ were used as key words in a search of those journals based on article titles; Table 7.3 shows the results in terms of the same key themes as the seven major youth and adolescence journals.

240 Chapter 7

Table 7.3 Articles on digital world/internet/social media published in Cyberpsychology and Behavior and Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 2011–18 and pre-2011

Internet/Social Facebook Gaming Romantic Perception of Others Media Relationships/ Social Consumption Friendships Media/Internet/ Technology Psychosocial Research on 4 2 2 0 4 0 Cyberspace 24 4 3 4 12 0 2007–2010 = 12 2011-2018 = 47

% 33.33 16.67 16.67 0 33.33 0 2007-2010= 2011-2018 = 51.07 8.51 6.38 8.51 25.53 0

Cyberpsychology, Behavior and 42 0 14 6 6 15 Social Networking 40 4 19 5 5 22 1998-2010= 83 2011-2018 = 95

% 50.60 0 16.87 7.23 7.23 18.07 1998-2010= 2011-2018 = 42.11 4.21 20.00 5.26 5.26 23.16 Green = 2006 - 2010 Red = 2011 – 2018

As would be expected, the number of articles that focused on adolescence and Internet usage increased in the period 2011–18, with 47 of the 167 articles published in the Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace related to this topic, for example: 2011 An exploration of the relationship between real-world sexual experience and online sexual activity among 17 year old adolescents (Sevcikova & Konecny) 2012 Connecting and protecting? Comparing predictors of self-disclosure and privacy settings use between adolescents and adults (Walrave et al.) 2013 Do questions matter on children’s answers about internet risk and safety (Ponte et al.) 2014 Consensual sexting among adolescents: Risk prevention through abstinence education or safer sexting? (Doring) 2015 “Girls are addicted to likes so they post semi-naked selfies”. Peer mediation, normativity and the construction of identity online. (Mascheroni et al.) 2016 Young people who access harm-advocating online content: A four-country survey. (Oksanen et al.) 2017 Looking beyond swiping and tapping: Review of design and methodologies for researching young children’s use of digital technologies (Miller et al.) 2018 Identity profiles and digital engagement among Finnish high school students (Mannerstrom et al.)

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Mannerstrom, Hietajarvi, Muotka, and Salmela-Aro (2018) examined 932 Finnish High School students’ identity profiles and digital engagement. They found that online activity around friendship was more common than interest-driven activity. Moreover, they found that adolescents who were lacking in commitment and looking for direction in life and were trying to stabilise an identity were excessive users of ICT.

Of the 860 articles published in the Journal for CyberPsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 95 related to adolescents online. This represents a slight increase – 11 per cent compared to eight per cent between 1998 and 2010. The majority of the journal articles focused on university students and young adults (as opposed to adolescents), which are an older cohort of this research. There was also an increase in cyberbullying- related articles (23 articles compared to nine in the previous period). Examples of the adolescent online research include:

2011 Perceived Safety and Teen Risk taking in Online Chat Sites (McCarty et al.) 2011 Facebook & MySpace: Complement or Substitute for Face-to-Face Interaction (Kujath) 2013 A Study on Turkish Adolescent’s Internet Use: Possible Predictors of Internet Addiction (Ak et al.) 2014 Facebook Photo Activity Associated with Body Image Disturbance in Adolescent Girls (Meier & Gray) 2015 Underage Use of Social Network Sites: It’s About Friends (Barbovschi et al.) 2016 Self-Concept Clarity and Online Self-Presentation in Adolescents (Fullwood et al.) 2017 A Meta-Analysis of Treatment Interventions for Internet Addiction Among Korean Adolescents (Chun et al.) 2018 Adolescents’ Reason to Unfriend on Facebook (Verswijvel et al.)

Articles published in other journals that intersect with the benchmark study include Lu and Churchill (2014), who investigated social interactions and participation in learning via an SNS in a class of 13 undergraduate students. They found engagement via SNS was brief, idiosyncratic and casual. Moreover, they found that students required communication skills and independence to nurture communication. They also concluded that, while the SNS promoted social engagement, it did not encourage higher-level cognitive engagement. They pointed out that while computer-supported collaborative

242 Chapter 7 learning provides opportunities for students to learn and further explore visual imagery and structures in online communication environments, learning environments need careful design, as engagement is not automatically assured.

In her analysis of a survey completed by 100 random social media users, Kiziltunali (2016) showed that online engagement allows users to explore their identities and discard unwanted physical reality. Operating online enables users to explore virtual possibilities and allows a person’s identity to be reconstructed. Users can manage their self- presentation and identities, by deciding how and what others can see. This enables users to manage how they want to be perceived by others.

7.3 Benchmark findings comparisons discussion

This section discusses the following key benchmark of this study’s findings in relation to subsequent related research: preferred SNS and online usage patterns; blog participation/preference; communication preferences; self-exploration of artworks; differences in gender in computer skills; and attendance at art galleries.

7.3.1 Preferred SNS and online usage

The study described in this thesis found that in 2011, Facebook was the most popular SNS among the Australian and Singaporean students studied. Usage prevalences ranged between 70 and 80 per cent, and 65 per cent of the participants used a computer at home more than five times per week.

Several studies of Generation Z’s Internet usage have been published since 2011. For example, Nylander’s (2015) survey of 50,000 people from 46 countries found that Facebook was the most common online platform Gen Z used (58 per cent), followed by YouTube (41 per cent), Instagram and Google (30 per cent each). The average Gen Z in the study used 4.1 different social media channels. In the Asia Pacific region, it was an average of 3.4 (Huang, 2015).

Half (2016) studied 770 college and university students (18–25 years old) from the United States and Canada. He argued that Generation Z “is the first truly digital and global generation. This group has never known a world without the Internet, and many of them

243 can’t recall life without a smartphone” (p. 5). Half (2016) further described Gen Z as “entrepreneurial, innovative and passionate”; they are “used to change and weather it well” (p. 5). Conversely, one of the issues beginning to emerge was Gen Z’s poor writing skills, which has been linked to new applications that require a shortened version of language (e.g., Twitter). Half (2016) noted “abbreviations, emoticons and lack of punctuation are advantageous on social media” (p. 9).

Fluent (2016) examined the online activity of Gen Z (in the United States) with a focus on their use of SNS, finding that Facebook was the top platform for many users. Fluent found that 51 per cent used Facebook for keeping in touch with high school friends and family, while 39 per cent used it to connect with college friends. The cohort also used more recent platforms, such as Instagram and Snapchat, to stay in contact with friends. Daily use was also high on these platforms, with 34 and 35 per cent using Snapchat and Instagram respectively multiple times per day.

Interestingly, computer usage at home (65 per cent of this study’s participants stated that they used a computer at home more than 5 times per week), has now been overtaken by the rapid rise of smartphone usage by young people. While in 2011 only one out of four Australian teens had access to a smartphone, this increased to four out of five in 2015 (ACMA, 2016). This, combined with the increase in hotspots (thus enabling more people to access online outside of the house), has dramatically changed the landscape in regards to Internet access. Seventy-eight per cent of Australian teenagers used a mobile phone to access the Internet in 2015 (AMCA, 2016). In the Singapore context, in 2009, 69 per cent of Singaporeans had used the Internet, and this increased to 79 per cent in 2015 (Infocomm Development Authority, 2017).

Since this study, online platforms have diversified and, while Facebook remains the dominant platform, overall percentage usage is lower than in 2011. This is due, in part, to the greater number of other SNS platforms available today. Usage and access to the Internet has, however, dramatically increased since the 2011 study. There is significantly more access for adolescents both in terms of equipment (e.g., smartphone ownership) and access (e.g., increased number of hotspots) than in 2011. This increase in access and availability of SNS may have significant impacts on communicative preferences (which

244 Chapter 7 could be scope for further research). This makes the data collected in 2011 a potent benchmark.

7.3.2 Logon rates, active participation and mediated vs. non-mediated blogs

This study found that there was a high rate of logon (50–90%) yet low levels of active participation in the blogs (<20%). In addition, there were differences between mediated (closed) and non-mediated (open) blogs. The Australian cohort preferred the non- mediated (75%) environment whereas Singaporean students accessed the mediated environment (90%).

Since the 2011 benchmark study, there have been a few studies which have examined blog interactions, one being that of Michailidis, Kapravelos, and Tsiatos (2018) who compared two sets (n=52) of Greek high school students’ level of engagement and interaction in a blog in which designing a computer game was the focal activity. The experimental group had access to an Interaction Analysis (IA) toolkit for support. The IA toolkit provided a real time analysis of social interaction in the blogs. Students without access to the IA tool kit posted fewer comments then those with access to it. This suggests that facilitators such as the IA toolkit have the potential to enhance collaboration and engagement in a blog environment. Given that this study did not provide an IA toolkit or similar to encourage engagement, and the researcher and teachers were confined to observation of the blog environment, it may be that the lack of intervention reduced the students’ willingness to engage actively in the blog.

In another study, Sun, Lin, Wu, Zhou and Luo (2018) compared two online communication tools (WeChat and Moodle) to investigate communicative learning in 78 pre-service Chinese teachers. All used Moodle (an open source but mediated learning management system) and nearly half of them also used WeChat on an hourly basis. There were 2,937 discussion posts on Moodle compared to 2,057 messages on WeChat. The findings suggest that the Moodle platform was used more for knowledge construction, whereas WeChat was used more for social interaction. Similarly, the fact that, in the mediated blog in the current study, students’ comments focused primarily on the artworks – the task set by the researcher – suggests a similar orientation to their knowledge construction.

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Costley and Lange (2018) examined the relationship between the formation of semi- formal online groups and motivation. They found that Open University students (age range 19–63 years) with low motivation benefited more from group work online then those already highly motivated. Similarly, in earlier research, Lin et al. (2016) posited that passive social media use (i.e., browsing other people’s posts) could decrease well- being, whereas active social media use may serve to increase well-being. This research, whilst not directly comparable to this study, nevertheless raises the possibility of other factors or influences that may have influenced the low active participation rate and country-specific preferences.

7.3.3 Preference for face-to-face communication

Analysis of data from the 2011 AUS and SIN cohort found that participants believed virtual connectedness alone was not enough for meaningful engagement, with most preferring face-to-face communication. Research subsequent to 2011 was less conclusive but reaffirms the 2011 results.

Baker and White (2011) examined attitudes towards SNS among Year 9 and 10 Australian secondary school students (N=69). The primary reasons for not using SNS were lack of motivation, poor use of time, preference for other types of communication, wanting to undertake other activities and dislike of self-presentation online. For example, 41 per cent preferred to use other forms of communication such as face-to-face. The authors noted that “concerns about both cybersafety and fear of ridicule from the public nature of the medium were recognized a number of times and appear to be an important factor in determining non-use for some adolescents” (Baker & White, 2011, p. 397). However, Kujath (2011) found that, among 183 college students, Facebook and MySpace were used as an extension of face-to-face interaction. The online realm is important for maintaining relationships, although this research suggested very few new relationships were formed online. Yet Hsu and Yu (2011), when exploring the use of Facebook with Taiwanese users, found that Facebook was a mechanism for making new friends, with close friends having more intimate engagement activities (e.g., face-to-face).

Turkle (2015), offering an alternate view, explained that connectivity on the Internet offers the illusion of companionship without the demands of friendship. Online, young

246 Chapter 7 people do not need to make efforts to build healthy relationships that require the understanding and application of a full range of human expressions and the vocabulary to match these expressions. She argued that young people’s attachment to connectivity and endless hours of chatting, tweeting, texting and befriending strangers is damaging their ability to have meaningful face-to-face interactions. She contended that they would rather text than talk because texting is less confronting and allows more processing time than face-to-face communication.

Nevertheless, research by Vaterlaus, Tulane, Porter, and Becket (2017) found that adolescents still value face-to-face communication. They interviewed 204 adolescents and young people in America on their perceptions of how technology had influenced their romantic relationships. Twenty-five per cent of college students and 13 per cent of high school studies were worried about the decline in face-to-face communication because of interactive technology. Moreover, some thought that adolescents were losing the ability to communicate face-to-face. Importantly participants noted that, whilst the ‘dating game’ had changed with the advent of interactive technology, many still believed the need for face-to-face communication to maintain and foster close relationships had not diminished in importance. Similarly Edwards and Wang (2016) conducted focus groups on 42 13– 15-year-olds in the UK and found that, when resolving issues with family members, they rarely used social media and almost unanimously preferred face-to-face discussion.

One of the reasons for the preference for face-to-face communication discussed in relation to the 2011 benchmark findings was the desire for meaningful and authentic engagement. Research by O’Rourke, Eskritt, and Bosacki (2018) explored perceived deception of individuals by comparing computer-mediated communication with face-to-face communication. They found that computer-mediated communication behaviour was considered more deceptive than face-to-face engagement. Interestingly, the researchers also found the adults who participated were more able to detect deception than young people, suggesting that the ability to detect deception matures as people develop (or that this ability is stunted by overexposure to Internet communication). Venter (2017) summed it up the best: “Face-to-face communication remains the ideal way of communicating for all generations” (p. 505).

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As illustrated above, the research since 2011 has continued to demonstrate strong preference for face-to-face communication over online engagement, particularly in the areas of family/romantic engagement.

7.3.4 Cohort preference for hand technologies for artwork Australian participants in this research preferred drawing and verbal communication for self-expression. Fewer preferred to express themselves using technology-assisted communication tools, while the Singaporean students were comfortable using both.

Enabled by digital networked technology and social media, young people are engaging in creative activities to express their artistic selves in ways that are changing our understanding of learning and interaction in the direction of socially networked peer participation (see Duncum, 2011; Galarneau, 2011, 2012; Rutledge, 2013). Far from merely being influenced by their digital world, they are, as Michikyan and Suárez-Orozco (2016) described, “creators – actively and interactively constructing their identities, establishing, re-connecting, or ‘defriending’ relationships … challenging and transforming cultural norms in online and offline context” (p. 411). Lalonde, Castro, and Pariser (2016) suggested that teens define their social relationships through representations of experience using various online platforms and techniques; therefore, youth identity formation through social media and its supporting devices is argued to be a “synergetic relationship between individual and the collective online” (p. 38). Teenagers are spending increasing amounts of time online undertaking similar types of activities that occur in the real world, including art-making, learning, socialisation and play. This mediated environment bridges formal and informal learning, meaning that young people’s online and offline interaction can be a productive co-mingling which offers pedagogical opportunities.

In the domain of visual arts and design education, many researchers have studied the success and dynamics of virtual learning communities. For example, a recent large-scale international research project (Freeman, Henijnen, Kallio-Tavin, Kàrpàti, & Papp, 2015) involved interviewing young people from five urban areas (Amsterdam, Budapest, Chicago, Helsinki and Hong Kong). Each was part of a group with an interest in visual culture. The authors found the cohort had increased their art knowledge and skills over

248 Chapter 7 time, even though the study was in an informal setting. The increase occurred through a common interest in the topics, the creation of codes of behaviour, the desire to learn about art not discussed at school and opportunities to collaborate in art-making. In addition, the groups provided entertainment and social networking opportunities.

As noted above, virtual learning communities can have disadvantages. Olson (2016) created a virtual space for teens to meet and work on projects and examined how art makers cooperated in a virtual community. Olson reported tensions and conflicts in the space over socialisation, art-making and learning. Newman (2015) focused on developing media literacy skills in young adults online, and found the type of connections made could harm the users’ online and offline relationships. Sparks and Honey (2015) noted that, while there were benefits in young people going online to express themselves, online- only relationships should not be substitute for real-life connections.

7.3.5 Self exploration – dominant theme of artworks For the students studied in 2011 in the current research, self-exploration was the most dominant theme in artworks, although AUS students gave twice as many responses according with this theme as did their SIN counterparts, including over 50 per cent of responses from HS/SS students and nearly 40 per cent of responses from boys. A review of the literature did not find any comparable research in the period 2011–18.

7.3.6 Difference between boys’ and girls’ computer skills and participation In the current research, girls were more confident than boys in their computer skills and more likely to participate in blog activities, but they were also more suspicious about IT and reported more fear, complexity and psychological issues with IT. This is consistent with the findings of Abiala and Hernwell (2013) that girls are more likely to publish blogs than boys. Nikken (2018), who surveyed 1,742 Dutch young people (10–18 years) also found that girls were more apt to use social media in a healthy manner.

7.3.7 Attendance at Art Galleries In the current study, less than 41 per cent of Australian participants and less than 36 per cent of Singaporean participants almost never visited an art gallery or museum. Similarly, in 2012 the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) reported that 39 per cent of Australian children aged 12 to 14 years visited an Art Gallery or Museum (ABS, 2012). There are

249 no more recent published ABS statistics on children visiting art galleries or museums. However, according to Australian Government statistics the total number of visits (2016- 2017) to a national collecting institution was 10,770,000; this was an increase from 8,843,000 in 2012–13 (Australian Government 2018). In the Singaporean context, official statistics suggested that 60 per cent of 15–19-year-olds had attended at least one art event in 2012 (Ministry of Culture, Community and Youth (MCCY), 2012). However, an art event could also include artistic activities such as a concert. The latest figures from the National Art Council of Singapore state that from 2013 to 2015, there was a 27 per cent increase in art attendance in the 15–24-year age group (from 58% to 85%) (National Arts Council, 2015). Part of the explanation for the rise in attendance may be that since 2015, two new institutions have opened in Singapore; namely the National Gallery Singapore and Indian Heritage Centre (MCCY, 2015).

7.4 Directions

Overall, the related research published in 2011–18 contained few surprises. Related findings confirmed or intensified the directions of the benchmark study. Chapter 8 considers the implications of both the benchmark study and the 2011–18 research.

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CHAPTER 8 The Benchmark Study: Reflections, Directions and Implications

8.1 Scope of the chapter

Chapter Seven’s overview of research conducted between 2011 and 2018 demonstrated that, while research in the digital space has expanded exponentially, the results of the current benchmark study have been validated rather than refuted by subsequent research.

The following section of this chapter presents the key findings of the study in relation to the aims posited in Chapter 1 (see also Appendix R). In the context of the dominance of the visual identified by the study in relation to the participating Australian and Singaporean adolescents, the next section discusses the concept of visuacy as a communicative conduit. The penultimate and final sections focus on the implications of the benchmark study and subsequent research for pedagogic practice, and areas for further research.

8.2 The Aims Realised

Table 8.1 maps the key findings of the study to its aims.

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Table 8.1 Mapping key findings to study aims

Key findings Aims of the study 1 a) To scope 1 b) To compare 2 To explore the ways in which adolescents from two different countries present adolescents’ these themselves to their peers in a technologically mediated social/academic environment in preferences and preferences and relation to: consumption consumption i) Their ii) Their technological iii) Their visual and verbal habits in relation habits across communicative comfort zone presentation of “self” to art and two different behaviour technology in countries 2011. Facebook is the dominant SNS   for both AUS and SIN between 70% and 80% 65% use computer at home more    than five times per week Near 100% acknowledged SNSs   use but they may well be just 252 “ritual users”

High ‘logons’ (50-90%) with   low level of active participation (<20%) 75% AUS participants prefer    open mediated environment 90% SIN participants choose regulated and structured environment SIN participants value face-to-  face and technology-assisted communication equally. AUS participants prefer hand technologies and use less technology-assisted communication tools.

Key findings Aims of the study 1 a) To scope 1 b) To compare 2 To explore the ways in which adolescents from two different countries present adolescents’ these themselves to their peers in a technologically mediated social/academic environment in preferences and preferences and relation to: consumption consumption i) Their ii) Their technological iii) Their visual and verbal habits in relation habits across communicative comfort zone presentation of “self” to art and two different behaviour technology in countries 2011. Self-exploration is the dominant  theme in artworks for both countries but AUS double that of SIN Girls are more confident with their IT skills than boys  Girls express greater suspicion

253 and have more fear, complexity and psychological issues with IT

Many (AUS >40% and SIN  >30%) almost never visited an art gallery or museum

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Figure 8.1 scopes these adolescents’ presentation of self via the prism of visuacy and the theories of Erikson and Goffman, and provides a snapshot of the digital behaviours of Australian and Singaporean adolescents in 2011.

Figure 8.1 Diagrammatic representation of analysis, and a snapshot of the digital behaviours of Australian and Singaporean adolescents in 2011

254 Chapter 8 Clearly, the research participants believed virtual connectedness to be insufficient for meaningful engagement. Most of them insisted that face-to-face interactions were equally if not more important to them; they perceived face-to-face interactions to be more transparent, genuine and spontaneous. Research since 2011 (e.g., Baker & White, 2011; Edwards & Wang, 2016; Vaterlaus et al., 2017; Venter, 2017) continues to demonstrate a similar strong preference for face-to-face communication. In 2011, not all Gen Zers in this research were in their comfort zone when negotiating in their social/academic technological mediated environment. While most AUS participants preferred an open mediated environment that offered freedom of expression plus the choice of with whom and when they wanted to interact, SIN participants were more at ease with a structured mediated environment. However, participants from both countries were very Gen Z- oriented in the sense that they valued self-exploration and preferred to communicate using technology most of the time because of convenience. Nevertheless, as noted above, they still valued traditional modes of face-to-face interaction when it came to expressing their personal artistic selves. These participants felt that they needed to maintain the head– heart–hand connections, which the technological world at that time could not provide (Figure 1.1).

Although participants from both countries showed themselves to be keen users of SNSs, as indicated by their high rate of logging into the study blogs, it can be argued that they were more ‘ritual users’ of SNSs, meaning they were essentially technological avoiders rather than active technological users when it came to personal involvement. A potential reason for the low active participation rate in the blogs may have been the implicit surveillance, which may have deterred student participants from free and honest interaction. Students who opted to participate in the study were aware that all their interactions would be monitored by the researcher and potentially viewed by their teachers. Furthermore, they were aware that the other actors were their peers, including young people from another country. Therefore, they were performing to an audience, and as a result, might have been affected by social desirability bias – the need to write appropriate things and demonstrate appropriate behaviours – in the blogs. This phenomenon is consistent with Goffman’s (1956) theory (as discussed in Chapter 2): the student participants were giving what they thought the audience (the researcher, their teachers and their peers) wanted. Subsequent research (Costley & Lange, 2018;

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Michailidis et al., 2018) raises other explanatory possibilities such as motivation of the participants or facilitators such as toolkits to encourage online engagement. In essence, however, participants from both countries presented themselves and gave responses in a positive and encouraging manner.

Social network sites provide opportunities for young social media users to explore and develop their identities. In the 2011 AUS and SIN research, almost all participants were Facebook users, although only some used it as a platform for developing and maintaining social capital with their peers as an extension to their social lives in school. The findings indicate that the cohort had the emotional and cognitive ability to make sound technology choices, in line with Erikson’s theory (i.e., the cohort was at the developmental age to make such reasoned choices). It is certain that they were ‘global’ in their thinking, in the sense that they were able to communicate and access information from around the world online. Subsequent research (e.g., ACMA, 2016; Cowling, 2018; Fluent, 2016; Nylander, 2015) reaffirms the place of Facebook as the most dominant social networking platform.

8.3 Visuacy as a communicative conduit

The generation that first encountered networked personal computers did so in the 1980s and 1990s. These were machines on which one played games, worked with spreadsheets, or sent email; they offered greater productivity than earlier office equipment and many new pleasures, but they did not suggest that the virtual environment might displace the classroom environment. The students in this benchmark study were part of the first generation for whom the visual virtual world represented a new reality.

Participants from both countries reflected upon the importance and ubiquity of their exposure to visual stimuli in social media. They viewed a wide range of artworks created by their peers or other artists, engaged in artistic dialogues with their peers, and observed discussions on social media. These activities provided opportunities to develop their own ideas and gave them inspiration for their own art making.

The plethora of visually presented information online requires visuacy skills to enable people to sieve, process and synthesis what they see. Given that in 2011 the participating students had limited access to smartphones, and less constant and pervasive social media

256 Chapter 8 access than is the case for students in 2018, one might expect very different findings if this research was to be repeated now. Hence, the key findings presented in Figure 8.1 serve as a valuable benchmark for evaluation of change.

The preference for traditional modes of communication has remained consistent since research in the 1970s and 80s (the pre-internet era – e.g., Davis (1973) and Graham (1982)) about speaking, writing and drawing (discussed in Section 2.2). This finding suggests that, although the participants in this study grew up with digital technology and actively used digital communication tools to connect with others online, nevertheless they valued face- to-face interactions and more traditional forms of communication alongside digitally facilitated ones.

Although in the 2011 study, there was a high overall level of usage, SIN and AUS participants used Facebook for different purposes. SIN participants used Facebook to maintain connections with their friends/classmates from school. For them, it was a social extension of their school/class environment, in which they could continue their interactions after school. This finding is consistent with those of Gross (2004) and West, Lewis, and Currie (2009), who found that most online interactions among adolescents are with friends who are also part of their daily offline lives and generally peers of a similar age. Subsequently Edwards and Yang (2017) found that the 42 adolescents they interviewed in the UK used online socialising as another means of keeping relationships going. However, MacIsaac and Gray’s (2017) research indicated that some adolescents used SNS like Facebook to extend beyond the traditional school group. Using a year-long ethnographic study of Scottish high school students, they found that “with the assistance of social media platforms, pupils negotiated large social networks, expanding throughout the school but also beyond it and across the city” (p.822). Further, as in offline relationships, social similarity matters in online interactions: Mesch and Talmud (2007) showed that the more similar an online friend is, the stronger the social tie. This was reaffirmed in subsequent research by Gluer and Lohaus (2016), who studied 1,890 German preadolescents and adolescents, and found that friends initially met offline have a higher friendship quality than those who initially met online. A subsequent study (Lim, Chen Der Thanq, & Liang, 2013) of Singapore youth’s new media participation confirmed that school plays a central role in the way Singaporean students participate and

257 engage in their online activities. Hence, their participation in new media can be described as ‘school driven’. In contrast, AUS participants in the 2011 study mostly confined their Facebook use to interaction with family members. Interestingly, Wang (2018) surveyed 28 American first-year college students about encountering parents and other family adults online. The research showed that they were overwhelmingly accepted (as Facebook friends) and were offered equal access to information, thus reinforcing the findings of the benchmark study.

Subrahmanyam et al. (2008) found that young people often use the internet, especially SNSs, to connect with family members, and their participants reported spending more time in face-to-face interactions with friends outside school than online. In the current study, AUS participants were clear about their desire to limit their engagement with social media, with SIN participants also expressing wariness (Section 5.5.2). There is some contradiction between their desires for technological and traditional human interactions, suggesting that participants were experiencing cognitive and affective dissonance. Leon Festinger (1957) first proposed the concept of cognitive consistency. In essence, cognitive consistency suggests that each of us has an internal mechanism that keeps our beliefs and attitudes in harmony; dissonance occurs when there is a discrepancy. Because the experience of dissonance is likely to be unpleasant and unsettling for teenagers, they are driven to lessen or resolve it. Hence, it was interesting to observe that participants from both countries constantly engaged in dialogues to seek consistency in their cognition and affection within their own internal sense of contradictions. This seemed to produce discomfort, perhaps marking the consumption of social media and technology as guilty pleasures; this accords with Aronson's (1959) notion of dissonance as being the discrepancy between someone’s idea of themselves and their actual behaviour – which can lead to being in a state of guilt.

Despite being Facebook users, and thus familiar with online interaction, participants from both countries were more spectators than participants in the blogs – as evidenced by high login rates (50–90%) but low rates of posting (20% or less) in the mediated environment. Given that less than 41 per cent of those surveyed almost never visited an art gallery or museum, it would appear that participants’ preference for browsing or using the Internet for research or seeking ideas or inspirations to inform their artmaking is more prevalent

258 Chapter 8 than traditional forms of inspirations. Lim et al. (2013) similarly found that Singaporean students tend to be “consumers of information and views rather than creators” (p. 729).

There was very little evidence of genuine interaction in the paired groups; AUS participants evinced ‘spectator’ characteristics, while SIN participants were more proactive in initiating dialogue. One might speculate that this reflects Australians’ national psyche being more geared towards spectatorship rather than participation. There was also evidence of apprehension and feelings of intimidation in the interviews, which might explain the AUS participants’ reluctance to interact.

On the other hand, AUS participants were more responsive than SIN participants to the open mediated environment, suggesting they were more comfortable when they had freedom of choice in their interaction with respect to with whom they interacted, and the artworks on which they could comment. Arguably, the SIN participants found a structured and regulated environment such as the paired environment more consistent with their educational context. In 2011, technology alone was not sufficient to encourage young people to alter their communicative preferences and become more engaged in a mediated environment.

Even though participants from both countries expressed strong preferences for face-to- face communication, the evidence suggests that SIN participants were more ready and willing to embrace technology-assisted communication. SIN participants valued verbal face-to-face communication and technology-assisted communication as equally important for self-expression depending on the context, purpose and social situation. In contrast, AUS participants preferred drawing and verbal communication for self- expression and fewer preferred to express themselves using technology-assisted communication tools.

Self-exploration was the dominant theme in artworks, but AUS students’ works had twice as many in relation to this theme than their SIN counterparts, including over 50 per cent of responses from HS/SS students and nearly 40 per cent of responses from boys. This sense of self-exploration in HS/SS participants is consistent with Erickson’s Critical Stage of Development (Ego Identity vs Role Confusion) and with Sparks and Honey’s (2016) view that Gen Zers intend to change the world, make a difference or an impact,

259 and are more independent and self-directed than previous generations. Over 35 per cent of the C/JC participants focused on the theme of social environment. One may speculate that college students, being older, have moved from Erikson’s identity search stage to a more advanced social conscience stage.

Inconsistent with Sparks and Honey’s (2016) view that Gen Zers place more emphasis on their personal relationships than other relationships, few participants in the current research focused on the themes of relationships. This may, of course, be an inaccurate reflection of reality, given that they were in a formal and constrained environment, and may not have been comfortable to raise such issues, especially with people that they had not met and in interactions that the researcher and their teachers were monitoring.

In the current study, girls were more confident than boys in their computer skills and more likely to participate in blog activities, but they were also more suspicious about IT and reported more fear, complexity and psychological issues with IT. This finding is consistent with an earlier study by Orleans and Laney (1998) of adolescent SNS and computer use, which found that girls’ computer expertise was relatively substantial. The current study’s finding that girls were greater publishers of blogs than boys aligns with the findings of Davis (2010) and Abiala and Hernwell (2013). While their male counterparts preferred more solitary online activities such as gaming, they were also more dismissive of digital technology (perhaps due to their own incompetence). Orleans and Laney (1998) reported that boys spent more time than girls in using computers, and were also likely to socialise through computers. This aligns with research by Abiala and Hernwell (2013): while both sexes chatted on line, boys were more likely to play games online. Finally, Nikken (2018) also found girls were more apt to use social media.

Given that the AUS students were residents of Canberra – the national capital and home to many Australian cultural institutions – and Singapore is aspiring to be known as the cultural hub of Southeast Asia, it is interesting to note that, despite participants from both countries being art/design specialist students, many almost never visited an art gallery or museum. When seeking references or seeking inspirations or ideas, participants preferred foreign artists over local artists.

260 Chapter 8 While visuacy is the overarching communication driver in a digital world, the current results suggest that the visual-driven nature of the social/academic mediated technological environment, such as the one used in this study, encourages adolescents to be technological avoiders rather than active users. This opens the question of how we can reconsider the interfacing of technology and screen culture to stimulate proactive technology use.

8.4 Implications for education practice

The social/academic mediated technological environment is barely three decades old; it is evolving at such a pace that its social protocols are still developing, and we are yet to realise its full potential for facilitating young people’s learning and enhancing their active engagement and learning. There is a clear need to continue to educate adolescents and young people to be informed and responsible users of technology and to contribute positively in the virtual learning community. Evidence produced in this study indicates that traditional education around literacy and numeracy is no longer adequate to arm students with the basics they need to operate in the ever-changing information technology realm. The vast majority of research since the benchmark study continues to focus on Internet consumption and its detrimental effects. However, Van Deursen, Helsper & Eynon (2016) explored the skills required to engage online by developing an Internet Skills Survey (ISS), designed to capture both basic and more specialised skills users need to comprehend and use online content. The ISS identifies five skills: Mobile (e.g., the ability to use a mobile device), Creative (e.g., ability to design a website, creative something new), Social (e.g., ability to distinguish what information should be shared, appropriate behaviours online), Information Navigation (e.g., knowing what key words to use for searches, ability to verify information) and Operational (basic computer skills). Importantly, Van Deursen, Helsper & Eynon (2016) noted the existence of “Critical (literacy) skills that are not included [in the ISS] because they were shown to be individual context dependent and not easy to measure in general population survey research” (p. 30). Whilst the authors described these terms as part of literacy, the visuacy skills which encompass literacy and oracy would be a better descriptor. Noting the above, the key implications of the key findings from this research for education practice are listed below.

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 What changes to curricula and pedagogical practices might best capitalise on Gen Zers’ proclivity for blended visual learning?  The communicative fusion of visuacy, oracy and literary offers opportunities to disrupt traditional physical boundaries in favour of heightening imagination and emotional maturity. For example, in relation to visual arts, museum and art gallery educators, art institutions public programs coordinators and visual arts teachers need to: o encourage adolescents to engage in first-hand visual art experiences as a source of inspiration to inform art-making and the development of self- actualisation in younger audiences; o seek opportunities to extend and challenge the visual experience in the museum and gallery space; and o explore the interface between digital and traditional museum and gallery spaces, for example, an exhibition by a famous blogger or Instagram ‘artist’ to encourage followers to visit an institution where they could be enticed to see other exhibitions. Alternatively, consider hosting an exhibition entirely online using a common platform, for example, an exhibition on Snapchat, where images disappear after 20 seconds.  The social/academic technologically mediated environment utilised in this benchmark study was both exploratory and experimental. Held and hosted in a traditional academic setting demonstrated the platform’s intransigent and intrinsically technical problems with respect to learning and exchange of knowledge and skills, for example accessibility and stability. Potential enhancements relate to both platform development and closed versus open mediated environments. These include: o ensuring platforms have the ability to upload a file of any format and size; o modelling the file upload process on a popular SNS to build adolescents’ familiarity with these and reduce or eliminate the need for additional instructions; o facilitating student dialogue by sending alerts (e.g., via SMS) to participants when they receive a new message; o enabling images to be created on the platform as well as edited; and o enabling face-to-face interactions online (e.g., a Facetime or Skype-type interface).

262 Chapter 8

 Any educational platform for children will necessarily involve a form of superintending. Edwards and Wang (2018) found that young people do not reject adult involvement online, but have issues with the roles: It would appear that these young people recognise the need for adult support. Yet they desire a support strategy that enables the development of self-governance and personal agency to re-build their own relationships. This desire is in line with their transitional stage of adolescence in this stage, the role of adult intervention shifts from guardian towards a more participatory mentor role to support social and developmental processes (p. 728) Designing a platform so that it balances legislative requirements for protection against young people’s preferences will ensure it is well used.  Neither the closed nor the open mediated environments explored in the benchmark study took account of potential dissonance between the required unitasking and the multitasking, which is an exponential feature of technological engagement. For example, many nowadays not watch television without checking online for facts or SNS updates. Even exercise can be coupled with smart devices that allow runners to check their vital statistics in real time. This raises the question as to whether, in this multitasking online world, the ability to focus on one task has been lost. In 2015, Turkle (2015) argued that “pedagogy that supports unitasking [as opposed to ‘multitasking’] and deep reading” (p. 221). This might this be achieved by creating time in the educational setting for solitary endeavours, such as deep thinking and active engagement without the negative interruptions of technology could help develop and hone those skills.  Participants in the current study expressed reservations above active participation in online art-related activities, and reported the tendency to avoid confrontations, embarrassing situations or expressing negative opinions on SNS, what might be an appropriate role for formal education in the development of protocols for responsible SNS usage and related appropriate social etiquette akin to that which is promulgated re face-to-face interaction?  Participants in the study clearly articulated their desire for a balance between technology-assisted communication and human interactions. There is great enthusiasm about the use of technology platforms; the challenge for educators is to capitalise on that enthusiasm. A curriculum, learning activity or school program that

263

engages Gen Ze must enhance their learning experience while enabling them to make meaningful connections between the real world and the virtual world. Hostert (2010) noted that the 21st century educator needs to not only infuse the curriculum with media-rich experiences but guide students’ use of digital tools and promote their critical understanding of the world through virtual learning activities that develop those analytical skills.

8.5 Implications for further research

This benchmark study opens many avenues for further research. It raises further questions that have not been answered in the period since.  The cognitive and affective dissonance which pervaded adolescents’ interaction with technology in 2011 continues to be identified in studies of issues such as cyberbullying, links between loneliness and online behaviour, addiction and identity formation challenges (e.g., Chun, Sim & Kim, 2017; Mannerstrom et al., 2018; Oksanen et al., 2016; Ponte, Simões, & Jorge, 2013). Future researchers should ask: o How might such dissonance be reduced and students encouraged to explore personal/artistic creativity in a safe cyber environment? o To what extent does dissonance persist between the desire for technological connection and fear of the consequence of such connection?  In 2011, almost 100 per cent of participants from both Australia and Singapore reported use of SNSs, but their active engagement via the social/academic technological mediated environment was low. Researchers should ask: o Given greater access to technology in 2019 and the availability of more diverse SNSs, to what extent does virtual use dominate active engagement? o To what extent has the availability of digital face-to-face communication platforms affected adolescents’ preferences for actual face-to-face interaction? o How has increased technological connection interfered with/facilitated human interaction?

264 Chapter 8 This study identified certain patterns of technological engagement between Australian and Singaporean adolescents, and tentatively linked these to contrasting pedagological/learning styles in the two countries. This hypothesised link requires further investigation, using the current benchmark data as a starting point, and recognising that the generation for whom the visual digital world is their reality is likely to learn and behave in ways neither predicted nor predictable. Isolated studies at the doctoral level are never likely to capture the complexity of this evolution. While cross-sectional studies can describe moments in time for cohorts and provide useful explanatory data, capturing the impacts of technological advancement on individual lives is a more enticing and potentially powerful prospect. Michael Apted’s landmark ‘7 Up’ documentary series, which began in 1964 with a film about 14 British 7-year-olds that has been repeated every seven years since, could serve as an inspirational model (Bruzzi, 2007). Recruiting a similar cross-sectional sample of seven-year-olds from Singapore and Australia in 2020 and documenting their engagement with technology every few years would yield a fascinating human cybermap.

Finally, further empirical research could examine whether the findings of the current study hold true for other types of student cohorts. Figure 8.2 shows parameters that could be explored in subsequent studies of students’ embrace of digital technology. To take one example, science and art students might have very different communicative preferences.

STUDENT COHORT

PRIVATE SCHOOL ART STUDENTS DIFFERENT DIFFERENT GOVERNMENT SCHOOL AGE GROUP SCIENCE/MATHS COUNTRIES TIME/YEAR/PERI GENDER STUDENTS ETHNICITY OD SCHOOL COMMERCE STUDENTS RELIGION LEVEL UNIVERSITY STUDENTS SOCIO- POLYTECHNIC ECONOMIC STATUS STUDENTS

Figure 8.2 Potential for extension beyond the current study’s sample

265

In conclusion, the students in this 2011 benchmark study were part of a new generation for whom the visual online world represents a new reality. Technology needs to ensure users continue to have head, heart and hand connections so they can express themselves. Through technology the concept of speaking has evolved and encompassed the visuacy aspects of communication such as show and tell, understanding through visualising or learning from visual directions or instructions. Developing and enhancing visuacy skills needs to be a core component of education.

This study of Australian and Singaporean adolescents in 2011 demonstrated their high usage of SNSs. Nonetheless, they professed a preference (reinforced by the blog interactions, questionnaire and interview responses) for face-to-face interactions. Clearly, technology alone is not enough to facilitate the engagement of these young people. Despite the enormous power and many advantages of digital communication, face-to-face human communication remains vital.

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APPENDIX A Scoping Literature on Youth & Adolescence Research

- PART ONE (2006 – 2010) A.1.1 – A.1.7 INDIVIDUAL RAW DATA TABLES A.1.8 PART ONE: CONSOLIDATED RAW DATA

- PART TWO (2011 – 2016) A.1.9 – A.1.15 INDIVIDUAL RAW DATA TABLES A.1.18 PART TWO: CONSOLIDATED RAW DATA

331

Appendix: A.1.1 (PART ONE) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE Volume: VOLUME 16 - 20 Year: 2006 -2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth 0 0 0 1 2 3 1.73 subculture

Youth transition 2 4 2 4 5 17 9.83 to adulthood

Youth support 3 8 9 4 8 32 18.50

Youth mobility/ 1 0 0 0 0 1 0.58 migration

Alcohol 4 3 0 0 4 11 6.36 consumption/s ubstance abuse Youth 2 0 3 4 7 16 9.25 education/ employment Youth at risk 3 3 1 1 3 11 6.36

Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 youth

Youth well- 3 12 6 14 4 39 22.54 being

Youth 0 0 0 2 0 2 1.16 political/civil participation Gender/health/ 7 4 2 1 5 19 10.98 sexuality

Juvenile 3 1 6 6 2 18 10.40 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 internet addiction Digital 0 1 0 1 1 3 1.73 world/internet/ social media Others 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.58

TOTAL: 28 36 29 38 42 173 100

333

Appendix: A.1.2 (PART ONE) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF YOUTH STUDIES Volume: VOLUME 9 - 13 Year: 2006-2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth 4 1 1 2 3 11 5.61 subculture

Youth transition 6 6 5 7 6 30 15.31 to adulthood

Youth support 6 4 6 6 3 25 12.76

Youth mobility/ 2 0 2 2 1 7 3.57 migration

Alcohol 2 5 2 1 2 12 6.12 consumption/s ubstance abuse Youth 2 3 4 3 4 16 8.16 education/ employment Youth at risk 4 2 5 3 7 21 10.66

Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 1 0.51 youth

Youth well- 0 4 1 3 4 12 6.12 being

Youth 0 3 4 3 3 13 6.63 political/civil participation Gender/health/ 5 2 5 7 3 22 11.22 sexuality

Juvenile 1 2 0 4 5 12 6.12 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 internet addiction Digital 1 0 4 2 1 8 4.08 world/internet/ social media Others 1 1 1 1 2 6 3.06

TOTAL: 34 33 41 44 44 196 100

334

Appendix: A.1.3 (PART ONE) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT RESEARCH Volume: VOLUME 21 - 25 Year: 2006 -2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth 0 1 1 1 5 8 5.33 subculture

Youth transition 3 12 4 9 6 34 22.67 to adulthood

Youth support 5 6 12 4 6 33 22.00

Youth mobility/ 0 0 1 2 1 4 2.67 migration

Alcohol 3 0 0 0 1 4 2.67 consumption/s ubstance abuse Youth 1 0 3 2 3 9 6.00 education/ employment Youth at risk 0 0 0 2 2 4 2.67

Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 youth

Youth well- 6 2 2 2 0 12 8.00 being

Youth 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.67 political/civil participation Gender/health/ 4 3 5 6 5 23 15.33 sexuality

Juvenile 2 3 1 1 2 9 6.00 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 internet addiction Digital 0 0 3 1 3 7 4.67 world/internet/ social media Others 0 0 1 1 0 2 1.33

TOTAL: 24 29 33 31 34 150 100

335

Appendix: A.1.4 (PART ONE) Name of Journal: YOUTH & SOCIETY Volume: VOLUME 37 - 41 Year: 2006-2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth 0 0 2 0 3 5 4.31 subculture

Youth transition 1 2 5 2 1 11 9.48 to adulthood

Youth support 4 3 4 2 2 15 12.93

Youth mobility/ 0 0 0 2 0 2 1.72 migration

Alcohol 2 1 4 4 2 13 11.21 consumption/s ubstance abuse Youth 2 5 5 2 0 14 12.07 education/ employment Youth at risk 2 1 0 4 2 9 7.76

Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 youth

Youth well- 2 1 2 6 2 13 11.21 being

Youth 0 1 1 1 0 3 2.59 political/civil participation Gender/health/ 1 4 2 0 5 12 10.34 sexuality

Juvenile 3 2 2 2 6 15 12.93 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 1 0 0 0 0 1 0.86 internet addiction Digital 1 1 0 0 2 4 2.59 world/internet/ social media Others 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL: 19 21 27 25 24 117 100

336

Appendix: A.1.5 (PART ONE) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE Volume: VOLUME 29- 33 Year: 2006 -2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 subculture

Youth transition 2 2 6 4 13 27 7.42 to adulthood

Youth support 11 13 10 14 14 62 17.03

Youth mobility/ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 migration

Alcohol 7 2 11 4 12 27 7.42 consumption/s ubstance abuse Youth 2 6 1 5 1 15 4.12 education/ employment Youth at risk 0 3 1 2 1 7 1.92

Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 youth

Youth well- 29 29 25 42 23 148 40.66 being

Youth 2 0 1 1 1 5 1.37 political/civil participation Gender/health/ 3 6 3 14 9 35 9.62 sexuality

Juvenile 5 8 4 4 1 22 6.04 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 0 1 1 0 2 0.55 internet addiction Digital 2 2 2 3 1 10 2.75 world/internet/ social media Others 3 0 0 0 1 4 1.10

TOTAL: 66 71 56 94 77 364 100

337

Appendix: A.1.6 (PART ONE) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF YOUTH AND ADOLESCENCE Volume: VOLUME 35 - 39 Year: 2006 -2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth 0 0 0 1 5 6 1.25 subculture

Youth transition 9 9 14 6 7 45 9.39 to adulthood

Youth support 10 14 10 16 18 68 14.20

Youth mobility/ 0 2 4 7 0 13 2.71 migration

Alcohol 11 10 7 9 4 41 8.56 consumption/s ubstance abuse Youth 0 2 4 5 9 20 4.18 education/ employment Youth at risk 1 5 3 3 4 16 3.34

Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 youth

Youth well- 40 17 30 22 37 146 30.48 being

Youth 0 3 1 1 1 6 1.25 political/civil participation Gender/health/ 9 5 8 16 14 52 10.86 sexuality

Juvenile 5 14 15 15 7 56 11.69 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.21 internet addiction Digital 1 2 0 0 2 5 1.04 world/internet/ social media Others 1 1 0 0 2 4 0.34

TOTAL: 87 84 96 102 110 479 100

338

Appendix: A.1.7 (PART ONE) Name of Journal: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH Volume: VOLUME 13 -15 Year: 2006 -2010 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth 0 0 0 0 2 2 3.45 subculture

Youth transition 1 0 1 0 0 2 3.45 to adulthood

Youth support 0 0 1 1 6 8 13.79

Youth mobility/ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 migration

Alcohol 0 1 0 0 0 1 1.72 consumption/s ubstance abuse Youth 3 2 6 5 7 23 39.66 education/ employment Youth at risk 1 0 0 1 1 3 51.17

Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 youth

Youth well- 1 2 1 2 1 7 12.07 being

Youth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 political/civil participation Gender/health/ 1 2 0 0 2 5 8.62 sexuality

Juvenile 1 1 1 2 0 5 8.62 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 1 0 0 0 1 1.72 internet addiction Digital 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 world/internet/ social media Others 0 1 0 0 0 1 1.72

TOTAL: 8 10 10 11 19 58 100

339

A.1.8: PART ONE: CONSOLIDATED RAW DATA (2006-2010)

2006 -2010 Journal of Journal of Journal of Youth & Journal of Journal of International TOTAL TOTAL % Research on Youth Adolescent Society Adolescence Youth & Journal of Adolescence Studies Research Adolescence Adolescence & Youth Youth 3 11 8 5 0 6 2 35 2.28 subculture

Youth transition 17 30 34 11 27 45 2 166 10.80 to adulthood

Youth support 32 25 33 15 62 68 8 243 15.81

Youth mobility/ 1 7 4 2 0 13 0 27 1.76 migration

Alcohol 11 12 4 13 27 41 1 109 7.09 consumption/s ubstance abuse

Youth 16 16 9 14 15 20 23 113 7.35 education/ employment

Youth at risk 11 21 4 9 7 16 3 71 4.62

Indigenous 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.07 youth

Youth 39 12 12 13 148 146 7 377 24.53 well-being

Youth 2 13 1 3 5 6 0 30 1.95 political/civil participation

Gender/ 19 22 23 12 35 52 5 168 10.93 health/sexuality

Juvenile 18 12 9 15 22 56 5 137 8.91 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 5 0.33 internet addiction

Digital 3 8 7 4 10 5 0 37 2.41 world/internet /social media

Others 1 6 2 0 4 4 1 18 1.17

173 196 150 117 364 479 58 1537 100

340

Appendix: A.1.9 (PART TWO) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE Volume: VOLUME 21 - 28 Year: 2011-2016 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth subculture 5 3 3 5 2 5 0 3 26 5.88

Youth transition to 6 6 8 8 5 5 0 0 38 8.59 adulthood

Youth support 12 3 6 12 22 12 14 12 93 21.04

Youth mobility/ 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 3 0.68 migration

Alcohol 3 8 7 4 2 0 1 2 27 6.11 consumption/substance abuse Youth education/ 7 4 1 4 7 2 10 2 37 8.38 employment

Youth at risk 5 3 4 1 3 2 1 1 20 4.52

Indigenous youth 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.23

Youth well-being 11 12 8 3 7 3 18 15 77 17.42

Youth political/civil 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 0.45 participation

Gender/health/sexuality 7 5 9 9 4 8 9 8 59 13.35

Juvenile delinquency 7 7 3 4 1 3 4 8 37 8.38

Cyberbullying/internet 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 addiction

Digital world/ 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 4 0.90 internet/social media

Others 1 1 0 0 3 4 2 7 18 4.07

TOTAL: 64 52 53 53 58 44 60 58 442 100

341

Appendix: A.1.10 (PART TWO) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF YOUTH STUDIES Volume: VOLUME 14 - 19 Year: 2011-2016 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth subculture 4 7 2 5 6 4 3 2 33 5.36

Youth transition to 9 8 3 11 11 9 3 15 69 11.20 adulthood

Youth support 7 1 4 5 1 15 17 15 65 10.55

Youth mobility/ 0 2 2 2 3 6 0 0 15 2.44 migration

Alcohol 4 5 6 2 6 4 3 2 32 5.19 consumption/substance abuse Youth education/ 5 7 5 14 11 8 5 12 67 10.88 employment

Youth at risk 11 7 6 9 11 12 2 5 63 10.23

Indigenous youth 1 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 6 0.97

Youth well-being 4 11 14 9 8 12 21 11 90 14.61

Youth political/civil 1 3 5 6 8 13 8 5 49 7.95 participation

Gender/health/sexuality 5 2 8 9 6 8 9 3 50 8.12

Juvenile delinquency 2 3 6 3 5 2 4 5 30 4.87

Cyberbullying/ 0 1 1 3 1 1 0 2 9 1.46 internet addiction

Digital world/ 1 1 2 2 2 8 7 5 28 4.55 internet/social media

Others 0 3 2 2 1 1 1 0 10 1.62

TOTAL: 54 62 66 84 82 103 83 82 616 100

342

Appendix: A.1.11 (PART TWO) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT RESEARCH Volume: VOLUME 26 - 31 Year: 2011 -2016 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth subculture 4 4 3 6 2 1 0 0 23 9.48

Youth transition to 3 3 3 5 5 2 0 2 23 10.90 adulthood

Youth support 5 1 1 8 5 0 7 5 32 15.17

Youth mobility/ 0 1 3 0 2 1 0 0 7 3.32 migration

Alcohol 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 6 2.83 consumption/substance abuse Youth education/ 0 4 1 0 2 3 7 3 20 9.48 employment

Youth at risk 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 1 5 2.37

Indigenous youth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Youth well-being 2 2 1 0 5 1 9 7 27 012.8 0 Youth political/civil 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 2.37 participation

Gender/health/sexuality 6 9 7 6 5 4 2 3 42 19.90

Juvenile delinquency 1 0 1 2 0 0 2 1 7 3.32

Cyberbullying/ internet 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 addiction

Digital world/ 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 12 5.69 internet/social media

Others 0 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 5 2.37

TOTAL: 23 29 27 29 28 16 30 29 211 100

343

Appendix: A.1.12 (PART TWO) Name of Journal: YOUTH & SOCIETY Volume: VOLUME 43 -48 Year: 2011 -2016 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth subculture 6 2 1 3 0 2 0 0 14 4.35

Youth transition to 7 0 0 3 4 1 1 4 20 6.21 adulthood

Youth support 7 6 4 9 2 4 10 17 59 18.32

Youth mobility/ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 migration

Alcohol 5 2 3 2 0 3 0 1 18 5.59 consumption/substance abuse Youth education/ 5 3 5 4 10 4 8 10 49 15.22 employment

Youth at risk 8 1 0 3 4 2 0 2 20 6.21

Indigenous youth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Youth well-being 5 2 3 3 3 1 14 3 34 10.56

Youth political/civil 3 1 0 0 0 0 5 0 9 2.80 participation

Gender/health/sexuality 7 4 6 9 5 4 3 2 40 12.42

Juvenile delinquency 8 4 5 1 3 4 5 11 41 12.73

Cyberbullying/ internet 0 2 0 0 4 1 1 2 10 3.11 addiction

Digital 1 1 2 3 0 0 1 0 8 2.48 world/internet/social media Others 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

TOTAL: 62 28 29 40 35 26 50 52 332 100

344

Appendix: A.1.13 (PART TWO) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE Volume: VOLUME 34 - 46 Year: 2011 -2018 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth subculture 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 0.21

Youth transition to 7 15 7 12 3 9 1 3 57 5.96 adulthood

Youth support 20 31 24 27 25 15 14 32 188 19.71

Youth mobility/ 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.10 migration

Alcohol 11 9 6 12 5 4 9 3 59 6.19 consumption/substance abuse Youth education/ 7 5 0 2 2 2 14 15 44 4.60 employment

Youth at risk 1 3 5 3 2 2 3 5 24 2.52

Indigenous youth 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.21

Youth well-being 39 46 55 60 59 52 28 45 384 40.25

Youth political/civil 1 11 2 3 2 0 1 2 22 2.31 participation

Gender/health/sexuality 11 10 11 3 7 7 10 7 66 6.92

Juvenile delinquency 7 2 4 6 11 6 3 13 55 5.77

Cyberbullying/ internet 0 2 2 3 2 4 3 3 19 1.99 addiction

Digital world/ 1 2 1 3 3 3 8 4 25 2.63 internet/social media

Others 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 6 0.63

TOTAL: 106 138 118 136 121 106 95 134 954 100

345

Appendix: A.1.14 (PART TWO) Name of Journal: JOURNAL OF YOUTH AND ADOLESCENCE Volume: VOLUME 40 - 47 Year: 2011-2018 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth subculture 11 10 1 19 13 9 1 1 65 5.91

Youth transition to 5 9 2 11 12 4 5 4 52 4.73 adulthood

Youth support 30 18 27 31 27 16 21 19 189 17.20

Youth mobility/ 0 2 1 2 3 7 2 2 19 1.73 migration

Alcohol 7 6 4 10 11 3 13 10 64 5.82 consumption/substance abuse Youth education/ 15 17 16 5 8 10 10 25 106 9.65 employment

Youth at risk 4 3 4 11 5 6 6 5 44 4.00

Indigenous youth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Youth well-being 25 24 29 22 31 15 37 49 232 21.11

Youth political/civil 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 2 6 0.55 participation

Gender/health/sexuality 13 15 7 10 12 24 17 28 126 11.46

Juvenile delinquency 9 11 24 8 14 20 22 19 127 11.56

Cyberbullying/ 2 0 9 2 2 5 0 4 24 2.18 internet addiction

Digital world/ 1 0 7 1 2 4 9 2 26 2.37 internet/social media

Others 1 2 1 0 6 4 4 1 19 1.73

TOTAL: 123 117 132 135 146 127 148 171 1099 100

346

Appendix: A.1.15 (PART TWO) Name of Journal: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH Volume: VOLUME 16 -23 Year: 2011 -2018 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 TOTAL TOTAL % Youth subculture 2 2 2 1 4 1 0 0 12 5.53

Youth transition to 1 1 1 4 2 4 1 2 16 7.37 adulthood

Youth support 3 1 1 8 5 1 6 6 31 14.29

Youth mobility/ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.46 migration

Alcohol 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 5 2.30 consumption/substance abuse Youth education/ 2 6 2 10 7 5 5 4 41 18.89 employment

Youth at risk 0 0 1 6 1 1 0 0 9 4.15

Indigenous youth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Youth well-being 1 3 3 11 10 10 10 9 57 26.27

Youth political/civil 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 4 1.84 participation

Gender/health/sexuality 3 1 5 2 3 2 1 3 20 9.22

Juvenile delinquency 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 1 7 3.23

Cyberbullying/ internet 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 2 0.92 addiction

Digital world/ 0 0 1 3 0 3 2 0 9 4.15 internet/social media

Others 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 1.38

TOTAL: 14 17 18 47 36 31 27 27 217 100

347

A.1.16: PART TWO: CONSOLIDATED RAW DATA (2011-2018)

2011-2018 Journal of Journal of Journal of Youth & Journal of Journal of International TOTAL TOTAL % Research on Youth Adolescent Society Adolescence Youth & Journal of Adolescence Studies Research Adolescence Adolescence & Youth Youth 26 33 20 14 2 65 12 172 4.45 subculture

Youth transition 38 69 23 20 57 52 16 275 7.12 to adulthood

Youth support 93 65 32 59 188 198 31 657 17.02

Youth mobility/ 3 15 7 0 1 19 1 46 1.19 Migration

Alcohol 27 32 6 18 59 64 5 211 5.46 consumption/s ubstance abuse

Youth 37 67 20 49 44 106 41 364 9.43 education/ Employment

Youth at risk 20 63 5 20 24 44 9 185 4.79

Indigenous 1 6 0 0 2 0 0 9 0.23 youth

Youth well- 77 90 27 34 384 232 57 901 23.34 being

Youth 2 49 5 9 22 6 4 97 2.51 political/civil participation

Gender/ 59 50 42 40 66 126 20 403 10.44 Health/ Sexuality

Juvenile 37 30 7 41 55 127 7 304 7.87 delinquency

Cyberbullying/ 0 9 0 10 19 24 2 64 1.66 Internet addiction

Digital world/ 4 28 12 8 25 26 9 112 2.90 Internet/ Social media

Others 18 10 5 0 6 19 3 61 1.58

TOTAL 442 616 211 322 954 1099 217 3861 100

348

A.1.17: (PART ONE: 2006 –2010) ANALYSIS SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH ARTICLES FOCUSING ON THE DIGITAL WORLD AND ADOLESCENTS

This is the summary of the analysis of each of the research articles from the 65 per cent demonstrates the point that the research focusing on youth and adolescents even when narrowed down to the area specific to the digital world/internet/social media, are still revolving around the social issues in relation with well-being (e.g. excessive consumption/addiction, sleeping patterns/tiredness), effects on transition to adult life and risk involving consumption of social media.

There are 37 research articles (65 per cent) published between 2006 and 2010 focusing on the digital world and adolescents. The research articles highlighted in grey are the few exceptions that explore the potential of the digital world; there are a few that remotely investigate the complex relationship between adolescents and youth and the constructed social-mediated space.

349

A.1.17: (PART ONE: 2006 -2010) ANALYSIS SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL ARTICLES

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 1. Campbell 2006 Canada Teenage girls and cellular phones: To explore the contradictions and 11 girls  The cellular phone acts as a reminder of the potential Discourses of independence, safety commonalities between idealizations of Age between 14-17 risks of the public sphere of their parents’ concern, of and rebellion youth and technology presented in their responsibilities as a good daughter, of the need to advertisements and the lived take care of one’s image, and of their future as independent adults. experiences of teen girls with cellular phones. 2. Goodman, 2006 Canada Video gaming promotes concussion To determine if video/computer game 130 hockey players  The video/computer games successfully conveyed Bradely, knowledge acquisition in youth could be an effective and enjoyable Age 11-12=44 positive medium to educate youth, and the result appear Paras, hockey players medium to educate youth Age 13-14=38 to be positive. Williamson & Age 15-17=48  The results suggest that educational material can be Bizzochi conveyed successfully and in an appealing manner via video game play.

3. Kelly, 2006 Canada “No boundaries”? Girls’ Interactive, To explore girls’ learning about issues of 16 girls  The study shows that girls enjoyed playing with gender Pomerantz & Online Learning about Femininities femininity that takes place in the Age 13-16 and being gender rebellious. Currie  The study reflects on the implications for girls’ individual

350 presence of others online, connected through chat rooms, instant messaging, and collective empowerment and for transformative

pedagogy. and role-playing games. 4. Marshall, 2006 USA A descriptive epidemiology of To estimate the prevalence and does of Independent sample ranged from  Those considered high users at young ages are likely to Gorely & UK screen-based media use in youth: A television viewing, video gaming and 19 to 37 000 remain high users when older. Briddle review and critique computer use Males (40 %)  For children with assess to a television set, the number of Assess age-related and secular trends in Females (41%) hours spent does not appear to have increased over the past 50 years. TV viewing among youth ( 18 yr) The remaining samples =males and females combined 5. Wallenius, 2006 Finland Digital Game Playing and Direct and To determine whether there exist direct 478 school children  Everyday exposure to digital game violence can increase Punamäki & Indirect Aggression in Early links between digital game playing and 260 girls & 218 boys not only direct but also indirect aggression Rimpelä Adolescence: The Roles of Age, direct and indirect forms of aggression, Age between 10 and 13  No direct link between exposure to game violence and Social Intelligence, and Parent-Child and whether gage, social intelligence, aggression was identified among girls.  Digital game violence was directly associated with direct Communication and parent-child communication emerge aggression, especially at age of 10 but only among boys as moderators between digital game especially when parent-child communication was poor. playing and aggression.  Game violence was associated with indirect aggression among older boys with high level of social intelligence

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 6. Blais, Craig 2007 Canada Adolescents Online: The To determine whether using the Internet 884 students  Internet activity choice did influence later relationship & Pepler Importance of Internet Activity for different activities affects the quality 407 males quality in both best friendships and romantic Choices to Salient Relationships of close adolescent relationships 477 females relationships. (best friendships and romantic Age between 14 and 18  Visiting chatrooms and entertainment online activities either not related or negatively related to best friendship relationships) and romantic relationship quality.  These findings reflect important function of online socialising for the development and maintenance of salient adolescence relationships. 7. Brenick, 2007 USA Social evaluations of stereotypic To assess late adolescents’ evaluations of 87 students  Males and females evaluate stereotypic images in video Henning, images in video games: unfair and reasoning about gender stereotypes 46 males games using different forms of reasoning Killen, legitimate or “just entertainment”? in video games. 41 females  Males are more likely than females to find stereotypes O’Connor & Mean age 19 acceptable. Collins 8. Gentile & 2007 USA Violent Video Games as Exemplary To enumerate the ways video games Elementary sample=430 students  Students who play multiple violent video games are more Gentile Teachers: A Conceptual Analysis systematically and effectively use Age between 7 and 11 likely to learn aggressive cognitions and behaviours than education principles of learning, cognition 51% males those who play fewer. and instruction. Young adolescent sample=607  Students who play violent video games more frequently 351 across time are more likely to learn aggressive cognition Mean age 14 and behaviours than those who play the same types of

52% males games for equivalent amount of time but less frequently. Late adolescent sample=1.441 Mean age 19 45% males 9. Martha & 2007 France How do adolescents perceive the To evaluate how adolescents perceive 1129 adolescents  As a whole, adolescents did not appear worried by the Griffet risks related to cell-phone use? physical risks related cell-phone use while Male=503 risks to LIMRadiation. driving (CPUWDriving), exposure to Female=626  Gender. Ethnicity and age were not predictive for LIMRadiation, and social risks related to I- From 9 High schools and 1 perceived risks.  Level of schooling had positive influence on social risk incivility and the factors underlying these university perception. risk perceptions. 10. Mesch & 2007 Israel Similarity and the quality of online To investigate and compare the quality of 980 young people  Social similarity mattered even for friends who were met Talmud and offline social relationships online with offline adolescents’ Age 12-18 online. among adolescents in Israel relationships Equal number of boys and girls  The more similar an online friend was in residence and gender, the stronger was the social tie. 11. Punamäki, 2007 Finland Use of information and To examine the age and gender 7292 adolescents  Boys played digital games and used Internet more often Wallenius, communication technology (ICT) differences in ICT usage of 12-18-year-old Sample of 12-,14-,16- and 18- than girls Nygard, and perceived health in To test the hypothesis that intensive use year olds  Girls more intensive mobile phone usage. Saarni & adolescence: The role of sleeping of ICT is associated with problems 55.2% girls  Intensive ICT-usage was associated with negatively Rimpelä sleeping habits which in turn was associated with habits and waking-time tiredness 44.8% boys increased waking-time tiredness.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 12. Collin 2008 Australia The internet, youth participation To investigate young people’s 16 young people  The internet is used as a tool for identifying issues, policies, and the development of experiences of participation, their 6 Males learning more, and integrating participation into young people’s political identities in attitude and the role of the Internet in 7 Females everyday lives. Australia their participatory activities. Age 18 -25  Through online participation, young people are challenging some assumptions that underpin traditional notions of youth and participation. 13. Harris 2008 Australia Young women, late modern politics, Examines young women’s less Review of existing literature of  Social network sites are an important way for and the participatory possibility of conventional technology-enabled young women’s participation in young women in particular to participate in a online cultures political and social activity in order to and use of the Internet (Online public sphere regardless of the fact that the nature understand how these are operating DIY culture) of their public expressions is not necessarily political. as emergent modes of participation in  Young women engage in social networking a new political environment. activities at times to develop new modes of activism and political subjectivity but more often to create unregulated, public spaces for peer communities and to construct public self.  These online practices reveal potential challenges

352 for these young women in positioning themselves with a regulatory culture that rewards them for

their capacity as ideal neoliberal consumer subjects. 14. Hinduja & 2008 USA Personal information of adolescents To empirically ascertain the type of 9282 MySpace profiles randomly  The results indicate that the problem of Patchin on the internet: A quantitative information youth are publicly posting selected personal information disclosure on MySpace content analysis of MySpace through an extensive content analysis Final adolescent sample 1475 may not be as widespread as many assume, of randomly sampled MySpace profile 676 males and that the overwhelming majority of pages 795 females adolescent are responsibly using the web site. 15. Kutner, 2008 USA Parents’ and sons’ perspectives on Public policy efforts to restrict 21 boys  Parents of young adolescent boys have Olson, video game play: A qualitative study children’s access to electronic games Age between 12 and 14 strong opinions and concerns about their Warner & with violent or sexual content are 1 parent or legal guardian for sons’ use of electronic games interfering Hertzog often predicated on assumptions each boy with schoolwork, social skills and exercise. about parental concerns. To Total participants=42  They also worry about exposure to violent determine whether these and sexual context but definitions of and assumptions are accurate. opinions about what is harmful vary and may not match proposed public policies.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 16. Messersmith, 2008 USA Career Development from Examine the supportive and Selected smaller sample data  Thematic coding indicated that parents were Garrett, Adolescence through emerging obstructive career experience from the longitudinal sample mostly supportive while experiences in Davis-Kean, adulthood: Insights from information focusing on information technology collected in 1991 (majority born school and work occasionally made Malanchuk, technology occupations (IT) career. in 1979) Eccles & individuals reconsider career plans. Arbor 13 men  Social influences often changed 13 women developmentally as participants entered full- Modal age =25 time jobs  Gender participation in IT was often attributed to women’s perception that it is a male-oriented field. 17. Olson, 2008 USA The role of violent video game The study address the following questions: 42 boys  Boys use games to experience fantasies of power Kutner & content in adolescent development  What do boys identify as the reasons Age between 12 and 14 and fame, to explore and master what they Warner boys’ perspectives they play violent video games? perceive as exciting and realistic environments (but  What attracts boys to particular games distinct from real life), to work through angry or game characters? feelings or relieve stress.  Can electronic games be fun without  Boys did not believe they had been harmed by violent content? violent games but were concerned that younger

353  How do boys view the role of video children might imitate game behaviour (especially games in social relationships? swearing).

 What influence do boys believe violent video games have on their thoughts, feelings and behaviours and those of their peers?  How do they believe violent games might affect younger children? 18. Olsson 2008 Sweden For activists, for potential voters, for  Analysis of 3 empirical studies Young Swedish citizens  The analysis reveal a number of differences and consumers: three modes of producing  Examine the use of civic websites Age between 15 and 20 similarities between the websites on all levels from the civic web  Examine the internet through case production practices to producers’ general views of studies of five different websites that the Internet. were mentioned as useful resources for  Producers view their websites as “hubs” in their civic practices. organisations’ operations. It is through websites that they organise and coordinate their operations on all levels and also market their political messages to wider public.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 19. Walsh, 2008 Australia Over-connected? A qualitative To explore the role of mobile phone 32 participants  Mobile phones use play an integral part in the lives of White & exploration of the relationship between use in young people’s lives and 13 males young Australians and has become more than a tool for Young Australian youth and their mobile whether mobile phone addiction is 19 females communication. phones indicated in this cohort Age between 16 and 24  It emerged that some participants expressed their extreme attachment to their mobile phone with symptoms of behavioural addiction 20. Ward 2008 The The online citizen-consumer: addressing To examine how organisations use the 20 interviews with  It concludes that organisations see issue-based Netherlands young people’s political consumption Internet to address the young citizen- civic/political organisations campaigns and political consumerism as a new way through technology consumer 7 used for the study forward for citizenship while others (those more tied to government) use it as a stepping stone to getting involved in more traditional arenas. 21. Devís-Devís, 2009 Spain Screen media time usage of 12–16 year- Examine screen media time usage 323 adolescent students  Students from state/public school spent more time on Peiró- old Spanish school adolescents: Effects (SMTU) and its association with Age 12-16 screen media than their private school counterparts Velert, of personal and socioeconomic factors, personal and socioeconomic factors, 176 females  Older adolescents were more likely to use Beltrán- season and type of day the effect of season and type of day 147 males computer/videogame and mobile phone than younger Carrillo & adolescents Tomá  Boys spent significantly more time in mobile phones than girls

354  Higher consumption of TV and computer/videogames in autumn than in winter and higher usage on weekends than weekdays especially among state school students 22. Liu, 2009 Norway It is Not Merely about Life on the Screen: To explore youth patrons’ perspective 30 young people  Young people participate actively in the Internet Café Urban Chinese Youth and the Internet of their participation in Internet Café Age 15 -24 because they have constructed the space for themselves Café activities despite home access to as they interact with each other both face-to-face and in the virtual world. internet/computers  The Internet Café becomes a space which they can express themselves and feel affiliation with others, forging and re-forging their self- and group identities. 23. Selfhout, 2009 The Different types of Internet use, Examine the longitudinal associations 307 middle adolescents  Adolescents who perceive low friendship quality, Branje, Netherlands depression, and social anxiety: The role of time spent on Internet activities for (Average age 15) Internet use for communication purpose predicted less Delsing, of perceived friendship quality communication purposes versus time 150 boys depression, Internet use for non-communication ter Bogt & purposes predicted more depression and more social spent on non-communication purposes 157 girls Meeus anxiety in associations with depression and society anxiety and moderating role of perceived friendship quality 24. Skoog, 2009 Sweden The Role of Pubertal Timing in What To investigate associations between 97 boys  Did not differ in terms of most Internet activities Stattin & Adolescent Boys Do Online pubertal timing and boys’ Internet use, Mean age 14.22  Early maturers reported downloading and viewing Kerr particularly viewing pornography Differentiating early, on-time pornographic materials more often than the other boys and later-maturing development

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 25. West, Lewis & 2009 UK Students’ Facebook “friends”: public To examine the extent to which older 16 students  Average number of Facebook friends was far higher Currie and private spheres adults (specifically parents) are 7 males than the number of real-life friends accepted as Facebook friends and 9 females  Facebook friends were generally peers of a similar age. attitudes towards such friendships Age between 21 and 26  Findings suggest a range of different attitudes towards adults including vacation job employers and and potential friendships. Also of particularly parents –embarrassment, social norms and interest were those factors related to worries, being exposed and vulnerable, losing control privacy that militated against or over the separation of the family and social aspects of facilitated having older adults as their life Facebook friends  Findings suggest a rather “fuzzier understanding “of what is private and public 26. Williams & 2009 USA Adolescents’ online social networking To examine how online social 20 online social networking  Content posted by the teenage Internet users suggests Merten following the death of a peer networking facilitates adolescent profiles authored by there may be stages of coping particularly salient to grieving following the sudden death of adolescents between the adolescence such as guilt, mourning lost opportunity, information-seeking, humour and personalisation of a peer ages of 15 and 19 who had others’ emotions and actions. died between 2005 and 2007  Findings indicate the impact of teenage death may reach beyond the deceased’s immediate peer network 355 affecting adolescents who only knew them distally – or did not know them at all.

27. Yen, Tang, 2009 Taiwan Symptoms of problematic cellular  To examine the prevalence of symptoms 10, 191 adolescent students  The results indicated that the symptoms of problematic Yen, Lin, phone use, functional impairment and of problematic cellular phone use (CPU) CPU were prevalent in adolescents Huang, Liu & its association with depression among  To examine the association between the  The adolescents who had any one of the symptoms of Ko adolescents in Southern Taiwan symptoms of problematic CPU, problematic CPU were more likely to report at least one functional impairment caused by COU dimension of function impairment caused by CPU, such and the characteristics of CPU as made more calls on cellular phones, sent more text  To establish the optimal cut-off point of messages or spent more time and higher fee on CPU. the number of symptoms for functional  Adolescents who had significant depression were more impairment caused by CPU likely to have four or more symptoms of problematic  To examine the association between CPU. problematic CPU and depression in adolescents 28. Baumgartner, 2010 The Assessing causality in the relationship Explored in there was a link between 1445 Dutch adolescents aged  Perceived peer involvement, vulnerability and risks Valkenburg & Netherlands between adolescents’ risky sexual risky sexual online behaviour and their 12-17 (49% female). were all significant predictors of risky sexual online Peter online behaviour and their perception perception of the behaviour. behaviour six months later. of this behaviour

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 29. Davis 2010 USA Coming of Age: The developmental Adolescent girls’ use of blogging for Interviewed 20 females (aged  The girls in this sample used their blogs to engage in Underpinnings of Girls’ Blogs self-expression and peer interaction. 17 to 2) who had been important developmental tasks of identity expression blogging for three or more and social interaction. years.  Blog content changes considerably over time. Key changes in self-development and peer relationships are typical that occur during transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood. 30. Kennedy 2010 USA Student involvement and data-driven Article reviewed data driven decision 120 (included students,  Recommended a new typology to assess student & Datnow decision making: developing a new making (DDDM) as a mechanism to teachers and involvement in DDDM typology increase student achievement. administrators) 31. Lin, 2010 Hong Kong Being Citizens: Youths’ Civic Uses of New To look into what Asian youths do Aged between 12 and 17  One of the interesting findings in comparing the five Cheong, USA Media in Five Digital Cities in East Asia online, with an emphasis on an A sample of 1,875 students, cities is the higher level of online civic discussion and Kim & Korea understudied area: their civic uses of of which 318 came from Hong participation in petitions in Singaporean youth Jung Japan new media. Kong,  The findings suggest that some Singaporean youths may 437 from Seoul, be utilizing the Internet as an alternate civic space, to To what extent do teens connect to 401 from Singapore, 398 from express ideas and opinions that may be otherwise

356 the Internet to engage in civic Taipei, and discouraged or even censored in the real world. activities, compared to other 321 from Tokyo.  The study suggests that young people seem to be finding

activities? In particular, other, nonconventional ways to participate. They discuss public affairs, seek out civic or political information, or How often do they go online to read network with friends or strangers on the cyberspace.  The finding also reflects very news, discuss public affairs, visit civic high computer ownership and Internet access in these websites, and engage in online voting digital cities, even and petitions? higher than the rates in most of the Western countries Is teens’ Internet connection related to  Overall the findings confirm the their civic participation in the real Internet’s potential to engage teenagers in becoming world? citizens even though commercial and entertaining activities remain dominant on the cyberspace. 32. London, 2006 USA The Role of Community Technology To examine the ways that youth High school youth  Digital divide is a concept that Paster, Centers in Promoting Youth engage in CTCs and link these activities 5 selected CTCs  encompasses not only technology but also social Servon, Development to a youth development framework 15 youth and 5 to 10 staff distance Rosner & How Community Technology Centers members and partners  Youth gained skills that are increasingly required to Wallace obtain even (CTCs) bridge the digital divide and at each of the sites  entry-level jobs perhaps offer a guide to improving  Youth used their acquired technology skills to give voice technology access practices. to their realities through written word, film, public access television, music, art, and in other ways.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 33. Mallan, 2010 Australia The challenges of participatory research To provide a theoretically and 170 students  The “dedicated website” for students from the four Singh & with “tech-savvy” youth empirically grounded discussion of Age between 13-16 schools to talk with each other proved unsuccessful. By Giardina participatory research methodologies Equal number of boys and contrast, students enthusiastically participated in the with respect to investigating the girls focus group, group interviews and narrative profiles. The project demonstrates the attempts to work with familiar dynamic and evolving phenomenon of forms of online networking are not necessarily met with young people growing up in networked enthusiasm. societies. 34. Mazur & 2010 USA Self-Presentation and Interaction in Article reviewed 124 blogs published 124 blogs by students  Blogs written by adolescents and young emerging adults Kozarian Blogs of Adolescents and Young on public hosting web sites as new 79 females are less about direct interaction with others then careful Emerging Adults places for adolescents to explore self- 45 males about self-presentation. Overall gender and age presentation and identity exploration. Aged between 15 to 19 differences in self-presentation and blog interaction were relatively infrequent. 35. Tanes & 2010 USA/ Learning from SimCity: An Empirical Explored whether playing SimCity 248 adolescents  Experimental group changed their perceptions of an Cemalcilar Turkey Study of Turkish adolescents could change Turkish adolescents Aged 13 ideal city, expected city authorities to pay greater perception of the city they lived in. 58% female attention to city issues and reported higher level of distrust to city authorities. 36. Padilla- 2010 USA More than just a game: video game and Examined how electronic leisure was 813 undergraduate students  Results suggested: Walker, internet use during emerging adulthood related to risk behaviours (such as Man age 20 - video game use was linked to negative outcomes for Nelson, drinking, drug use and sex) and 500 females men and women - men and women had different patterns of video and 357 Carroll & relationships with others. Internet usage Jensen - there were different relations to risk based on gender 37. Szwedo, 2010 USA Qualities of peer relations on social Examined the association between 138 youth  A problematic mother-teen relationship were predictive Mikami & networking websites: predictions from characteristics of teenager’s 58 males, 80 females of youth’s later preferences for online communication Allen negative mother-teen interactions relationships with their mothers and Aged 13 from suburban and and here was a greater likelihood of forming a friendship their later socialising behaviour and urban schools in south- with someone met online, yet poorer in quality in online relationships. peer relationship quality online. eastern USA.

A.1.18: (PART TWO: 2011 –2018) ANALYSIS SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH ARTICLES FOCUSING ON THE DIGITAL WORLD AND ADOLESCENTS

This is the summary of the analysis of each of the research articles from the 60 per cent demonstrates the point that the research focusing on youth and adolescents have not changed much over this period of eleven years; suggesting that the attitudes and perceptions towards adolescents and youth issues are still very much about interventions and modifications of behaviour with a lot of focus on the detrimental effects in relation to the digital world.

There are a total of 112 research articles (60 per cent) published the research articles published between 2011and 2018 focusing on the digital world and adolescents. Although there are increasingly some research reporting how online social behaviour impact offline social behavour and the importance of online peer interactions and the virtual communities, there is still limited study with substantive data that explore and analyses how adolescents and youth navigate and negotiate in this academic/social mediated environment? This is reflected in the following research articles that are highlighted in grey.

359

A.1.18: (PART TWO: 2011-2018) ANALYSIS SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL ARTICLES

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 1. Blair & 2011 USA “The only 13-year old on planet earth without Study to identify the Qualitative interviews  Participants linked mobile phones with a Fletcher a cell phone”: Meanings of cell phones in psychological meanings that of 20 (10 females & number of psychological meanings: Early adolescents’ everyday lives mobile phones hold for the males) 7th graders (and connection to family and friends, as a adolescents who use them, mothers) on mobile facilitator of autonomy development and as desire them, and the mothers phone usage a source of social status of such adolescents. 2. Ferguson 2011 USA Video games and youth violence: a Explored the potential 302 Hispanic youth  Neither video game violence exposure nor prospective analysis in adolescents influence of violent video 52.3% female television violence exposure were games on serious acts of prospective predictors for serious acts of youth aggression and youth aggression or violence. violence. 3. Holtz & 2011 Austria Internet use and video gaming predict Internet usage and video 205 adolescents  Online gaming, communicational Internet Appel problem behaviour in early adolescence games in higher in Aged 10-14 years use and playing first person shooters were

360 adolescence than in any other 105 female predictive of externalising behaviour age group problems. 4. Lehdonvirta 2011 Japan How do young people identify with online and To examine socio- 4,299 respondents  The online group is an additional source of & Räsänen offline peer groups? A comparison between demographic differences in Aged between 12-30 identification that complements offline UK, Spain and Japan identification experiences from 3 countries identification experiences for highly social pertaining to an online individuals. community and offline hobby group 5. Morimoto 2011 USA The lifeworld of youth in the information Article explored the mediated Not applicable  Social relationships are constituted and & Friedland society ‘life world’ of young people by reinforced through a cycle of networked examining rates of current individualism and growing risk among youth media use and the infiltration of media into conventional forms of socialisation.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 6. Adachi & 2012 Canada Do video games promote positive youth Review of adolescent video Literature review  Argued that video game play may produce Willoughby development gaming literature to positive outcomes such as flow, determine whether video cooperation, problem solving and reduced games promote positive in-group bias. youth development 7. Christofides, 2012 Canada Risky disclosures on Facebook: The Effect of Examine social network Sample of 256 (females  Adolescents who report having a bad Muise & having a bad experience on online behaviour websites widely used by 156, males 96) experience are more likely to protect their Desmarais adolescents and explore the adolescent (aged 12- privacy and are more aware of the risk of relationship between having a 18) Facebook users. online disclosure negative experience, privacy knowledge and behaviour. 8. Gámez- 2012 Spain Measurement and analysis of the cognitive- Analysed the psychometric 1491 Mexican Preference for online social interaction and Guadix, behavioural model of generalized properties of the Generalised adolescents (mean age the use of the Internet for mood regulation Villa- problematic internet use among Mexican Problematic Internet Use 14.51) 47.6% female increased the probability of reporting George, & adolescents Scale 2. deficient self-regulation. Calvete

361 9. Padilla- 2012 USA Parents and adolescents growing up in the Examined parents use if 276 mother-child dyads  Study revealed that restrictive and active

Walker, digital age: latent growth curve analysis of restrictive and active (mean age 12.08) 50% monitoring decreased over time, while Coyne, proactive media monitoring monitoring, as well as their female deference increased. Also adolescent and Fraser, characteristics as predictors parent characteristics were predictive of Dyer, & of initial levels of media initial levels of all three types of Yorgason monitoring. monitoring. 10. Wexler, 2012 USA Using digital stories to understand the lives Examined youth produced 250 youth (65 males,  Findings were in the three categories – self- Eglinton & of Alaska native young people digital stories as 131 females) produced representation, sites of achievement and Gubrium representation of their 271 digital stories relationships. everyday lives, value and produced identities.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 11. Abiala & 2013 Sweden Tweens negotiating identity online –Swedish How do Swedish teens (10- 45 girls and 48 boys  Girls more often create blogs while boys Hernwall girls’ and boys’ reflections on online 14years old) understand and (plus one who did not often play games. (None of the boys experiences experience the writing of assign gender on the mentioned writing on blogs). their online identities? How roundel)  What the tweens are expressing are their are such intertwined identity Aged between 10- 14 interpretations and negotiations of the markers as gender and age norms and values of their life-world. expressed and negotiated?  Online identity is intertwined with everyday experiences and societal power structures. 12. Adachi & 2013 Canada More than just fun and games: the Examined whether strategic 1492 adolescents  Suggested that playing strategic video Willoughby longitudinal relationships between strategic video game playing led to 50.8% female games led to higher reporting of problem video games, self-reported problem solving higher reported problem solving skills and indirectly predict skills, and academic grades solving skills. academic grades. 13. Adachi & 2013 Canada Demolishing the competition: the Examined the long-term 1492 (Grade 9 to 12)  Aggression predicted greater competitive Willoughby longitudinal link between competitive video relationship between video 50.8% female video game playing and competitive games, competitive gambling, and game competition and gambling over time. 362 aggression aggression. 14. Blair, 2013 USA Cell phone decision making: adolescents’ Through grounded theory Qualitative interviews  Adolescents’ consistency perceived texting Fletcher & perceptions of how and why they make the analysis examined how and and descriptive as easier then calling in ways that were Gaskin choice to text or call why adolescents make quantitative surveys of meaningful to their everyday lives. decisions regarding whether 41 adolescents  Decisions making is based on to conduct their 34 females, 6 males communication context, communication communication via testing Aged between 14 and partner and situational limitations. versus calling features of 18 cellular telephones. 15. Cheung 2013 Hong Understanding factors associated with online To evaluate self-control 634 secondary school  Results did not support the general theory Kong piracy behaviour of adolescents theory in the context of students (aged 15 to of crime claim that the impact of self- online music piracy 19) (female 45.7%, control is universal across gender and male 49.5%, 4.7% not cultures. defined) 16. Cook & 2013 USA Online network influences on emerging Examined online network 2153 (aged 18-24)  Alcohol use was associated with network Bauermeister adults’ alcohol and drug use characteristics and substance 47% female density – interconnectedness between abuse. individuals in a network. Drug use was associated with an increased number of peer ties and the increased proportion of network members’ discussion and acceptance of drug use.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 17. Dean & 2013 Hong Levelling the playing field through Facebook: Qualitative study to explore 27 girls and young  Many previously assumed gender Laidler Kong how females construct online play spaces the concept that girls and women from Hong Kong. differences in digital play were not women do not engage in They were interviewed evident when the technological online gaming by reviewing about their on line environment was ‘neutralised’. their participation in experiences, thoughts  The research suggests new possibilities “Facebook Play”. and behaviours relating for understanding how social networking to Facebook sites provide a platform for digital play for girls and offers a venue for applying traditional theories of play 18. Ferguson, 2013 USA Not worth the fuss after all? Cross-sectional Examined violent video 333 Hispanic youth  Exposure to violent games had neither Garza, and prospective data on violet video game games on aggression (mean age 12.76) short-term nor long-term predictive Jerabeck, influences on aggression, visuospatial 51.7% female influences on with positive or negative Ramos, & cognition and mathematics ability in a sample outcomes. Galindo of youth 19. Jugert, 2013 Germany Offline and online civic engagement among Explored the differences and 755 youth (mean age  Group membership and age moderated Eckstein, & adolescents and young adults from three similarities in young people’s 20.5) 52% female the frequency of engagement behaviour. Noack ethnic groups online and offline civic  Ethnic group moderated the findings for engagement offline civic engagement.

363 20. Landoll, 2013 USA Aversive peer experiences on social Explored aversive peer Sample of adolescents  Negative SNS experiences were Greca & Lai networking sites: development of the social experiences on social (216, 63% females,

associated with youth’s symptoms of networking-peer experiences questionnaire networking sites (SNS), which median age 19.06) and social anxiety and depression. (SN-PEQ) are used extensively by young adults (214, 54% youth and host complex female, median age social exchanges. 15.72) 21. Low, 2013 USA The role of social networks in physical and Used a developmental 346 (6th and 7th graders)  Physical aggression is relatively less Polanin, & relational aggression among young framework to examine peer 51% female endemic to peer networks and is more Espelage adolescents group influence on individual likely to occur in smaller predominantly levels of physical and male networks. relational aggression over a year. 22. Maclean, 2013 USA Digital peer interactions affect risk taking in Examined whether observing 96 young adults recruited  Suggests that short text-based massages Geier, young adults and interacting with, versus for a study investigating from risk encouraging digital peer can Henry & simply observing, a digital choice behaviour from an influence risk-taking behaviour in young Wilson peer affect risk taking in introductory psychology adults. young adults aged 18-25. course in 2010 (average age 19.01, 53% female)

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 23. Mitchell, 2013 USA Testing the index of problematic online Assessed the utility of the 1560 internet users  Scores correlate with offline emotional Jones, & experiences (I-POE) with a national sample of Index of Problematic Online Aged between 10 to 17 and behavioural difficulties and the POE Wells adolescents Experiences. could have value for use in school settings. 24. Neely 2013 USA Plugging in: possibilities for connecting teens Examined if and how modern Qualitative textual  Websites provide a source of diverse peer and communities through scholastic and non- teens in America use youth analysis of 14 scholastic support and self-expressions for local scholastic youth media websites media websites to foster and non-scholastic teens as they collectively experience the positive connections between youth media websites joys and struggles of adolescents. local youth and their communities. 25. Sclater & 2013 UK The realities of research alongside virtual Examines a complicated nexus 137 (all males) young  Illustrated how the internet can be used Lally youth in late modernity creative practices of conceptual, methodological people participated in to build and sustain a virtual research and activity theory and theoretical challenges that workshops community of young people, and how this may arise when researching can support their creative endeavours in

364 alongside young people in pursuing an agenda that they have technological settings. developed.

26. Underwood, 2013 USA The Blackberry Project: The hidden world of Examined the frequency and 171 (Age 14)  The highest proportion of adolescent text Ehrenreich (Texas, adolescents’ text messaging and relations content of adolescents’ text adolescents messages would be sent to peers. More, Solis Dallas) with internalizing symptoms messaging in relations with 80 females , 91 males  There was a trend for girls to send a & Brinkley internalizing symptoms greater number of text messages with (naturalistic study) positive or neutral content than boys. 27. Yang & 2013 USA Motives for using Facebook, patterns of Explored patterns of Facebook 193 (mean age 20.32)  Indicated that motives and activity Brown Facebook activities, and late adolescents’ activity and adjustment to the 54% female patterns were associated directly with social adjustment to college college environment social adjustment, but the association between one activity, status updating, and social adjustment was moderated by the motive of relationship maintenance.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 28. Berriman & 2014 UK Spectacles of intimacy? Mapping the moral Using qualitative data from Two small panels of  Suggests young people’s privacy practice Thomson landscape of teenage social media British teenagers to review the young people (group may be seen as a fruitful site for building an place of digital cultures in of six 7 years old and account of risk that is politicised rather than everyday lives, and explore panel of nine privatised. two underlying moral logics of teenagers) imperative to participate and a A year-long study concern with values, risks and (interviews, consequences of visibility. observation and self- documentation). 29. Chernoff & 2014 UK “I was bored…” motivational accounts of Using conversation analysis Reviewed 14  Showed how claiming to be bored enabled Widdicombe participation in an online emo group and membership discussion threads members to engage with a group while categorisation analysis to (which generated negotiating potentially problematic examine members’ over 100 posts each) inferences that attend sub cultural spontaneous account for from the Emo Corner membership. joining and participating in an website. online emo forum. 30. Crowe 2014 UK ‘When I click “ok” I become Sassy – I become Article explored young 1628 in-game virtual  Argued that the digital spaces offered a

365 &Watts a girl’. Young people and gender identity: people’s practice in virtual interactions venue for the imagination and offers a

subverting the ‘body’ in massively multi- spaces of online gaming (estimated gender space where young people come to player online role-playing games split of 20% female, understand gender identity. 80% male) 31. Coyne, 2014 USA “Media Time = Family Research provides an Quantitative and  Results revealed that positive media use Padilla- Time”: Positive Media expanded view of positive qualitative methods was positively associated with general Walker, Use in Families With Adolescents media use in families with with 633 adolescents family functioning (for girls), parental Fraser, adolescents by examining 50% female involvement (for both boys and girls) and Fellows & associations between positive Aged between 13 and adolescent disclosure to parents (for boys). Day media use and family and 16 and their parents. adolescent outcomes. 32. Ferguson, 2014 USA Concurrent and prospective analyses of peer Explored the impact of 237 mostly Hispanic  Negative influences of social comparisons Muñoz, & television and social media influences on television, social media and girls are focused on peers rather than television Garza body dissatisfaction, eating disorder peer competition on or social media exposure. symptoms and life satisfaction in adolescent dissatisfaction and eating girls disorders.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 33. Johansen & 2014 USA Youth perspective on multiculturalism using Examined ways to foster 21 participants  Youth had ideal views of multiculturalism, Le photovoice methodology positive intergroup but expressed concern at the lack of interactions, via interviews institutional support. and focus groups 34. Kubiszewsk, 2014 France Association between media use and sleep Examined the association 332 school children  Possession and pattern of electronic media Fontaine, habits: an eight-day follow-up study between electronic (53% female, mean age use is associated with impaired sleep Rusch, & stimulation throughout the 12.9) quality and late bedtimes. Hazouard day, the final evening activity and sleep problems 35. Marwick & 2014 USA “It’s just drama”: teen perspectives on Using ethnographic data 166 participants (94  The persistence and involvement of Boyd conflict and aggression in a networked era examined how American female & 72 make) audiences in environments like Facebook teenagers conceptualised the across 17 US states engender a performative, participatory term drama and the aged 13 to 19. Semi- model of youth aggression. Social media relationship between drama structured interviews increases the visibility of young people’s and social media. collected from 2006- 366 conflict, heightening public awareness and 2011 promoting public anxieties about teen bullying. 36. Mitchell, 2014 USA Exposure to websites that encourage self- Determine whether exposure 1560 internet users  Youth who visited self-harm websites were Wells, harm and suicide: prevalence rates and to self-harm websites is Aged between 10 and seven times more likely to think about Priebe, & association with actual thoughts of self-harm related to thoughts of self- 17 killing themselves and 11 times more likely Ybarra and thoughts of suicide in the United States harm and / or suicide. to think about hurting themselves. 37. Park, Kim & 2014 Korea Online activities, digital media literacy, and Determine the link between Face to face survey of  Adolescents’ online social capital is Na networked individualism of Korean Youth networked individualism, 1200 Korean correlated to belonging to multiple, diverse digital media literacy, and adolescents networks and having many connections was young people’s perception of 48.8% female positively their social capital. Aged between 12 to 15  Findings also indicated that online activities in 2013 and skills influence the ways adolescents connect to others and perceive of their social connectedness.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 38. Rote & 2014 USA Acceptability of information management Examined acceptability ratings 174 middle class  Acceptance of information management Smetana strategies: adolescents’ and parents’ of four information American families over was greater for adolescents than for judgement and links with adjustments and management strategies 1 year (adolescent parents and for personal then prudential relationships between parents and median age 15.7) issues. adolescents 39. Rudi, 2014 USA Adolescent-parent communication in a How family communication Online survey of  Depending on the conformity rates of Walkner & digital world: differences by family patterns are associated with adolescents (195, family determines adolescent–parent Dworkin communication patterns frequency of various modes (in 63.1% female) communication preferences person, over the phone, text, Aged between 13 and email etc.) 18 40. Rueda, 2014 USA “She posted it on Facebook”: Mexican Examination of romantic 64 (40 female, 24  Females are more flirtatious and Lindsay & American adolescents’ experiences with conflict as experienced male) Mexican emotionally affected by jealously from Williams technology and romantic relationship through technology among American adolescents social media sites. Males set rules conflict Mexican American middle Aged between 15 and regarding other-sex texting. adolescents. 17 41. Teppers, 2014 Belgium Loneliness and Facebook motives in Explored the relationship 256 adolescents (mean  Facebook use for making new friends Luyckx, The adolescence: A longitudinal inquiry into between loneliness and age 15.88) 64% reduced peer related loneliness over 367 Klimstra, & Netherlands directionality of effect Facebook use. females time

Goossens  Facebook use for social skills compensation increased peer related loneliness over time. 42. Thorne, 2014 Australia Video game genre preference, physical Examined the link between 320 boys (mean age  Significant differences in both weekday Smith, activity and screen-time in adolescent boys video games played and 12.7) and weekend screen time were found. Morgan, from low-income communities participation in physical  Significant differences in overall activity Babic, & activity and recreation. and moderate to vigorous physical Lubans activity were found between genre groups on weekdays.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 43. Uusiautti & 2014 Finland I am not longer alone – How do university Explored what kind of social 90 university students  SNS can increase students’ social capital Määttä students perceive the possibilities of social capital do social networking (92.2% females) in many ways, such as form of peer media? services (SNS) provide? support, groups and learning environments. 44. Vromen, 2014 Australia Young people, social media and action: from Qualitative research to explore Twelve in-person focus  Highlighted the importance of using Xenos & US organisational maintenance to everyday how young people from a groups conducted in social media as a communication form Loader UK political talk board range of existing political Australia, USA and the UK to engage university people on future and civic groups use social based on their university political engagement and connective media for sharing information campus group affinities action. and as a means to redefine political action and political spaces 45. Brooks, 2015 UK Video gaming in adolescence: factors Using data from the Health 4404 school students  Identified gendered motivations of Chester, associated with leisure time use Behaviour in School-aged aged 11, 13 and 15, using young people’s video game usage that

368 Smeeton & Children (HBSC) collected in anonymised self- suggests different interventions are Spencer England (2009/2010) to completed questionnaires needed for boys and girls to create a

investigate the factors that balanced approach to video gaming. might be associated with higher levels of video gaming. 46. Chapman & 2015 New Changing Facebook profile pictures as part of Using surveys to examine the Short anonymous online  Young people who are politically Coffé Zealand a campaign: who does it and why? motivations of young people survey of 243 (14 to 35 engaged off line are more likely to who change their profile years) Facebook users change their Facebook profile picture to picture to support a social or support a campaign. political campaign. 47. Greenwood 2015 USA When movies matter: Emerging adults recall Studying using an utilised 83 university (mean age  Qualitative coding revealed three & Long memorable movies retrospective autobiographical of 18.99) students (78% themes (life lessons, character methodology to investigate the female) connections and social relationships). social psychological significance Results highlighted the role of movies in of specific movies. the social and emotional development of emerging adults 48. Kim & Yang 2015 S Korea Internet literacy and digital natives’ civic An empirical study to explore Survey of 238 subjects  Adolescents who can critically engagement: internet skill literacy or internet the role of Internet literacy in (119 males and 119 understand and effectively evaluate information literacy empowering digital native’s female) Korean 10th online information are more likely to civic engagement. graders (first year of high become an active civic participant than school). one who lacks such skills.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 49. Korchmaros, 2015 USA Adolescent online romantic relationship Examined online formation 5091 adolescents  All were most likely to meet boy/girlfriend Ybarra, & initiation: of romantic relationships. Aged between 13 and at school. Mitchell Differences by sexual and gender 18  LGBTQ adolescents were more likely than identification non LGBTQ adolescents to find boy/girlfriends online. 50. Lemola, 2015 Switzerland Adolescents’ electronic media use at night, Examined whether 362 adolescents (mean  Electronic media use was negatively Perkinson- Germany sleep disturbance, and depressive symptoms excessive electronic media age 14.8) 44.8% female related with sleep duration and positively Gloor, & in smartphone age use at night was a risk factor with sleep difficulties, which in turn were Brand for sleep disturbance and related to depressive symptoms depression. 51. Tzavela, 2015 Greece Processes discriminating adaptive and Examined whether all highly 124 adolescents (mean  Considerable variability emerged in the Karakitsou, Germany maladaptive internet use among European engaged adolescents age 16) 44% female way adolescents satisfied their personal Dreier, Iceland adolescents highly engaged online developed maladaptive needs online and offline. Mavromati, Romania patterns on Internet use Wölfling, Netherlands Halapi, Macarie, 369 Wójcik,

Veldhuis, & Tsitsika 52 Vandoninck 2015 Belgium Children’s online coping strategies: Explored how children dealt 2046 Flemish children  Tend to view coping mechanism either as & rethinking coping typologies in a risk-specific with problematic situations Aged between 10 and engagement versus disengagement or d'Haenens approach online 16 technical versus non-technical 53 Van Oosten, 2015 Netherlands Exploration associations between exposure Explored relationship 1636 Dutch  Results suggested the influence on Peter, & to sexy online self-representations and between sexy self- adolescents adolescents’ sexual attitudes for sexual Boot adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviour presentation of others on Aged between 13 and media content may not hold for sexy self- social network sites and 17 51.5% female presentations on social network sites. their sexual attitudes and experience.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 54. Adachi & 2016 Canada Does playing sports video games predict Investigated the potential of 1132 (mean age 19.06)  Found a long-term predictive effect of Willoughby increased involvement in real-life sports positive outcomes of video 70.6% female sports video game play on increased over several years among older adolescents game play involvement in real-life sports over three and emerging adults? years 55. Borgonovi 2016 France Video gaming and gender differences in Examined the cross national 145,953 students from  Boys’ underachievement is smaller when digital and printed reading performance gender differences in reading 26 countries delivered on a computer then paper. among 15-year-olds students in 26 countries achievement and video  Among boys and girls moderate use of gaming and whether video single player games is associated with a gaming explains the gender performance advantage. difference. 56. Crowe 2016 UK “We’re just like Gok, but in reverse”: Ana Examined current debates Not available  Pro Ana websites provide a sense of &Watts Girls – empowerment and resistance in concerning young people’s belonging, recognition and empowerment. digital communities manipulation of, and experimentation with digital

370 representation of the body 57. De Vries, 2016 The Adolescents’ social network site use, peer Causal relationship between 604 Dutch adolescents  Social network use predicted increased

Peter, de Netherlands appearance-related feedback, and body social network sites and body Aged between 11 and body dissatisfaction and increased peer Graaf dissatisfaction: Testing a mediation model dissatisfaction. 18 50.7% female influence on body image in the form of receiving peer appearance related feedback 58. Frison & 2016 Belgium Gender and Facebook motives as predictor Can gender and Facebook 1866 adolescents  Active private use increases over time. Eggermont of specific types of Facebook use: A latent motives predict the initial (aged 11 to 18) 51%  Public Facebook use decreases over time. growth curve analysis in adolescence level and changes in types of female  Passive Facebook use remains stable. Facebook use (active private, active public and passive Facebook use)

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 59. Hart 2016 Australia Being naked on the internet: young people’s Using interviews to explore Interviewing sample of  Through being naked on the internet, selfies as intimate edgework how young selfie sharers 25 young people (22 young people feel a sense of well-being engage in intimate edgework females and three and belonging, thus engaging in intimate (treading boundaries, risky males) between 18 and edgework. behaviour such as skydiving) in 25 years who posted  Calls for further research on how the visual social media site naked self-photos that individuals negotiate emotional edges in Tumblr. were identifiable the digital age. pictures on Tumblr 60. Isarabhakdi 2016 Thailand Engagement with family, peers, and internet Explored the correlation 1074 high school  Indicated that family and communication & Pewnil use and its effect on mental well-being between engagement in family students (aged 15 to factors significantly affect students mental among high school students in Kanchanaburi activities, peer activities, 19) 45.8% females well-being Province Internet use and mental well- being 61. Johnson 2016 Australia Technology use among Indigenous Explored the technology used 24 Indigenous  Mobile phone was the overwhelming adolescents in remote regions of Australia by 24 Indigenous students at adolescents (mean age technology of choice, emphasizing the boarding school. 16.4). 9 females and 15 importance of Internet connectivity in males. remote and regional Australia 371 62. Lee, Park, 2016 Australia A comparative study on the relationship Study to explore the Face-to-face surveys of  No significant difference in time spent on

Na & Kim S Korea between social networking site use and social relationship between social adolescents (12-15 SNS between Australia and Korea. capital among Australian and Korean youth networking sites (SNS) use and years) in Australia  Australians tended to use SNS for group perceived online social capital (N=401 -48.9% male, activities whereas Koreans used it for among adolescents in Australia 51.1% female) and social monitoring. and Korea Korea (n=644 – 51.4%  There was a positive relationship between male, 48.6% female) in SNS use and online social capital in both 2013. countries.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 63. McAllister 2016 Australia Internet use, political knowledge and youth Examines the role of the National election  Reaffirms other findings on the potential electoral in Australia internet in shaping political survey (2013) of of the internet to re-engage young people knowledge of the young and persons registered to into the political process. its effects on electoral vote. 404 responses participation. (aged 18-24 years) selected 64. Schilder & 2016 The The effectiveness of an intervention to Explored effectiveness of 819 (Grade 4 & 6)  Overall online risk awareness and online Brusselaers Netherlands promote awareness and reduce online risk school based intervention on 51.3% female risk behaviour were negatively Belgium behaviour in early adolescence online risk awareness associated.  Girls were more likely to be aware of online risks and asserted less online risk behaviours then boys were. 65. Simões 2016 Portugal Digital media, subcultural activity and youth Empirical study of the use of Four different projects  Digital media and technologies have been Campos participation: the case of protest rap and digital media in so-called (interviews) over a gradually integrated into urban youth

372 graffiti in Portugal youth subcultures. decade (2001 -2011) of subcultures (protest rap and graffiti). 121 participants.

66. Stavropoulos, 2016 UK A Longitudinal study of adolescent internet Examined the role of 648 (53.6% female) Findings revealed: Kuss, addiction: the role of conscientiousness conscientiousness (as a adolescents aged 16-  Lower conscientiousness was associated Griffiths & and classroom hostility personality trait) and 18 over a two-year with IA and this did not change over time Motti- classroom hostility (as a period.  Being in a more hostile classroom did not Strfanidi contextual factor) in the initially have a significant effect, it development internet increased girls’ IA vulnerability over time addiction (IA). and functioned protectively for boys. 67. Wang & 2016 UK Strangers are friends I haven’t met yet: a Empirical study to investigate 543 completed  Participant’s online relationship building Edwards positive approach to young people’s use of how a safer online questionnaires from strategies reflect similar behavioural social media communicative environment students (11 to 16 categories off line. Data showed no can be developed by better years) with 52.8% evidence of “unjustified” intent to harm understanding of current females and 47.2% others. socialising and relationship males building practices amongst Three stage young people in a range of quantitative and prominent social media qualitative approaches tools. by way of surveys, focus groups and scenario analysis.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 68. Weinstein, 2016 USA How to cope with digital stress: the Study to explore 628 comments posted  Most common recommendation for Selman, recommendations adolescents offer their recommended strategies for in response to 180 hostility-oriented issues is to Get Help, Thomas, Kim, peers online coping with different distinct personal while Cut Ties is the most common for White & experiences of socio-digital accounts of digital issues that arise in close relationships. Dinakar stress, including both stress anonymously hostility orientated issues shared on MTV’s A and digital challenges related Thin Line platform to navigating close relationships. 69. Woods & Scott 2016 UK #Sleepyteens: social media use in Explored how social media 467 Scottish  Adolescents who used social media more adolescence is associated with poor sleep use related to sleep quality, adolescents and those who were more emotionally quality, anxiety, depression and low self- self-esteem and depression. Aged between 11 and invested in social media experienced esteem 17 poorer sleep quality, lower self-esteem and higher rates of anxiety and depression. 70. Yang & Brown 2016 USA Online self-representation on Facebook Explores changes in youth’s 218 college (mean age  Freshman’s Facebook self-presentation and self-development during the college online self-presentation 18.07) 64% female became less restricted later in the first 373 transition during their transition to a semester.

residential college. 71 Tulane, 2017 USA An A in their Social Lives, but an F in To examine students’ 218 participants  71% of the student participants supported Vaterlaus & School: Adolescent Perceptions of Texting responses and attitudes to 51.8% female texting in school. Beckert in School perceptions of texting in 47/9% male  In this study, the student participants’ school experience with texting and school focused on: student attention/connection (with family, friends and emergency), and levels of regulation (personal, circumstantial & school). 72 Payne & 2017 USA Old Wine, New Bottle? Comparing To compare and contrast the 3,305 (50.5%) male  Interpersonal bullying is more common Hutzell interpersonal Bullying and Cyberbullying relationships between 3, 242 (49.5%) than cyberbullying victimization. Victimization interpersonal bullying and female  Students who are victims of both forms cyberbullying (age, gender, Age 12-18 of bullying are more likely to engage in race and avoidance school avoidance behaviours. behaviour)

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 73 Scoats 2017 UK Inclusive Masculinity & Facebook To examine the performance 80 young men  The young men in this study displayed Photographs Among Early Emerging and presentation of Age 18-20 more adult-like behaviour that is more Adults at a British University masculine identity through 1,100 Facebook representative of the wider or inclusive an analysis of Facebook photographs cultural norms. photographs. 74 Lerman, Lewis, 2017 Canada Teen Depression Groups on Facebook: A To examine and understand A total of 508 posts  Most of the post contents are: self- Lumley, Content Analysis the nature of all post and for analysis, with 4 disclosure (32.8%), feedbacks (24.8%), Grogan, replies, and the type of groups 100 posts offers/recommendations of help (24.6%) Hudson & support and resources in 6 each, 2 groups 72 and  The main purpose is to connect with Johnson active Facebook groups for 36 respectively others who share similar experience and teen depression Age and gender not to share information about mental health identified due to resources. confidentiality 75 Adams, 2017 USA The Young and Restless: Socializing An exploratory qualitative A sample of 15  The quest to be social came with a cost of Williford, Trumps Sleep, Fear of Missing Out, and study about 1st year students’ participants sleep for most 1st year students.

374 Vaccaro, Technological Distractions in First Year self-reported experiences Age 18 – 22  3 emergent themes: Socializing trumps Tiffani, Francis College Students with health, technology and 14 female, 1 male sleep, FoMO & social distractions & Newman belonging. volunteers  Each theme contains a combination of in- person, face-to-face and interactions mediated by technology. 76 Kim 2017 South Korea The Impact of Online Social Networking To explore the associations A final sample of 2099  Central finding of this study: on Adolescent Psychological Well-being between Internet-based students  There is a strong and negative (WB): A Population-level Analysis of social media and Age 12 –15 relationship between online activities Korean School-aged Children psychological WB of (e.g. chatting) and self-reported mental adolescents based on a health and suicidal ideation among a Korean probability sample. national representative sample of Korean students.  Cyberbullying is indeed a powerful predictor of adolescent suicidality 77 Lin & Huang 2017 China Connectivity and College Students’ To grasp how college A series of in-depth  Four broad themes: Developing Participation in Micro-charity: A students understood and interviews with 8 connections, encouraging engagement, Qualitative Study in China experienced their college students (4 fostering collaboration & empowering participation in the micro- female & 4 male) self. charity.  Participation was shaped by connectivity (a mixed of connective action) facilitated by social media.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 78 Venter 2017 South Africa Bridging the Communication Gap How can the generational Literature review  Open-mindedness, mutual between Generation Y and the Baby communication gap between (cues-filtered-out understanding and respect between Boomer Generation the Baby Boomer generation approach, using the Gen Y & Baby Boomers. and Generation Y be closed in social presence  Digital gadgets free family time is order to allow them to have theory) crucial for building relationships and to meaningful interpersonal learn constructive face-to-face communication? communications.  Less reliance on technology skills, focus more on developing interpersonal communication skills with family and friends, especially face-to-face situations 79 Anderson, 2017 Australia Internet Use and Problematic Internet To map the longitudinal Literature review  While research involving IU-PIU focused Steen & Use: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal research trends in the field of 29 studies of research on individual effects, to an extent Stavropoulas Research Trends in Adolescence and Internet Use (IU) & of adolescents (12-17 overlooked the influence of contextual Emergent Adulthood Problematic Internet Use yo)/emergent adults and activity-related predictors. (PIU) during adolescence and (18-29 yo)  3 areas that affect the high end of the IU-

375 emergent adulthood PIU continuum: individual factors

(psychopathological characteristics, e.g. anxiety, depression, distress, ADHD, ASD etc. or personal attributes/personality traits), Contextual factors (e.g. parenting/family-related relationships, peer relationships), and Internet-related factors (IU for social networking vs. non- communicative purpose) 80 Assunção & 2017 Portugal The Generalized Problematic Internet Use To test the psychometric 761 Portuguese  The model was applicable to Facebook Matos Scale 2 (GPIUS2): Validation and Test of properties of a Portuguese adolescents use. the Model to Facebook Use version of the GPIUS2, and to (53.7% boys & 46.3%  Preference for online social interaction test whether the cognitive- girls) and use of Facebook to regulate mood behavioral model proposed Age 14 – 18 was established. by Caplan (2010) replicated in the context of Facebook use

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 81 Radovic, 2017 USA Depressed Adolescents’ Positive and To examine adolescents’ 23 adolescents  Three types of social media use reported: Gmelin, Stein Negative Use of Social Media descriptions of how social (18 female, 5 male) “oversharing”, “stressed sharing & & Miller media use may influence encountering “triggering posts” depression. 82 Oberst, 2017 Spain/ Negative Consequences from Heavy Social To verify whether 1 468 Spanish-  For girls, depression seems to trigger Wegmann, Germany Networking in Adolescents: The Mediating adolescents with speaking Latin- higher SNS involvement. Stodt, Brand & Role of Fear of Missing Out psychopathological problems American social media  For boys, anxiety seems to trigger high Chamarro (especially anxiety and users SNS involvement. depression) experience (1 091 female, 377  Fear of missing out (FOMO) plays negative consequences when male) important role in the development of using social networking sites Age 16 – 18 dysfunctional mobile phone use and its (SNS), and that these negative consequences for adolescents. consequences are caused by FOMO and intense SNS use. 83 Argumosa- 2017 Spain Exploratory Investigation of Theoretical To study the variables of 242 Spanish students  Significant predictive positive

376 Villar, Predictors of Nomophobia Using the personality, self-esteem, (46.7 % male, 53.3% relationship between extraversion and Boada-Grau & Mobile Phone Involvement Questionnaire gender and age as predictors female) nomophobia. Vigil-Colet (MPIQ) of nomophobia  Significant predictive negative relation between self-esteem and nomophobia.  No significant differences in age and gender. 84 Simāo, 2017 Portugal Adolescent Cybervictimization – Who To understand adolescent 3 525 Portuguese  Adolescents reported cybervictimization Ferreira, They Turn To and Their Perceived School cybervictms’ perception of students more to their friends and parents. Caetano & Climate school climate in relation Age 10 – 23  Those who told their teachers about their Vieira with cybervictimization experience tended to  Who they tell their report more positive perceptions of their experience school climate.  The age and gender of  No significant role in gender and age in whom they tell relation to cybervictimization and perceived school climate

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 85 Reed, Tolman 2017 USA Gender Matters: Experiences and To examine the frequency of 703 high school  All genders experience digital dating & Ward Consequences of Digital Dating Abuse DDA, the types of DDA and students abuse (DDA), girls tended to express Victimization in Adolescent Dating emotional/ behavioral (382 girls, 314 boys, more negative emotional responses and Relationships responses to DDA 2 identifying with suffer more severe emotional experienced by adolescents another gender consequences and off-line behavioral in relation their gender expression) impacts than the boys.  Girls reported more frequent digital monitoring/control.  Boys reported more frequent digital sexual coercion. 86 Jacob, Evans & 2017 UK The Influence of Online Images on Self- To progress existing research A community sample  Images (not textual interactions) are the Scourfield Harm: A Qualitative Study of Young on young people’s Internet of 21 participants main motivation reported for using the People Aged 16 -24 use (influence of online self- (18 female, 3 male) Internet for self-harm purposes. harm imagery and use of the Age 16 – 25  These images encourage and inspire the platform for display of self- self-harm behaviour enactment as a harm imagery) for self-harm ritualistic practice. purposes  The preferred platform such as Tumblr 377 because it allows the sharing of images

by anonymous individual. 87 Barry, Sidoti, 2017 USA Adolescent Social Media Use and Mental To investigate adolescent and 226 participants (113  Adolescents who have a high number of Briggs, Reiter Health from Adolescent and Parent parent reports of adolescent parent-adolescent parent-reported social media accounts & Lindsey Perspectives social media use and its dyads) are more likely to have anxiety and relation to adolescent (51 female, 55 male, depressive symptoms and relatively high psychosocial adjustment. 7 unreported) FoMo (fear of missing out). Age 14 – 17 88 Arrona- 2017 Mexico High and Low Use of Electronic Media To compare the effects of 568 Mexican students  High exposure to electronic media device Palacios during Nighttime before going to Sleep: A time spent on electronic (280 boys, 288 girls) may have an impact on adolescents’ Comparative Study between Adolescents media devices during Age 13 – 16 sleep-wake cycle, regardless of their Attending a Morning or Afternoon School nighttime before going to 287 with Morning school shift. Shift sleep on the sleep-wake Shift cycle, daytime sleepiness and (141 females, 146 chronotype. males) 281 with Afternoon Shift (147 females, 134 males)

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 89 Bianchi, 2017 Italy Sexting as the Mirror on the Wall: Body- To investigate sexting 190 Italian  Media models have the most impact on Morelli, esteem Attribution, Media Models, and motivations during adolescents body image concerns. Baiocco & Objectified-body Consciousness adolescence – distinguishing Age 13 – 20  Sexual purposes online are linked to the Chirumbolo between developmental users’ body esteem. issues and the more harmful motivations. 90 Hessel, He & 2017 USA Parental Monitoring: The Relationship To explore the relationships 158 fathers with their  There was a difference in the results by Dworkin between Online and In-Person Solicitation between fathers’ online and youngest child in high demographics and whether the and Youth Outcomes in- person solicitation of their school or college. solicitation was online or in person. adolescent and emerging  Adolescents and emerging adults may adult children, and the interpret some of the online solicitation youth’s internalizing, as intrusive and a violation of privacy. externalizing, and prosocial behaviours. 91 Salmela-Aro, 2017 Finland The Dark Site of Internet Us: Two To examine the relationships 1 702 participants  Finnish girls suffered more than boys

378 Upadyaya, Longitudinal Studies of Excessive Internet of excessive Internet use Age 12-14 from depressive symptoms and school Hakkarainen, Use, Depressive Symptoms, School among Finnish early/late 53% female, 47% male burnout in late adolescents. Lonka & Burnout and Engagement among Finnish adolescents and their school  Finnish boys suffered from excessive Kimmo Early and Late Adolescents engagement, burnout, 1 636 participants Internet use. depressive symptoms. Age 16-18  Excessive Internet use can be a cause of 64% female, 36% male school burnout that develops depressive symptoms among Finnish adolescents.

92 Peskin, 2017 USA Prevalence and Correlates of the To examine prevalence and 834 sixth graders from  Nearly 15% of the participants in the Markham, Perpetration of Cyber Dating Abuse correlaties of perpetration of 10 middle public study reported to have at least once Shegog, among Early Adolescents cyber dating abuse among an schools in Southeast experienced cyber-dating abuse (CDA) Temple, ethnic-minority sample of Texas. related behaviour. Baumler, sixth graders. 56% female, 44% male  Correlates of perpetration of cyber dating Addy, 30% Black abuse were: (a) violence for boys against Hernandez, 61% Hispanic girls (b) in current relationship with a Cuccaro, boy/girl (c) involvement in bullying some Gabay, Thiel & someone into committing CDA. Emery

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 93 Elmore, Scull 2017 USA Media as “Super Peer”: How Adolescents To examine the relationships 817 participants from  Adolescents’ media-related cognitions & Kupersmidt Interpret Media Messages Predicts Their between high school 38 classrooms in 14 significantly influenced their perceived Perception of Alcohol and Tobacco Use students’ media-related high school from 7 approval for and estimated peer alcohol Norns cognitions (i.e. U.S. states across and tobacco use. identifications, similarity, different regions desirability and realism) and 48% female, 64% male their perception related to Age 12-19 alcohol and tobacco.

94 Decamp & 2017 USA The Impact of Degree of Exposure to This study examines (1) 5 133 eighth grade  Video game violence is not an effective Ferguson Violent Video Games, Family Background, relationship between time 3 886 eleventh grade predictor of youth violence. and Other Factors on Youth Violence spent on violet video games 51% female, 49% male  Other social variables are more and violent behaviour (2) influential factors such as exposure how other domestic violence, motivational structure social/environmental factors of self-selecting exposure to violent influence violent behaviour. media. 95 Symons, 2017 Belgium Parental Knowledge of Adolescents’ This study investigates how 357 families (mothers  Parents have limited knowledge about

379 Ponnet, Online Content and Contact Risks accurate is parental & fathers) of children their children’s online activities and

Emmery, knowledge about Age 13 -18 online risk. Walrave & adolescents’ online activities 54.9% female,  Limited evidence was found for accurate Heirman and experiences with online 45.1% male parental knowledge about online risks. risks, and identifies the factors relating to the knowledge of online risk. 96 Lobel, Engels, 2017 Switzerland Video Gaming and Children’s Psychosocial To investigate potential 194 children and their  Cooperative gaming was not associated Stone, Burk & Netherlands Wellbeing: A Longitudinal Study psychosocial benefits from parents with changes in prosocial behaviour. Granic playing video games for 98 male, 96 female  Children in frequent competitive gaming children and also assessing Age 7-11 for 8 hours or more per week may be at negative outcomes such as risk of decreasing prosocial behaviour. externalizing/internalizing  Gaming frequency was related to problems, hyperactivity, increases in internalizing problems. inattention, peer relations and prosocial behaviour.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 97 Slater, 2017 UK More than just Child’s Play?: An To examine the influence of 80 girls  Girls played an appearance-focused Halliwell, Experimental Investigation of the Impact playing an appearance- Age 8-9 Internet game expressed great body Jarman & of an Appearance-Focused Internet Game focused Internet game on the dissatisfaction, and have greater Gaskin on Body Image and Career Aspirations of body image and career preference for feminine careers Young Girls aspirations of 8-9 year old compared to girls played an appearance- girls neutral Internet game.

98 Ferguson & 2017 USA Are Associations between “Sexist” Video To examine whether the 154 Italian high school  There was little evidence for an overall Donnellan Games and Decreased Empathy toward original results reported by students effect of game condition on empathy Women Robust? A Reanalysis of Gabbiadini et al. have strong 44.2% male, 55.8% towards girls/women. Gabbiadini et al. 2016 evidence for the connection female between “sexist” video games and decreased empathy towards girls/women

380 99 Simōes & 2017 Portugal Digital media, subcultural activity and To examine through an PUYS (Urban Youth The digital media and technologies have Campos youth participation: the cases of protest analysis of 2 interconnected Subcultures) been gradually integrated in these urban rap and graffiti in Portugal case studies (protest rap and 38 interviews youth subcultures, undertaking several illegal graffiti) the problem strategic roles. these youth subcultures face PHOO (Hi-hop Culture) with digital 59 interviews media/technologies. Graffiti writers 13 interviews

PDIP (Digital Inclusion & Participation) 11 interviews

100 Manning, 2017 USA Politicians, celebrities and social media: a To investigate links between 3 691 young people  Most respondents were positive and Penfold- case of informalisation young people’s perceptions (Australia, UK & USA) preferred politicians’ presence in social Mounce, of informalisation and the Age 16-21 media more authentic and accessible to Loader, tension with traditional 56% female young people. Vromen & views, professionalism and 44% male  Politicians were perceived as agendas Xenos expectations driven and celebrities as more genuine as they expressed their beliefs and passionate.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 101 Hart 2017 Australia Being naked on the internet: young To examine how young 25 young people  Through their online risky practices, young people’s selfies as intimate edgework selfies sharers engage in Age 18-25 people not only gain the intimate edgework in the 22 females attention/excitement without the threat of visual social media site 3 males physical danger, they also learn the societal tumblr boundaries and learn specific skills to maintain control. 102 Van Ouytsel, 2017 Belgium Sexting: Adolescents’ perception of the To investigate adolescents’ 57 adolescents  Sexting mostly occurred through Van Gool, applications used for, motives for, and perceptions of sexting (which Age 15-18 smartphone applications such as Snapchat. Walrave, consequences of sexting mediums are used, 66.67% female  Girls were more prone and pressured to Ponnet & motivations to engage in the 33.33% male engage in sexting, mostly out of fear or to Peeters behaviour and consequences compromise. of sexting  3 main consequences raised by respondents: the explicit pictures used to blackmail the victim, distributed out of revenge after the breakup of a romantic relationship or to show to others in order to brag.

381 103 Lincoln & 2017 UK Editing the project of the self: sustained To explore the sustained use 18 females  3 main areas as the key moment of

Robards Australia Facebook use and growing up online of Facebook use by young 16 males reorganizing life narratives: employment, people in Australia and the family life and romantic relationships. UK.  Facebook profile not only shows off the sense of self to others but also acts as a personal reflection of growing up subjected to ongoing revision. Storrod & 2017 USA ‘Going viral’ and ‘Going country’: the To examine the relationship 240 young people  Street gangs used online videos to both Densley expressive and instrumental activities of between street gangs’ use of Age 12-15 brag and advertise illegal activities. street gangs on social media social media and their main 124 females  Street gangs used social media to build (illegal) activities 115 males reputation, to recruit new people and to market new illegal activities. 104 Wästerfors & 2017 Sweden Taking ownership of gaming and disability To explore gaming practices 15 Swedish  The young people with disabilities in this Hansson among young people with participants study, engaged in gaming for enjoyment, disabilities in a private Age 16-27 community and shelter for their identity. setting. 14 females 1 male

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 105 Kernsmith, 2018 USA Online, Offline and Over the Line: To explore the coercive 1 236 student  12% reported receiving coercive sexting. Victor & Coercive Sexting among Adolescent sexting by dating partners participants  8% pressured a partner to sext. Smith-Darden Dating Partners among middle and high (6th & 9th grade)  Boys more likely to pressure sext than school students girls.

106 Mesch 2018 Israel Parent-Child Connections on Social To evaluate the role of 800 participants (800 Parent-child connection through SNS does Networking Sites and Cyberbullying parent-child connection on parents) not reduce the child’s participation in social networking sites (SNS) 51% boys various risky online activities but having a in reducing young people’s 49% girls parent as a connection, increased the engagement in risky online Age 12-17 parent-child communication about their activities, effectiveness of routine activities, provides parental parental control, and the support, and does reduce the number of occurrence of young people’s SNS activities in which the child engages. negative experiences on SNS.

382 107 Yang 2018 USA Social Media as More than a Peer Space: To explore how college 28 young people  The young people in this study welcomed College Freshmen Encountering Parents freshmen react to parents’ Age 18-20 their parents in Facebook and gave equal

on Facebook participation in Facebook. 50% female access as that offered to their peers. 50% male  Facebook provided a space for these young people and their parents to bond and express affections. However, the implications of “friending” parents on FB inevitably challenged their privacy and their choice of what they can post and what they cannot on Facebook.

108 Vaterlaus, 2018 USA The Perceived Influence of Media and To investigate adolescents’ 96 high school  Majority of high school and college Tulane, Porter Technology on Adolescent Romantic perceptions of the influence students participants perceived romantic & Beckert Relationships of entertainment media and Age 16-18 relationships were common in high school. interactive technology 78% female  Almost all of the participants (both high influenced romantic 22% male school and college) perceived both relationships. Any differences entertainment media and interactive between high school and 124 college students technology influenced adolescent romantic college students. Age 18-30 relationships. 89% female 11% male

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 109 Lin, Wu, You, 2018 Taiwan Prevalence of Internet Addiction and its To investigate the presence 2 170 participants  The presence of IA among high school Hu & Yen Risk and Protective Factors in a of Internet Addiction (IA) in a from senior high students in Taiwan was high. Representative Sample of Senior High sample of high school school throughout  Some of the high risk characteristics School Students in Taiwan. students and identify the risk Taiwan related to IA: impulsivity, high and protective factors expectancy of Internet use, depression, high virtual social support, critical attitude of Internet use by others, high frequency of others’ invitation to Internet use. 110 Charalampous, 2018 Cyprus The effect of parental style on bullying To examine of the 861 children &  Parental style seems to influence peer Demetriou, and cyber bullying behaviours and the longitudinal effect of parental adolescents attachment relationships, which in return Tricha, mediating role of peer attachment style on short-term changes (Girls -52.0%, Boys - influence early adolescents' involvement Ioannou, relationships: A longitudinal study in conventional and cyber 47.5%) in the various forms of bullying and Georgiou, forms of bullying Age 10 to 15 victimization both conventional and Nikiforou & /victimization, and cyber. Stavrinides investigate the mediating  Peer Alienation influences all forms of role of peer attachment bullying/victimization.

383 relationships on this effect.  Older students reported higher on Peer

Alienation as well as on conventional and cyber bullying. 111 O’Rourke, 2018 Canada Communication, Compassion, and To explore what individuals 163 participants  The adolescents and emergent adults did Eskritt & Computers: Adolescents’ and Adults’ of different ages consider Four different age recognize subtler nonverbal forms of Bosacki Evaluations of Online and Face-to-Face being deception and their groups deception, but their definition of Deception judgments of its 23 Younger deception did not quite match that of the acceptability.in computer Adolescents (13-15) adults. mediated communication 53 Older Adolescents  Participants viewed questionable (CMC) compared to face-to- (16-18) behaviour as more deceptive online than face (FtF) 57 Emergent Adults when in face-to-face. (19-24) 30 Adults (25 – 50)

112 Mazzer, 2018 Sweden Longitudinal Associations between Time To test whether time spent 1 620 high school  Time spent using technology significantly Bauducco, Spent Using Technology and Sleep using technology predicted students predicted shorter subsequent sleep Linton & Duration among Adolescents shorter sleeps duration (8th & 9th grade) duration and vice versa. Boersma and/or vice versa. 51.9% female, 48.1% male

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 113 Wang, Frison, 2018 China & Active Public Facebook Use and To examine the possible 1188 high school  Active Facebook use and Eggermont & Belgium Adolescents’ Feelings of Loneliness: relationships between active students social/emotional loneliness are Vandenbosch Evidence for a Curvilinear Relationship public Facebook and 55% boys 45% girls interlinked. adolescents’ social/emotional  More frequent Facebook use leads to loneliness. social/emotional loneliness, and those who are lonely are more active Facebook users. 114 Jose & Vierling 2018 New Cybervictimisation of Adolescents Predicts To determine whether 1774 NZ adolescents  Cybervictimised adolescents suffered loss Zealand Higher Rumination, which in turn, Predicts cybervictimisation predicts 854 female, 920 male of sleep and experienced poor coping Worse Sleep Over Time sleep adequacy, and be Age 10 -15 strategies. mediated by adaptive coping  The impacts of cybervictimisation could (problem solving) and still affect them long after the maladaptive coping cybervictimised experience. (rumination) 115 Yang, Holden, 2018 USA Social Media Social Comparison and To explore the identity 219 college freshmen 384  Different types of online social Carter & Identity Distress at the College Transition: implications of online social 74% female, 28% male comparisons impacted college students’ Webb A Dual-Path Model comparison (i.e., comparison identity development. of ability and comparison of  Social comparison of ability on social opinion) of college students. media could identity distress.

116 Schwinn, 2018 USA An Outline Drug Abuse Prevention The study developed and 788 girls  Girls who received the intervention Schinke, Program for Adolescent Girls: Posttest tested the effects of the Age 13-14 engaged in less binge drinking and Hopkins, Keller and 1-Year Outcomes tailored interventions in an cigarette smoking, and had higher & Liu online drug abuse prevention resistance to substance use and higher program for girls coping skills/media literacy and lower rate of peer drug use. 117 Kim, Colwell, 2018 Canada Cyberbullying Victimization and The study examines the links 31, 148 students  For girls, cyberbullying was more strongly Kata, Boyle & Adolescent Mental Health: Evidence of between cyberbullying and Grade 6-12 related with emotional problems. Georgiades Differential Effects by Sex and Mental adolescent mental health 51.9% female,  For boys, cyberbullying was more Health Problem Type problems and the extent to 48.1% male strongly related with behaviour which it differs by sex and problems. mental health type 118 Fardouly, 2018 Australia Parental Control of the Time This study examined the 284 participants (with  Preadolescents’ parents who reported Magson, Preadolescents Spend on Social Media: relationships between 1 of their parent) greater control over their time on social Johnco, Oar & Links with Preadolescents’ Social Media parental control over the Age 10-12 media (spending less time browsing and Rapee Appearance Comparisons time their child spends on 49.1% female making fewer appearance comparisons) social media, preadolescents’ 50.9% male had better mental health.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS appearance comparisons on social media, and preadolescents’ appearance satisfaction, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction. 119 Coelho & 2018 Portugal Trajectories of Social and Emotional This study investigated how 455 middle school  Students involved in any cyberbullying Marchante Competencies according to Cyberbullying Portuguese middle school students role (victims and bully-victims) displayed Roles: A Longitudinal Multilevel Analysis students’ involvement in Age 11-15 distinct negative trajectories (self-control cyberbulling affected their 246 boys & self-awareness). social and emotional 209 girls  Larger classes were related to higher competencies development, levels of self-control and responsible and whether it is influenced decision-making. by class sizes 120 Houghton, 2018 Australia Reciprocal Relationships between To identify trajectories of 1 749 adolescents  3 trajectories of depressive symptoms: Lawrence, Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms and depressive symptoms in Age 10-17 low-stable, high-decreasing, and low Hunter, Screen Media Use during Adolescence adolescents and to consider 47% female increasing.

385 Rosenberg, links between trajectory 53% male  Some positive links between depressive

Zadow, Wood types and screen use time symptoms and later screen use and & Shilton between screen use and later depressive symptoms. 121 Bradbury, 2018 USA How do Adolescents Learn Cyber- To explore how and from 329 participants  Positive coping strategies such as Dubow & victimization Coping Skills? An whom adolescents learn 7th & 8th Grade problem solving, seeking social support Domoff Examination of Parent and Peer Coping coping cyber-victimization 49% male are frequently used. Socialization coping strategies 51@ female  There is a direct link between adolescents’ perceptions of parent and peer socialization and how they use all coping strategies except social support from family/adult. 123 Coelho & 2018 Portugal Trajectories of Social and Emotional This study investigated how 455 middle school  Students involved in any cyberbullying Marchante Competencies according to Cyberbullying Portuguese middle school students role (victims and bully-victims) displayed Roles: A Longitudinal Multilevel Analysis students’ involvement in Age 11-15 distinct negative trajectories (self-control cyberbulling affected their 246 boys & self-awareness). social and emotional 209 girls  Larger classes were related to higher competencies development, levels of self-control and responsible and whether it is influenced decision-making. by class sizes

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 124 Fu 2018 China Chinese youth performing identities and To examine urban Chinese 31 participants  Urban Chinese young people in the study navigating belonging online young people’s online Age 19-33 used 2 different strategies: experiencing the performances and how these 16 females sense of private and public in different performances shape their 15 males platform, performing identifies to identities. supplement or escape from physical life. 125 Heiman, 2018 Israel Adolescent involvement in face-to-face To examine the relationships 902 students  Students who experienced social and Olenik- and cybervictimization: can personal between students’ Age 10-18 emotional loneliness were more likely to be Shemesh & well being mediate social-emotional experiences of bullying (cyber 49.9% girls victims of cyber- and face-to-face bullying Liberman behaviour? and face-to-face), and 50.1% boys than those who were not lonely. personal/social well-being.  Boys who were more socially confident than girls experienced less cyberbullying but they can also experience more face-to- face victimization compared to girls. 126 Raby, Caron, 2018 Canada Vlogging on YouTube: the online, political To explore and identify the 18 young Canadians  The study highlighted the diverse political

386 Théwissen- engagement of young Canadians themes across the social Age 15-18 and social issues the vloggers addressed. LeBlanc, advocating for social change change-oriented YouTube 12 females, 6 males  The analysis also shown that support of the

Prioletta & channels of selected young online community and the importance of Mitchell Canadian vloggers the inequality. 127 Mesch 2018 Israel Race, ethnicity and strength of Facebook To investigate the 625 adolescents  No differences between social ties based ties relationships between race Age 12-17 on ethnic and racial groups. and ethnicity, and the  African Americans reported a higher strength of social ties of number of weak social ties while White young adolescents on Americans had higher number of strong Facebook ties. 128 Edwards & 2018 UK There are two sides to every story: young To examine how young 42 young people  The study demonstrated young people Wang people’s perspectives of relationships people negotiate their Age 13-15 engaged successfully in practices of self- issues on social media and adult identities and relationships 26 girls governance when they are on social media. responses online, and how they 16 boys  The study further showed that these young experience adult people did recognize the need for adult interventions. support but preferred a support strategy that enabled them to develop self- governance and personal agency so that they could construct their own relationships.

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 129 Maclsaac, 2018 Scotland ‘She has like 4000 followers!’: the Explore pupils’ informal social Observation (year long Young people placed a significant Kelly & Gray celebrification of self within school social relationship online study) of Scottish importance on being and becoming networks school students (aged ‘known’. The online space was viewed as 11-18), as well as 14 especially important avenue. group interviews Students’ felt constant surveillance by all (M=19, F=22)m the social spaces they interact with 130 Nardi- 2018 Spain Identifying beliefs behind boys’ use of To identify the normative 119 teenagers Boys and girls appeared to hold beliefs that Rodríguez, mobile phones to monitor girlfriends and behavior and beliefs Age 14-18 could provide a feedback loop that allows Pastor-Mira, girls’ acceptance: a reasoned-action 63 girls the abusive behavior to continue López-Roig & approach 56 boys Parents (and not peers) are a protective Ferrer-Pérez factor against abusive behavior

387

APPENDIX B Scoping Literature from Other Sources

This is the summary of the analysis of each of the research articles from research articles identified from other sources between 1998 and 2018. For example, journal publications in the field of Developmental Psychology, Cyber Psychology and behaviour, Computers in human behaviour, Computer-mediated Communication, Behaviour & Information Technology, New media & Society, Educational Computing Research, Science, Technology & Society, Child Youth Care and International Nursing Studies.

It further demonstrates the point that the research focusing on youth and adolescents places great emphasis on the societal attitudes and perceptions towards adolescents and youth issues and interventions and modifications of behaviour with a lot of focus on the detrimental effects in relation to the digital world as shown in the literature collected in youth and adolescent studies in Appendix A. This is again reflected in the following research articles that are highlighted in grey.

389

B.1.1 (OTHER SOURCES: 1998 - 2018) ANALYSIS SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL ARTICLES

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 1. Orleans & 1998 USA Early Adolescent Social Networks and To examine the interactions of the A total of 32 children  Online communication led to interpersonal Laney Computer Use social networks of young adolescents Age from 8 – 17 communication in the presence of pre-existing peer and their computer usage, particularly 11 females relations focus upon whether heavy computers 21 males  Boys were more likely to socialise in relation to computers than were the girls youthful users experience social  While the computer expertise of the girls observed in isolation. the study was substantial, the boys consistently devoted more time and energy to the computer  Many of the girls observed in the study may perceive computer to be a useful tool, a transitional substitute for social bonding, but not something to take precedence over other aspects of their social life 2. Weiser 2000 USA Gender Differences in Internet Use To obtain normative information about A total of 1 190 surveys  Males use the Internet mainly for purpose related to Patterns and Internet Applications specific reasons why males and 506 college students entertainment and leisure Preferences: A Two-Sample Comparison females use the Internet by examining 212 males  Women use the Internet primarily for interpersonal a broad and inclusive sample of male 294 females communication and educational assistance

390  Gender differences in usage pattern depend upon age and females users 684 online surveys and experience

297 males 387 females 3. Gross, 2002 USA Internet Use and Well-being in The aim is twofold, to examine what 130 participants (7th Grade)  Internet users in the study spent most of their after- Juvonen & Adolescence adolescents do online and to Age between 11 and 13 school time on traditional activities (participating in Gable investigate associations between 49 males sports or hanging out with friends) Internet use and well-being 81 females  Online communication occurred largely in private settings such as e-mail and IMs (instant messages)  Time spent online was not associated with dispositional or daily well-being  Although most social interaction through IMs occurred between friends known from offline, participants who reported feeling lonely and socially anxious in school on a daily basis were more likely to communicate through IMs with people they did not know well  Participants in the study use the Internet to seek additional opportunities to interact with their school- based peers and also to avoid being alone

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 4. Livingstone 2003 UK UK Children Go Online: Listening to Aims to understand how children and A total of 55 children and  Children’s motivations for going online centre on new & Bober Young People’s Experiences young people are using the internet at their parents opportunities for communication and identity play. the start of the 21st century, Age of 10 and 19 While the conversational content is often mundane, 14 group interviews being readily in touch with their friends is important to them  Online communication is rarely an escape from real life. The internet appears to foster, rather than undermine, existing social contacts, for example with friends from school, connecting children into local, rather than global, networks.  Most young people see little point in talking to strangers on the internet, regarding unknown online contacts as ‘dodgy’. 5. Donchi & 2004 Australia It’s a boy thing: The role of the Internet To assess the relationship between 336 participants Young people in the study reported that the number of Moore in young people’s psychological well- psychological well-being and Internet Age between 15 and 21 face-to-face friendships were clearly related to well- being use among adolescents focusing on 114 males being – with more face-to-face friends associated with higher self-esteem and lower loneliness the time spent on the Internet and the 222 females  Results indicated that females with more online friends relative strength and importance of were higher on self-esteem and lower on loneliness than 391 both face-to-face and Internet females with fewer online friends but opposite for the friendship networks males  For the males, a higher number of online regular friendships seemed to militate against self-esteem and was related to greater loneliness –young men who rated their online friendship networks as very important were more likely to have lower self-esteem and lonely  Females in the study seem to have developed mechanisms by which their online activity does not interfere with offline friendships or may even enhance it  Females devoted around one-third of their internet time to personal communication activities (some of which may involve relating to friends who they already know offline, on the other hand, males spent about one- quarter of their time in such activities preferring to engage in Internet entertainment and games which have a greater potential to be socially isolating

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 6. Gross 2004 USA Adolescent Internet use: What we To compare the expectations based on 100 males  Adolescent boys’ and girls’ online activities have become expect, what teens reports research with earlier technologies 161 females more similar than different. (when the Internet was less diffused in Age between 12 and 15  On average, both gender alike described their online the adolescent population) with the social interaction as: 1)occurring in private settings such as e-mail and instant actual experiences of early and mid- messages adolescents in 2000 and 2001 2)with friends who are also part of their daily offline lives 3)devoted to fairly ordinary but intimate topics No associations were found between Internet usage and well-being  Participants reported a range of pretending content, contexts and motives  Online pretending was reported to be motivated by a desire to play joke on friends more often than to explore a desired or future identity 7. Jung, Kim, 2005 USA The influence of social environment on To examine the influence of the social A total of 1303 students  The availability of internet-related help was a strong Lin & Japan internet connectedness of adolescents in environment on adolescents’ 456 (Seoul) factor that enabled adolescents to broaden and intensify 392 Cheong Seoul, Singapore and Taipei connectedness to the internet in East 462 (Singapore) their connectedness and to incorporate into the central part of their lives Asia in three areas: general social 385 (Taipei)  Parents’ socioeconomic status did not have a significant support when encountered internet 55% males influence on adolescents’ connectedness problems, parents’ socioeconomic 45% females  Both the scope and intensity and the centrality of status and adolescents’ internet use internet connectedness were significantly influenced by and peer group who connect to the proportions of peers who used the internet internet 8. Livingstone 2005 UK UK Children Go Online: Final Report of Aims to investigate 9-19 year olds’ use A total of 1 511 children and  Not only do the most skilled young people fail to avoid & Bober Key Project Findings. of the internet, an assessment of young people online risks, their risky encounters increase with online risk and opportunities in order Age between 9 and 19 increased use to contribute to developing debates 906 of their parents  One third of 9-19 year old daily and weekly users have received unwanted sexual (31%) or nasty comments and policy frameworks for children and (Gender distribution is not (33%) online or text message young people’s internet use specified in this study)  Only 7 % of parents are aware that their child has received sexual comments and 4% of their child has been bullied online

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 9. Mesch 2005 Israel A study of adolescents’ online and To test the hypothesis of the quality of 996 Israeli adolescents  Ties that originated online appear to be weaker than the offline social relationships social relationships is dependent on Age between 12 and 18 ones that originated offline duration and diversity of topics and  In this study anonymity, isolation and lack of gating activities carried out together features of computer mediated communication did not make it easier to form strong ties 10. Valkenburg, 2005 The Adolescents’ identity experiments on the To investigate how often adolescents 600 participants  Over 50% had engaged in internet based identity Schouten & Netherlands internet engage in internet-based identity Age between 9 and 18 experiments Peter experiments, with what motives they 52.8% boys  Age, gender and introversion were significant predictors engage and which self-presentational 47.2% girls of the frequency with which adolescents engage in internet based identity experiments. strategies they use 11. Kim, Ryu, 2006 South Korea Internet addiction in Korean adolescents To examine the relationship between 1573 participants  1.6 % diagnosed as Internet addicts Chon, Yeun, and its relation to depression, and Internet addiction, depression, and Age between 15 and 16  38% classified as potential Internet addicts Choi, Seo & suicidal ideation: A questionnaire survey suicidal ideation in adolescents, to 53% males  The levels of depressions and suicide ideation were Nam identify background data of the 65% females highest in the Internet-addicts group  The prevalence of Internet addiction did not vary with participants with Internet addiction gender and to determine gender differences in

393 Internet-addiction tendencies. 12. Peter, 2006 The Characteristics and motives of To investigate which types of 412 adolescents  Results indicated that early adolescents were most Valkenburg Netherlands adolescents talking with strangers on the adolescents talk to strangers and what Age between 12 and 14 prone to talk to strangers on the internet & internet motivates them to do so  Introversion was not related to adolescents’ tendency to Schouten talk to strangers  Adolescents who engaged in long chat sessions, they tended to talk to strangers on the internet more often 13. Valkenburg, 2006 The Friend Networking Sites and Their To investigate the consequences of 881 adolescents  Adolescents’ self-esteem and well-being were affected Peter, Netherlands Relationships to Adolescents’ Well Being friend networking sites (e.g. Friendster Age between 10 and 19 by the frequency and the tone of the feedback that they Schouten and Social Self-Esteem & MySpace) for adolescents’ self- 45% boys received on their profiles esteem and well-being 55% girls  Most adolescents (78%) always or predominantly received positive feedbacks on their profiles  Only 7% did always received negative feedbacks on their profiles and resulted in aversive effects on their self-esteem 14. Walther 2006 USA Selective self-presentation in computer- Explores how participants manage self- 26 females  Males seemed to work harder on their messages for mediated communication (CMC): presentations and facilitates desired 28 males opposite sex peers or high school students Hyperpersonal dimensions of relationships by using the CMC Age between 18 and 23  Females re-wrote their messages for female professors technology, language and cognition affordances (editability and off-line or peer males but edited least for female peers  More personalised language was delivered to high composition) school students rather than college professors; more complex sentence structures were used for professors than for high school students

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 15. Subrahmanyam 2007 USA Adolescent Online Communication: Old To describe in detail the online 1000 participants/nicknames:  Across two different online forums (chatrooms and Issues, New Intensities environments with a view toward 583 (monitored) blogs), new behaviours were not being created, instead comparing adolescents’’ real and 567 (unmonitored) it appeared that the virtual world may actually serve as virtual worlds 12 000 utterances: a screen for playing out issues from the physical world  Due to the different affordances, these behaviours are 6702 (monitored chatrooms) enacted sometimes with different intensities compared 5556 (unmonitored to the real world chatrooms) 200 blogs (English): Authored by age between 14 and 17 600 entries (Gender distribution is not specified in this study) 16. Subrahmanyam 2007 USA Adolescents on the net: Internet use To examine the relationships between 156 participants  Loneliness was not related to the total time spend & Lin and well-being adolescents’ Internet use, particularly Age between 15 and 18.4 online nor the time spent on e-mail but related to communication activities and their 78 males participants’ gender feelings of loneliness and perceived 78 females  The study indicated that gender and participants’ perceptions regarding their online relationships were support from others such as close the only variables that predicted loneliness friends and parents  Participants in the study who felt that their relationship with online partners was one that they could turn to in times of need were more lonely  Males reported greater loneliness that females but no differences in the relationships between Internet use 394 and well-being

17. Cheong 2008 USA The young and techless? Investigating To examine the technologically-savvy Age between 15 and 29  About one-fifth of the youths said that they usually internet use and problem solving of young adults through the digital Survey: 767 responses solved their own internet problems by themselves and young adults in Singapore divide issues underlying youth 470 (61%) males few used published resources such as books, references or online documentation. internet use, including their daily 297 (39%) females  A significant proportion of the youths in the study were computer and internet problem- Interview: 38 youths unfamiliar with the computing technologies and were solving behaviours unable to troubleshoot or solve their computing problems  The findings challenges the self-sufficient image of the young internet user who is autonomous and technologically competent

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 18. Livingstone 2008 UK Taking risky opportunities in youthful To explore teenagers’ practices of 16 teenagers  Teenagers face the problem in managing their privacy content creation: teenagers’ use of social networking in order to uncover Age between 13-16 online which concerns the relation between their social networking sites for intimacy, the subtle connections between 50% girls internet literacy and the interface design of the social privacy and self-expression online opportunity and risk 50% boys networking sites and settings  Misleading information about age often posted on their profiles following the peer group belief (not necessarily accurate) that they were too young to be allowed on the site  Many of those interviewed, rather than compromise their privacy, they chose to express their more personal experiences using other modes of communication online and offline; most were clear that they use SNSs for only part and not all of their social relations 19. Subrahmanyam, 2008 USA Online and offline social networks: Use To determine what emerging adults 110 participants (university  Findings showed that participants often use internet, Reich, of social networking sites by emerging did online, how much time they spent students) especially social networking sites to connect with Waechter & adults on various online activities, especially Age between 18 and 29 friends and family members Espinoza on social networking sites and how 55 males  More participants reported spending most time with their friends outside of school (rather than online) 395 their online/offline social networks 55 females  Participants do not use social networking sites to meet

related to one another and form connections with strangers, they seemed to use instant messaging and social networking sites to selectively interact with different people from their offline world, for example to strengthen existing offline connections that may not be that strong within the context of their face-to-face lives. 20. Manago, 2008 USA Self-presentation and gender on To investigate how emerging adults 11 females  The study suggests that social networking sites provide Graham, Myspace experience the issue of self- 12 males valuable opportunities for emerging adults to realise Greenfield & presentation as they interact with Age 18-23 possible selves Salimkhan peers on MySpace, to conceptualise  The public performance of relationships in social groups through comments walls and the display of the impact of these online self- friends also indicate the circumstances on MySpace representations on identity may intensify one’s commitment to group development (personal, social, memberships, which may also be another method for gender) solidifying a coherent sense of self  Results suggest that gender role constructions on MySpace seem to correspond to gender role constructions in mainstream culture 21. Barker 2009 USA Older adolescents’ motivations for Assess the motives for social network 734 participants (freshman  Females more likely to report high positive collective social network site use: The influence of sites (SNS) use, group belonging, students) self-esteem, greater overall use and SNS use to gender, group identity and collective collective self-esteem and gender 59% females communicate with peers self-esteem effects among older adolescents 41% males  Males more likely to report negatively collective self- esteem and SNS use for social compensation and social identity gratifications

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 22. De Souza & 2009 Australia Disclosure of information by children in It examines the reasons why children Total of 263 (MySpace users)  Information disclosure of MySpace users was identified Dick social-networking – Not just a case of disclose information on the website Age between 12 and 18 to be driven by three factors: peer pressure, website “you show me yours and I’ll show you and their understanding of some of (Gender distribution is not interface design and signaling mine” the privacy issues involved. specified in this study)  It suggests that children who are taught to value privacy are less likely to disclose sensitive information online 23. Pempek, 2009 USA College students’ social networking The purpose of this study is to provide 92 undergraduate students  Results indicated that students in the study used FB Yermolayeva experiences on Facebook (FB) descriptive information about the use 60 females approximately 30 min throughout the day as part of & Calvert of social networking sires by college 32 males their daily routine students Mean age= 20.59 years  Students in the study communicated on FB using a “one- to-many” style For example, exchanges in a “public wall space” on FB were twice as frequent as one-on-one private exchanges and more frequent than interacting with groups they had joined  Students in the study spent more time observing content on FB than actually posting content  FB was used most often for social interaction primarily with friends with whom the students had a pre- established relationship offline McLoughlin  396 24 2009 Australia Texting, sexting and social networking To explore the uptake of social Data and literature from The findings indicates that instant messaging, mobile & Burgess among Australian youth and the need networking in the lives of young different Australian studies phones and social networking sites are contexts where for cyber safety education people, review the literature on on cyberbullying cyberbullying occurs studies conducted in Australia on  Girls are more likely to view cyber aggression more seriously than boys cyberbullying behaviour and considers  Most students who were cyberbullied were bullied by the challenges to schools in developing their peers. e-safety measures and programs 25. Pierce 2009 USA Social anxiety and technology: Face-to- To examine teens’ use of socially 280 students  A positive relationship between social anxiety and face communication versus interactive technologies (SITs) such as Age between 15 and 16 talking with others online and via SITs technological communication among online social networking sites (SNSs), 43% males  A positive relationship between lack of social anxiety teens cell phones/text messaging and instant 57% females and making friends online  Significant differences between gender and social messaging (IM), and the role that anxiety social anxiety plays on how teens  Females tended to use cell phones/text messages and communicate with others ( online social networking sites more so than did males technologically or face-to-face)  More females than males reported feeling more comfortable using SITs rather than talking with others face-to-face

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 26. Dempsey, 2009 USA Differences between peer victimization To determine whether cyber 1 684 students  This study demonstrates that cyber victimization is a Sulkowski & in cyber and physical settings and victimization was a separate construct Age 11 and 16 disparate form of victimization, separate from either Nichols associated psychosocial adjustment in from relational and overt victimization 48% males overt or relational victimization but there are some early adolescence or an extension these form of peer 52% females overlapping factors  Cyber victimization was only weakly associated with victimization and to relate cyber symptoms of society anxiety, not depression victimization to symptoms of depression and social anxiety 27. Back, 2010 USA Facebook profiles reflect actual Examine the hypothesis that people 236 OSN users  Consistent with extended real life hypothesis and Stopfer, personality not self-idealization use on line social networking sites Ages between 17-22 contrary to the idealized virtual identity hypotheses Vazire, (OSN) to communicate their real Gaddis, personality Schmukle, Egloff & Gosling 28. Bonetti, 2010 Australia The relationship of loneliness and social To investigate the amount, topics, 626 students  Participants in the study who self- identified as lonely Campbell & anxiety with children’s and adolescents’ patterns and purposes of online Age between 10 and 16 communicated online significantly more than those who Gilmore online communication communication patterns between 316 males self-reported being socially anxious  In comparison with the socially anxious and typically 397 children and adolescents with and 310 females developing, participants who self- identified as lonely without self-reported loneliness and confessed that they communicated online more social anxiety, age and gender frequently about personal things, people in their differences in usage of patterns of everyday lives, intimate topics and their past and online communication were also present investigated  Results in the study suggest online communication allows children and adolescents to fulfil critical needs of social interactions, self-disclosure and identity exploration 29. Miller, 2010 USA Students and social networking sites: the To examine undergraduate students’ 165 undergraduate students  The results indicate that usage is hardly extreme in Parsons & posting paradox use of social networking sites (e.g. terms of number of visits per day or in duration of visit. Lifer Myspace and Facebook) and the Although 60% did admit to visiting the sites multiple times a day, most visits were less than 10 min long appropriateness of the content that  In the study, students primarily use these sites to they post maintain and expand their social networks  The results suggest a kind of paradox at play, on one hand, students lock their profiles to keep their personal information secure, while at the same time, failing to verify who they are allowing to have access to this secured site  The study also reports that students appear to know what they should be doing online but their behaviours do not reflect this knowledge

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 30. Nosko, 2010 Canada All about me: Disclosure in online social To examine the disclosure in online 400 randomly selected FB  As age increased, the amount of personal information in Wood & networking profiles: The case of social networking profiles (FB) profiles profiles decreases Molema Facebook (FB) Female Age between 19-47 Male Age between 17-61 31. Patchin & 2010 USA Changes in adolescent online social To determine the extent to which Random selection of  There are significant changes in the nature of personal Hinduja networking behaviours from 2006 to adolescent information disclosure on MySpace profiles (created by content made publicly available across the two time 2009 MySpace has changed between 2006 individuals under the age of points and 2009 18)  A trend in which teens are being increasingly more selective and discrete when it comes to what they share and with whom they share it (choose to restrict access ) 32. Roblyer, 2010 USA Findings on Facebook (FB) in higher Explore the issues related to faculty 120 students  The perception of the role of FB as a social rather than McDaniel, education: A comparison of college and student acceptance and use of FB 62 higher education faculty educational tool Webb, faculty and student use and perceptions and to compare student and faculty members  The comparison of college faculty and student responses Herman & of social networking sites uses of FB and their perceptions of its indicate that the students are much more likely than Witty faculty to use FB and are significantly more open to the utility as a classroom support tool possibility of using FB and similar technologies to support classroom work  Faculty members are more likely to use more traditional

398 technologies such as e-mail Antheunis The  Results reveal that the profile owner of a SNS was 33. 2011 The effects of other-generated and To investigate to what extent other- 497 high school students & Schouten Netherlands system-generated cues on adolescents; generated and system-generated cues Ager between 12 and 15 perceived as being more attractive when the profile perceived attractiveness on social on social network sites (SNSs) 56% girls includes attractive friends and positive wall postings network sites influence the popularity and 44% boys  The profile owners’ number of friends did not affect the perceived attractiveness of the profile owner, only the attractiveness of adolescents perceived extraversion 34. Cheung, 2011 Hong Kong Online social networks: Why do students To explore the factors that drive A total of 182 responses  The results shows that social presence has the strongest Chiu & Lee use Facebook (FB)? students to use online social network 68% female impact on the use of FB sites (FB) and examine the relative 32% male  Group norms also has a significant influence on the use impact of social influence, social Age between 19-23 of FB  Social related factors (maintaining interpersonal presence and the five key values from Up to 86% were students interconnectivity and social enhancement) and “We-Intention” to use social network entertainment value are found to be more important in sites determining the use of FB

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 35. Zheng & 2011 USA Singaporean adolescents’ perceptions of The study examines the factors that 74 males  Results showed significant differences between the Cheok Singapore online social communication: An are perceived by Singaporean 25 females factors derived from the study and those from the exploratory factor analysis adolescents as critical to their online Age between 11 and 22 literature social communication and to  Three factors perceived by the participants in the study: self-identity, self-confidence and self-social factors determine whether demographic data  Regression analyses showed that demographic and and online experience would online experiences variables significantly predicted significantly predict their perceptions adolescents’ perceptions in online social communication 36. Ahn 2012 USA Teenagers’ experiences with social To examine the relationship between 852 high school participants  The results show that teenagers who use Facebook or network sites: Relationships to bridging urban teenagers’ experiences with 48% males MySpace report higher social capital in both their school and bonding social capital SNSs and their social capital 52% females and online relationships  Time spent in SNSs is related to bridging capital, while positive and negative experiences are related to bonding capital 37. Hew & 2012 Singapore Use of Facebook: A case of Singapore To examine Singapore students’ 83 students  Students in the study use FB primarily for non- Cheung students’ experience motives for using FB, to investigate the Age between 15 and 23 educational purposes, specifically to maintain types of friends they communicate on 23 males relationships with existing known friends such as former FB and to examine how students 60 females classmates, or for entertainment and vent their

399 emotions manage their  No respondent reported using FB for educational purpose  The most common strategy for privacy protection used by the students in the study is to decrease profile information visibility through restricting access to only known friends 38. Manago, 2012 USA Me and My 400 Friends: The anatomy of To examine whether there is a tradeoff 88 undergraduate students  Facebook facilitates expansive social networks that Taylor & college students’ Facebook networks, between having large networks of from the University of Los expand the number of close relationships and stranger Greenfield their communication patterns and well social connections on social Angeles (67 females, 21 relationships being networking sites such as Facebook and males 18-28 years).  Indicates the transformation of the nature of intimacy in the environment of a social network site the development of intimacy and  Larger networks and larger estimated audiences social support predicted higher levels of life satisfaction and perceived social support on Facebook. 39. Smahel & 2012 USA Associations between online friendship To examine association between 394 participants ( Czech  Three different approaches to friendship identified in Brown and internet addiction among online friendship and internet youths) the study: exclusively offline, face-to-face oriented and adolescents and emerging adults addiction Age between 12 – 26 internet oriented (Gender distribution is not  The rate of internet addiction did not differ by age or gender but associated with communication styles, hours specified in this study) spent online and friendship approaches  Relationship between internet addiction and approaches to friendship revealed in the study may be reciprocal  Being oriented toward having more online friends, preference for online communication and spending more time online were related to increased risk of internet addiction

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 40. Lim, Chen & 2013 Singapore Singapore youth’s new media To find out how Singapore youths are 31 students  Participants showed that they are immersed in and Liang participation: Consuming, being, learning participating in new media Age 13 and 18 adept at their participation in new media and schooling environments, including what types of (Gender distribution is not  Participants tend to be content consumers of new media are the youth participating specified in this study) information and views rather than creators  Facebook is the most popular social networking site in & why are they engaged in these among the participants activities?  School plays a central role in the way they participate and engage in their activities, hence, their participation in new media can be described as school-driven 41. Allen, Ryan, 2014 Australia Social Media use and social Explore whether increase social media Review of the literature  Findings suggest that young people may experience both Gray, connectedness in adolescents: the use in adolescents leads to positive or positive and negative psychological outcomes McInerney positives and the potential pitfalls negative outcomes. Specifically  Online tools create a paradox for social connectedness – & Waters whether social media affects social it elevates the ease in individuals being able to create online groups and communicate, but it can also create a connectedness in adolescent source of alienation and ostracism development 42. Helsper 2014 UK Offline social identity and online chat To investigate the importance of 206 teenagers  The findings suggest that offline social group norms partner selection offline social identity in teenagers’ 45% females related to gender and ethnic identities influence how teenagers think about themselves in online interactive

400 online interactions in particularly the 55% males different levels of awareness of (Gender distribution is contexts

 This study confirms other research that shows offline specific identity categories (youth, relatively equal across identities influence how teenagers see themselves and ethnicity and gender) influenced different conditions) act online teenagers’ behaviour and self- perceptions in online interactions 43. Marwick & 2014 USA Networked privacy: how teenagers To investigate whether the dynamic of 166-semi structured  Network model of privacy contradicts many of the Boyd negotiate context in social media sites such as Facebook have forced interviews across 17 US paternalistic discourses about young people that exist teens to alter their conceptions of States. First wave (n=106) today privacy was during 2006-2009 and  Networked publics make it difficult for teens to effectively control information flow second wave (n=60) was conducted in 2010-2011 44. Neira & 2014 Australia Social networking site use: Linked to To investigate whether there was a 1 819 students  Frequency of SNS use was linked to higher social self- Barber adolescents’ social self-concept, self- relationship between adolescents’ use 55% females concept esteem and depressed mood of SNSs and their social self-concept, 45% males  Investment in SNSs was associated with lower self- self-esteem and depressed mood: Age between 13 and 17 esteem and higher depressed mood  It appears from the study that SNS use may have Does SNS use vary by gender? Are negative aspects for female while being a positive there differences between adolescents leisure activity for male who have SNS profile compared with youth who do not have a profile? Does frequency of SNS use and investment in SNSs predict social self-concept, self-esteem and depressed mood?

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 45. Cyr, 2015 USA The role of communication technology in To determine if technology usage and 268 participants  Communication technology usage was found to be Berman & adolescent relationships and identity preference for using communication 69% females related to identity and relationship problems, and was Smith development technology in social situations are 31% males linked to greater maladjustment related to adolescent development in Mean age = 16.22  In the study, those with high in relationship anxiety but low in relationship avoidance reported the most time regard to peer relationships, identity using communication technology development and psychological adjustment 46. Soffer & 2015 Israel Privacy perception of adolescents in a An exploratory study to investigate 1 428 adolescents  The results reveal that adolescents attribute high value Cohen digital world privacy perceptions among Age between 16 and 18 to privacy and data protection but their actual behaviour adolescents based on a European 55.7% females are not consistent school survey (PRACTIS) 44.3% males  Adolescents in the study show that they are prepared to actively oppose if an online corporation is challenging their personal interests but they tend to trade off privacy for other perceived benefits 47. Antheunis, 2016 The The role of social networking sites in To examine the role of social 3 068 early adolescents  Results show positive relations between SNS use and Schouten & Netherlands early adolescents’ social lives networking sites (SNSs) in early Age between 11 and 14 friendship quality, bridging social capital and bonding Krahmer adolescents’ social lives (i.e., friendship 53.7% girls social capital  A more detailed analysis reveals that relationships 401 quality, bridging social capital and 46.3% boys between time spent on an SNS and the dependent bonding social capital) and whether variables are not linear, at a certain point (well above there are differences between SNS the averages – spending more than 40 hours per week users and nonusers on SNS), SNS use no longer have positive effects  Results show that more girls, older adolescents, adolescents with lower education and socially anxious adolescents are more likely to be a member of an SNS  Girls use SNSs more often than boys, report higher quality of friendships and social capital  Results also show that some adolescents decide not to join SNS or leave after joining, considering that most of their friends are members

AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 48. Mascheroni 2016 Italy The mobile Internet: Access, use, Investigates whether adoption of 3 500 respondents  Smartphone use is associated with a consistent increase & Ólafsson Czech opportunities and divides among smartphones among children and Age between 9 and 16 in social networking and entertainment activities but is Republic European children whether going online from a not correlated with use of the Internet for school work smartphone is associated with specific  Other children, boys and those who have started to use the Internet at a younger age are more likely to engage usage patterns, thus bridging or in a wider range of online activities widening usage gaps  Smartphones do not provide alterative access to the Internet for children 49. Notten & 2016 The Boys and girls taking risks online: A Examines gender differences between 8554  Male adolescents growing up in a single parent Nikken Netherlands gendered perspective on social context adolescents’ risky online behaviour Age between 14- and 16 household and lacking parental co-use increases the and adolescents’ risky online behaviour and their social context in 25 EU countries chance of online risk behaviour  Males are less likely to participate in risky online behaviour in societies where Internet use is widespread 50. Weinstein& 2016 USA Digital stress: Adolescents’ personal Explores adolescents’ personal 2000 anonymous posts to the  Two distinctive types of digital stress were identified. Selman accounts accounts of digital stress website AThinLine.org  Type 1 stressors – ‘mean and harassing personal attacks’, ‘public shaming and humiliations’ reflect migration of common forms of relational hostility onto the online space.

402  Type 2 stressors – ‘feeling smothered’, ‘pressure to comply’ transpire in the context of adolescents’

attempts to form and maintain intimacy or close connections with others 51. Posso 2016 Australia Internet Usage and Educational To investigate the relationship PISA data collected by OECD  Results reveal that children who regularly use online Outcomes Among 15-Year-Old Australian between Australian’s teenagers; online 2012 network sites (e.g. FB) tend to obtain lower scores in Students use and academic performance , how Approximately 12, 018 math, reading and science than those who never or educational attainment may be student observations hardly ever use these sites.  The analysis also shows those who play online video affected by leisure activities online games obtain higher scores on PISA tests.

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 1 Teo & Lim 1997 Singapore Usage and Perceptions of the Internet: To examine the differential effects of 16 Interviews with Internet Internet usage higher amongst the younger What Has Age Got to Do With It? age on usage and perceptions of the users to test the generation Internet in Singapore questionnaire Browsing and messaging more frequent than 1,369 responses were downloading and purchasing analysed, with the majority Age did not have a significant impact on enjoyment between 21 and 25 years and ease of use. Different ages use the Internet to obtain different types of information 2 Nemire, 1999 USA Preventing Teen Smoking with Virtual To test whether virtual environment 72 seven grade students Improvement in attitudes in both the LST and VE Beil & Swan Reality (VE) technology can address some of were randomly assigned groups the disadvantages of traditional delivery groups VE, LST or non VE group showed more accurate information recall of Life Skills training (LST) smoking intervention control groups on peer and adult cigarette use.

403 prevention programs

3 Schneider 1999 USA Effects of virtual reality on symptom Test the premise that Virtual Reality 11 children receiving Using a Symptom Distress Scale (SDS) found that & distress in children receiving (VR) could act as a distraction for chemotherapy there was an immediate effect in decreasing Workman chemotherapy children receiving chemotherapy symptom distress but was not long lasting. 4 Rizzo, 2000 USA The Virtual Classroom: A Virtual Reality Intend to explore the uses of Virtual 15 ADHD diagnosed children Initial user design (for seven non diagnosed children) Buckwalter, Environment for the Assessment and Reality (VR) in the area of clinical and 15 non diagnosed as a has not presented any issues or hesitancy using the Bowerly, Rehabilitation of Attention Deficits neuropsychology control group will be VR system. Van Der selected Anticipate that VR systems would offer better Zaag, predictive information regarding potential Humphrey, performance in the real environment Neumann, Chua, Kyriakakis, Van Rooyen & Sisemore 5 Alessi 2000 USA Child and Adolescent Telepsychiatry: Explore the lack of research on Review of structured There has continued to be development in the Reliability Studies Needed telepsychiatry (in terms of reliability interviews used in child and development of standardized methodologies for designs used for traditional adolescent psychiatry assessment in traditional clinical environment, but consultations research limited development in methodologies in the field of telepsychiatry

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 6 Mantovani 2001 USA The Psychological Construction of the Psychological models influence the Literature review Cognitive model builds the Internet for foraging of Internet: from Information Foraging to design and use of the Internet. Three information Social Gathering to Cultural Mediation models are explored: cognitive; social; Social model uses the Internet for communication and cultural and cooperation. Cultural model creates a new artifact that requires new set of cultural norms to be developed and agreed too. 7 Tsai & Lin 2001 Taiwan Analysis of Attitudes Toward Computer Explored the interplay between young 753 Taiwanese high school Adolescents’ actual usage was more substantial then Networks and Internet Addiction of people’s attitudes toward computer students (16 to 17 years old). they emotional responses in predicting Internet Taiwanese Adolescents networks and Internet addiction Ninety possible Internet addiction addicts were identified Perceived usefulness contributed to heavier Internet usage 8 Foo 2003 Singapore Child of the Internet: Perceptions of The impact of corporate logos and how 50 respondents aged 16 to Strong relationship between attractiveness and Creativity in e-Identities this could impact on designing e- 27 were shown a series of creativity, i.e., a creatively designed logo on the

404 identity flash cards with 52 logos that Internet draws attention to itself. represent e-identities A complex logo is equally likely to be perceived as being creative. Number of symbols as opposed to colours has a greater impact on perceived creativity 9 9 Chiu, Lee & 2004 Taiwan Video Game Addiction in Children and Explore differences in game addiction 1,228 students in grades 5-8 Females, lower family function and high boredom Huang Teenagers in Taiwan by gender, family functions and from 20 primary and junior indication holds significant game addiction. boredom indication. high schools in Northern The higher the addiction, the greater the animosity. Test differences in animosity by levels Taiwan of addiction. 10 Tasi 2004 Taiwan Adolescents’ Perceptions Towards the Exploring general perceptions of the Interviewing 40 adolescents Most students viewed the Internet as a tool. Internet: A 4-T Framework Internet through 4-T (Technology, Tool, Recommended further research on impact of Toy, and Travel), people’s perceptions on their behaviors on line. 11 Madell & 2004 UK Back from the Beach but hanging on the To explore the activities and opinions of 1,340 secondary school Children aged between 11 and 16 years comfortable Muncer Telephone? English Adolescents’ secondary-school ages children who do students form North-East of using the Internet Attitudes and Experiences of Mobile and don’t use the Internet England (M=677, F=658) Boys more likely then girls to use the Internet, but Phones and the Internet for slightly different purposes (boys – downloading playing music, girls – email and using chat rooms) 12 Eastin 2005 USA Teen Internet Use: Relating Social Explore the relationship between social 173 high school students Teens use the Internet for information seeking and Perceptions and Cognitive Models of influence and self-regulatory models (M=80, F=93) entertainment. Behavior relating to Internet use Direct and vicarious social perceptions significantly influence Internet usage

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 13 Kamibeppu 2005 Japan Impact of the Mobile Phone on Junior Examine impact of mobile pone usage 578 8th grade high school Use the phones more for emails than as a telephone. & Sugiura High School Students’ Friendships’ in on psychology (particularly friendships) students Sociable students thought their phone was useful for the Tokyo Metropolitan Area (M=304, F=272) their friendships. Experienced some insecurity. 14 Peter, 2005 The Developing a Model of Adolescent Explore influences that impact online 493 adolescents Extraverted adolescents self-disclosed more and Valkenburg Netherland Friendship Formation on the Internet friendships and the role of motives for (between 9 and 18 years) communicated more frequently, which facilitated & Schouten s online communication online friendships Introverted adolescents were more motivated to communicate online to compensate for lacking in social skills. 15 Sun, Unger, 2005 USA Internet Accessibility and Usage among Explore how Internet accessibility and 2373 7th grade students Adolescents with higher psychosocial and health risk Palmer, Urban Adolescents in Southern usage is related to demographics, (aged 11 to 16 years) factors are more likely to be Internet users. Gallaher, California: Implications for Wed-Based psychosocial, behavioral and other (M=47%, F=53%) Therefore the Internet could be used to effectively Chou, Health Research health related factors engage with high risk populations.

405 Baezconde- Garbanati, Sussman & Johnson 16 Fusilier, 2005 India, A Four-Country Investigation of Factors Explore factors that might facilitate India – 306 college students More usage by USA cohort Durlabhji, Mauritius, Facilitating Student Internet Use college students’ use of the Internet Mauritius – 93 Non-Western participants wanted greater Internet Cucchi & Reunion across the four countries undergraduates access and more non-English websites. Collins Island and Reunion Island – 125 Indian and Mauritius cohort found training on USA students Internet usage more useful than the other USA – 149 participants participants 17 Ybarra & 2005 USA Exposure to Internet Pornography Examine whether increased accessibility 1501 participants (age 10-17 Males more likely to look for it Mitchell among Children and Adolescents: A of the Internet has led to more years) 87% of those looking for pornography are 14 years or National Survey pornography seeking by young people older, inline with when young people become sexually curious. Concerns about large numbers of young people seeking out pornography may be overstated. 18 Liau, Khoo 2005 Singapore Factors Influencing Adolescents Factors that influence risky behavior 1,124 youths 16% of the cohort had had a face-to-face meeting and Ang Engagement in Risky Internet Behavior using data from the SAFT (Safety, (aged 12-17) with someone they had met online (22% went alone Awareness, Facts and Tools) national (M=50.4% , F=49.6%) to the meeting). survey This is compare to a USA survey where only 7% did so. Parental supervision of online activity did not appear to lower the risks involved with adolescent Internet use.

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 19 Chiou & 2006 Taiwan Sexual Self-Disclosure in Cyberspace Explore adolescents’ sexual self- 207 adolescents Depth of sexual self disclosure greater in real life Wan among Taiwanese Adolescents: Gender disclosure in real life and online 17-24 years old Breath of sexual self disclosure equivalent in both Difference and the Interplay of (M=115, F=92) Males’ sexual self disclosure (both in terms of depth Cyberspace and Real Life and breath) is greater then females in real life and online 20 Sanchez & 2006 Chile Three-Dimensional Virtual Reviews the usability and design of Nine children from Chile Students were able to orient themselves in the use Saenz Environments for Blind Children evaluations to assess two (AudioChile & (ages 10-15) of keystrokes without errors AudioVida) 3D interactive environments M=7, F=2) with visual Usability testing was crucial for mapping the end for children with vision impairment disabilities users and how much they understood about the software 21 Valkenburg 2006 The Friend Networking Sites and Their Explore the linkages between friend 811 adolescents The number of friendships formed via networking , Peter & Netherland Relationship to Adolescents’ Well-Being networking sites and adolescents’ self- (ages 10-19) sites did not effect adolescents’ self esteem Schouten s and Social Self Esteem esteem and well-being M=45%, F=55% Positive feedback on profiles increased adolescents’ self esteem and well-being

406 Negative feedback had the oppose result and decreased both 22 Lemmens, 2006 The The Appeal of Violent Video Games to Examine the effect of individual 299 adolescent boys Boys were more attracted to violent video games Bushman & Netherland Lower Educated Aggressive Adolescent differences on appeal and use of video (ages 12-17) (those boys with aggressive traits and lower empathy Konijn s and Boys from Two Countries games more so) Belgium Lower educated boys play more games, both violent and non-violent Posited that playing violent games increases aggressiveness and decreases empathy 23 Wan & 2006 Taiwan Why Are Adolescents Addicted to Explore the psychological (conscious Ten Taiwanese adolescents Playing games met four major needs: Choiu Online Gaming? An Interview Study in and unconscious) motivations of online with online game addiction - Entertainment and leisure Taiwan addicts interviewed - Emotional coping (M=7, F=3) - Excitement and challenge seeking - Escaping from reality

24 Tsai 2006 Taiwan What Is the Internet? Taiwanese High Explore student’s perceptions of the 588 Taiwan high school Viewed the Internet as technology and a tool School Students’ Perceptions Internet, using 4-T categories students (7th to 11th grade) Students in lower grades (and females) viewed it (Technology, Tool, Toy & Tour) (M= 312 ,F= 276) more as technology Higher graded students viewed it more broadly across the four types.

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 25 Peter, 2006 The Characteristics and Motives of Explore the types of adolescents who 412 Dutch adolescents (ages Early adolescents (12-14 years) more likely to talk to Valkenburg Netherland Adolescents Talking with Strangers on talk with strangers and their motivation 12-18) strangers online & Schouten s the Internet to do so Higher online communication resulted in less conversations with strangers Adolescents motivated by entertainment, meeting people and social compensation (and not introversion) to speak with strangers. 26 Adebayo, 2006 Nigeria Gender, Internet Use, and Sexual Explore the influence of gender and 231 participants (ages 14-25) There was a link between Internet usage among Udegbe & Behavior Orientation among Young Internet use on sexual behavior males and greater risky sexual behavior orientation. Sunmola Nigerians orientation 27 Jackson, 2007 USA What Children Do on the Internet: Examine consequences of home 140 children (mostly 13 year Initial online activity relates to entertainment, but as Samona, Domains Visited and Their Relationship Internet use in low-income families old) time goes on there is a reduction in the number of Moomaw, to Socio-Demographic Characteristics M=58%, F=42% websites visited – which tend to focus on specific Ramsay, and Academic Performance interests

407 Murray, Pornography websites are initially popular (among Smith & boys), but also wane over time (3 months) Murray Link between academic performance and Internet activities 28 Bayraktar & 2007 North Incidence and Correlates of Internet Investigate the role of the Internet 686 adolescents (ages 12-17) Internet primarily used by male students Gun Cyprus Usage Among Adolescents in North usage M=343, F=343 Entertainment and communication the most popular Cyprus usage Adolescents generally introduced themselves differently online 29 Leung 2007 Hong Kong Stressful Life Events, Motives for Test the interrelationship between 717 adolescents (ages 8 to Linkage between stressful events and consumption Internet Use, and Social Support among stressful life events, motives for 18) of the Internet for mood management (e.g., Digital Kids Internet use and social support M=48.8%, F=51.02% entertainment and information collection). More social support adolescents receive (either online or offline), the less impact stressful events have on them

30 Wu & 2007 Taiwan Internet Café Addiction of Taiwanese Explore Internet Café addiction 303 subjects (M=165, F=138) Males tend to stay longer than females. Cheng Adolescents Males scored higher on the addiction scale. Individuals’ self esteem and social support accounted for 30% variance of Internet Café addiction. 31 Lee, Ko, 2007 South Characteristics of Internet Use in Examine the different types of online 627 middle school and high Role playing game users have higher online game Song, Korea Relation to Game Genre in Korean games and determine whether the school students (M=488, addiction then other types of games genre Kwon, Lee, Adolescents different game genre is linked to F=139) There was a link between Internet addiction and Nam & Internet use interpersonal relationship patterns Jung

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 32 Yen, Yen, 2007 Taiwan Family Factors of Internet Addiction and Examine family factors between 3662 students from junior Four key factors can determine Internet addiction Chen, Chen Substance Use Experience in Taiwanese adolescents with and without Internet and senior high schools and substance use experience: & Ko Adolescents addiction and substance use experience M=2328, F=1334 - High parental-adolescent conflict - Habitual alcohol use of siblings - Perceived parents’ positive attitude to adolescent substance use - Low family function 33 Cho 2007 USA Effects of Motivations and Gender on Explore motivations and gender factors 260 High School Students Gender was not a significant variable Adolescents’ Self-Disclosure in Online in self-disclosure online M=132, F=128 Motivation is a meaningful variable that explains the Chatting level of self-disclosure 34 Smahel & 2007 USA Any Girls Want to Chat Press 911: Examine the search for partners in two 12,000 utterances were Approx two request for a partner occur each minute Subrahman Partner Selection in Monitored and teen chat services (one that required reviewed from 20 chat Participants who stated were aged 16-17 years were yam Unmonitored Teen Chat Rooms payment from parent and the other sessions most active in searching for a partner free) Presence of adult monitor in the monitored chat

408 environment had no effect on the frequency with which participants searched for partners 35 Wei 2007 China Effects of Playing Violent Videogames Explore the link between videogame 312 participants aged 11 to Playing violent videogames have a greater impact on on Chinese Adolescents’ Pro-Violent violence and attitudes toward violence, 22. attitudes than overt behavior Attitudes, Attitudes Toward Others, and empathy and aggressive behavior M=65.1%, F=34.9% Aggressive Behavior 36 Rees & 2007 UK Mobile Telephones, Computers, and the Explore the differences by sex in phone, 129 students Both sexes had high access to computers and the Noyes Internet: Sex Differences in computer and Internet use M=61, F=68 Internet at home Adolescents’ Use and Attitudes No significant differences between the sexes on mobile phone usage Significant female-male differences in computer use, Internet use, Internet attitudes and computer anxiety 37 Ko, Yen, 2007 Taiwan Factors Predictive for Incidence and Investigate the incidence and remission 517 students from three 1-year incidence was 7.5% and remission 49.5%. Yen, Lin & Remission of Internet Addiction in rates for Internet addiction junior high schools Low hostility and low interpersonal sensitivity Yang Young Adolescents: A Prospective Study M=267, F=250 predicted remission of Internet Addiction. 38 Lei & Wu 2007 China Adolescents’ Parental Attachment and Explore impact of father-adolescent 712 adolescents (ages 11 to Alienation from the father positively predicted Internet Use attachment on adolescent Internet use 19) pathological Internet use (PIU) M=350, F=362 Conversely trust predicted PIU negatively 39 Lee & Chae 2007 USA Children’s Internet Use in a Family Investigate if there is a link between 222 4th to 6th grade children Influence on Internet usage depended on the type of Context: Influence on Family Internet use and a decline in family time (ages 10 to 12) activity online, with playing games having the Relationships and Parental Mediation and communication M=53.6%, F=46.4% greatest impact Explore the types of parental mediation Co-using and recommending websites were on Internet usage positively related to children’s online educational activities

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 40 Chiou & 2007 Taiwan Using Cognitive Dissonance to Induce Examine whether personal 100 participants (ages 16-22) Those with feeling of greater responsibility more Wan Adolescents’’ Escaping From the Claw of responsibility and justification of cost M=77, F=23 motivated by cognitive dissonance. Online Gaming: The Roles of Personal are crucial factors impacting Those participants who perceived greater Responsibility and Justification of Cost adolescents’ behavior investment cost for online gaming are less likely to reduce usage. 41 Tung & 2007 Taiwan Exploring Adolescents’ Intentions Explore adolescents’ behavioral 263 adolescents who were Computer self-efficacy had a positive effect on Chang Regarding the Online Learning Courses intentions to use online learning undertaking online learning intention to use online learning in Taiwan courses courses Higher computer anxiety is an indicator of less intention to use online learning courses 42 Chuek & 2007 Hong Kong ICQ (I Seek You) and Adolescents: A Explore the usage of ICQ by adolescents 147 Hong Kong High School Most adolescents use ICQ for the past 1-4 years Chan Quantitative Study in Hong Kong Students (usage about 2 or 3 days per week) Gender and age excluded Usage patterns mostly for entertainment, relaxation from research and socializing 43 Hsu & Yu 2007 Taiwan Taiwanese Adolescents’ Intention To develop a construction model of 483 high school students, The proposed intention model could effective

409 Model of Visiting Internet Cafes visiting Internet cafes ages 16-18 predict intentions M=46%, F=54% Individual’s own beliefs and attitudes and not the opinion of others determine visiting Internet Cafes 44 Chiou 2007 Taiwan Adolescents’ Reply Intent for Sexual Explore the effects of anonymity and 237 Taiwanese adolescents, Greater anonymity led to a greater intent for sexual Disclosure in Cyberspace: Gender topic intimacy when online ages 15 to 24 years self-disclosure. Differences and Effects of Anonymity M=122, F= 115 Males were willing then females to respond to and Topic Intimacy other’s sexual self disclosure 45 Jannink, 2008 The A Low-Cost Video Game Applied for Determine user satisfaction with Ten students with Cerebral Program is a motivational tool for training children van der Netherland Training of Upper Extremity Function in ‘EyeToy’ program for training of upper Palsy, mean age of 11 years, Wilden, s Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Pilot limbs 9 months Navis, Study Visser, Gussinklo & Ijzerman 46 Shpigelman 2008 Israel E-mentoring for Youth with Special Review e-mentoring programs 5 children – ages 12 to 18 Good rapport was established between the mentor , Reiter & Needs: Preliminary Results particularly for children with special (M=3, F=2) and protégé Weiss needs Communicating with the programs reduced the visibility of the participants disability which was a positive 47 Chiou 2008 Taiwan Induced Attitude Change on Online Explore the effects of rewards and 108 adolescents ages 16 to Fewer rewards caused greater attitude change Gaming among Adolescents: An decision freedom on changing attitudes 23 Application of the Less-Leads-to-More to online gaming (M=71, F=37) Effect

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 48 Teng 2008 China Personality Differences between Online Compares various traits (openness, 130 students paired, ages 12 Online gmaers had higher scores of openness, Game Players and Non players in a conscientiousness) between online and 22 years conscientiousness and extraversion Student Sample gamers and non gamers M=71%, F=29% 49 Lee, Shen & 2008 Taiwan Enhancing Computer Skills of Low- Explore whether web problem based 212 1st year college students Both were useful, but students’ inertia a major Tsai Achieving Students via E-Learning: A larening and / or self regulated learning Gender / age not provided drawback Design Experiment of Web-Based, coupld improve low achieving students Problem-Based Learning and Self- Regulated Learning 50 Tynes, 2008 USA Ethnic Identity, Intergroup Contact, and Explore the interplay between ethnic 228 participants - ages 13 to Ethnic identity remains strong for ethnic minorities. Giang & Out group Orientation among Diverse identity and engagement amongst 18 European Americans reported greater intergroup Thompson Groups of Adolescents on the Internet groups online (M=37%, F=63%) interaction online, than other ethnic groups studied 51 Tahiroglu, 2008 Turkey Internet Use Among Turkish Explore both Internet usage and 3,975 undergraduates – ages Most frequent activity online was gaming, followed Celik, Uzel, Adolescents problematic Internet usage 12 to 18 years by information services Ozcan & (M=50.7%, F=49.3%) Males preferred gaming whereas females for

410 Avci searching general information 52 Ko, Yen, 2008 Taiwan The Association between Internet Explore the link between Internet 2,114 high School students – Internet addiction was associated with PAU Yen, Chen, Addiction and Problematic Alcohol Use Addiction and problematic alcohol use ages 15 to 23 years Weng & in Adolescents: The Problem behavior (PAU) (M= 1204, F=910) Chen Model 53 Siomos, 2008 Greece Internet Addiction among Greek Explore the rate of Internet addiction 2,200 students- ages 12 to Most frequent activity online was gaming (50.9%), Evaggelia, Adolescent Students 18 followed by information services (46.8%) Dafouli, (M=49.1%. F=50.1%) The rate of Internet addiction was 8.2% (mostly Braimiotis, males gaming in Internet cafes) Mouzas & Angelopoul os 54 Baek 2008 Korea What Hinders Teachers in Using Investigate factors that inhibit teachers 35 Korean teachers – ages 29 Six factors were discovered Computer and Video Games in the using computers and video games in to 45 years (M=15. F=20) - Inflexibility of curriculum Classroom? Exploring Factors Inhibiting the classroom - Perceived negative effects of gaming the Uptake of Computer and Video - Students’ not ready Games - No supporting material - Limited budget - Teaching schedules

55 Chen 2008 Taiwan Subjective Well-Being: Evidence from Explore the relationship between 124 samples were taken (not Online gamers with different personality traits the Different Personality Traits of personality traits (Openness, further broken down) respond differently relating life satisfaction, with Online Game Teenagers Players Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Neuroticism and Agreeableness having a significant Agreeableness, and Neuroticism) and negative influence and Openness being positive the well-being of online gamers

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 56 Ehrenberg, 2008 Australia Personality and Self Esteem as Examine the role of personality and 200 students More disagreeable individuals spent more time on Juckes, Predictors of Young People’s self-esteem in university students use calls White & Technology Use of communication technologies Extraverted and neurotic individuals favored text Walsh messaging Those with low self esteem favored instant messaging

57 Jackson, 2008 USA Information Technology (IT) Use and Examined 4 types of technology use 500 stduents, average age 12 Greater video gaming led to lower psychological Fitzgerald, Children’s Psychological Well-Being Relationship between IT use and well- M=50%, F=50% well-being Zhao, being and whether there are any Internet use (other than for communication) led to Kolenic, race/gender differences increase psychological well-being von Eye & African Amercian males greater risk of adverse use of Harold IT due to video gaming 58 Lin & Wang 2008 Taiwan A Decision Making Process Model of Proposes a new model to understand 243 participants ages 12 to Consumption decision making process of adolescents

411 Young Online Shoppers Adolsecents consumer habits 18 (COMPA) can help marketers understafn their Sex ratio not provided consumption habits 59 Youn & Hall 2008 USA Gender and Online Privacy among Explore gender differences regarding 395 high school studetns, Girls perceive more risks and have more concerns teens: Risk Perception, Privacy online privacy ages 14 to 18 about privacy then boys. Concerns, and Protection M=44%, F=56% Boys ten to read unsolicited emails, but learn from their mistakes 60 Ha, Chin, 2008 Korean Characteristics of Excessive Cellular Investigate possible psychological 595 participants, mean age Correlation between phone use and Internet use Park, Ryu & Phone Use in Korean Adolescents problems with excessive mobile phone 15.9 Greater use led to greater anixiety, mnore Yu use M=552, F=43 depressive symptoms and lower self esteem 61 Sabina & 2008 USA The Nature and Dynamics of Internet Examine the exposure of pornography 563 college students 93% of boys and 62% of girls were exposed during Finkelhor Pornography Exposure for Youth before the age of 18. adolescents. Exposure prior to age 13 uncommon Boys more likely to view more, at an earlier age and more extreme imagines that girls 62 Zhao 2009 USA Teen Adoption of MySpace and IM: Explore if there is a divide in platform Anonymous survey of 432 Inner city teens more likely to use MySpace Inner-City versus Suburban Differences usage students from eight public Suburban teens more likely to use IM but are early high schools adopters of both. 63 Hart, 2009 USA & Effects of Video Games on Adolescents Compared American and Spanish Adolescent sample 204 high No differences between high school, college and Johnson, Spain and Adults adolescents’ video game addiction school students ages 14 to adult on the PVP survey Stamm, using the Problem Video Game Playing 18 No correlation between PVP scores and grades Angers, (PVP) Survey. M=85%, F=15% achieved in school Robinson, Explored excessive video game playing No correlation between high PVP scores and Lally & and its impact on social life, extracurricular activities – those with high scores just Fagley occupational activities and school as likely to participate in other activities than those with low PVP score

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 64 Sanchez- 2009 Spain Factors Associated with Cell Phone Use Measured cell phone usage and factors 1,328 high school students 96% had their own cell phone Martinez & in Adolescents in the Community of associated with excessive use aged 13 to 20 years 20% were assessed as having a dependence Otero Madrid M=46.3%, F=53.7% Intensive phone use was associated with females, rural school location, smoking, alcohol consumption and good family income. 65 Attree, 2009 UK A Virtual Reality Test Identifies the Determine whether adolescents with 42 adolescents – the Adolescents with dyslexia tended to show superior Turner & Visuospatial of Adolescents with Dyslexia have greater visouspatial experimental group all had visuospatial abilities Cowell Dyslexia abilities then those without dyslexia dyslexia (21) – aged 12 to 14. on certain pseudo real-life tests of spatial ability. M=18, F=3 66 Barker 2009 USA Older Adolescents’ Motivation for Social Explores motives for Social Networking 734 students, aged 18 or 19 Those with high self esteem used SNS to Network Use: The Influence of Gender, use communicate with peers Group Identity and Collective Self- Those with lower self esteem used SNS to compare Esteem and learning Those who feel isolated use SNS to seek for

412 companionship

66 Bailey, 2009 USA How Avatar Customizability Affects Explores how children react (cognitively 30 children, aged 10 to 12 A link was established between more customizable Wise & Children’s Arousal and subjective and emotionally) to snack food games and sympathetic arousal, meaning advertising Bolls Presence During Junk Food-Sponsored marketing in advergames in games that are highly customizable keeps the Online Video Games players returning to it, thus raising exposure to the brands. 67 Oluwole 2009 Nigeria Spirituality, Gender and Age Factors in Explores the linkages between gender, 530 students - age 16 to 21 No difference in levels of spiritualty and cyber gossip Cybergossip Among Nigerian age and spirituality and cyber gossip M=280, F=250 Females more likely than males to cyber gossip Adolescents Gossip mostly negative in younger cohort, moving to positive gossip as the participants got older

68 Jaruratanas 2009 Thailand Electronic Game Play and school Explores potential linkage between 1,492 adolescents from four Prevalence of game playing was 75% in boys and irikul, Performance of Adolescents in electronic video games and school high schools (M=563, F= 929) 59% in girls Wongwaita Southern Thailand performance 22% boys and 8.7% girls played games every day for weewong more than two hours & There was a linkage between excessive playing and Sangsupaw poor grades. anich 69 Tsitsike, 2009 Greece Adolescent Pornographic Internet Site Examine the prevalence, predictors and 529 randomly selected Greek Prevalence of PIS was 24%.1%. Males ten times more Critselis, Use: A Multivariate Regression Analysis implications of pornographic Internet High School students in likely to be PIS users. Greek adolescent PIS use in the Kormas, of the Predictive Factors of Use and use (PIS) grades 9 and 10. lower range of PIS use seen in other countries Konstantou Psychosocial Implications M=253, F=276 laki, Constantop

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS oulos & Kafetzis 70 Lam, Peng, 2009 China Factors Associated with Internet Explore factors associated with Internet 1,618 responses from Majority of users (89.2%) classed as normal users. Mai & Jing Addiction among Adolescents Addiction students, ages 13 to 18 in 0.6% severely addicted to the Internet Guangzhou Addiction linked to being male, stressful incident and M=45.4%, F=54.6% drinking

71 Skoric, Teo 2009 Singapore Children and Video Games: Addiction, Explore video game addiction and 333 children ages 8 to 12 Addiction tendencies are negatively related to school & Neo engagement, and Scholastic school results years from two primary performance Achievement Examine if there is a difference schools in No link re the amount of time spent playing the between addiction and high Singapore games engagement M=54%, F=46% 72 Huang & 2009 Hong Kong Instant Messaging Addiction among Does IM addiction occur amongst 330 teenagers, ages 12-19. 95.8% use IM, with 9.8% classified as addicts

413 Leung Teenagers in China: Shyness, Alienation, Chinese teenagers? M=35.1%, F=64.9% Shyness and alienation positively associated with IM and Academic Performance Decrement addiction IM use and addiction linked to academic performance

73 Milani, 2009 Italy Quality of Interpersonal Relationships Explore the Italian context to determine 98 adolescents, ages 14 to 36.7% showed signs of problematic Internet use – Osualdella and Problematic Internet Use in adolescents’ relationships and Internet 19 years those have worse interpersonal relationships and & Blasio Adolescence dependence M=46, F=52 have dysfunctional coping mechanisms

74 Blinka & 2009 Czech Fourteen is Fourteen and a Girl is a Girl: Explores lying on adolescents’ weblogs 113 participants ages 13 to Level of dishonesty was low Smahel Republic Validating the Identity of Adolescent 17 years Tend to lie more about their interests then school or Bloggers life matters 75 Matthews, 2009 UK A Pilot Study of Problem Gambling Explore the rate of problem gambling 127 student Internet 19% defined as problem / pathological gamblers Farnsworth among Student Online Gamblers: Mood and the linkage with mood states Gamblers questioned. Negative mood states linked to gambling & Griffiths States as Predictors of Problematic Average age was 20.8 years Behavior M=86, F=41 76 Pelling & 2009 Australia The Theory of Planned Behavior Applied Explore the psychosocial variables that 223 participants, ages 17 to Self-Identity and belongingness predicted addictive White to Young People’s Use of Social predict peoples’ use of Social 24 years tendencies Networking Sites Networking Sites M=84, F=149

77 Kelleci & 2010 Turkey Psychiatric Symptoms in Adolescents Comparative study of psychiatric 2,080 students 10th through Internet use associated with more severe psychiatric Inal with Internet use: Comparison without symptoms and Internet use to 12th grade symptoms Internet Use M=1,105, F=975

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 1997-2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 78 Rehbein, 2010 German Prevalence and Risk Factors of Video Explore the rate of video game 44,610 9th graders 3% of males and 0.3% of females dependant on Kleimann & Game Dependency in Adolescence: dependence and impacts Ave age 15.3 years video games Moble Results of a German Nationwide Survey M=51.3%, F=48.7% Linked to lower school achievement, reduced sleep time and increased thoughts of suicide 79 Bonetti, 2010 Australia The Relationship of Loneness and Social Explore differences between those who 626 students aged 10 to 16 Those who reported as lonely communicated more Campbell & Anxiety with Children’s and experience loneliness and online usage years online and discussed more intimate and personal Gilmore Adolescents’ Online Communication M=136, F=310 topics This group was motivated to meet new people online to compensate for their weaker social skills 80 Canan, 2010 Turkey Evaluation of Psychometric Properties Determining the effectiveness of the 300 high school students, 11.6% of participants were possibly Internet Ataoglu, of the Internet Addiction Scale in a Internet Addiction Scale (IAS) using ages 14 to 19 years addicted Nichols, Sample of Turkish High School Students sample of Turkish students M=54.7%, F=45.2% Turkish version of IAS is a relevant instrument to Yildirim & assess Internet addiction Ozturk

414 81 Xiuqin, 2010 China Mental Health, Personality, and Compare the personality profiles of 304 subjects (all males) IAD linked to certain personality traits (introversion Huimin, Parental Rearing Styles of Adolescents males with and without Internet average age 18 and psychoticism) Adolescents with IAD reported Mengchen, with Internet Addiction Addiction disorder (IAD) parenting style and family functions as important Jinan, Ying factors & Ran .

82 Tsai 2010 Taiwan Designing Appropriate Blended Explore the effects of web mediated 172 students from a Students using Bi courses had significantly higher Courses: A Students’ Perspective self-regulated learning (SRI) and role of vocational college scores then the control group blended learning (BI) courses M=111, F=61 Students who had a blended SRL and BI courses scored higher 83 Tsai 2010 Taiwan Involving Students in a Blended Course Test the impact of involving students in 127 sophomores, mean age Initiation led to significant increases in student’s via Teacher’s Initiation in Web- WECL 20 years involvement during the course Enhanced Collaborative Learning M=35, F=92. (WECL)

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 1 McCarty, 2011 USA Perceived Safety and Teen Risk Taking Examined the relationship between 139, 10th graders (mean age Those who had a higher perception of on-line safety Prawitz, in Online Chat Sites risky online behaviors, the amount of 15.86 years) dimensions spent more time online with friends then Derscheid time spend chatting and perceived M=47%, F=53% in person and engaged in more inappropriate online & chat-site safety among adolescents friendships Montgome ry 2 Ma, Li & 2011 Hong Kong The Relation of Internet Use to Explored the linkage between social 509 Hong Kong school There was a correlation between the type of Internet Pow Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior in behavior and Internet use students from grades 7 to 12 behavior and daily social behavior. Positive online Chinese Adolescents M=282, F=227 behavior was associated with positive daily social behavior – the same applied with negative online behavior and negative daily social behavior 3 Messina & 2011 USA Internet Use and Self-Injurious Literature review of the rise of self- Literature review of 25 Emotional support provided by SIB websites differ Iwasaki Behaviors Among Adolescents and injurious behaviors (SIB) self help articles from that received by professionals Young Adults: An Interdisciplinary websites and the potential pros and Some participants online are supportive of SIB and

415 Literature Review and Implications for cons of such sites gloss over potentially serious posts online. Health Professionals The benefits and utility of SIB online platforms remains contested. 4 Prins, 2011 Netherland Does Computerized Working Memory To test whether adding game elements 51 children with ADHD, ages Those using the ‘game version’ in the WM training Dovis, s Training with Game Elements Enhance to computerized working memory 7 to 12 years. were more motivated and scored higher on WM Ponsioen, Motivation and Training Efficacy in (WM) training enhances motivation and M=41, F=10 tasks Brink & van Children with ADHD? recall / improvement der Oord 5 Fukkink 2011 Netherland Peer counseling in an online chat Review of online peer counseling Content analysis of 78 chat Young people appear to be able to offer peer related s service: A content analysis of social service conversations (Peer online counseling and support support. counselors ages 16-23) The variety of social support as opposed to the length of the conversation or the quality was more important when they assessed its utility 6 Courtois, 2011 Belgium Teenage Uploaders on YouTube: Test what are teenagers’ expectations Online survey of 242 Teenagers expect viewers will be similar in terms of Mechant & Networked Public Expectancies, Online when they post a video online teenagers ages 12 to 18 year location and social-demographic terms. Marez Feedback Preference, and Received On- olds who had published a Seems to be a level of awareness amongst teens that Platform Feedback video onto YouTube very view YouTube videos become a viral sensation M=63%, F=37% and limited engagement from the public is expected 7 Koo, Wati, 2011 South Internet-Addicted Kids and South Review of the South Korean Jump Up Literature review and case The School has been proven as a way to treat Lee & Oh Korea Korean Government Efforts: Boot-Camp Internet Rescue School study analysis Internet Addiction problems among young people Case

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 8 Baker & 2011 Australia In Their Own Words: Why Teenagers Explored the reasons for why teenagers 69 teenagers, ages 13 to 18 The primary reasons for non engagement were: White Don’t Use Social Networking Sites do not engage with social networking years - Lack of motivation sites M=40, F=29 - Poor use of time - Preference for other forms of communcation - Cybersafety concerns - Dislike of online presentation 9 Liberatore, 2011 Puerto Rico Prevalence of Internet Addiction in Use a clinical sample of Latino 71 adolescents, ages 13 to None of the cohort presented with severe IA Rosario, Latino Adolescents with Psychiatric adolescents receiving psychiatric care 17 years, receiving 11.6% had discussed IA with their therapist Colon-De Diagnosis to determine level of Internet Addiction psychiatric treatment Those with mood disorders had higher scores on the Marti & (IA) M=45.1% Internet Addiction Test Martinez F=54.9% 10 Baiocco, 2011 Italy Daily Patterns of Communication and Explored patterns of communication 727 adolescents ages 11-16 Girls reported more contacts with friends then boys Laghi, Contact Between Italian Early both online and in person contexts years Girls friendships closer and more intimate schnedier, Adolescents and Their Friends M=314, F=308 Boys more likely to communicate via electronic

416 Dalessio, means Amichai- Hamburger , Coplan, Koszycki & Flament 11 Harhu, 2011 Finland Is an Interest in Computers or Explored the possible association of 508 adolescents, ages 12-17 An interest in computers or video games did not Luukkonen, Individual/Team Sports Associated with computers, video games and sports years who had been increase the risks of psychiatric disorders Hakko, Adolescent Psychiatric Disorders? with psychiatric disorders in admitted to a psychiatric Boys with an interest in computers, has a statistically Rasanen & adolescents hospital significant lower likelihood of substance-related Riala M=208, F=300 disorders 12 Weisskirch 2011 USA No Crossed Wires: Cell Phone Explore the impacts of parent- 196 parent-adolescent When the child reached out for support and Communication in Parent-Adolescent adolescent interactions via mobile pairings, ages 13 to 19 years guidance, parents reported closer relationships Relationships phones M=43%, F=57% Greater conflict occurred when parents called for monitoring activity or when upset

13 Li, Liau & 2011 Singapore Examining the Influence of Actual- ideal Examined the potential link between 161 Adolescents gamers Pathological behaviors my be over regulated coping Khoo Self-Discrepancies, Depression, and actual-ideal self-discrepancy and from secondary school, ages strategies used when dealing with the ideal self and Escapism, on Pathological Gaming pathological gaming 13 to 15 years thus avoiding the actual self Among Massively Multiplayer Online M=49.1%, F=50.9% Adolescent Gamers

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 14 Peter & 2011 Netherland The Influence of Sexually Explicit Explored the notion that when a 1,445 Dutch adolescents, Adults, but not adolescents, were vulnerable to the Valkenburg s Internet Material on Peers on women says no when actually intend to ages 12 to 17 (and 833 influence of sexually explicit material on the belief Stereotypical Beliefs About Women’s have sex and the role of sexually explicit adults) that women engage in token resistance to sex. Sexual Roles: Similarities and material on the Internet Gender not provided Differences between Adolescents and Adults 15 Koronczai, 2011 Hungary Confirmation of the three-factor Model To test the Problematic Internet Use 438 high- school students, 18 % of adolescent were assessed as problematic IUrban, of Problematic Internet Use on Off-Line Questionnaire (PIUQ) by data collection mean age: 16.0 years users Kokonyei, Adolescent and Adult samples by three new methods M=44.5%, F=55.5% The PIUQ (in both the 9 and 18 item version) were Paksi, Papp, suitable to assess problematic Internet use Kun, 963 adults Arnold, Kallai & Demetrovic

417 s 16 Espinoza & 2011 USA The Pervasiveness, Connectedness, and Explore how young people use social 268 middle-school students 63% had their own SNS profile, with an average of Juvonen Intrusiveness of Social Network Site Use networking sites and whether use 6th to 8th grades 196 SNS friends (most of whom are peers) among Young Adolescents impacts on daily functioning 39% reported falling behind in school work and 37% M= 49%, F=51% reported losing sleep because of SNS use

17 Baumgartn 2011 Netherland The Influence of Descriptive and Examined whether sexual risky behavior 1,016 Dutch adolescents, Online risky behavior is influenced by what peers do er, s Injunctive Peer Norms on Adolescents’ online was influenced by descriptive ages 12 to 17 years and approve of – which is the same in the offline Valkenburg Risky Sexual Online Behavior and injunctive peer norms M=49.7%, F=50.3% environment & Peter 18 Torres, 2012 Spain Early Detection of Drug Use and Examined the 3D program Mii-School 1,217 Secondary school Good predictor of early detection of drug use and Cangas, Bullying in Secondary School Children (MS) which is designed to detect drug students, mean age 14 years bullying Garcis, by Using a Three-Dimensional use and bullying M=45.5%, F=54.5% There were similar results using the online and paper Langer & Simulation Program based version of testing Zarate MS better for internal consistency of findings

19 Deryakulu 2012 Turkey A Twin Study of Computer Anxiety in Explores computer anxiety amongst 185 twin-pairs, ages 10 to 18 Significant differences were found in opposite sex & Caliskan Turkish Adolescents twins years twins, with the male twin being more anxious M=98, F=106 57% variance due to genetics and 41.5% due to environmental factors 20 Lee & Chae 2012 Korea Balancing Participation and Risks in Explored the role of parental 566 Korean children, ages 10 Children’s online risks are moderated by the amount Children’s Internet Use: The Role of involvement and Internet knowledge in to 15 years of Internet literacy they have and more restrictive Internet Literacy and Parental managing children’s Internet use M=51.2%, F=48.8% parental mediation Mediation But children’s online participation associated with increase online risks

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 21 Courtois, 2012 Belgium Social Network Profiles as Information Explored whether online connections 352 adolescents – mean age SNS are valuable sources of information about offline All & Sources for Adolescents’ Offline are an useful tool to garner information 16.44 friends and acquaintances Vanwynsbe Relations about off line friends M=30%, F=70% As expected, SNS tended not to provide a lot of rghe ‘novel’ information about friends, but more so for acquaintances

22 Rouis 2012 Tunisia Impact of Cognitive Absorption on Explore the impact of Facebook on 161 Tunisian students, from Did not significantly affect academic performance, Facebook on Students’ Achievements academic performance High Institute of e- satisfaction with family, but did decrease satisfaction Commerce with friends Age and gender not further broken down 23 Fioravanti, 2012 Italy Adolescent Internet Addiction: Testing Exploring theoretical explanations for 257 Adolescents studied (9th Communication services the most utilized Internet Dettore & the Association Between Self-Esteem, the link between poor social skills and Grade), mean age 14.57 application

418 Casale the Perception of Internet Attributes, Internet Addiction (IA) years and Preference for Online Social M=95, F=162 Boys spent more time online playing games, Interactions gambling and visiting sex websites than girls

24 Villani, 2012 Italy Am I My Avatar? A Tool to Investigate Compare body images in drawings (real 41 adolescents – mean age Avatar images tended to have more sexual features Gatti, Virtual Body Image Representation in life) and virtual (avatar) by adolescents 13.6 years and clothing, then the real life drawings Confalonier adolescence M=21, F=20 Girls tended to represent themselves in greater i & Riva detail than boys 25 Love, 2012 USA Exploring Psychosocial Support Online: Examined the increase in online cancer 350 randomly sampled de- The exchanges were mostly focused on emotional Crook, A Content Analysis of Messages in an support groups – analyzing the content identified chats support and the provision of information Thompson, Adolescent and Young adult Cancer of the discussions Zaitchik, Community Knapp, LeFebvre, Jones, Donovan- Kicken, Eargle & Rechis 26 Macafee & 2012 USA Killing the Bill Online? Pathways to Explores the use of social media and 201 respondents to the Use online platforms to obtain information, but it did Simone Young People’s Protest Engagement via young peoples’ off line protest activities survey – mean age 20.50 not spur off line activity Social Media years M=47.3%, F=52.7%

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 27 Gou, Chen, 2012 China The Relationship Between Internet Explore the link between Internet 3,254 participants ages 8-17 Internet addiction was slightly higher in migrant Wang, Liu, Addiction and Depression among addiction for children in children who years children (6.4%) then those remain behind (3.7%) Chui, Qu & Migrant Children and Left-Behind have migrated (internally) and those Internet addiction might be linked to increased Tian Children in China who remain depression for those who remain behind. 28 Heirman, 2013 Belgium Predicting Adolescents’ Disclosure of Using models to try and predict when 1,42 respondents, ages 12 to Privacy concern and trust propensity are predictors Walrave & Personal Information in Exchange for adolescents might disclose personal 18 years of adolescents’ attitudes, but social factors Ponnet Commercial Incentives: An Application information for commercial incentives M=519, F=523 outweighs individual controls of an Extended Theory of Planned Behavior 29 Lopez- 2013 Spain The Problematic Internet Entertainment To review current available scales to 1,131 High School Students Prevalence determined around 5% Dernandez, Use of Scale for Adolescents: determine problematic Internet use and ages 12 to 18 years New scale measured degree and presence of Fexia- Prevalence of Problem Internet Use on validate a new scale M=53.5%. F=46.5% symptoms of behavioral online addiction Blanxart & Spanish High School Students Honrubia-

419 Serrano 30 Cash, 2013 USA Adolescent Suicide Statements on Examine how adolescents might convey 1,038 comments made by Determined the existence of serious suicidal Thelwall, MySpace suicidal thoughts on MySpace people aged 13-24 years comments related to break-ups & family Peck, Gender not provided relationships Ferrell & Bridge 31 Ak, Koruklu 2013 Turkish A Study on Turkish Adolescent’s Turkish youth use of the Internet and 4,311 adolescents, ages 15 Facebook the most dominant platform & Yilmaz Internet Use: Possible Predictors of addiction rates to 19 years Girls predominantly use Internet for communication, Internet Addiction M=54%, F=46% whereas males for gaming and reading newspapers and magazines 32 Sherry, 2013 USA Child Development and Genre Explored the genres children prefer and 685 children Boys played games twice as many hours then girls Lucas, Preference: Research for Educational the reasons why Mean age – 13.5 years Popularity of strategic games increased with age Greenberg Game Design M=50%, F=50% Girls prefer simulation games, boys strategic games & Holmstrom 33 Li, Li & 2013 China Parental Behavioral and Psychological Explore parental behavior control 694 adolescents, ages 12 to Parental restriction was negatively associated with Newman Control and Problematic Internet Use (restriction) and parental psychological 17 years PIU Among Chinese Adolescents: The control (guilt induction, love withdraw) M=312, F=382 Love withdrawal was positively associated with PIU Mediating Role of Self-Control and their impacts on problematic Internet use (PIU) 34 Gunuc, 2013 Turkey Primary School Children’s To explore primary school students’ 51 primary school students, Majority of students did not consider Twitter a good Misirli & Communication Experiences with experiences with Twitter 13 years communication tool as it was too restrictive. Odabasi Twitter: A Case Study from Turkey M=34, F=17 Most left Twitter once the study was finished

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 35 Peskin, 2013 USA Prevalence and Patterns of Sexting Explore the rate of sexting amongst 1,034 10th graders –mean 20% of students had sent a nude or seminude Markham, Among Ethnic Minority Urban High minority groups age 16.3 picture / video Addy, School Students M=4-%, F=6-% Black male and females similar rate of sexting Shegog, Hispanic girls lowest rate of sexting Theil & Tortolero 36 Ahmadi & 2013 Iran Psychosocial Profile of Iranian Explore the factors that could play and 4,177 Iranian high school 21.1% some form of IA, with 1.1% significant Saghafi Adolescents’ Internet Addiction important role in Internet Addiction (IA) students, ages 14-19 years problems M=2,091, F=2,086 Familial relationships and religious beliefs the two most important factors related to IA 37 Korchmaro 2013 USA Perpetration of Teen Dating Violence in Compares rate of Teen Dating Violence 615 adolescents ages 14-19 46% had perpetrated TDV – of those 24% used both s. Ybarra, a Networked Space (TDV) online and other modes of years online and traditional forms of communication, 17% Langhinrich communication M=50%, F=50% just online and 58% only the traditional methods sen-

420 Rohling, Boyd 7 Lenhart 38 Sevcikova, 2013 Czech Predictors of Online and Offline Sexual Linkage between online sexual activities 323 adolescents, ages 15 to Alienation, pubertal status and prior offline sexual Vazsonyi, Republic Activities and Behaviors Among and adolescent sexual development 17 years experiences predicted online sexual activity Sirucek & Adolescents M=49.9%, F=51.1% Previous offline sexual experiences at age 15, Konecny increased the likelihood of offline sexual behaviors at age 18 39 Coyne, 2014 USA A Friend Request from Dear Old Dad: Explored the connections between 491 adolescents and peers, Social networking with parents resulted in greater Padilla- Associations Between Parent-Child parent-child relationships on line ages 12 to 17 years connections between the two Walker, Social Networking and Adolescent M=47%, F=53% Also social networking without parental involvement Day, Harper Outcomes led to negative outcomes for children & Stockdale 40 Canan, 2014 Turkey The Relationship Between Internet Explore the link between Internet 1,938 students, ages 14 to 18 12.4% were rated as having IA Yildirim, Addiction and Body Mass Index in addiction (IA) and eating habits and years Significant positive correlation between IA, increased Ustunel, Turkish Adolescents body mass index (BMI) F=48%, F=52% BMI and Internet use Sinani, Kaleli, Gunes & Ataoglu 41 Li, Zhang, 2014 China Internet Addiction Among Elementary Determine the rate of Internet 24,013 students - mean age 54.2% had access to the Internet Lu, Zhang & and Middle School Students in China: A Addiction in China 12.97 years 6.3% of total sample rated as having Internet Wang Nationally Representative Sample M=53%, F=47% Addiction Males reported higher rates of Internet Addiction

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 42 Meier & 2014 USA Facebook Photo Activity Associated Compared the relationship between 103 students, ages 12 to 18 Increased appearance exposure and not overall Gray with Body Image Disturbance in adolescent girls body image and F=100% Facebook use was significantly correlated with Adolescent Girls Facebook activity dissatisfaction around weight and self-objectification 43 Tsitsika, 2014 Greece, Internet Addictive Behavior in Investigate the rate of Internet 13,284 participants – mean About 1% were rated as being Internet Addictive Janikian, Spain, Adolescence: A Cross-Sectional Study in Addiction across the seven countries age 15.8 Additional 12.7% at risk of becoming addicted Schoenmak Poland, Seven European Countries M=47%, F=53% Boys more than girls displayed dysfunctional Internet ers, Germany, behavior Tzavela, Romania, Rates varied widely amongst the countries Olafsson, Netherland Wojck, s and Macarie, Iceland Tzavara & Richardson 44 Shin & 2014 Malaysia Exploring the Role of Parents and Peers Explored the role parents and peers 469 adolescents, ages 13-14 Attempted parental controls can cause greater risk

421 Ismail in Young Adolescents’’ Risk Taking on play in mediating online risk taking years taking by young people Social Networking Sites behavior Gender not broken down Peer influence could have negative outcomes

45 De Grove 2014 Belgium Youth, Friendship, and Gaming: A Examine the link between talking about 100 friendship networks, Gaming as a conversational topic significantly Network Perspective and playing online games and quality of mean age 15.69 years associated with friendship quality friendships with both players and non- Gender not provided Playing together was less widespread players 46 Tortolero, 2014 USA Daily Violent Video Game Playing and Explore possible linkages between 5,147 5th graders – mean age Those who played more than two hours a day had Peskin, Depression in Preadolescent Youth violent video games and depression 11.2 significantly more depressive symptoms then those Baumler, M=48.9%, F=51.1% who played less than two hours a day Cuccaro, Elliott, Davies, Lewis, Banspach, Kanouse & Schuster 47 Walther, 2014 Germany Effects of a Brief School-Based Media To assess the effects of a four session 1,843 participants – mean Significantly lower gaming use then the control Hanewinkel Literacy Intervention on Digital Media school based media literacy program age 12.0 years group afterwards & Use in Adolescents: Cluster Randomized has on computer gaming and Internet Gender not broken down No change in overall Internet use Morgenster Controlled Trial Use n

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 48 Lobel, 2014 Netherland Associations Between Children’s Video Examines gaming frequency and 194 children, ages 7 to 12 Parental reports suggest gaming associated with Granic, s Game Playing and Psychosocial Health: psychosocial health years peer problems, however the children’s reports Stone & Information from Both Parent and Child M=50%, F=50% showed no relationships between gaming and Engels Reports psychosocial health 49 Gamez- 2014 Spain Depressive Symptoms and Problematic Explore the linkage between depressive 699, adolescents, ages 13 to Depressive symptoms were related to increase Guadix Internet Use Among Adolescents: symptoms and problematic Internet use 17 years preference for online relationships Analysis of the Longitudinal (PIU) M=48.9, F=61.1% Relationships from the Cognitive- Behavioral Model 50 Mak, Lai, 2014 China, Epidemiology of Internet Behavior and Country comparison of Internet 5,366 adolescents, ages 12 IA highest in the Philippines Watanabe, Hong Kong, Addiction Among Adolescents in Six Addiction (IA), six countries China, Hong to 18 years Online gaming – 11% China to 39% Japan Kim, Bahar, Japan, Asian Countries Kong, Japan, South Korea, Philippines M=47%, F=63% Ramos, South and Malaysia Young, Ho, Korea,

422 Aum & Philippines Cheng & Malaysia 51 Kiraly, 2014 Hungary Problematic Internet Use and Explores the linkage between 2,073 adolescent gamers – More participants meet the criteria for PIU than POG Griffths, Problematic Online Gaming Are Not the problematic Internet use (PIU) and mean age 16.4 years POG much more associated with boys Urban, Same: Findings from a Large Nationally online gaming (POG) M=68.4%, F=31.6 POG appears to be conceptual different behavior to Farkas, Representative Adolescent Sample PIU Kokonyei, Elekes, Tamas & Demetrovic s 52 Ouytsel, 2014 Belgium The Association Between Adolescents’ Explore the possible link between 329 adolescents – mean age Sexting behavior significantly associated with Ponnet & Consumption of Pornography and media use and sexting 16.71 years consumption of pornography Walrave Music Videos and Their Sexting M= 39.8%, F=60.2% Behavior 53 Chng, Li, 2015 Singapore Moderating Effects of the Family To determine the impacts of parental 3,079 students Students with PIU had poor family environments Liau & Environment for Parental Mediation active and restriction mediation has on Mean age = 13.28 Effectiveness of restrictive mediation depends on Khoo and Pathological Internet Use pathological Internet use (PIU) M=50.4%, F=49.6% warmth and support of the family environment 54 Donati, 2015 Italy Versatility and Addiction in Gaming: The Whether the number of gaming genres 701 male adolescents, mean The more gaming genres played the greater the Chiesi, Number of Video-Game Genres Played played could predict game addiction age 15.6 years negative consequences of gaming were seen Ammannat is Associated with Pathological Gaming M=100% o & Primi in Male Adolescents

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 55 Yu, Li & 2015 China Predicting Adolescent Problematic Explore the benefits of teacher 356 Chinese students Teacher autonomy support in year 7 led to increased Zhang Online Game Use form Teacher autonomy support over three years and Aged 13 to 17 years psychological needs being met in year 8 and Autonomy Support, Basic Psychological its impact on problematic gaming M= 41%, F=59% deceased problematic gaming in year 9. Needs Satisfaction, and School behavior Engagement: A 2-Year Longitudinal Study 56 Lim, Gwak, 2015 Korea Are Adolescents with Internet Addiction Examine whether there is a linkage 714 middle school students Confirmed a linear association between the two (IAD Park, Kwon, Prone to Aggressive Behavior? The between Internet Addiction Disorder ages 16.3 +/- 2 and aggressive behavior) – meaning one could be Lee, Jung, Mediating Effect of Clinical (IAD) and aggression M=389, F-325 predicted by the other Sohn, Kim, Comorbidities on the Predictability of Those with IAD are greater disposed towards Kim & Choi Aggression in Adolescents with Internet aggression Aggression 57 Smith, 2015 Australia Parental Influences on Adolescents Explored the factors that influence rate 422 high school and Factors included – accessibility to own devices, Gradisar & Video Game Play: A Study of Accessibly, of hours of gaming per week university students, ages 16 location (in bedrooms led to increase in gaming,

423 King Rules, Limit Setting, Monitoring, and to 20 years parents discussing cyber safety led to a decrease Cyber safety M=41%, F59% Monitoring, limit setting or co-gaming showed no signification impacts on use 58 Brunborg, 2015 Norway Core and Peripheral Criteria of Video Examine what the core and peripheral N=3,037 A survey of the A higher proportion of gamers were found to be Hanass, Game Addiction in the Game Addiction criteria are of video game addiction Norwegian population aged addicted when using the CORE 4 approach as Mentzoni & Scale for Adolescents using the CROE 7 and GAS 7 surveys 16–74 years, mean age 35.0 opposed to the GAS 7 survey Pallesen years M=58%, F=42% 59 Barbovschi, 2015 Belgium, Underage Use of Social Network Sites: Examines students who have Facebook 3,566 respondents (approx. Parental mediation limits underage Facebook access Machackov Denmark, It’s about Friends profiles below the legal age to join 500 children from each, ages Participants use Facebook for similar reasons, a & Ireland, 9 to 16 years looking for new friends, being able to discuss topics Olafsson Italy, M=52%, F=48% more freely Portugal, Romania and the UK 60 Hawi & 2015 Lebanon Impact on e-Discipline on Children’s Explores the use of ‘e-discipline’ which 3,141 children, ages 7-11 Children where parents used screen time as a Rupert Screen Time is a practice of using screen devices as a years discipline tool spent significantly more screen time discipline tool M=50.6%, F=49.4% then the children of parents who did not use e- discipline

61 Sampasa- 2015 Canada Frequent Use of Social Networking Sties Examine the link between social 753 students, mean age 14.1 Indicate that students with poor mental health may Kanyinga & is Associated with Poor Psychosocial networking sites and mental health years use SNS more often Lewis Functioning Among Children and problems in young people M=45%, F=55% Adolescents

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 62 Vernon, 2015 Australia Adolescent Problematic Social Exploring the link between social 1,866 students in Australia, Problematic social networking leads to increase Barber & Networking and School Experiences: networking, sleeping rates and school ages 12 to 18 years sleep problems which then effect school Modecki The Mediating Effects of Sleep performance M= 41.8%, F=59.2% performance Disruptions and Sleep Quality This pattern is driven by sleep disturbances 63 Lai, Mak, 2015 Hong Kong, Measurement Invariance of the Examine psychometric properties on 2,535 secondary school The IAT a good model to determine IA across the Cheng, Japan & Internet Addiction Test Among Hong the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) students, ages 12 to 18 years three countries – recommended test should be Watanabe, Malaysia Kong, Japanese, and Malaysian across three countries organized into 18 items Nomachi, Adolescents M= 44.1%, F=55.9% No differences on Internet addiction were Bahar, discovered across the three countries Young, Ko, Kim & Griffiths 64 Chang, 2015 Taiwan Relationship Between Parental and Examine the relationship between 1,896 junior high school Increased knowledge and engagement by parents Chiu, Chen, Adolescents eHealth Literacy and eHealth literacy and parental students, grades 7 to 9 led to an increase in online health information

424 Miao, Lee, Online Health Information Seeking in engagement and the impacts on young M=48.9%, F=51.1% seeking Chiang & Taiwan people seeking health information Pan online 65 Lee, Lee, 2015 Korea Comprised Prefrontal Cognitive Control Determine if there is a relationship 18 male adolescents, mean Findings indicate there is compromised prefrontal Chun, Cho, Over Emotional Interference in between prefrontal cognitive control age 13.6 years cognitive control over emotional interference in Kim & Jung Adolescent with Internet Gaming and Internet game addiction M=100% adolescents with Internet gaming addiction. Disorder 66 Van Royen, 2016 Belgium Help, I Am Losing Control! Examining Review what the determinants were to 1,015 pupils, ages 11 to 19 29% had encountered sexual harassment online Poels & the Reporting of Sexual Harassment by reporting online sexual harassment to years Vandebosc Adolescents to Social Networking Sites service providers and what they did M=51%, F=49% SNS providers often failed to act on reports of sexual h about it harassment 67 Wu, Ko, 2016 Taiwan Positive Outcome Expectancy Mediates Explore the potential link between 1,922 senior high school The rate of Internet Addiction was positively Wong, Wu the Relationship Between Peer social influence and Internet Addiction students, mean age 16.83 predicted by social influence & Oei Influence and Internet Gaming years addiction Among Adolescents in Taiwan M=903, F=1,922 68 Ahn, 2016 USA Using Virtual Pets to Increase Fruit and A virtual pet – mid sixe dog was 68 children, ages 7 to 13 Children who experienced the virtual dog requested Johnsen, Vegetable Consumption in Children: A designed and tested to see if it could be years more serves of F&V, but did not consume Moore, Technology- Assisted Social Cognitive used as a vehicle to promote fruit and significantly more than the computer or base line Brown, Theory Approach vegetable (F&V) consumption group Biersmith & Food preferences did not differ across the groups Ball following the testing

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 69 Banos, 2016 Spain Using Virtual Reality to Distract To test whether using Virtual Reality 109 children 1015 years, Attentional distraction effect of VR was significantly Escobar, Overweight children and Bodily (VR) can distract children during 33 overweight higher in overweight children – they focused more Cebolla, Sensations During Exercise exercise on external environment Guixeres, VR increased enjoyment across all groups Pitti, Lison & Botella 70 Frison & 2016 Belgium “Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger”: Explore the potential reciprocal nature 1,840 Flemish Adolescents, Negative comparisons on Facebook predicted a Eggermont Negative Comparisons on Facebook and of negative comparisons on Facebook ages 12 to 19 years decrease in real life satisfaction Adolescents’ Life Satisfaction Are M=52%, F=48% Reciprocally RelatedMo Also the lower real life satisfaction led to increase negativity on Facebook 71 Kim, 2016 Korea Resting-State Peripheral Catecholamine To compare Dopamine, Epinephrine 230 male high school Internet gaming over time resulted in a decrease in Hughes, and Anxiety Levels on Korean Male (Epi) and Norepinephrine (NE) levels students, ages 15 to 18 years Epi and NE levels – leading to an increase in anxiety Park, Quinn Adolescents with Internet Game and anxiety levels of Korean male M=100% levels

425 & Kong Addiction adolescents with Internet game addiction (IGA) and those without IGA 72 Cranwell, 2016 UK Alcohol and Tobacco Content in UK Explore the amount of alcohol and 1,094 adolescents ages 11 to Of the 38 games identified – 17% included either Whittamor Video Games and Their Association with tobacco content is in video games and 17 years tobacco (10 games) or alcohol (13 games) e, Britton & Alcohol and Tobacco Use Among Young the potential impact on alcohol and M=50%, F=50% Adolescents who played these games were more Bee People smoking behaviors likely to experiment with alcohol and tobacco 73 Morioka, 2016 Japan Association Between Smoking and Examine the association between 100,050 students IA and excessive Internet use have a strong Itani, Osaki, Problematic Internet Use among smoking and Internet Addiction (IA) Ages 6 to 18 years association with smoking Higuchi, Japanese Adolescents: Large-Scale 0.94:1 ratio of boys to girls Jike, Nationwide Epidemiological Study Kaneita, Kanda, Nakagome & Ohida 74 Boulton, 2016 UK Enhancing Primary School Children’s Explored whether the cross-age 291 students in Years 6 and 4 Findings suggest that CATZ intervention is highly Boulton, Knowledge of Online Safety and Risks teaching zone (CATZ) intervention (mean age 10.5 years) acceptable to the participants and a good program Camerone, with the CATZ Cooperative Cross-Age would improve children’s knowledge of M=132, F=159 to enable students to learn about the dangers online Down, Teaching Intervention: Results from a online risks Hughes, Pilot Study Kirkbride, Kirkman, Macaulay & Sanders

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 75 Kim & Ahn 2016 Korea How Does Neighborhood Quality Assess the relationship between playing 2,351 middle school students More time spent on video games indicated higher Moderate the Association Between online video games and mental health (born 1997) depression rates in the following year Online Video Game Play and in adolescents in Korea Depression? A Popular-Level Analysis of Korean Students 76 Bond 2016 USA Following Your ‘Friend’: Social Media Explore whether social media is 316 adolescents surveyed, Strong link between Twitter and parasocial and the Strength of Adolescents’ changing the way teens engage with ages 13 to 17 years relationships. If media person retweets or responds Parasocial Relationships with Media media personalities M=26%, F=74% led to an increased feeling of connectedness Personae 77 Kim, 2016 Korea Altered Autonomic Functions and Explore the physiological and 68 adolescent males, ages 16 Indicate that there is a link between excessive online Hughes, Distressed Personality Traits in Male personality features of Internet to 18 years gaming and distressed personality traits in the cohort Park, Quinn Adolescents With Internet Gaming Addiction (IA) M=100% & Kong Addiction 78 Fullwood, 2016 UK Self-Concept and Online Self- Explore the link between clarity of self- 148 students, ages 13-18 Adolescents with stable self-concept presented

426 James & Presentation in Adolescents concept and online engagement completed surveys themselves the same both online and offline Chen- M=60, F=88 Younger adolescents likely to present an inconsistent Wilson self

79 Moreno, 2017 USA Recruiting Adolescent Research Explore which method is more effective In person recruitment lead Social media recruitment had greater reach but was Waite, Participants: In-Person Compared to in recruting adolscents for research to 37 enrollments (out of more expensive then traditional methods Pumper, Social Media Approaches projects 297 potential participants) Colburn, Online recruitment 8 Holm & enrollments (out of 34,272 Mendoza potential participants) Ages 14-18 years old 80 Stubblefeil 2017 USA Problem Video Gaming Among Children Explore the association with online 454 surveyed, ages 11-17 8.2% were defined as problem gamers. They were d, Datto, Enrolled in Tertiary Weight gaming and weight status years enrolled in weight more likely to be white, male and play daily Phan, Management Programs management schemes Werk, M=47%, F=53% Stackpole, Siegel, Stratbucker , Tucker, Christison, Hossain & Gentile 81 Chun, Shim 2017 Korea A Meta-Analysis of Treatment Examine different treatment Literature review of 70 Intergrative therapy the most productive as oppsed & Kim Interventions for Internet Addiction interventions for those who have Master thesis’ and journals to cognitive thearpy Among Korean Adolescents Internet addiction

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 82 Gomez, 2017 Spain Screening of Problematic Internet Use Large scale screeni ng to determine 40,955 16.3% had problematic Internet use Rial, Brana, Among Spanish Adolescents: level of Internet addiction Not further broken down Higher amongst females Golpe & Prevalence and Related Variables Increased use led to more online risky behavior Varela 83 McNicol & 2017 USA Internet addiction, psychological Exploring the rate of problematic 449 participants, ages 16 to 6.7% addictive users, 24.4% problematic users Thorsteinss distress, and coping responses among Internet addiction 71 Low levels of self care and high rumination levels to on adolescents and adults M= 35.9%, F=64.1% main factors for adolescents 84 Wright 2017 USA Adolescents' perceptions of popularity- Examines how gender might influence 217 8th graders – mean age Association between popularity motivated behaviors motivated behaviors, characteristics, perceptions 12.13 and cyber aggression was stronger for girls then boys and relationships in cyberspace and M=49%, F=51% cyber aggression: the role of gender 85 Ho, Lwin, 2017 Singapore Understanding Factors Associated with Explores the impact of theory of 4,920 Singaporeans ages 13 The cohorts privacy concerns and past privacy Yee & Lee Singaporean Adolescents’ Intention to planned behavior (TPB) norms (such as to 21 years behaviors influence their future PPM engagement Adopt Privacy Protection Behavior personality traits and past privacy M=50.5%, F=49.5% Parents have a small role to play in influencing future

427 Using an Extended Theory of Planned protection measures as well as parental PPM Behavior mediation strategies have on the cohorts’ intention to use privacy protection measures (PPM) 86 Frison & 2017 Belgium Browsing, posting, and liking on Obtaining longitudinal evidence of 671 adolescents, mean age Instagram browsing at T1 lead to depression at T2 Eggermont Instagram: The reciprocal relationships Instagram use and young adults’ mental 14.96 Depressed mood at T1 lead to increase posting at T2 between different types of Instagram health M=39%, F=61% Relationships similar among both sexes use and adolescents' depressed mood 87 Verswijvel, 2018 Belgium Adolescents’ Reasons to Unfriend on Explore the rate and reasons for 419 adolescents – average Adolescents more unlikely to de-friend someone Heirman, Facebook Unfriending someone online age of 15.34 who they initiated the friendship online Hardies & M=45.1%, F=48.7% - The most common reason for unfriending was in Walrave remainder did not declare response to inappropriate / polarizing posts –which sex is similar to the reasons adults have given in other research 88 Przybylski 2018 UK Internet Filtering and Adolescent Investigate the efficacy of online filters A representative sub sample Caregiver’s use of online filters is varied and had & Nash Exposure to Online Sexual Material to reduce exposure online of 9,352 male and 9,357 insignificant links to adolescents’ exposure to sexual females ages from 11 to 16 material years. Taken from the EU Kids Online II study

Cyberpsychology, behaviour & Social Networking Journal 2011 - 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 89 De 2018 Spain Longitudinal and Reciprocal Compare the relationships between Longitudinal study over one There was an increase in sexual solicitation (7.1% to Santisteban Relationships of Depression among depression and online sexual year involving 1,504 15.1%) and interaction (3.6% to 8.2%) over the & Gamez- Minors with Online Sexual Solicitations victimization and interactions adolescents – mean age period of a year Guadix and Interactions with Adults 13.11 Those minors will greater depressive symptoms at T1 M= 47.6 , F=52.4 had an increase in sexual solicitation and interaction with adults at the end of study (T2) No differences between the sexes 90 Wu, Mei & 2018 China Student Cyberloafing In and Out of the Explores linkage between Cyberloafing 1,050 undergraduate Cyberloafing in the classroom was shown to be Ugrin Classroom in China and the Relationship (leisurely use of the Internet) and students – 1st to 4th year harmful to academic performance, but Cyberloafing with Student Performance academic performance M=49.6%, F=50.4% outside the classroom (in moderation) could be beneficial (as a means of effort recovery). 91 Chang, 2018 Taiwan Computer/Mobile Device Screen Time Examines the eye care behavior of 2,454 students from 30 Those children with poorer academic performance, Chiu, Chen, of Children and Their Eye Care children in relation to computer use primary schools ages 10 to less risk perception and whose parents spend a lot of Miao, Behavior: The Roles of Risk Perception 11 years time online practiced less eye care.

428 Chiang & and Parenting M=52.2%, F=47.8% Whereas those children with higher levels of Chuang parental mediation (and higher grades and risk perception) practiced more eye care 92 Van 2018 Netherland The Importance of Adolescents’ Changes to adolescents concept of 1,288 adolescents, ages 13- More frequent engagement as opposed to exposure Oosten, de s Sexually Outgoing Self-Concept: sexual self over time with exposure to 17 years of others’ sexy self-presentation was more important Vries & Differential Roles of Self- and Other- sexy self-presentations on social M=47.5%, F=52.5% predictor of being sexually outgoing Peter Generated Sexy Self- Presentations in networking sites Social Media 92 Pegg, 2018 Australia The Role of Online Social Identity in the Link between alcohol related posts by 929 adolescents – mean age Higher level of exposure on SNS was related to O;Donnell, Relations Between Alcohol-Related adolescents and the impact it has on 17.25) higher alcohol consumption Lala & Content on Social Networking Sires and alcohol use M=55.5%, F=54.5% Barber Adolescent Alcohol Use 93 Hsieh, 2018 Taiwan Internet Addiction: A Closer Look at Explore the connection between 6,233 4th grade students Link established between a child’s Shen, Wei, Multidimensional Parenting Practices psychosocial factors, psychological M=50.3%, F=49.7% mental health status, parental practices and family Feng, and Child Mental Health symptoms and Internet Addiction (IA) dynamics and IA Huang & Hwa 94 Peled 2018 Israel Children's Attitudes to Parental Parents and children’s perception of 1,199 students, ages 6 to 18 Parental mediation is perceived differently by Mediation in a Traditional Society parental mediation in an Arab years parents and children population M=52%, F=48% Children’s perception of parents’ mediation changes with age

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2007 -2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 1. Subrahman 2007 USA Adolescent Online Communication: Old To describe in detail the online 1 000 Across two different online forums (chat rooms and yam Issues, New Intensities environments with the focus to participants/nicknames: blogs), new behaviours were not being created; compare and contrast adolescents’ real 583 (monitored) instead it appeared that the virtual world might and virtual worlds. 567 (unmonitored) actually serve as a screen for playing out issues from 12 000 utterances the physical world. 6 702 (monitored chat rooms) Due to the different affordances, these behaviours 5 556 (unmonitored chat are enacted sometimes with different intensities rooms) compared to the real world. 200 blogs (English) Authored by age 14-17 600 entries (Gender distribution is not specified in this study)

4 2. Kalmus 2007 Estonia Estonian Adolescents’ Expertise in the To compare and contrast the self- 6 534 student participants Estonia has the highest number of Internet users, 29 Internet in Comparative Perspective perceptions of competence, creative from 8 European countries followed by Denmark and UK. Greece has the highest use of content, attitudes in the Internet (Estonia, Poland, Demark, non-Internet users. of the Estonian adolescents and their Belgium, UK, France, Greece neighbouring countries. & Portugal) It appeared the self-perceptions of student Age 12-18 participants’ level of expertise/competence in the (Gender distribution is not study were not accurate – they were not able to specified in this study) handle the information on the Internet critically, and they still trust their family, reference literature, school, textbooks, teacher and TV more than the Internet.

Creative online contents such as personal webpage or blog) were much less widely practiced, while mostly searching for info, communicating and entertainment.

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2007 -2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 3. Vykoukalov 2007 Czech Adolescent Mobile Communication: To investigate the influence of mobile 76 participants students Mobile phone is the most important communication á Republic Transformation of Communication phones (cell phones) on adolescent 24 male device in the respondents’ everyday lives. 2/3 never Patterns of Generation SMS? communication behaviour in relation to 52 female switch out their mobile/cell phones, 1/3 never put it family relationships (parental control) Age 17-18 away. They always carried their mobile phone with and partner relationships (openness & them permanently; checking incessantly, bring it to intimacy) bed at night or in the battery charger next to the bed.

Mobile phone connects their immediate social circle (friends, partners and families). Respondents managed their affairs via text messaging, which allowed them to maintain their social network without their parental knowledge. 4 Blinka 2008 Czech The Relationship of Players to Their To examine the relationships of player 532 MMORPG players Adolescents showed the highest tendency to identify

430 Republic Avatars in MMORPGs: Differences and their character (avatar) in the Age 12-19, 20-26, 27 & themselves with their avatars and had the highest between Adolescents, Emerging Adults different age groups of MMORPG above needs to play well in the game, while it was found to and Adults players (Gender distribution is not be weaker among the adults. specified in this study) 5 Erdoğan 2008 Turkey Exploring the Relationships among To explore the linkage in Internet usage, 1049 participants Participants’ loneliness was associated with Internet Usage, Internet Attitudes and Internet attitudes and loneliness of Age 14-18 increased Internet use. Loneliness of Turkish Adolescents Turkish adolescents. 30% female 70% male Male participants reported a higher frequency of Internet usage (web surfing, online gaming) while female participants reported higher frequency of e- mailing. 6 Strano 2008 USA User Descriptions and Interpretations of To examine the users’ interpretations of 427 survey responses The findings shows that females tend to change their Self-Presentation through Facebook their self presentation on Facebook Age 18 -21 (53%), profile image more often and their choice of image Profile Images focusing their choice of profile image 22-30 (32%) focuses on friendship. 71% female 29% male Older users are less likely to change their profile pix frequently and more lightly to display images of themselves alone. 7 Siibak 2009 Estonia Constructing the Self through the Photo To examine adolescents’ reasons for 713 student participants Participants in the study joined SNS either they feel selection – Visual Impression joining SNS and their visual 50.1% boys compelled by their peers who already have a SNS Management on Social Networking representations that they hope to 49.5% girls profile or they were interested in meeting new Sites highlight to make their SNS profiles Age 11-18 people or looking for romantic partners. successful or popular. Girls are more likely to create emotional, artistic and self-representing SNS profiles compared to their male counterparts.

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2007 -2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 8 Luthman, 2009 UK The Effect of Computer Gaming on To investigate the effect of gaming on 40 participants The results show a significant increase in time Bliesener, Germany Subsequent Time Perception time perception (time distortion Age 18-38 productions after gaming for the short interval, Staude-Mü subsequent to a game session) 37 males indicating that game-induced time losses continue 3 females even after a game session.

9 Barbovschi 2009 Romania Meet the “E-Strangers”. Predictors of To investigate adolescents’ behaviour 1806 participants Most important predictors are: use of instant Teenagers’ Online-Offline Encounters and practice related to online-offline Age 10-19 messaging, time spent online, positive self- dating 42.3% male concept/outgoing personalities appear to influence 57.7% female both boys’ and girls’ decision for online-offline dating.

Older adolescents are more likely to engage in online-offline dating. 10 Sheldon 2009 USA “I’ll poke you. You’ll poke me!” Self- To investigate how social attraction on 243 students The student participants in the study showed that

431 disclosure, social attraction, Facebook (FB) influences self- Age 18-36 they were likely to share personal secrets on FB to predictability and trust as important disclosure, predictability, and trust. 49% male people they like, and have little uncertainty about predictors of Facebook relationships 51% female the person to whom they intimately self-disclose to.

11 Konečný 2009 Czech Virtual Environment and Lying: To investigate the frequency of lying in 914 respondents For the youngest group – age and physical Republic Perspective of Czech Adolescents and online environment, who are the 3 age groups: appearance Young Adults recipient of lies and what are the typical 194 Adolescents (12-18), motivations for lying. 161 Emerging adults (19-26) Middle age group – work and income 557 Adults (27+) Oldest group – income for men, appeal & appearance for women, age for both genders

Women lie more to other individual women, men tend to lie to groups and both genders

Motivations for lying to increase one’s appeal, desirability or for the purpose of entertainment.

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2007 -2010 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 12 Stamoulis 2010 USA Conceptual Approaches to Adolescents To examine the predictors of online 935 participants & their Lack of involvement in extracurricular activities was a & Farley Online Risk-Taking risk-taking of adolescents and to parents predictor for online risk-taking behaviour, especially determine the conceptual approach Age: 12 – 17 boys. that is most fitting to explain their (886 are Internet users) online risk-taking behaviour. Infrequent time spent socializing with friend (face-to- face), especially girls

The findings in this study supported the Social Compensation Approach. 13 Gradinger, 2010 Austria Definition and Measurement of To investigate to what extent 1 150 students Male combined bullies were much more aggressive Strohmeier Cyberbullying measurement methods influence the Age 10-15 compared to female combined bullies. & Spiel number of students identified as 48% girls traditional bullies and cyberbullies 52% boys Although only very few girls were classified as frequent combined bullies, these few girls showed

432 very high aggression levels compared to boys. 14 Tynes, Rose 2010 USA The Development and Validation of the To outline and validate the Online 222 students Four distinct subscales were found: general & Williams Online Victimization Scale for Victimization Scale (OVS). Age 14-19 victimization, sexual harassment, individual racial Adolescents 54% female discrimination, and vicarious racial discrimination. 46% male The OVS subscales were associated with depressive symptoms, anxiety, perceived stress, decreased self- esteem and satisfaction with life.

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 15 Sevcikova 2011 Czech An exploration of the relationship To explore the relationship between 462 respondents The findings suggested that the relationship between & Konečný Republic between real-world sexual experience sexual behaviour in the real world and 237 girls the extension of sexual experience offline and and online sexual experience among 17 on the Internet among 17 year old 225 boys extension of using the Internet for sexual purpose is year old adolescents Czechs. Age: 8, 11, 13, 15 & 17 weak. 16 Staiano & 2011 USA Wii Tennis Play for Low-Income African To compare the energy used of a 74 participants Players played (social exergues) against a peer used Calvert American Adolescents’ Energy targeted group of adolescents at high 45 girls more energy than those played alone. Expenditure risk for obesity when hitting tennis balls 29 boys in different environment settings Age: 12-18 Playing in controlled group or simulated lesson were also less effective compared to playing with a peer or alone. 17 Šléglová & 2011 Czech Cyberbullying in Adolescent Victims: To explore adolescents’ perspective of 15 respondents The study found that cyberbullying experience could Cerna Republic Perception and Coping the impacts and consequences of 13 girls lead to a positive behaviour online (e.g. feelings of cyberbullying and coping strategies 2 boys caution, create self-restriction in the use of risky Age: 14-18 online sources of threat as victims tried to prevent

433 its recurrence. Critical impacts could also be developed (lower self-esteem, loneliness, disillusionment and distrust, or even extreme impacts such as self-harm or aggression towards friends/family.

Coping strategies including technical defence, activity directed at the aggressor, avoidance, defensive strategies and social support 18 Walrave, 2012 Belgium Connecting and Protecting? Comparing To investigate the frequency of and 1484 respondents The results showed that adolescents were more Vanwesenb predictors of self-disclosure and privacy motives for SNS use, trust in other Youth sample (Age: 10-19) active in checking their online profiles and posing eech & settings use between adolescents and users, peer influence, privacy settings =343 respondents status updates compared to the adults. Heirman adults and contact risks, and compare 45% male, 55% female between adolescent and adult users. Adult sample (Age: 20-65) Adolescents were more likely to disclose more =1141 respondents personal information online compared to the adults. 46% male, 54% female Trust in SNS was quite low for both age groups. Adolescents were less concerned about their online privacy that the adult respondents were Adolescents were significantly vulnerable to peer influence online.

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 19 Aroldi & 2012 Italy Adolescents of the 1960s and 1970s: An To explore how far the media 224 participants (Italy) The findings suggested an increasing like- Ponte Portugal Italian-Portuguese Comparison technologies, contents and habits 50% male, 50% female mindedness between audiences with similar cultural between two generations of audiences experienced during youth contribute to A total of 24 focus groups – 6 capital and habitus, were more likely to share the shaping of collective identities for each identified cultural and media consumptions with their peers generations who were living in other countries but also had similar social status, than with their peers living in 38 participants (Portugal) their own country but have different social status. A total of 8 focus groups Gender not specified

20 Thomas & 2012 UK Inside out: Avatars as an indirect To explore how women impression 42 female students The results (supported the previous researches) Johansen measure of ideal body self-presentation manage their ideal showing that individuals tend to infuse desired in females attributes/appearance during avatar qualities in their virtual-world avatars, in order to creation manage the impression of others by altering their

434 avatar’s attribute/appearance.

21 Metcalf & 2012 Australia Investigating markers of behavioural To investigate 2 indicators of Study 1 Study 1 found behavioural evidence for cue- Pammer addiction in excessive massively behavioural addiction: 1. Reactivity 2. MMORPG users reactivity in addicted but not MMORG users. multiplayer online role-playing gamers Impulsivity 30 participants Study 1 (rapid serial visual presentation 14 female, 23 male Study 2 found a link between addiction and paradigm Age: 18-29 impulsivity, particularly, the non-planning impulsivity Study 2 (continuous performance task Non-MMORPG users factor. and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale -11 20 participants 9 female, 11 male Both studies failed to find evidence of attentional Age: 18-31 indicators of impulsivity in excessive MMORPG users

22 Ponte, 2013 Portugal Do Questions Matter on Children’s Explore the types of open ended 1000 Portuguese children Different wordings of the questions may lead to Simōes & Answers about Internet Risk and questions asked of children when participated EU Kids Online different answers. Jorge Safety? investigating online risk and safety Survey Respondents tended to express their Internet Compare the answers provided by EU 284 Portuguese children experiences positively Kids Online survey and the Escolhas participated in Escolhas survey survey Ages 9 to 16 years old Gender not broken down 23 Bond 2013 UK Mobile Phones, Risk and Responsibility: Explores children’s perception of risk 30 young people, ages 11 to Reflective in their understanding of the associates Understanding children’s Perceptions associated with mobile phone use 17 years risk of mobile phone use. M=14, F=16 Participants viewed themselves as responsible for managing their own risks

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 24 Priebe, 2013 Sweden To Tell or Not to Tell? Youth’s To investigate youth’s response to 1560 Internet users Youth in current study told more often about online Kimberly, USA Responses to Unwanted Internet unwanted internet experiences, not Age 10-17 and their care harassment than about sexual solicitation or Mitchell & Experiences only for those youth who were takers/parents unwanted exposure to pornography Finkelhor bothered or distressed but also those The most often mentioned reason for not telling was who were not bothered. that the incident was not serious or that it happens all the time. Internet safety information nor parents sharing their experiences did not lead to an increase in youth sharing their own experience of unwarranted Internet experiences 25 Oolo & 2013 Estonia Performing for One’s Imagined To examine the perceptions of Estonian 15 respondents The findings showed that the majority of the teens in Siibak Audience: Social Steganography and teens about privacy and imagined Age: 13-16 the sample had misconceptions about the size of other Privacy Strategies of Estonian audience on SNS, blogs and Instant 7 male, 8 female their online audience, perceived the imagined Teens on Networked Publics Messenger. audience as comprising a small part of the public

435 (mostly close friends and school mates), and rarely thought about the possible privacy issues when communicating online.

26 Kupiainen 2013 Norway Young People’s Creative Online Explores students creative online 305 school students, ages 13 Young people are not that keen to share that Practices in the Context of School practices and different audiences to 16 years old creative works online Community M=32%, F=68% The participants creative online activities varies from individual to collaborative endeavors 27 Dworkin, 2013 USA A Literature Review of Parents’ Online Review of parents’ use of the Internet Literature review of 27 Generally go online for parenting information and / Connell & Behaviour studies or social support. Generally satisfied with Doty information located – but wanted more education to determine credible sources of information 28 Heirman, 2013 Belgium Predicting Adolescents’ Willingness to Explored the relationship between the 1,042 Flemish adolescents, Participants level of trust of a website was directly Walrave, Discuss Personal Information to a trust adolescents have with a ages 12 to 18 years related to the amount of information they disclose. Ponnet & Commercial Website: Testing the commercial website and their M=519, F=523 Their general risk perception also played a role in the Gool Applicability of a Trust-Based Model willingness to share private information amount of information provided (identity, location, profile and contact information 29 Walsh, 2013 USA Close Relationships with People Met Explored the characteristics of young 1,560 participants, ages 10 11% reported a close relationship with a person they Wolak & Online in a National U.S. Sample of people who have a close relationship to 17 years old met online Mitchell Adolescents with someone online M=50%, F=50% Participants who were depressed, high Internet users and delinquent were twice as likely to form online relationships The vast majority were not afraid of face-to-face meetings

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 30 Sorbring, 2014 Sweden Adolescent Girls’ and Boys’ Well Being Explored if there was a relationship 496 teenagers (15 or 18 54% had experienced both online and offline Skoog & in Relation to Online and Offline Sexual between well-being and online and years old) sexual/romantic activities, the remaining only offline Bohlin and Romantic Activity offline sexual / romantic behavior M=48%, F=52% activities Whether there was a gender difference Age (older) and risk behavior linked to more offline experiences High risk behavior linked to boys online sexual/romantic experiences, whereas girls had several other factors in addition to high risk behavior such as age (younger) and lower body esteem 31 Kerstens & 2014 Netherland Receiving Online Sexual Requests and Explored the rate of young people 4453 adolescents, ages 11 to Receiving sexual requests common amongst the Stol s Producing Online Sexual Images: The receiving online sexual requests and 18 years cohort, which most not problematic Multifaceted and Dialogic Nature of producing images as a result M=51.2%, F=48.8 Producing sexual images as a result very rare Adolescents’ Online Sexual Interactions Adolescents will lower self control and less inhibition more likely to respond.

436

32 Döring 2014 Germany Consensual Sexting among Adolescents: Reviews the current research on sexting Literature review of 17 Sexting is more common among adults than children Risk Prevention through Abstinence previous studies on sexting Most (79%) papers view sexting as risky behavior, Education or Safer Sexting and 50 sexting papers but could be viewed a normal intimate published between 2009 and communication within romantic /sexual relationships 2013 33 Mascheroni 2014 Belgium, Media Representation and Children’s Explore how children incorporate media 56 focus groups (n=254) Media framing of risks are more influential on , Jorge & the Czech Discourses on Online Risks: Findings perceptions, parental worries and peer 114 interviews (n=114) children who have not had direct experience of Farrugia Republic, from Qualitative Research in Nine views into their own online risk Ages 9 to 16 years those risks Greece, European Countries perception M=50%, F=50% Older children have a greater awareness of pros and Italy, Whether there is any age or gender cons of online engagement Malta, differences Both boys and girls perceived that girls have more Portugal, Explore whether there are country online fights then boys Romania, variations Spain and the UK 34 Steijin 2014 Netherland A Developmental Perspective regarding Explore how individuals online behavior 1008 respondents ages 12 to Adolescents have the most contacts and are more the Behaviour of Adolescents, Young changes over time 83 years likely to have contacts that the do not know Adults, and Adults on Social Network M=39% , F=61% Young adults most likely to adjust their privacy Sites settings Adults have the least need for social networking site friendships 35 Sveningsso 2014 Sweden “I don’t like it and think it’s useless, Review whether online media could 26 Swedes interviewed, ages Young people are interested but not engaged with n people discussing politics on Facebook”: increase political engagement of young 17-18 years politics people Gender not specified

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS Young Swedes’ Understandings of Social Skeptical about using social media for political Media Use for Political Discussion engagement View online political engagement as less authentic than offline engagement 36 Kaposi 2014 Kuwait The Culture and Politics of Internet Use Explore the impact of new media Five years of observations, Increased access to technology has enabled Kuwaitis Among Young People in Kuwait technologies on Kuwaiti youth casual communications and to push the boundaries of free speech interviews The Internet provides a forum for likeminded Sample not further broken individuals to communicate, but that has yet to down manifest into offline engagement

37 Haddon 2015 Belgium, Children’s Critical Evaluation of Parental Explore children’s views on parental 108 interviews, ages 9-16 Many students viewed parental intervention as a the Czech Mediation intervention regarding their online years. positive. Republic, habits M=6, F=6 from each country They were critical if the intervention was not well Greece, presented or justified

437 Italy, Children reluctant to voluntarily discuss sensitive Malta, online topics as they were fearful of losing trust from Portugal, parents Romania, Spain and the UK

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 38 Nikken & 2015 Netherland Guiding Young Children’s Internet Use Examine parental experiences in 75 parents with children Parents more confident if they have a positive view de Haan s at Home: Problems that Parents providing advice and support to their aged 0-7 years of age of the impacts of online engagement and there is an Experience in their Parental Mediation children regarding online engagement (children gender not older sibling living at home and the Need for Parenting Support provided) Professional assistance called upon if the child is active on social media and no older sibling at home 39 Talves & 2015 Estonia Gendered Mediation of Children’s Explore parental mediation of children’s Three samples Parental mediation approach did not solely depend Kalmus Internet Use: A Keyhole for Looking into Internet use in the context of gender 1. EU Kids Online Survey on child’s sex. Socio-demographic and the Changing Socialization Practices equality 1000 Internet using children relationship with the child also played a role ages 9-16 Estonian mothers did use different methods when attempting to mediate boys’ and girls’ online 2. Detailed analysis of engagement Estonia results

3. Two focus groups of

438 Estonian mothers – 15 mothers interviewed 40 Mascheron, 2015 Italy, Spain “Girls are Addicted to Likes so They Post Investigate how boys and girls develop 24 focus groups (n=107), There are gender differences with girls being Vincent & and the UK Semi-Naked Selfies”: Peer Mediation, and present their online identities and ages 11-16 years subjected to more peer pressure than boys. Jimenez Normativity and the Construction of the impact of peer pressure 50 individual interviews, Girls who post sexy photos tend to be viewed by Identity Online same age group boys as ‘a certain type of girl’, however girls feel to M=50%, F=50% for both need to post to conform and be accepted by their peers. The sexual double standard was seen in each of the three countries 41 Karaseva, 2015 Estonia and Relationships between Teachers’ Explore the impact that teacher’s 26 interviews with teachers Teachers mainly act as guides or coaches to help Siibak & Latvia Pedagogical Beliefs, Subject Cultures, beliefs and their subject matter across subjects in the two students be able to make sense of the opportunities Pruulmann- and Mediation Practices of Students’ expertise impacts on how they mediate countries and risks online Vengerfeldt Use of Digital Technology student’s online engagement Teachers are guided by their teaching belief and influenced by their subject domain, e.g., there was a big difference in attitudes to online engagement between science and humanities teachers, with science teachers more positive 42 Steijin, 2016 Netherland Why Concern regarding Privacy Differs: Explore the underlining considerations 1,008 SNS users SNS users are less concerned with privacy as they see Schouten & s The Influence of Age and (Non-) of different privacy concerns across 712 non SNS users the benefits outweighing the risks Vedder Participation on Facebook ages and between SNS users and non Ages from 12 to 31 years and The older cohort tend to associated with the users older provision of personal information with privacy – this M=44.5%, F=55.5% is less so in young people 43 Wolf 2016 Belgium Group Privacy Management Strategies Examines how Facebook groups 12 focus groups (n=78), ages Managing a group privacy setting can be challenging and Challenges in Facebook: A Focus negotiate privacy settings 13 to 28 years mainly due to the need to explicitly state privacy M=39, F=39

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS Group Study Among Flemish Youth rules (such as when to un invite someone from the Organizations group). Can be ongoing tension between what individuals want and the group decision 44 Glüer & 2016 Germany Participation in Social Network Sites: Explored potential differences in online 1,890 participants, ages 10 Having an SNS account not linked to friendship Johaus Associations with the Quality of Offline and offline friendships and SNS to 18 years (72.1% with an quality and Online Friendships in German accounts SNS account) Participants without an SNS account less likely to Preadolescents and Adolescents M=50.9%, F=49.1% discuss personal problems with their offline friends Those with SNS account perceived offline friendship higher then online friendships 45 Oksanen, 2016 Finland, Young People who Access Harm- Examined the exposure of sites that 3,565 respondents ages 15 Young people across the four countries most likely to Näsi, Germany, Advocating Online Content: A Four- promote eating disorders, self injury to 30 years be exposed to such sites. Minkkinen, UK & USA Country Survey and suicide among four countries Females more likely to be exposed to eating disorder Keipi, sites whereas males to self-injury and suicide

439 Kaakinen & German participants less likely to be exposed to such Räsänen content Several factors (not living with parents, online activity use, immigrant background) all predicted greater exposure

46 Zalk 2016 Sweden Social Anxiety Moderates the Links Explore the link between excessive 523 participants, mean age Linkage between excessive chatting and compulsive between Chatting and Compulsive chatting and compulsive Internet use 14 years Internet use and vice versa Internet Use M=254, F=269 Socially anxious adolescents who chat a lot tend not to be compulsive Internet users – the social anxiety may provide protect those by preventing them becoming high Internet users

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 47 Blinka, 2016 Czech Dysfunctional Impulsivity in online Investigates the role of dysfunctional 1,463 Czech and Slovak Impulsivity was significant in determining online Škařupová Republic gaming addiction and engagement impulsivity in online gaming addiction online gamers, ages 12 to 69 gaming addiction, but dysfunctional impulsivity only & and years old added 7% meaning impulsivity in and of itself is not Mitterova Slovakia M=90.8%, F=9.2% the most important factor behind online gaming addiction 48 Charoensuk 2016 Thailand Exploring personal characteristics Explore the impact of four different 300 students, ages 21 to 24 Degree of selfie liking associated with all four mongkol associated with selfie-taking personal characteristics (narcissism, years personal characteristics (more so to narcissism, then attention-seeking, self-centered and M=39.7%, F=60.3% attention-seeking and self-centered behavior loneliness) has on a persons tendency to take selfies 49 Seale & 2017 UK How does Risk Mediate the Ability of To understand the abilities and Literature Review of The two major themes emerged from the literature Chadwick Adolescents and Adults with Intellectual constraints of adolescents and adults research in the field of risk, review are: and Developmental Disabilities to Live a with IDD when using the Internet, and Internet use and people -Normalcy (Appropriate Internet use) Normal Life by Using the Internet? also the risks involved. (adolescents) with IDD -Risk (Perceptions of Internet risk).

440 50 Nikken 2017 Netherland Implications of Low or High Media Use To investigate the relationship between 1 381 parents (with children The study showed that parents’ media consumption s Among Parents for Young Children’s parent’s media use and young age 0-7) at home vary widely (from about 1 to more than 6.5 Media Use children’s familiarization with hours per day). electronic/print media at home Not only the total time parents spent on media at home corresponded with their children’s, there were also significant connections between the parent’s use of individual devices and their children’s ( for example, familiarity of the devices, level of competence etc.) 51 Elias & 2017 Israel YouTube Viewers in Diapers: An To explore the profile of toddler online 289 parents of toddlers age The study showed a high rate of online viewing with Sulkin Exploration of Factors Associated with viewers based on child, parent and 18-36 months almost half of the toddlers (46.7%) watching online amount of toddlers’ Online Viewing family-related characteristics and 48% girls, 52% boys content on a typical day (Average viewing time 46.8 factors relating to further their online minutes), initial viewing begins as early as the first exposure year of life. Parents of online viewers in the study tend to be less restrictive with the amount of viewing and content selection, e.g. underestimating the importance of violet free contents. These parents tend to use online viewing to fulfill a broad range of childrearing needs, except using screen time for enrichment. 52 Kruistum & 2017 Netherland The Tacit Dimension of Parental To explore how and why parent 24 Dutch parents (9 fathers, The study revealed 3 core values that drive parental Steensel s Mediation mediated their young children’s digital 15 mothers) from 15 families mediation: balance, freedom and protection. media use. (with at least 1 child age 6 or The study also showed that the most important 7) emotions relating with these values were anger and disapproval (with balance and protection), love and

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS joy (with orientational values), fear was mentioned occasionally (in relation to protection). 53 Smahelova, 2017 Czech Mediation of Young Children’s Digital To examine the parents’ mediation Parents (age: 35-41) of 10 The study sample showed that parents mostly Juhová, Republic Technology Use: The Parents’ strategies to construct their children’s families (with at least 1 child mediate the digital opportunities and almost no Cermak & perspective digital use, with the consideration of age 7-8) mediation of online risks for their children. Smahel specific risks and opportunities. The study showed that rules for the time and place for their children’s digital technology use was not specific and the basis of the rules were set according to the needs of the parents. Parents’ mediation strategies were influenced by their children’s behavour. 54 Daneels & 2017 Belgium Mediating Social Media Use: To examine how parents engage 14 parents and 13 The parents in the study mostly used the same Vanwynsbe Connecting Parents’ Mediation mediation of their adolescents’ social adolescents from 10 families parental mediation strategies to moderate their rghe Strategies and Social Media Literacy media use, and if they correspond with Adolescents: 9 girls, 4 boys adolescents’ social media use.

441 strategies identified in previous Age: 12-18 A new form of monitoring media use found in the research Parents: 9 mothers, 5 fathers study was parents using mobile applications and To explore how parents’ social media Age: 35-53 social media accounts only for monitoring purpose. literacy relate to the choice of a mediation strategy. 55 Miller, 2017 US Looking Beyond Swiping and Tapping: To review and identify a range of In-depth literature review of To create methodologies that focus on children’s Paciga, Australia Review of Design and Methodologies research designs, methodologies used 60 studies published 2011 - interactions as they occur ( in real time). Danby, for Researching Young Children’s Use of to study young children’s interactions 2015 Research design needs to consider children’s Beaudoin- Digital Technologies with technologies and digital media (with age focus exclusively development of certain skills ( such as fine motor Ryan & on children from 0 to 5) skills) when exploring their use of technologies. Kaldor 56 Calancie, 2017 Canada Exploring How Social Networking Sites To investigate the negative impacts of 8 participants Six major themes which showed a common Ewing, Impact Youth with Anxiety: Qualitative Facebook (contributing to anxiety) on Age: 13-18 connection between Facebook use and social Narducci, Study of Facebook Stressors among adolescent users with a primary anxiety 4 girls, 4 boys stressors in anxious adolescents, emerged from the Horgan & Adolescents with an Anxiety Disorder disorder diagnosis. Focus Group discussion: ---Seeking approval Khalid- Diagnosis -Fearing judgment Khan -Escalating interpersonal issues -Wanting privacy -Negotiating self & social identity -Connecting & disconnecting

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS 57 Kurek, Jose 2017 New Discovering Unique Profiles of To identify the relationships between 933 adolescents Four distinct profiles of technology use preferences & Stuart Zealand Adolescent Information and different groups of adolescents who Age: 17-22 emerged: Communication Technology (ICT) Use: share similar technology use habits, and 36% male, 64% female -Average ICT Users Are ICT Use Preferences Associated their identity and behaviour. -Elevated Users with Identity and Behaviour -High Video Game –Low Social Media Users Development? -High Social Media & Net Users These user profiles exhibit significant associations with various identity and behaviour outcomes. 58 Machackov 2017 Czech Does ‘clicking’ matter? The Role of To investigate how online participatory 768 adolescents Participation on a greater acceptance of non- a & Šerek Republic Online Participation in Adolescents’ activities (compared to traditional Age: 14-17 conventional, authority-challenging activism found in Civic Development offline activities) influence adolescents’ 54% female, 46% male online but not offline. development of civic identity, political Online participation had no effect on political self- self-efficacy and attitudes towards efficacy or civic development while offline systems and authorities participation positively predicted civil identity.

442 59 Mannerströ 2018 Finland Identity Profiles and Digital Engagement To investigate the links between 932 second-year high school The study showed that adolescents coped with m, Among Finnish High School Students identity status and digital engagement students identity issues through using online peer support to Hietajärvi, (e.g. digital skills, gaming, friendship or explore and reflect on future paths and establishing Muotka & interest-driven online activity, and commitments. On the other hand, those who had 69% girls, 31% boys Salmela- excessive ICT use) identity issues were not interested in future Aro planning, and also not interested in any forms of digital engagement.

This study also suggested that friendship-driven online activity was positively related with life satisfaction, indicating that online social networking was not harmful but supportive of well-being

60 Zarouali, 2018 Belgium “Everything under control?”: Privacy To investigate if and how privacy 178 participants The results showed that the participants in the study Poels, Control Salience Influences both Critical control features in the user interface become more critical of the advertisement with the Ponnet & Processing and Perceived could serve as a cue to influence increase in the privacy control features. Age: 14 -16 Walrave Persuasiveness of Targeted Advertising adolescents’ critical processing and They also perceived a targeted ad with a higher among Adolescents responses to targeted advertisement on privacy control as more effective, convincing and Facebook 57% girls, 43% boys reliable.

61 Nikken 2018 Netherland Do (Pre)adolescents mind about To explore relationships between 1741 Dutch youngsters Only 11-30 % of (pre)adolescents used media in a s Healthy Media Use: Relationships with (pre)adolescents’ actions for healthy healthy manner. Parental Mediation, Demographics and media use and their parents’ Age: 10-18 Use of Devices involvement in media use. (Pre) adolescents with parental restriction in media use, and who co-used media together with parents 51.8% boys, 48.2% girls were about 2 times likely to use media in a healthy

Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 2011- 2018 AUTHOR YEAR COUNTRY TITLE AIMS POPULATION SAMPLE KEY FINDINGS manner than those whose parents were not involved.

62 Coulthard 2018 UK The impact of Posting Seflies and To explore the relationship between 59 participants Those who did not post selfies showed a greater & Ogden Gaining Feedback (‘likes’) on the posting selfies with or without improvement in appearance satisfaction than those Psychological Wellbeing of 16-25 year feedback, and psychological well-being who did (regardless of feedback). Age: 16-25 olds: An Experimental Study (e.g. self-esteem, perceived attractiveness, appearance/face Posting selfies (with or without feedback) had no satisfaction, and mood) 23.7% male, 76.5% female impact on self-esteem or mood.

The impact of selfies may vary depending on the variable and the context in which it measured.

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APPENDIX C Media Perceptions of Adolescents and Social Media References

HEADLINE SOURCE DATE COUNTRY 1. Teenagers and http://www.theguardian.com/lifestyle 16/07/2010 Australian technology : “I’d edition rather give up my kidney than my phone” 2. Cyber-baiting sites The Straits Times 15/04/2011 Singapore triggers violence 3. Glued to Internet? The Times of India 31/07/2011 India Scientists warn of New Delhi identity crisis 4. Social networking The Times of India 26/08/2011 India ups drugs abuse New Delhi risk in teens 5. Facebook’s teen Hindustan Times 16/09/2012 India generation lonely, New Delhi suicidal 6. Minors on social The Times of India, Delhi Times 27/07/2013 India networking sites: New Delhi Can parents/Facebook be held accountable? 7. Students learn to The Canberra Times 21/03/2015 Australia fight cyberbullying 8. ‘FOMO’: Heavy http://ww.sbs.com.au/news/ 08/11/2015 Australia social media use leading to depression among teens 9. How social media http://www.news.com.au 26/02/2016 Australia is destroying the lives of teen girls 10. Teens are ditching http://www.techinsider.io/teens 12/04/2016 USA Instagram for Snapchat at a stunning rate 11. If you have over 25 http://www.techinsider.io/teens 26/05/2016 USA photos on Instagram, you’re not longer cool 12. More youth get The New Paper 18/06/2016 Singapore involved in loanshark activities – who are recruited by social media

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APPENDIX D Background Survey

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

-BACKGROUND SURVEY- Please read carefully and answer the following questions to the best of your knowledge. You are not required to disclose any secret/private/confidential information.

Name of Participant: ………………………………………………Age: …………………………MALE or FEMALE Name of School: ………………………………………………………………………………..……. Suburb: ………………………………… Home Postal Code: …………………………

1. What does ‘artistic’ mean to you?

2. What are your earliest memories of ‘being artistic’ or doing something ‘artistic’?

3. Use five words to describe the most ‘artistic’ qualities’ you possess?

4. How often do you normally visit each of the following: Institution: 6+ times/year 4+times/year 2+times/year Almost never art gallery museum theatre library 5a) In which way you can best express yourself or tell others who you are and what you represent? Rank from 1 as most confident and 12 as least confident. ( ) drawing ( ) blog ( ) social networking ( ) choice of fashion ( ) write a letter ( ) e-mail ( ) play a musical instrument ( ) verbal communication ( ) texting ( ) sing or play a song ( ) dance ( ) others/please specific: ……………………………………… b) Explain the option that you have ranked No. 1. c) Do you use any social networking sites? YES OR NO Please explain why? d) Which social networking site do you like most? Please explain why?

6a) Name your three most favourite artists? i) ii) iii) b) Who do you value most? What do you like about this artist?

7. What do you enjoy doing most during your free time? i) ii) iii) iv) 8. How would you rank your IT skills when working with the computers? (1) ok (2) average (3)good (4)very good (5) excellent

9a) How old were you when you first used a computer? (3-5yrs) (6-9yrs) (10yrs) (11-13yrs) (>13yrs) b) What was the purpose for using a computer? (You may circle more than 1 options)  Leisure: watch movies listen to music internet play games  Communication: e-mail social networking (Facebook Myspace etc.) Skype(video-conferencing, phone calls)  Work: school projects/assignments homework others (please specific): …………………………………………………… c) Circle if you have the following at home? PC Laptop I-pad I-pod I-phone Others (please specific): …………………………………………………………………..………………………… 10a) How many times in a week do you use the computer when you are at home? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (more than 5) b) Name Three of your favourite websites/online games? i) ii) iii) 11. What is the most exciting thing about the computer for you? 12. What do you most dislike about computers? 13.. Do computers help you to express yourself better? YES OR NO Please explain how?

14. Do computers help you to understand others better? YES OR NO Please explain how?

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APPENDIX E Interview Questions

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

INTERVIEW (10 – 15 MINUTES PER STUDENT)

 The aim of the interview session is to give you the opportunity to: - express your views and opinions - articulate your understanding - convey your thoughts and ideas

 There are no wrong or right answers or responses.

 Information of a personal/private nature or issues that are culturally sensitive should not be disclosed during the session.

 Your responses will be identified as anonymous in any outcomes or recommendations produced as a result of this research project.

KEY QUESTIONS:

1. What does ‘artistic’ mean? OR What do you mean when you describe someone as ‘artistic?

2. Is being ‘artistic’ the same or different from being ‘creative’?

3.  Tell me what do you think are ‘artistic qualities’?  What are your artistic qualities?  Are ‘artistic qualities’ important to you?  How do these qualities affect your everyday life?

4. When using technology to express yourself, how do you apply your ‘artistic qualities’?

5. When making decisions about everyday life, how do you apply your ‘artistic qualities’ or ‘creativity’? Please give examples.

449

APPENDIX F Artwork Submission Questionnaire

Note: Art Work Submission Questionnaire = Post Participation Questionnaire (Online Exit Survey).

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

-ARTWORK SUBMISSION QUESTIONNAIRE- To be completed by student participant at the end of the blog interactions

Name of Student Participant : ……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………… School : ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... Title of Artwork : ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…...

1a) What are your considerations when deciding how and what to communicate to your international peers?

b) What, if any difficulties did you encounter in the process?

c) Did you need to seek any assistance to resolve these difficulties? (Please circle) YES OR NO (If No, go to Question No.3)

2a) How much assistance did you seek/receive when working on your artwork? Please circle only one: (i) some assistance (ii) needed one-on-one support (iii) worked with two or more different people

b)  Who assisted you in your artwork?

c)  Why did you seek or need assistance?

3. Which part of the process in this project do you enjoy the most?

(a) working with technology (b) stretching my imagination (c) expressing my thoughts & ideas

4. What is most challenging about this project? (a) using technology (b) planning and visualising the concept (c) understanding the project requirements (d) making connections between my life experiences to my artwork (e) Others, (Please specific): ………………………………………..………………………………………………..……………………………………… 5. Describe the artistic qualities that are the most outstanding in your artwork.

6. Which part of your artwork is most important to you? (Explain why?)

7. Did you combine any traditional medium with technology to execute your artwork? (Please circle) Yes / No (Go to Question No.9) 8. What traditional medium would you choose? Tick the boxes below (): Collage Painting Drawing Photography Sculpture Others (Please specific)……………………………………………….………………...... Explain the reason for using traditional medium.

9. What did you find most interesting about the project? (Explain why?)

10. What, if anything, did you learn about yourself in the course of creating this artwork?

451

APPENDIX G Artwork Brief for Student Participants

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

-ART PROJECT BRIEF FOR STUDENT PARTICIPANTS-

Introduction Pen Pals come in all ages, nationalities and cultures. We may seek new pen pals based on their own age group, a specific occupation, hobby, or select someone totally different from them to gain knowledge about the world around them. Some people remain pen pals for only a short time, while others continue to exchange letters and presents for life. There are pen pals who eventually arrange to meet face to face; leading to lifelong friendships.

In the days prior to the internet, people used to write to their pen pals.’ This was the way to communicate with people who lived in another part of the world or from another state within the same country. These letters which were delivered by post took up to 3-4 weeks to arrive at the destination, compared to the immediacy of e-mail correspondence, blogging, twitting or online chatting.

Today, we use new technologies to communicate with people from any corners of the world with the clip of the mouse. This has the advantage of saving money and being more immediate, allowing many messages to be exchanged in a short period of time.

This interdisciplinary project is based on the modern spin of the traditional concept of pen pals, gives you the opportunity to communicate with your peers from another country, share your culture, interest and passion through making art using the computer. Your correspondence in this project may lead to a mutual friendship.

Project Brief

Create an interactive artwork using technology as a medium to express yourself, what you represent and what do you value most.

Artwork requirement:

• The artwork you are creating is for the purpose of viewing on the screen. Therefore, the artwork must be presented in a format that is suitable for publication on the blog (e.g. gif, tif, jpg) • The artwork may be 2D or 3D, animation or digital video (time frame: between ½ -1 minute) • Max. 10-20 Mega bytes • Dimensions of visuals not larger than ¼ A4 size • Image Size: The image resolution should be in the range between 76 dpi and not greater than 300 dpi. The size and resolution will dramatically change the size of the file. For the purpose of the project, the image is for viewing on screen, the image size needs to be at least 76dpi resolution, and between 400x300 and 1200x800.

453 Appendix G

• Movie file: The type of movie clips that you created are like those in the U-tube, short and sharp (between ½ and 1 min). Within this timeframe, you can work on 3-5 second per frame which gives a total of 6 -12 frames. For example, a student may use a Flip video camera to record snapshots of his or her artistic identity through portraying their favourite things, special places, significant people/objects in their lives etc. All movie files are big, but for the purpose of the CLC, you should be able to get away with a maximum of 20Mb for a 30-60 second movie.

What is an Interactive Artwork?

We engage in all types of ‘interactive’ activities every day in our lives. For example, social gatherings with friends, going to church on Sundays, watching television programs, mobile phones, bank machines websites, electronic games, and Microsoft windows are all described as ‘interactive’. Nowadays, interaction is increasingly defined in ways that mostly centred on the relationship between the user choice and the object which is the computer or any other electronic devices.

An artwork is ‘interactive’ when the artist who creates the artwork invites the viewer(s) to do something to the artwork in order to understand the message conveyed through the artwork. The viewer does something which impacts the work’s display. Had the viewer acted differently, the display would go differently. Therefore, when a work of art is ‘interactive’, it is dependent on the actions of its viewers help generate its display in a prescribed ways. For example,

ARTWORK

DISPLAY (on computer screen)

Experience X = Action X + (Viewer A) (Viewer B) + Action Y = Experience Y

Where ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are variables with different viewers.

In the context of your art project, an interactive computer-generated artwork refers to the interaction between the viewer(s) and the artwork that is on the computer screen. ‘Interactive’ may then be referring to the audio-visual qualities which engage with the audience. The challenge is to create a format that is small/compact but fully engaging. This is where IT support comes in if the students have any difficulties.

Rationale

You are required write a rationale of a brief paragraph between 200-300 words about your artwork and explaining how the audience engage with the artwork.

When writing the rationale, you need to consider the following:

• Explain why you have chosen this title?

• Are there any special symbols that you have used to express yourself? If there are,

- Describe these symbols - What do they represent? - Why you have chosen to use them?

454 Appendix G

• How you expect your audience to engage in this artwork?

• What you want your audience to understand from this artwork?

• Why it is important for the audience to understand this concept or idea?

• How do you expect your audience to engage in your artwork?

• What part of the artwork is most important to you? Explain.

Cultural Awareness & Sensitivities

Students must consider the following when planning for their artwork:

• Audience (their peers)

- Living from another part of the world who may have limited knowledge/experience of their lifestyle

• Cultural, political and religious sensitivity

- Ambiguity (offensive symbols or language) - Mutual understanding - Empathy - Always use a polite and respectful tone of voice

• Promoting friendship and goodwill

- Acknowledging and respecting differences and similarities

455

APPENDIX H Journal Entries/Self-Reflections

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

JOURNAL ENTRIES/SELF-REFLECTIONS

When making self-reflections in your journal entries, you need to consider the following:

1. What was the reason for modifying your artwork? 2. What was the problem (if there is any)? 3. Did your partner give you any suggestions? Explain. 4. Did for agree or disagree with your partner? Explain. 5. How does your partner’s view or opinion influence your perception of your own artwork? 6. How did you resolve the problem? 7. After the modification, did your partner understand your artwork better? Explain 8. Discuss some of the similarities and differences that you share between you and your partner. 9. How did these similarities and differences influence the way you perceive and understand each other’s artwork? 10. What did you learn from this interaction session?

457

APPENDIX I Official Consent/Support Documents for the ‘Blog’ Research Project

I1 - Letters to Principal of Participating Schools I2 - Research Project Approval Letter from School I3 - Outline of Research Project I4 - Participation Invitation (ACT, Australia) I5 - Participation Invitation (SIN, Singapore) I6 - Confirmation of Participation in Research Project (For Parents)

459 Appendix I1

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

Letter to Principal of Participating Schools

Date: ………………………

Dear……………………,

Re: An invitation to students to volunteer in the participation of The’ Blog’ Research Project

My name is Manfred H S Lai. I am a PhD student in the Centre for Cross-Cultural Research, Research School of the Humanities and the Arts at the ANU (Australian National University). I have a background in visual arts education and promoting museum & gallery education. I have taught English and Special Education in both primary and high schools in Australia (NSW & ACT) and Singapore for over ten years. Currently, I work independently as a researcher at the ANU.

I am writing to seek your support in my research project which involves the voluntary participation of 10 (5 boys and 5 girls) 16 year old and above students from your school. In this project, the students will have the opportunity to develop their interdisciplinary skills, such as use a range of strategies to think, learn and negotiate knowledge and life experiences in a social networking environment, develop confidence in expressing their thoughts and ideas verbally and in writing, and develop communication skills in questioning and evaluating interesting concepts such as:-What is artistic identity? Do we need to be an artist to be artistic? What do we define the qualities of being artistic? How do we express our artistic identity? Most exciting of all, they get to express your own artistic identity through creating a computer-generated artwork. They will exchange artworks with their peers in a different country (Australia or Singapore) and talk about these artworks when interacting in the blog.

The project involves a series of preparation activities leading to the actual cross-cultural interaction which occurs in a blog: 1) Completing a’ Research Background Survey’ form 2) Create a computer-generated artwork to express artistic identity 3) Write a brief rationale to explain artwork & completing an Artwork Submission Questionnaire 4) Participating in an interview session conducted by researcher (10-15 minutes) 5) Participating in a cross-cultural interaction in a blog environment 6) Enhance by modifying artworks (if necessary) after each interaction with international peers 7) Keep an online self-reflection journal to document the whole process of the artistic experience including the planning/creating of artwork, the cross-cultural interactions, transformation of artwork as a result of the modifications 8) Completing Post Participation Questionnaire form

The following documents are attached for your reference: 1) Research Project Outline 2) Participation Invitation (for students) 3) Consent to Participate in Research Project form 4) Letter of Confirmation of Participation (for Parent/Guardian)

The study will be conducted in the school environment with the support and supervision of teaching staff. It is expected the study will take approximately three hours per week (for three weeks) of class time. There will also be home component. It is not anticipated that the study will interfere will other academic learning.

Following your approval, the researcher in conjunction with nominated teachers will seek the consent of students and advise their parents/guardians.

Confidentially and student welfare are of paramount importance and a number of safe guards will be put in place. These include not using student names in the blog, setting passwords and moderating student interaction to ensure respect and appropriate language is used. There will also be an opportunity for students to amend previous comments if they desire. Students will also receive full instructions on appropriate behaviour using the blog prior to the commencement of the study.

460 Appendix I1

This research project will not only bring kudos to the participating schools in the resources developed for making constructive connections between students’ learning and social networking, the findings in this study will possibly help the teachers to have a deeper understanding of who are the students, what students can learn and how they learn in the CLC (Connected Learning Community). Through the cross-cultural interactions, the schools will also establish international networks and further develop similar cross-cultural curriculums in other subject areas.

The pedagogical component in this research study will increase the understanding of educators of the sociological similarities and differences in Australian and Singaporean senior high school students. The collaboration between the schools from these two countries will allow them to develop in-depth understanding of how the rapid progress in technology has influenced the way students learn and acquire information and knowledge. This will benefit educators, parents and students, as it will provide a potentially different approach to education and lifestyle. The findings in this research study may provide evidence for education/curriculum specialists and policy makers to examine the differences and similarities in the model of education structure in a Western and non-Western (Asian) society and how technology and its environment can facilitate the inter-cultural connections and greater understanding of how students learn, negotiate and form their artistic identity.

Please find attached the ‘Research Project Approval Letter from School’. This letter states your interest and agreement to support the research project to be conducted in your school. The letter also asks you to nominate teachers in your school who will work in conjunction with the researcher. This letter will be lodged with the Office of Research Integrity at the ANU.

I look forward to arranging a meeting with you to further discuss the research project. I sincerely believe that if given the opportunity, my research study will bring valuable contributions to the learning experience of the students and the findings will help the teaching staff to develop a deeper understanding of the relationship between the students and technology.

Yours faithfully, Manfred Lai

461 Appendix I2 Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

Research Project Approval Letter from School

Researcher: Manfred H S Lai, Australian National University

Name of Principal: …………………………………………………………………………………... Name of participating school: ……………………………………………………………………… Address: ……………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………... E-mail: ……………………………………………………….. Tel: …………………………………………

I have read the Research Project Outline. The aim and outcomes of the research, and the research process have been explained to my satisfaction by the researcher.

I give permission for the study to be undertaken in my high school and the researcher has my permission to approach students in conjunction with the teachers nominated.

The following teachers has agreed to assist the researcher in conducting this study:   

Signed: ………………………………….……………. Principal

Date: ……………………………….

462 Appendix I3 Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

-OUTLINE OF RESEARCH PROJECT-

Brief Description of Research Project:

My research project is a cross-cultural study of how senior high school students from Singapore and ACT, Australia negotiate artistic identity in a technological environment.

Research Aims:

1. To sample students’ visual representation of their artistic identity in a technological environment.

2. To use these samples to generate cross-cultural dialogue as a basis for students to enhance and modify their visual representations.

3. To use the data and students’ self-reflections on the process of generating their artistic identities as a basis for:

(a) Cross-cultural comparisons (b) Analysis of the potentials and constraints in students’ use of technology in this context.

What does the research involve?

The research involves a total 60 students from 4 secondary/high schools and 2 colleges from Singapore and the ACT, Australia. The targeted student participants are:

ACT- Australia SIN - Singapore High School: Secondary School: 16 years & above 16 years & above 10 students (5 boys & 5 girls) 10 students (5 boys & 5 girls) Year 9 & 10 students Secondary 3,4 & 5 students College: Junior College: 16 years & above 16 years & above 10 students (5 boys & 5 girls) 10 students (5 boys & 5 girls) Year 11 students JC 1 students

These students will participate in an interdisciplinary project (integration of English, Information Technology and Visual Arts). They will have the opportunity to create their own computer-generated artwork, write about it and publish it on a blog in CLC (Connected Learning Community) network. The aim is provide an artistic framework for these students to engage in a cross-cultural dialogue negotiating their visual representations, and as a result making enhancement or modifications. In the process, students will also learn to self-reflect on their learning and experiences in their journal entries.

In this project, students will learn to write effectively. They will also develop interdisciplinary skills such as use a range of strategies to think and learn in a technological environment, understand and apply the inquiry process, learn to act with integrity and regard for others, and use information and communication technologies effectively. Most of all, students will also have the opportunity to learn to communicate with intercultural understanding, for instance, identify commonalities with their own cultural frame of reference to enable them to enter into another, so that they can explore their personal interests and artistic awareness across culture.

All student participants will have to sign a ‘Consent to participate in research project’ form to acknowledge that they have read ‘The Invitation Agreement’ and understood their involvement and the requirements throughout the process of the project. Following their agreement/consent to participate in the research project, an official letter will be sent to the parent/guardian to inform them about their child’s involvement in the research project. Their support and involvement in this research project will be encouraged, helping to increase their bonding with their child and develop a greater understanding of how they and their child can learn and acquire knowledge about artistic identity in cross-cultural and social networking context. In addition, individual student participants will also be required to complete the ‘Research Background Survey’ at the beginning of the project. At the end of the project, they are also required to complete the ‘Exit Survey (Post Participation Questionnaire)’ form.

463 Appendix I3 Each student participant will be paired with their international peers to work in the blog to generate discussions and responses. Then they will make decisions about how they can further enhance or modify their own artwork to reach out to a wider international audience. They are encouraged to participate actively in the interactions, fully document their learning process in their journals and provide feedback to the administrator if they encounter any problems (e.g. bullying or anti-social behaviour). The blog entries and journal entries will then be printed in hard copy as data for the research.

All student participants will also be involved in an interview session (10 -15 minutes per student). This structured interview session where student participants are given the opportunity to further discuss their artworks with their Visual Arts/English teacher and researcher. The aim is for the researcher to make clarifications and further in-depth inquiry of the data collected from the ‘Research Background Survey’ and ‘Artwork Submission’ (Questionnaire).

When will the research project commence?

The research project is proposed to commence between April 2011 and Aug 2011. The actual online interaction may operate within the timeframe of 3 weeks where students can contribute to the blog within or outside school time. The ‘3- way dialogue’ session will also be conducted within this timeframe.

Stage: Activity: Week: Duration: Venue: 1  Complete Research Background Survey form 1 1 hour Class 2  Preparation and creating the artwork 1-2 10 hours Class/Home  Complete brief rationale for artwork 1 hour 3  Submission of completed artwork 2 1 hour Class  Complete ‘Artwork Submission’ (Questionnaire) 4  Participate in interview session to discuss artistic Ongoing 10-15 min Class identity an artistic experience per student 5  Blog interaction 1 (Pairing up with international peers) 3 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 6  Blog interaction 2 (Re-pairing) 3 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 7  Blog interaction 3 (Opened blog) 5 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 8  Exit Survey (Post Participation Questionnaire) form 6 onwards < 5 min Class/Home

Confidentiality:

It is noted that when operating in the blog, each student participant will only be identified by their user ID (their name will not be revealed). In the situation when the researcher/administrator requires to investigate any misconduct or inappropriate behaviour in the blog, it is possible to refer to the administration list of user ID and the corresponding participants. Otherwise confidentially will be maintained as far as the laws allow, and the student participants remain anonymous in the blog throughout the project.

The following safeguard and measures will be considered to minimize prospects of personal emotional strain by student participants when they are interacting in the blog: 1. All student participants will be advised to observe the following social networking protocols:  Always use respectful and polite language  Show empathy and goodwill  Do not put down or make derogatory comments  Observe cultural, religious and political sensitivity  Do not discuss information of a personal/private nature  Do not threaten or make unreasonable and harassing demands

2. Student participants will be provided with a list of prompting questions to facilitate the interactions.

3. Student participants are also advised to communicate with the researcher/administrator via a ‘help-desk’ e- mail if they encounter any difficult situations during the interactions. They can also speak directly with their teacher.

4. Students have the ability to alter previous comments on the blog by contacting the ‘help-desk’.

464 Appendix I3

How can students benefit from this research?

The student participants’ involvement will bring the exchange of cross-cultural knowledge and understanding in their academic study, which will be an invaluable experience to their education, and also a greater understanding in the appreciation of contemporary artistic expression.

In the process of interacting with their peers from another socio-cultural background, student participants will explore and reflect on themselves, becoming a well-informed global citizen. The student participants will have the opportunity to acquire and apply technological skills and knowledge to create an artistic expression which challenges them to think about their artistic identity: Who are they? What do they value? What do they represent?

The student participants will also learn and practise cyber-etiquettes when operating in an online social-networking space and understand the importance of how the advancement of technology can help them to acquire knowledge of a society with a different culture and understand the dynamics of global communication. Finally, student participants will receive a certificate of participation endorsed by the Australian National University.

How can the school benefit from this research?

From the findings in this research, the school will understand more about the strategies and approaches for how technology and its environment such as the CLC (Connected Learning Community) can be used to enhance students’ learning and communication.

The participating schools will also have the opportunity to discuss, further develop the findings in this piece of research with the staff and work on other similar interdisciplinary projects in the future. In this process, the participating schools from the two different countries will also have the opportunity to exchange knowledge and information about the CLC and social networking.

465 Appendix I4 Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

-PARTICIPATION INVITATION- -RESEARCH PROJECT INFORMATION SHEET FOR STUDENTS (AUSTRALIA)-

Please read this sheet carefully and keep it throughout the period of research.

About the researcher: My name is Manfred H S Lai. I am a PhD student in the Centre for Cross-Cultural Research, Research School of the Humanities and the Arts at the ANU (Australian National University). I have a background in visual arts education and promoting museum & gallery education. I have taught English and Special Education in both primary and high schools in Australia (NSW & ACT) and Singapore for over ten years. Currently, I work independently as a researcher at the ANU.

The ‘Blog’ Research Project

You are invited to participate in The ‘Blog’ Research Project. This project will give you the opportunity to develop friendship and exchange cross-cultural knowledge and experiences with your peers living in Singapore.

In this project, you will also have the opportunity to develop your interdisciplinary skills, such as use a range of strategies to think, learn and negotiate knowledge and life experiences in a social networking environment, develop confidence in expressing your thoughts and ideas verbally and in writing, and develop communication skills in questioning and evaluating interesting concepts such as:-What is artistic identity? Do we need to be an artist to be artistic? What do we define the qualities of being artistic? How do we express our artistic identity?

Most exciting of all, you get to express your own artistic identity through creating a computer-generated artwork. You will exchange artworks with your peers in Singapore and talk about these artworks when interacting in the blog.

What does The ‘Blog’ Research Project involve?

The project involves a series of preparation activities leading to the actual cross-cultural interactions in a blog: Stage: Activity: Week: Duration: Venue: 1  Complete Research Background Survey form 1 1 hour Class 2  Preparation and creating the artwork 1-2 10 hours Class/Home  Complete brief rationale for artwork 1 hour 3  Submission of completed artwork 2 1 hour Class  Complete ‘Artwork Submission’ (Questionnaire) 4  Participate in 3-way dialogue session to discuss artistic Ongoing 10-15 min Class identity an artistic experience per student 5  Blog interaction 1 (Pairing up with international peers) 3 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 6  Blog interaction 2 (Re-pairing) 3 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 7  Blog interaction 3 (Opened blog) 5 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 8  Exit Survey (Post Participation Questionnaire) form 6 onwards < 5 min Class/Home

*Modification of artwork: After each interaction with international peers, student participants may enhance the content or visual qualities of the artwork (if necessary), to increase audience’s engagement and understanding of artist’s intention.

*Journal entry: All student participants will keep an online self-reflection journal to document the whole process of the artistic experience including the planning/research/creating process of the artwork, the cross-cultural interactions, and transformation of artwork as a result of the modifications.

Confidentiality:

466 Appendix I4

How to enrol in The ‘Blog’ Research Project?

1) You need to read and understand the requirements stated in attached Consent to Participate in Research Project form. 2) You need to sign the Consent to Participate in Research Project form and return it to the researcher. 3) A Letter of Confirmation of Participation will be sent to inform your parent/guardian that you have volunteered to participate in the research project.

Participation and Consent:

Participation in this research project is voluntary and dependent on your interest. By participating your consent to your answers being submitted to, and analysed by the researcher in production of a PhD dissertation, parts of which may be published in academic journals, reports or in books. All data collected will be securely stored in locked locations on the ANU premises. Raw data will be destroyed five years after the completion of this project. While information gained during the research project may be published or made public, individual responses will be kept confidential and anonymous, unless you explicitly indicate on the attached consent form, indicating that you are willing to be identified alongside your contribution. Your individual contribution to the research project will be acknowledged (where consent is given).

Participation and Concerns:

If at any stage you have questions or concerns about any part of the research process or outcomes, please feel free to contact the following people:

The Researcher:

Manfred H S Lai

Sir Rowland Wilson Building Research School of Humanities and the Arts The Australian National University Canberra ACT, 0200 E-mail: [email protected]

The Supervisors:

Professor Paul Pickering Professor Diana Davis

Sir Rowland Wilson Building Sir Rowland Wilson Building Research School of Humanities and the Arts Research School of Humanities and the Arts The Australian National University The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 AUSTRALIA Canberra ACT 0200 AUSTRALIA

E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] T: + 61 2 61253451 T: +61 2 6125 2700

If you have concerns regarding the way the research was conducted you can also contact the Human Research Ethics Committee;

Human Ethics Officer Human Research Ethics Committee The Australian National University Canberra ACT, 0200 Phone: (02) 6125 7945 E-mail: [email protected]

467 Appendix I4 Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment -(AUSTRALIA)- -Consent to participate in research project - To be completed by student participant Please read this sheet carefully and keep it throughout the period of research.

Researcher: Manfred H S Lai, the Australian National University

Name of participant…………………………………………………………………………. School…………………….…………………………………………………… Year group…………………….

I………………………………………………………..…………….. (Name of student participant / please print) consent to take part in the project entitled Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment.

I have read the information sheet for this project and understand its contents. The aim and outcomes of the research, and the research process have been explained to my satisfaction by the researcher.

1. I understand that I may withdraw from the research project at any time, without need for a reason, and without penalty. If student participant withdraws, the information he/she provide will not be used by the project.

2. I understand that discussions and issues that are culturally sensitive, or contain information of a personal/confidential nature are not sought by this research and should not be disclosed to the researcher.

3. I consent to my artwork being published and identified as anonymous in this research. (Please circle) Yes / No

4. I consent to my comments being published and identified as anonymous in any outcomes or recommendations produced as a result of this project. (Please circle) Yes / No

5. I consent to having my participation in the research interview (3-way dialogue session) audio taped for the purpose of transcription. Any data that is to be disseminated or published will be identified as anonymous. (Please circle) Yes / No

Signed………………………………………………………………Date:……………………………….. Student participant

______

Researcher to complete

I Manfred H S Lai, certify that I have explained the nature and procedures of the research project to the participant and consider that she/he understands what is involved.

Signed………………………………………………………………Date:………………………………..

Indicate if consent has been given orally and note the details of the audio recording: ………………………………………………………………………………………

468 Appendix I5

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

-PARTICIPATION INVITATION- -RESEARCH PROJECT INFORMATION SHEET FOR STUDENTS IN (SINGAPORE)-

Please read this sheet carefully and keep it throughout the period of research.

The ‘Blog’ Research Project

Most exciting of all, you get to express your own artistic identity through creating a computer-generated artwork. You will exchange artworks with your peers in Australia and talk about these artworks when interacting in the blog.

What does The ‘Blog’ Research Project involve?

The project involves a series of preparation activities leading to the actual cross-cultural interactions in a blog: Stage: Activity: Week: Duration: Venue: 1  Complete Research Background Survey form 1 1 hour Class 2  Preparation and creating the artwork 1-2 10 hours Class/Home  Complete brief rationale for artwork 1 hour 3  Submission of completed artwork 2 1 hour Class  Complete ‘Artwork Submission’ (Questionnaire) 4  Participate in interview session to discuss artistic Ongoing 10-15 min Class identity an artistic experience per student 5  Blog interaction 1 (Pairing up with international peers) 3 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 6  Blog interaction 2 (Re-pairing) 3 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 7  Blog interaction 3 (Opened blog) 5 5 hours Class/Home  Modification of artwork  Journal entry 8  Exit Survey (Post Participation Questionnaire) form 6 onwards < 5 min Class/Home

Confidentiality:

It is noted that when operating in the blog, each student participant will only be identified by their user ID (their name will not be revealed). In the situation when the researcher/administrator requires to investigate any misconduct or inappropriate behaviour in the blog, it is possible to refer to the administration list of user ID and the corresponding 469 Appendix I5 participants. Otherwise confidentially will be maintained as far as the laws allow, and the student participants remain anonymous in the blog throughout the project.

How to enrol in The ‘Blog’ Research Project?

1. You need to read and understand the requirements stated in attached Consent to Participate in Research Project form. 2. You need to sign the Consent to Participate in Research Project form and return it to the researcher. 3. A Letter of Confirmation of Participation will be sent to inform your parent/guardian that you have volunteered to participate in the research project.

Participation and Consent:

Participation and Concerns:

If at any stage you have questions or concerns about any part of the research process or outcomes, please feel free to contact the following people:

The Researcher:

Manfred H S Lai

Sir Rowland Wilson Building Research School of Humanities and the Arts The Australian National University Canberra ACT, 0200 E-mail: [email protected]

The Supervisors:

Professor Paul Pickering Professor Kenneth Paul Tan

Sir Rowland Wilson Building University of Singapore Research School of Humanities and the Arts Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy The Australian National University Academic Affairs, 2nd Storey, Canberra ACT 0200 AUSTRALIA Oei Tiong Ham Building 469C Bukit Timah Road, Singapore 259772

E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] T: + 61 2 61253451 T: +65 6516 7908

If you have concerns regarding the way the research was conducted you can also contact the Human Research Ethics Committee;

Human Ethics Officer Human Research Ethics Committee The Australian National University Canberra ACT, 0200 Phone: (02) 6125 7945 E-mail: [email protected]

470 Appendix I5

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment -(SINGAPORE)- -Consent to participate in research project - To be completed by student participant Please read this sheet carefully and keep it throughout the period of research

Researcher: Manfred H S Lai, the Australian National University

I………………………………………………………..……………..(Name of student participant / please print ) consent to take part in the project entitled Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment.

6. I understand that I may withdraw from the research project at any time, without need for a reason, and without penalty. If student participant withdraws, the information he/she provide will not be used by the project.

7. I understand that discussions and issues that are culturally sensitive, or contain information of a personal/confidential nature are not sought by this research and should not be disclosed to the researcher.

8. I consent to my artwork being published and identified as anonymous in this research. (Please circle) Yes / No

9. I consent to my comments being published and identified as anonymous in any outcomes or recommendations produced as a result of this project. (please circle) Yes / No

10. I consent to having my participation in the research interview (3-way dialogue session) audio taped for the purpose of transcription. Any data that is to be disseminated or published will be identified as anonymous. (Please circle) Yes / No

Signed………………………………………………………………Date:……………………………….. Student participant

______

Researcher to complete

I Manfred H S Lai, certify that I have explained the nature and procedures of the research project to the participant and consider that she/he understands what is involved.

Signed………………………………………………………………Date:………………………………..

Indicate if consent has been given orally and note the details of the audio recording: ………………………………………………………………………………………….

471 Appendix I6

Negotiating Artistic Self in a Technological Mediated Environment

-Confirmation of Participation in Research Project-

Dear………………………..……………………….. (Name of parent/guardian),

Please be informed that your son/daughter…………………………………….……………………………… (Name of student) has volunteered to participate in the above research project.

This project will give student participants the opportunity to exchange cross-cultural knowledge and experiences with their international peers. They will developing their interdisciplinary skills, such as use a range of strategies to think, learn and negotiate knowledge and life experiences in a social networking environment, develop confidence in expressing their thoughts and ideas verbally and in writing, and develop communication skills in questioning and evaluating interesting concepts such as:-What is artistic identity? Do we need to be an artist to be artistic? What do we define the qualities of being artistic? How do we express our artistic identity? Most exciting of all, they will get to express your own artistic identity through creating a computer-generated artwork. You will exchange artworks with their international peers and talk about these artworks when interacting in the blog.

The research project will require the student participants complete a series of preparation activities leading to the actual cross- cultural interaction which occurs in a blog: 1. Completing a Background Survey 2. Create a computer-generated artwork to express artistic identity 3. Write a brief rationale to explain artwork & completing an Artwork Submission Questionnaire 4. Participating in an interview session with your teacher and researcher (10-15 minutes) 5. Participating in a cross-cultural interaction in a blog environment 6. Enhance by modifying artworks (if necessary) after each interaction session with international peers 7. Keep an online self-reflection journal to document the whole process of the artistic experience including the planning/creating of artwork, the cross-cultural interactions, transformation of artwork as a result of the modifications 8. Completing an Exit Survey (Post Participation Questionnaire)

The student participants will be operating in a blog within the CLC (Connected Learning Community) which is a safe social networking environment set up in a secured server in the DET ACT school network, and is designed to be assessed by authorised users using users ID and passwords to log on. The blog interactions will be monitored, recorded and transcribed as data for the purpose of the research. Student participants may choose to conduct their blog interactions outside school time. Please refer to attached Blog Interaction Schedule for the specified day/date/duration in which student participants are required to go online:

Blog Interaction Schedule:

Date/Day: Duration: Blog interaction 1 ……………….. From……………………………….to……………………….. Blog interaction 2 ……………….. From……………………………….to……………………….. Blog interaction 3 ………………….. From……………………………….to………………………..

Important information: Throughout the whole research project, there will be three blog interactions and the specified date/date/duration of the sessions are stated in the above table. Student participants are only required to go online outside school time when the blog interaction is active during these time frames.

Confidentiality:

472 Appendix I6

 Do not threaten or make unreasonable and harassing demands

2. Student participants will be provided with a list of prompting questions to facilitate the interactions.

3. Student participants are also advised to communicate with the researcher/administrator via a ‘help-desk’ e-mail if they encounter any difficult situations during the interactions. They can also speak directly with their teacher.

Please be advised that discussions and issues that are culturally sensitive, or contain information of a personal/confidential nature are not sought by this research and should not be disclosed to the researcher. All the evidence collected for the purpose of this research study will be published and identified as anonymous or in any outcomes or recommendations produced as a result of this project.

If you have any queries or require any further information about this research project, please do not hesitate to contact the school principal or the researcher.

Signed………………………………………………..……. Signed………………………………………………………

……………………………………...……………………... ……………………………………………………………… Principal Researcher

Dare ……………………………………………………… Date ………………………………………………………

473

Appendix J

APPENDIX J Social Networking Protocols for Student Participants (Blog Interactions)

1. You need to observe the following social networking protocols when operating in the blog:

 Always use respectful and polite language  Show empathy and goodwill  Do not put down or make derogatory comments  Observe cultural, religious and political sensitivity  Do not discuss information of a personal/private nature  Do not threaten or make unreasonable and harassing demands

2. Communicate with the researcher/administrator via a ‘help-desk’ e-mail when you encounter any difficult situations during the interactions OR speak directly with your teacher.

In any circumstances when you do not feel comfortable with the interaction, you will

 Inform your partner politely e.g. ‘I need to reconsider your suggestion/point of view.’ ‘I need more time to think about your opinion.’ ‘That is an interesting idea. I’ll get back to you later.’

 Exit from the blog immediately.

 At school, report the incident to the teacher or researcher.

At home, report the incident to an adult (parent/guardian)

 You also need to send a written report of the incident to the ‘help-desk’.

 A follow up restorative/counselling session will be arranged to support you in resolving the difficult situation.

3. You can request to withdraw previous comments on the blog by contacting the ‘help-desk’. If you are still unsure or uncomfortable, there is always the option for withdrawal from the research study.

4. Student participants may refer to the following list of prompting questions to facilitate their interactions:

 Why did you choose this title for your artwork?  What is your source of reference? (For example, artist, artwork, a piece of music, a film, a story, a novel, a play, an old fashioned idiom, TV program, mass media etc.)  What did you do to further develop this idea or concept?  Why is this idea or concept so important or special to you?  What were your feelings or mood when you are making this artwork?  What were you thinking when you are making this artwork?  Why you have chosen these symbols or images?  Why do these symbols and images represent?  What is your artwork trying to tell the audience?  How do you want your audience to interact with your artwork?  How do you communicate the idea or concept to the audience?  Which part of your artwork you most proud of? Explain.  What part of your artwork is ‘artistic’? Explain  How do you use of technology to support you to communicate your idea or message more effectively?

475 Appendix J

 If given a choice, would you choose any other medium or technique to execute this artwork?  If you were the artist, what change(s) would you make on the artwork? Why?

5. What to look for and how to respond when engaging in an artwork?

Personal Visual Emotional Empathetic responses responses responses responses What is the first What can you see in What feelings do the What kind of mood impression of the the artwork? artwork evoke? or feeling do you artwork? think the artist is in when making this artwork? What does it mean What are the How are these What do you think to you? colours? feelings conveyed the artist is through the experiencing? artwork? What does the What kind of Can you identify the What do you think artwork remind you geometric shapes feelings of the artist the artist is trying to of? can you find in the with your own communicate to the artwork? feelings? audience? How do these shapes move? What evidence(s) in What kind of lines What part of the Can you relate your the artwork support can you find on the artwork is most own life experience your point of view? artwork? moving to you? Why with what the artist How do these lines and how does it is going through or move? affect you? had been through? If you were the What materials or How would any What the artist is artist, what would special techniques changes you make, trying to convey in you change to make are used to make the change the way you the artwork, is it a the content of the artwork? feel about the cultural or universal artwork more artwork? idea / concept? engaging without changing the original meaning? If you were the What does the How does texture Do you understand artist, what would surface/texture of affect how you feel why the artist used you do differently to the artwork look about a piece of art? the medium for their make the visual like? artwork? quality more effective?

476 Appendix J

6. Blog Interaction Procedure

The Blog Project in the CLC (Connected Learning Community)

STEP 1 JOURNAL BLOG

 Rationale 1  Reflective Journal 1 Blog Interaction 1 (with designated partner)

Make amendments to enhance artwork STEP 2  Rationale 2  Reflective Journal 2 Blog Interaction 2 (with designated partner)

Make amendments to enhance artwork STEP 3  Rationale 3  Reflective Journal 3 Blog Interaction 3 (with partner of their own choice)

Make amendments to enhance artwork STEP 4  Rationale (final)

 Reflective Journal 1  Reflective Journal 2  Reflective Journal 3 Final Artwork

477

APPENDIX K Research Proposal Approval

K1 - ANU HREC K2 - DET, ACT, CANBERRA (AUSTRALIA) K3 - MOE (SINGAPORE)

479

Appendix K1 K1 - ANU HREC

481

Appendix K2

K2 - DET, ACT, CANBERRA (AUSTRALIA)

483 Appendix K2

484 Appendix K3

K3 - MOE (SINGAPORE)

485 Appendix K3

486 Appendix K3

487

APPENDIX L Records of Contact with School (SIN, Singapore)

Secondary/College Mode of communication Correspondence Secondary School A e-mail 13/4 – Agree to broadcast the project to students phone 18/4 – No student responded ( given deadline 20/4 to respond) 24/4 – No student respond. Agree to re-broadcast but no promises there’ll be interest Not able to participate due to lack of interest from the students Secondary School B e-mail 26/4 – Meeting teacher to discuss details of project face-to-face 27/4 – forward names of student participants Waiting for official letter from principal (principal is at oversea conference) Secondary School C e-mail Spoke on the phone phone waiting for reply Secondary School D e-mail Not able to participate phone Replied on 8/4 Junior College E e-mail Not able to participate phone Replied on 11/4 Junior College F e-mail Not able to participate phone Replied on 8/4 Junior College G e-mail Not able to participate phone Replied on 18/3 Secondary School H e-mail 21/4 – Attended West Zone Art Sharing Session phone 27/4 – Meeting with HOD Aesthetics to discuss details of project face-to-face 29/4 – Meeting with teacher to finalise dates for the running of project and list of student participants Secondary School I e-mail 14/4 – initial contact through e-mail phone 20/4 – called the principal at school (not available to answer the call) Secondary School J e-mail Initial contact through e-mail phone Replied on 13/4 Further correspondence on 20/4 & 21/4 The school is too busy and unable to find time to receive guest. Secondary School K face-to-face 25/4 – Initial contact/introduction to research project via e-mail e-mail Further correspondence on 26/4, 27/4 & 28/4 4/5 – Expressed interest, there are potentially 9 students interested in the project Contact from West Zone Sharing Session Secondary School L face-to-face 25/5 – Spoke on the phone briefly, followed by e-mail phone introducing research project e-mail Waiting for reply Contact from West Zone Sharing Session Secondary School M face-to-face 25/5 – Spoke on the phone briefly , followed by e-mail phone introducing research project e-mail Waiting for reply Contact from West Zone Sharing Session Junior College N e-mail 27/4 – Initial contact to introducing research project via e-mail phone 29/4 – Meeting with HOD to discuss details of research project face-to-face and attend art sharing session with the students 29/4 – Forward list of participants vial e-mail 3/5 – Finalised total number of participants vial e-mail 4/5 – Forward signed researched project approval letter by principal Contact from West Zone Sharing Session Junior College O Phone 27/4 – Spoke on the phone briefly, followed by e-mail e-mail introducing research project Waiting for reply Contact from West Zone Sharing Session

489

APPENDIX M Records of Contact with School (ACT, Australia)

High School/College Mode of communication Correspondence High School P e-mail Contacted principal in March 2011 phone call Correspondence between March –June 2011 6/5 – Meeting with Principal to discuss and finalise research face-to-face project

High School Q e-mail Contacted a teaching staff in March 2011 phone call Correspondence between March –June 2011 5/5 – Meeting with visual arts teacher to discuss details of face-to-face research project College R e-mail Contact a teaching staff in March 2011 phone call Correspondence between March –June 2011 4/5 – Meeting with visual arts teacher to discuss details of face-to-face research project

491

APPENDIX N Data Collection Detailing the Location, Time Frame & Duration

Task Description: Location: Time frame: Duration:  Introduction of research project to students/recruitment Singapore 11 April 2011 –27 2.5 weeks  Background survey May 2011  Art project briefing (social networking protocols)  Observational study:- Student participants working on their artwork  Small group interview session  Interview/feedback from supporting staff

 Administration Singapore 28 May 2011 -29 2 days  Setting up blog in CLC May 2011  Miscellaneous

 Introduction of research project to students/recruitment Canberra 2 May 2011 2. weeks  Background survey – 18 May 2011  Art project briefing (social networking protocols)  Observational study:- Student participants working on their artwork  Small group interview session  Interview/feedback from supporting staff

 Administration Canberra 19 May 2011 – 2 days  Setting up blog in CLC 20 May 2011  Miscellaneous

 Commencement of cross-cultural interactions: Canberra Trial: 5 days Singapore 16 May 2011 – Blog I: Collect data of interactions, reflection & modifications 20 May 2011

Blog II: Collect data of interactions, reflection & modifications Actual: 23 May 2011 – Blog III: Collect data of interactions, reflection & modifications 29May 2011 7 days  Preparation of data Canberra 29 May 2011 – 3 6 days Download data June 2011 Transcription/collation of data

 Data analysis and interpretations from the following sources: New Delhi July 2011 2 months onwards Blog interactions Background survey Artworks/Rationale/Questionnaires Observational study (Artmaking processes) Feedback from professional/staff supporting the project

 Final collation New Delhi September 2011 Ongoing  Reflection/Analysis Canberra – current  Writing & Reporting Singapore

493

APPENDIX O Small Group Interview Schedule & Level of Participation

Country School: Day/Date: Time: Number of Number of students: students participated: School A Monday, 16/5 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm 10 9 ACT Thursday, 19/5 10:00 am – 11:00am (Canberra, School B Tuesday, 17/5 8:30 am – 10:30 am 14 12 Australia) School C Monday, 16/5 4:00 pm – 5:00 pm 22 20 (College) Wednesday, 18/5 8:00 am – 10:30 am Friday, 19/5 8:00 am – 4:00 pm Total: 46 41 School D Tuesday, 24/5 2: 00 pm – 4:00 pm 14 12 SIN School E Wednesday, 25/5 8:00 am – 9:30 Pm 10 10 (Singapore) School F Wednesday, 25.5 2:00 pm – 3:00 pm 6 4 School G Thursday, 26/5 2:00 pm – 6:00 pm 16 16 (College) Total: 46 42 Grand Total 92 83

495

APPENDIX P Small Group Interview Transcription Time Sheet

Number of Hours (minutes : seconds) Folder Time taken to listen (initial Time taken to type Time taken to edit fully impression of the recording) Folder 1 110515_002.MP3 5:21 4hrs 45mins 5hrs 15mins 110515_003.MP3 5:36 110518_001.MP3 17:13 110518_002.MP3 13:06 110518_003.MP3 19:54

Folder 2 Part 1 110516_001.MP3 10:16 8hrs 15 mins 9hrs 110516_002.MP3 18:56 110516_003.MP3 13:34 110516_004.MP3 16:00 110516_005.MP3 17:05 110516_006.MP3 30:32

Folder 2 6hrs 6hrs 15mins Part 2 110517_003.MP3 16:03 110517_004.MP3 17:22 110517_005.MP3 14:36 110517_006.MP3 26:41 5hrs 20mins 5hrs 40mins

Folder 2 Part 3 110518_004.MP3 43:40 110518_005.MP3 7:32 5hrs 15mins 5hrs 45mins

Folder 2 Part 4 110519_001.MP3 24:08 110519_002.MP3 5:51 110519_003.MP3 11:25 110519_004.MP3 28:32

Folder 3 110517_001.MP3 14:24 3hrs 45mins 4hrs 110517_002.MP3 33:45

Folder 4 110524_001.MP3 17:50 4hrs 15mins 4hrs 30mins 110524_002.MP3 35:23

Folder 5 110525_001.MP3 24:08 4hrs 45mins 5hrs 15mins 110525_002.MP3 35:15

Folder 6 110525_003.MP3 57:22 6hrs 4hrs

Folder 7 110526_001.MP3 24:11 12 hrs 30 mins 14 hrs 30 mins 110526_002.MP3 18:23 110526_003.MP3 31:31 110526_004.MP3 22:06 110526_005.MP3 36:28 110526_006.MP3 28:55

497

APPENDIX Q List of Emoticons Used by Student Participants in the Blogs

Emoticon Meaning o.O Shock, puzzlement, misunderstanding; raised eyebrow, express scepticism.

=D I’m happy =) Smiley face XD Suggest laughter or extreme amusement LOL Laugh out loud

OTL To express a situation where you are so upset that you feel like getting on your hands on the floor and knees down to start crying. O shows head down T shows stretching arms down on the floor L shows kneel down OMG Abbreviation for the popular exclamation "Oh my God!" (generally used in conversations to exclaim surprise or disgust) WOW An exclamation of surprise or awesome

NAO It means "now" in a more bashful and impatient way.

 Smiley face  Sad or disappointed face :P Tongue sticking out, cheeky/playful. : ) Smiley face ( : Inverted smiley face :O What? Or really? >.< To imply apprehension or embarrassment, annoyed, undecided, uneasy, hesitant ^^ To represent cuteness, delight and innocence -.- To express crying or sadness  Cynical, rolling of the eyes. Expressed often at the end of sentences or just straight up.  Used at the end of words to make them longer, can also be used as an exclamation point. http://www.urbandictionary.com

499

APPENDIX R Matching Key Findings with Aims of the Study

1a) Adolescents’ preferences and consumption habits in relation to art and technology Preferences in art Preferences in Technology Consumption Habits  Prefer to draw or verbal  Prefer to use technology for  Mostly use technology to communication for self-expression. communication or maintain social look/browse others’ artworks and connection. responses.  Almost never or did not visit the art gallery regularly.  Majority used technology for  Majority do not use technology as communication in their routine life a tool/medium to create their art.  Prefer to browse or research on the (e.g. Facebook), they still regarded internet for ideas and inspirations face-to-face interactions as their  Majority were less responsive to to inform their artmaking. preferable option. paired mediated environment.

 Higher preference for foreign (e.g.  Some perceived both verbal and  Majority were more engaged in USA & UK) and contemporary technology-assisted the open-mediated environment artists compared to local artists communications as options for where they could have the (from their own country or country communication appropriate to freedom of choice in their of their counterparts in the study) different context, purpose and interaction. or artists from the historical era. social situation.  Majority did not response well to a  “Self-exploration” and “Social self-regulated online questionnaire environment” were two most (Post-Participation Questionnaire) dominant themes in students’ or writing blog (Reflective Journal). artwork.

 Perceived “being artistic” as distinctiveness of personal presentation and generating of emotions.

501 Appendix R

1b) To compare preferences and consumption habits across different countries Preferences in art COUNTRY SIN ACT LEVEL  More likely to visit the library.  More likely to visit the art gallery or museum.

 There is a higher preference for visual artists.  There is a higher preference for music artists.

 Preferred using natural or traditional typed of artistic medium  Preferred using basic artistic medium such as drawing, such as Chinese ink painting to express their artistic ideas. sketching to express their artistic ideas SCHOOL HS/SS JC/C LEVEL  Only interested in contemporary artists.  More balanced between contemporary artists and artists from the historical era.

GENDER Male Female  More hands-on and craft oriented.  More expressive and feeling oriented.

Preferences in technology COUNTRY SIN ACT LEVEL  Made more positive responses about engagement and  Made more negative responses about engagement with benefits with technology. technology.

 Embraced the use of technology-assisted communication but  Has more issues with technology-assisted communication and still prefer face-to-face interaction. prefer face-to-face interaction.

SCHOOL HS/SS C/JC LEVEL  More in favour of non-technology-based activities.  Make critical of the features of technology.

GENDER Male Female  More in favour of non-technology-based activities.  More engaged with technology-assisted communication.

Consumption habits COUNTRY SIN ACT LEVEL  More likely to engage in more social websites and online games.

 More likely to engage in solitary leisure activities

 SIN students felt comfortable to extend their social  ACT students preferred to confine their social networking networking interactions to their school/class mates/friends. interactions within family members.

SCHOOL SS/HS C/JC LEVEL  More likely to engage in solitary leisure activities and solitary  More likely to engage in interactive/remotely interactive websites and online games. leisure activities and social websites.

GENDER Male Female  More likely to engage in solitary leisure activities and less  More likely to engage in interactive/remotely interactive social websites and online games. leisure activities and social websites.

502 Appendix R

2) To explore the ways in which adolescents from different countries present themselves to their peers in a technologically mediated social/academic environment Communicative behaviour COUNTRY SIN ACT LEVEL  Both verbal communication (face-to-face) and technology-  Drawing was the most dominant preference for self- assisted communication are equally important for self- expression but face-to-face communication was also a expression in different context, purpose and social situation. preferable.

 Some of them have more issues with face-to-face  Least prefer to use technology-assisted communication tools communication. for self-expression.

 Use social networking (e.g. Facebook) to maintain  Although they may have a social networking profile (e.g. communication with friends, class/school mates outside Facebook), they claimed that they were not an active or school time. frequent user. SCHOOL HS/SS C/JC LEVEL  Verbal communication for self-expression most dominant  Drawing and writing are equally dominant preference. preference. GENDER Male Female

 Verbal communication for self-expression most dominant  Drawing for self-expression most dominant preference. preference. Technological comfort zone COUNTRY SIN ACT LEVEL  Demonstrated perseverance and remained positive in  In most situations, tended to remain silent in the blog. making consistent contributions throughout the blog interaction process.  Hesitant to initiate dialogue or did not make any responses to their partner’s post.  Had overall higher level of active engagement across the bogs (despite the technologically challenged technical issues)  Participation rate was the highest in Blog Three compared to and more proactive in initiating the dialogue in the blog. Blogs One & Two suggesting that they might be more comfortable interacting in unrestricted – opened mediated  Participation rate was higher in Blog One and Blog Two environment. compared to Blog Three, suggesting that they were more responsive in a paired mediated environment with clear instructions and expectations.  Overall high level of “log on” for both groups suggesting their preference for passive engagement (as an observer rather that a contributor in the blog). SCHOOL HS/SS C/JC LEVEL  Less engaged in paired mediated environment.  More consistent in their engagement in both paired and open mediated environments.

GENDER Male Female  Males had more technical issues with technology-assisted  More confident in their computer skills, had less technical communication and less confident with their computer skills. issues but had more fear, complexity and psychological issues.

 Higher engagement in an open mediated environment.  Consistent engagement in both paired and open mediated environments. “Artistic” negotiation COUNTRY SIN ACT LEVEL  More willing to share their own artwork or providing  Prefer not sharing their own artwork or providing responses responses in the mediated environment. in the mediated environment.

 Focused on expression of “self”.  Focused on societal values and expectations.

 Prefer to browse or look at others’ artwork or feedbacks in the internet.

 Prefer to look for ideas and inspirations in the internet to inform their own artmaking.

SCHOOL HS/SS C/JC LEVEL  Less involved in active engagement (e.g. posting a response  Higher level of active engagement (e.g. posting a response or posting an artwork) in the mediated environment. or posting an artwork) in the mediated environment.

GENDER Male Female

 More interested in the exposure to a wide range of artworks.  Focused more on receptiveness and having an open-mind to new ideas and experiences.

503

MATCHING KEY FINDINGS WITH AIMS OF THE STUDY (SUMMARY)

 Gen Zers, despite access to new forms of technology still prefer traditional models of COMMUNICATIVE communications (e.g. verbal communication, BEHAVIOUR face-to-face interaction, hand technologies), there seems to be a contradiction between their desire for technological connections and human PRESENTATION TECHNOLOLOGICAL interactions. OF SELF COMFORT ZONE  “Passive participation” in a mediated environment is the most common form of VISUAL & VERBAL engagement across country level, school level PRESENTATION OF SELF and gender comparisons.

 Overall, ACT participants were more responsive PREFERENCE to the open mediated environment where they IN ART have freedom of choice in their interaction while SIN participants preferred a more structured and VIRTUAL regulated format such as the paired mediated environment. LEARNING  Overall, SIN participants valued verbal COMMUNITY communication (face-to-face) and technology- PREFERENCE IN assisted communication as equally important for self-expression in different context, purpose and TECHNOLOGY social situation While ACT participants preferred drawing and verbal communication for self- expression and less preferred to self-express using technology-assisted communication tools.

 Adolescent females in the study were more CONSUMPTION confident in their computer skills and more likely to participate in blog activities, while their male HABITS counterparts only regarded their level of IT competence as average and below and preferred more solitary online activities such as gaming.