A Snapshot in Time: Adolescents’ Communicative Preferences through Technology Manfred H.S. Lai December 2018 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The Australian National University © Copyright by Manfred H.S. Lai 2018 All Rights Reserved We live in the moment but with [sic] 1 eye toward the future. 2 GEN Z 1 This quote is reproduced accurately but its non-adherence to traditional grammar is noted. 2 http://reports.sparksandhoney.com/campaign/generations-z-2025-the-final-generation ii Declaration I certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of the Australian National University and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree. I give consent to this copy of my thesis when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I acknowledge that copyright of published works contained within this thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of those works. I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search engines, unless permission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a period of time. ………………………………………………. Manfred H.S. Lai December 2018 iii Acknowledgements This research is supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship. I would like to acknowledge the care and guidance I have received, both academic and personal, from those around me. This thesis weaves together research in multiple fields, including new media technology, visual arts education, and youth and adolescence, and draws upon my knowledge, expertise and experience gained from my education and teaching career in Singapore and Australia over the past 20 years. I would like to express my appreciation for the support of my teaching colleagues and student participants from Singapore and Australia and their contribution to the fieldwork in this study, especially Melanie Bezear (Senior ICT Project Officer, Digital Transformation, Information and Knowledge Services, Education ACT Government) for her technical support, and Joshua Garretson and Tennille Duffy for their support in data processing and transcription. I thank Candida Spence (Information Literacy Program, ANU) for thesis formatting consultation. I would like to express my particular appreciation and respect to Professor Diana Davis for her invaluable guidance as a teacher and a mentor. I am enormously grateful to my chair supervisor Professor Paul Pickering, and panel adviser Dr Margaret Kiley, for their patience, continuous support and guidance despite the many obstacles I encountered. It has been a long and at times bumpy road; I really value their support during this journey. I have been very fortunate to have the support of the ANU Centre for European Studies. Their warm hospitality, the fabulous morning teas on every Tuesday and most of all, their guidance and support are very much appreciated. Dr Campbell Aitken of Express Editing Writing and Research provided professional editing services in accordance with the Institute of Professional Editors’ Guidelines for editing research theses. However, any errors in the text are my own. I am most indebted to both my late parents who always emphasised the importance of education and supported my pursuit of knowledge. Although they did not live to see me iv complete this milestone on the path I have chosen in life, I would like to think that they would be proud. Throughout these years, my friends have been central to helping to me maintain a balance between my research and social life. A big heartfelt thank you for never once losing interest in talking about my topic and for being constantly positive and empathetic through the ups and downs of my PhD candidature. Most significantly, I would like to thank my life partner, Chris Waters, for his encouragement, critical but constructive feedback at every stage of my progress in this study and his endless support, which has been above and beyond the call of duty. v Abstract Generation Z (Gen Z) is the new transitional generation in terms of technological exposure and usage. Members of Gen Z may be seated side by side, but it is their mobile digital devices that connect, thumbs tapping incessantly. What are their communicative preferences? How comfortable has this generation been in engaging online? This research seeks to provide benchmarking answers to these questions. This thesis analyses the digital technological engagement of 92 Australian and Singaporean high school and college students (aged 14–17 in 2011). Specifically, it examines communicative preferences, technology consumption habits and technological comfort zones through a survey, interviews and analysis of a series of mediated blogs. Examining the findings through the concept of visuacy and the theories of Goffman (1959) and Erikson (1968), the research suggests that Gen Z experience cognitive and affective dissonance between their acknowledged necessity for digital connectedness and their concurrent need for direct interaction (e.g., face-to-face verbal communication and direct hand/eye technologies such as drawing, painting, and photography). Facebook was the most popular social networking site (SNS) among the research subjects, and their online usage of it aligned with other research at the time. The findings suggest that the students were more likely to be spectators in the mediated online environment than active participants. There were also differences in engaging in mediated versus non-mediated environments (with Australia students preferring the latter and Singaporeans the former). These benchmark findings are compared to subsequent research, reaffirming that the cohort’s need for face-to-face communication remains unchanged. This thesis contributes substantially to the body of knowledge as the timing of the data collection occurred during a pivotal period both in terms of technological exposure (availability, usage and the rise of several key SNS sites) and the burgeoning interest of Gen Z in participating online. Developments in this field occur very rapidly, and this research provides an important benchmark. The research outlines an understanding of the impacts of mediated academic/social technology environments on adolescent development and learning in the early 21st century, providing a reference point for future researchers, educators and information technology professionals seeking to design digital platforms and systems. vi Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The technological cusp ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 SNS – an overview, 1991–2018 ........................................................................................ 3 1.3 Connectedness and media perceptions ......................................................................... 10 1.4 Artistic expression .......................................................................................................... 14 1.5 Virtual learning communities and digital potentialities for learning ............................. 15 1.6 Research question, aims and rationale for the study .................................................... 19 1.7 Organisation of the thesis .............................................................................................. 21 CHAPTER 2 Communicative Frameworks and the Internet ................................................. 23 2.1 Scope of the Chapter ...................................................................................................... 23 2.2 Communicative preference: evolving or revolving? ...................................................... 23 2.3 Visuacy: the importance of the visual in a digital world ................................................ 29 2.4 Erikson: adolescence as a critical stage ......................................................................... 35 2.5 Identity vs. role confusion: scoping opportunities for resolution in the Internet age .. 37 2.6 Identity: presentation of self as performance – Goffman’s stage metaphor ................ 42 2.7 What does research tell us about adolescence in a digital age? ................................... 47 2.7.1 Journals focusing on adolescence and youth ........................................................ 49 2.7.2 Journals in other fields .......................................................................................... 53 2.7.3 Research on blogs as a communication medium .................................................. 58 2.8 Synthesis and Discussion ................................................................................................ 60 CHAPTER 3 Design and Methods .......................................................................................