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Home , Gottlieb von Jagow, Kaiserlich, Landwehr, Leopold Berchtold, Ottokar Czernin, Vasil Radoslavov

Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans during This page intentionally left blank Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans during World War I

Marvin Benjamin Fried Department of International History, School of Economics © Marvin Fried 2014 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 2014 978-1-137-35900-1 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-47143-0 ISBN 978-1-137-35901-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137359018 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India. Dedicated to my family This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of Illustrations ix Preface x Acknowledgements xi List of Principal Characters xii Glossary and Abbreviations xvi Map of the Balkans, 1914 xviii

1 Introduction 1 2 War Aims and Decision-Making in - 6 Decision-Making in Austria-Hungary 6 Austria-Hungary and War-Aims Research 9 3 –December 1914 23 Introduction 23 Western Balkans 24 Eastern Balkans 30 Conclusion 58 4 January 1915–September 1915 59 Introduction 59 Western Balkans 61 Eastern Balkans 71 Conclusion 105 5 October 1915–June 1916 107 Introduction 107 The Effects of Victory in the Balkans 108 Austro–German Disputes in 113 Austro-Hungarian Internal Debates Prior to the GMR 124 The Common Ministerial Council of January 7, 1916 129 Continuing Uncertainty about Montenegro and 136 The Austro–Bulgarian Clash 144 Tisza Fights AOK Annexationism in Serbia 153 Burián Fights AOK Annexationism in Albania 161 Conclusion 167 6 June 1916–May 1917 169 Introduction 169 From Consolidation to Decline: June 1916–January 1917 170 viii Contents

Reevaluation: New Leaders and the Quest for Peace – January 1917–May 1917 193 Conclusion 214 7 May 1917–November 1918 215 Czernin’s Offensive Aims Despite Peace Policy 215 Karl’s Meddling Undermines Czernin’s Secretive Approach 219 AOK and Hungarian Territorial Aims 220 Burián and Final AOK Annexationism 223 Final War Aims and Collapse 228 8 Conclusion 231

Notes 235 Bibliography 272 Index 287 List of Illustrations

Figure

2.1 Drivers and influences on the war-aims setting process 8

Extended Illustration Section (pp. 17–22)

1 Austrian Emperor and Apostolic King of Hungary Franz Joseph I 17 2 Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Count 17 3 Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Baron (later Count) István Burián 18 4 Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Count 18 5 Hungarian Prime Minister Count István Tisza 19 6 Austro-Hungarian Chief of the General Staff Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf 19 7 Austro-Hungarian Chief of the General Staff Arthur Arz von Straussenburg 20 8 German High Command 20 9 German Chief of the General Staff Erich von Falkenhayn 21 10 German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg 21 11 German State Secretary for Foreign Affairs Gottlieb von Jagow 22 12 Bulgarian King (or Tsar) Ferdinand I 22 13 Bulgarian Foreign Minister 22

ix Preface

Despite renewed scholarly interest in war aims during World War I, those of Austria-Hungary have so far been neglected. This book examines the efforts of the Monarchy’s decision-making elite to establish and achieve their war aims in the Balkans. It covers the entirety of the war but focuses particularly on the leadership of Foreign Minister István Burián (1915–16) and the forces that affected his decision-making. The book demonstrates that Austria-Hungary’s most vital political, eco- nomic, and military interests principally lay in the Balkans, where the Monarchy’s war aims were most aggressive and expansionist. Despite fac- ing enormous pressure for radicalization from the annexationist General Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf and interference from the mostly non- annexationist Hungarian Prime Minister István Tisza, the Foreign Ministry retained overarching decision-making authority in the war aims question. This stands in stark contrast to , where military influence became predominant. Burián pursued coherent and consistent war aims designed to expand Austro-Hungarian power, prestige, influence, and territory in the Balkans. By emphasizing Austria-Hungary’s pre-eminence there, its leaders incurred serious German and Bulgarian opposition. Despite facing grave military setbacks and the risk of slipping into vas- salage to Germany, throughout the war the Monarchy’s highest echelons refused to seriously entertain peace options until their Balkan war aims had been met. As this book demonstrates, their preoccupation with expansion in the Balkans persisted right up to the closing stages of the war, and was an important factor prolonging – eventually with fatal consequences for the Monarchy itself – the world conflagration. The book addresses one of the most significant gaps in the literature on Austria-Hungary, and draws on formerly secret Austrian and Hungarian materials in , and on national and military archives in Austria, Hungary, Germany, the UK, and the United States.

x Acknowledgements

The completion of this book would not have been possible without the kind and patient assistance of a number of people, and it is a pleasure to thank them here. First and foremost I wish to offer my heartfelt thanks to my doctoral supervisor at the LSE, Professor David Stevenson, for his encourage- ment, support, and indeed tireless efforts to help me formulate and realize this project. Without his wisdom, guidance, and extraordinary patience, my efforts would not have reached this point. I am also grateful to Drs Antony Best and Alan Sked for their support, insight, and suggestions. I would also like to thank my mentors at Boston University, Professors Erik Goldstein, Cathal Nolan, William Keylor, Michael Corgan, and Vivien Schmidt for encouraging me to pursue this project. Throughout this work, I have relied on the love and support of my family, to which this book is also dedicated. I am profoundly grateful to my mother and father, Stella and Tomy Fried, for helping me reach my goals through their boundless and unconditional love, support, advice, and assistance. I also wish to thank my grandmother, Gyöngyi Fried, for her constant loving support. Of those who have supported me here in London, I am exceptionally indebted to Karen Blunden, whose encouragement, patience, and optimism helped make this work a reality. I would also like to thank all my friends and colleagues at the LSE, particularly Drs Robert Barnes and Jan Lemnitzer, for their gracious help and encouragement. I also would like to thank those institutions that offered me the finan- cial support necessary to complete this book. I am grateful for the gener- ous grants from the LSE Department of International History Research Studentship Scheme, the Department’s Travel Bursary, the LSE Postgraduate Travel Fund, the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), and the University of London Central Research Fund (CRF). I am also grateful to the friendly assistance of the archivists throughout Europe and the United States who have offered me guidance and support during my research, particularly those in Budapest and . Finally, I wish to thank the editors and staff at Palgrave Macmillan for their help in making this book possible.

Marvin B. Fried

xi List of Principal Characters

Name Rank/Position Dates of Service in WWI

Andrian zu Werburg, MdÄ representative 16 Dec 1915–Jan 1917 Leopold Frh. v. in Warsaw Arz von Chief of the 2 Mar 1917–31 Oct 1918 Straussenburg, General Staff, AOK Arthur v. Avarna di Gualtieri, Italian Ambassador 17 Feb 1912–13 Jan 1915 Guiseppe Duke de in Vienna Berchtold, Austro-Hungarian 17 Feb 1912–13 Jan 1915 Leopold Graf Foreign Minister Bethmann Hollweg, German 14 Jul 1909–14 Jul 1917 Theobald v. Reichskanzler Bolfras, Arthur Generaladjutant of 1889–1916 Frh. v. Kaiser Franz Josef, Chief of the Kabinettskanzlei Burián v. Rajecz, 1. Hungarian Minister 1. 1913–15 István Baron a latere (later Graf) 2. Austro-Hungarian 2. 13 Jan 1915–22 Dec 1916 Foreign Minister 3. Common k.u.k. 3. 25 Oct 1916–22 Dec 1916 Finance Minister 4. Austro-Hungarian 4. 16 Apr 1918–24 Oct 1918 Foreign Minister Clam-Martinic, Austrian 20 Dec 1916–23 Jun 1917 Heinrich Graf Prime Minister Conrad von Chief of the 12 Dec 1912–1 Mar 1917 Hötzendorf, General Staff, AOK Franz Freiherr (later Graf) Cramon, German Military throughout General August Liaison Officer to Friedrich Wilhelm v. the AOK Czernin von und zu Austro-Hungarian 24 Jan 1917–Nov 1918 Chudenitz, Otto Graf Minister in

(continued)

xii List of Principal Characters xiii

Name Rank/Position Dates of Service in WWI

Czernin von und 1. Austro-Hungarian 1. 25 May 1913–27 Aug 1916 zu Chudenitz, Minister in Ottokar Graf Bucharest 2. Austro-Hungarian 2. 22 Dec 1916–14 Apr 1918 Foreign Minister ∙ Enver, Ismail Ottoman War Minister 1914–18 (aka Enver Pasha) Falkenhayn, Chief of the 14 Nov 1914–Aug 1916 Erich v. General Staff, OHL Ferdinand I of Czar of 5 Oct 1908–3 Oct 1918 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Forgách v. Ghymes Second Section 28 Aug 1913–4 Jan 1917 u. Gács, Johann Graf Chief at the MdÄ Archduke Friedrich, Supreme Commander 1914–Feb 1917 Duke of Teschen of the Austro-Hungarian Army, AOK Haus, Anton Fleet Commander, 1914–2 Feb 1917† Grand Admiral Hindenburg v. Chief of the 29 Aug 1916–25 Jun 1919 Beneckendorff, General Staff, OHL Paul v. Hintze, Paul v. German State Secretary 9 Aug 1918–3 Oct 1918 for Foreign Affairs Hohenlohe- Austro-Hungarian 4 Aug 1914–Nov 1918 Schillingfürst, Ambassador in Prinz Gottfried v. Hoyos, Chief of the Apr 1912–6 May 1915 Alexander Graf v. Minister’s Secretariat (Kabinett des Ministers) Jagow, German State Secretary Mar 1913–22 Nov 1916 Gottlieb v. for Foreign Affairs Kral, Austro-Hungarian Consul throughout August General in Albania, later Zivillandeskommissar in occupied Albania Krobatin, Austro-Hungarian 9 Dec 1912–10 Apr 1917 Alexander Frh. v. Minister of War

(continued) xiv List of Principal Characters

Name Rank/Position Dates of Service in WWI

Kühlmann, German State Secretary 7 Aug 1917–9 Jun 1918 Richard v. for Foreign Affairs

Ludendorff, Quartermaster Aug 1916–26 Oct 1918 Erich General, OHL Macchio, Austro-Hungarian 11 Aug 1914–23 May 1915 Karl Frh. v. Ambassador in Mensdorff- Former Austro- 1917–18 Pouilly-Dietrichstein, Hungarian Ambassador Albert Graf in London, employed by Czernin to pursue peace feelers Mérey v. Austro-Hungarian 12 Jan 1915–Nov 1918 Kapos-Mérey, Kajetan Foreign Ministry official Michaelis, German Reichskanzler 14 Jul 1917–1 Nov 1917 Georg Mittag, Austro-Hungarian 1914–18 Baron Rudolf Chargé d’affaires in Sofia, later MdÄ Oriental Department Chief (Referent) Otto, 1. Austro-Hungarian 1. 13 Nov 1913–5 Aug 1914 Eduard Representative in Montenegro 2. Zivillandeskommissar 2. 1916–18 and MdÄ Representative at the MGG/Montenegro Pallavicini, Austro-Hungarian 1906–Nov 1918 Johann ( János) Ambassador in Markgraf Constantinople Radoslavov, Vasil Sonnino, Italian Foreign Minister 5 Nov 1914–23 Jun 1919 Sidney Stürgkh, Austrian Prime Minister 3 Nov 1911–21 Oct 1916† Karl Graf Szilássy v. 1. Austro-Hungarian 1. 7 Nov 1913–Oct 1916 Szilas, Minister in Athens Julius 2. Austro-Hungarian 2. Oct 1916–Oct 1917 Foreign Ministry Official

(continued) List of Principal Characters xv

Name Rank/Position Dates of Service in WWI

Talat, Mehmed 1. Ottoman Interior 1. 1914–17 (aka Talat Pasha) Minister 2. Ottoman Grand Vizier 2. 1917–18 Tarnowski, Austro-Hungarian Nov 1913–Apr 1917 Adam Graf Minister in Sofia Thurn-Valsassina, Austro-Hungarian Jan 1915–18 Douglas Graf Foreign Ministry Representative at the AOK Tisza v. Boros-Jenö Hungarian Prime Minister 5 Jun 1913–15 Jun 1917 und Szeged, István Graf Tschirschky u. German Ambassador 1907–15 Nov 1916† Bögendorff, in Vienna Heinrich v. Wedel, German Ambassador Nov 1916–Jul 1919 Botho Graf in Vienna Wekerle, Hungarian 20 Aug 1917–23 Oct 1918 Sándor Prime Minister Wiesner, Austro-Hungarian 3 Aug 1914–Jan 1917 Dr. Friedrich Foreign Ministry Representative at the AOK, later at Mackensen High Command, also Sektionsrat at MdÄ Zimmermann, 1. German Undersecretary 1. 1911–21 Nov 1916 Arthur of State for Foreign Affairs 2. German Secretary of 2. 21 Nov 1916–5 Aug 1917 State for Foreign Affairs Glossary and Abbreviations

AA Auswärtiges Amt (German Foreign Ministry), also referred to as the Wilhelmstrasse AOK Armee Oberkommando (Austro-Hungarian High Command) lit. ‘this’ side of the Leitha River from the perspective of Vienna; reference to Austrian territory, also known as or Austria GMR Gemeinsamer Ministerrat (Austro-Hungarian Common Ministerial Council) HHStA Haus-, Hof-, und Staatsarchiv (Austrian Diplomatic Archives, Vienna) Honvéd lit. Homeland Defense, Transleithanian (Hungarian) national guard units KA Kriegsarchiv (Austrian War Archives, Vienna) KK Korpskommando (District Command) k.k. kaiserlich-königlich (Imperial-Royal), refers to institutions of the Austrian (Cisleithanian) government k.ung. königlich ungarisch (Royal Hungarian), refers to institutions of the Hungarian (Transleithanian) government k.u.k. kaiserlich und königlich (), refers only to the common Austro-Hungarian government, armed forces, or institutions Landwehr lit. Land Defense, Cisleithanian (Austrian) national guard units MdÄ Ministerium des Äußern (Austro-Hungarian Foreign Ministry), also referred to as Ballhausplatz MGG Militärgeneralgouvernement (Military Occupation Administration) NARA National Archives Records Administration, Washington, DC, USA OHL Oberste Heeresleitung (German High Command) PA Politisches Archiv (Political archives section of the HHStA)

xvi Glossary and Abbreviations xvii

REZL Magyarországi Réformátus Egyház Zsinati Levéltár (Hungarian Reformed Church Synodal Archives, Budapest) Transleithania lit. ‘Across the Leitha River’ from the perspective of Vienna; reference to Hungarian territory, also known as or the Crown Lands of St Stephen Map of the Balkans, 1914

Czernowitz (Bukowina) (Bessarabia) D Suczawa anube BUDAPEST Kolozsvár Iasi

()

Brassó

Iron Gate BLACK Schabatz Czernavoda Save SEA (Macva District) Turn-Severin BUCHAREST (Dobrudja) BELGRADE Negotin Constanza Morava Drina

(Sandjak) Novipazar Mitrovica CETINJE Pristina SOFIA Ipek (Kosovo) (Lovcen) Prizren Cattaro Djakova Adrianople Antivari Üsküb Midia (Macedonia) Scutari Dedeagatsch Seres Enos Durazzo Salonika CONSTANTINOPLE Elbassan Dibra Kavalla Monastir Gallipoli

(North Epirus) AEGEAN Argyrocastro SEA Valona

ATHENS

© Marvin Benjamin Fried, 2014. Note that black capital letters are used for bodies of water and capital cities, black letters for cities, grey for rivers, parentheses for regions. The symbol refers to the Majdanpek mines near Negotin. Location names follow contemporary Austro-Hungarian usage throughout the book.

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