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PNTEPNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICALSAFETY Environmental Health Criteria 107 NEIIn1 d L"lder lNeSojnl sponsorstiip of the United Nations Environment Pcoyramme, International Labour Organisation. and the Wortd Health Organimtion Of L Other titles available in the ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRiFERA series include: I. Mercury 37. Aquatic (Marine and 2. Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Freshwater) Biotoxins Terphenyls 38. Heptachior 3. Lead 39. Paraquat and Diquat 4. Oxides of Nitrogen 40. Endosulfan 5. Nitrates, Nitrites, and 41. Quintozene N-Nitroso Compounds 42. Tecnazene 6. Principles and Methods for 43. Chlordecone Evaluating the Toxicity of 44. Mirex Chemicals, Part I 45. Camphechior 7. Photochemical Oxidants 46. Guidelines for the Study of Sulfur Oxides and Suspended Genetic Effects in Human Particulate Matter Populations DOT and its Derivatives 47. Summary Report on the Carbon Disulfide Evaluation of Short-term Tests Mycotoxins for Carcinogens (Collaborative Noise Study on In Vitro Tests) Carbon Monoxide 48. Dimethvl Sulfate 14. Ultraviolet Radiation 49. Acrylamide IS. Tin and Organotin Compounds 50. Trichloroethylene 16. Radiofrequencv and Microwaves 51. Guide to Short-term Tests for 17. Manganese Detecting Mutagenic and 18. Arsenic Carcinogenic Chemicals 19. Hydrogen Sulfide 52, Toluene 20. Selected Petroleum Products 53. Asbestos and Other Natura. 21. Chlorine and Hydrogen Mineral Fibres Chloride 54. Ammonia 22. Ultrasound 55. Ethylene Oxide 23. Lasers and Optical Radiation 56. Propylene Oxide 24. Titanium 57. Principles of Toxicokinetic 25. Selected Radionuclides Studies 26. Styrene 58. Selenium 27. Guidelines on Studies in 59. Principles for Evaluating Environmental Epidemiology Health Risks from Chemicals 28. Acrylonitrile During Infancy and Early 29. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Childhood: The Need for a Acid (2,4-D) Special Approach 30. Principles for Evaluating 60. Principles and Methods for the Health Risks to Progeny Assessment of Neurotoxicity Associated with Exposure to Associated With Exposure to Chemicals during Pregnancy Chemicals 31. Tetrachloroethvlene 61. Chromium 32, Methylene Chloride 62. 1 ,2-Dichloroethane 33. Epichlorohydrin 63. Organophosphorus insecticides Chlordane - A General Introduction Extremely Low Frequency 64, Carbamate Pesticides - (ELF) Fields A General Introduction Fluorine and Fluorides (iS. Butanols - Four Isomers ro,iIiioctt inszdc neck cover This report contains the collective views of an in- ternational group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Interna- tional Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 107 BARIUM Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the international Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization (O' 'vTA1 World Health Organization J4!1 Geneva, 1990 4- The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization. The main objec- tive of the IPCS is to carry Out and disseminate evaluations of the effects of chemicals on human health and the quality of the environ- ment. Supporting activities include the development of epidemiological, experimental laboratory, and risk-assessment methods that could produce internationally comparable results, and the development of manpower in the field of toxicology. Other activities carried Out by the IPCS include the development of know-how for coping with chemical accidents, coordination of laboratory testing and epidemiological studies, and promotion of research on the mechanisms of the biological action of chemicals. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Barium. (Environmental health criteria ; 107) 1. Barium. I. Series ISBN 92 4 157107 1 (NLM Classification: QV 618) ISSN 0250-863X © World Health Organization 1990 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright pro- tection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Univer- sal Copyright Convention. For rights of reproduction or translation of WHO publications, in part or in 1010, application should be made to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. The World Health Organization welcomes such applications. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization con- cerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. Prirted in Fiti1nd 90/5465 Viminala - 000 EHC 107: Banuin CONTENTS 1. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 13 1.1 Summary 13 1.1.1 Identity, natural occurrence, and analytical methods 13 L1.2 Production, uses, and sources of exposure 13 .1.3 Kinetics and biological monitoring 15 1.1.4 Effects on experimental animals 17 1.1.5 Effects on human beings 18 1.1.6 Effects on organisms in the environment 19 1.2 Conclusions and recommendations 19 2. iDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, ANALYTICAL METHODS 20 2.1 Identity 20 2.2 Physical and chemical properties of barium 20 2.3 Physical and chemical properties of barium compounds 24 2.4 Analytical sampling 25 2.4.1 Water 25 2.4.2 Soils and sediments 25 2.4.3 Air 26 2.4.4 Biological materials 26 2.5 Analytical procedures 26 2.5.1 Commonly used analytical methods 27 2.5.1.1 AAS - direct aspiration method 27 2.5.1.2 AAS - furnace technique 27 2.5.1.3 AAS - ICP 28 2.5.2 Analytical methods used for special applications 28 2.5.2.1 Mass spectrometry 28 2.5.2.2 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry 28 2.5.2.3 Neutron activation analysis 29 3. SOURCES IN THE ENVIRONMENT 30 3.1 Natural occurrence 30 3.2 Man-made sources 31 3.2.1 Production levels, processes, and uses 31 3 4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT AND D1STRIBUTION 38 4.1 Transport and distribution between media 38 4.1.1 Air 38 4.1.2 Water 38 4.1.3 Soil 39 4.1.4 Vegetation and wildlife 40 4.1.5 Entry into the food chain 40 4.2 Biotransformation 40 5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE 41 5.1 Environmental levels 41 5.1.1 Air 41 5.1.2 Water 41 5.1.2.1 Surface waters 43 5.1.2.2 Drinking-water 43 5.1.2.3 Ocean waters 43 5.1.3 Soil and sediment 44 5.1.4 Food 44 5.1.5 Feed 45 5.1.6 Other products 45 5.1.7 Nuclear fallout 49 5.2 General population exposure 50 5.2.1 Environmental sources, food, drinking- water, and air 50 5.2.2 Other sources 52 5.2.3 Subpopulations at special risk 53 5.3 Occupational exposure during manufacture, formulation, or use 53 6. KINETICS AND METABOLISM 55 6.1 Absorption 55 6.1.1 Inhalation route 55 6.1.1.1 Laboratory animals 55 6.1.1.2 Humans 56 6.1.2 Oral route 57 6.1.2.1 Laboratory animals 57 6.1.2.2 Humans 58 6.1.3 Parenteral administration 58 6.2 Distribution 58 6.2.1 Levels in tissues of experimental animals 58 6.2.2 Levels in human tissue 60 4 EHC 107: Barium 6.3 Elimination and excretion 62 6.3.1 Laboratory animals 62 6.3.2 Humans 63 6.4 Metabolism 63 6.4.1 Laboratory animals 63 7. EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 65 7.1 Microorganisms 65 7.1.1 Viruses 65 7.1.2 Bacteria 65 7.1.3 Inhibition of growth 66 7.1.4 Specific effects 67 7.2 Aquatic organisms 68 7.2.1 Aquatic plants 68 7.2.2 Aquatic animals 68 7.2.3 Effects of marine drilling muds 70 7.3 Bioconcentration 70 8. EFFECTS ON EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS AND IN VITRO SYSTEMS 73 8.1 Acute exposure 73 8.1.1 Oral route 73 8.1.2 Inhalation route 73 8.1.3 Parenteral administration 73 8.1.4 Topical route 75 8.2 Short-term exposures 75 8.2.1 Inhalation route 75 8.2.2 Oral route 78 8.3 Long-term exposure 79 8.3.1 Inhalation route 79 8.3.2 Oral route 80 8.4 Reproduction, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity 82 8.4.1 Reproduction 82 8.4.2 Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity 82 8.5 Mutagenicity and related end-points 84 8.6 Tumorigenicity and carcinogenicty 84 8.7 Special studies 84 8.7.1 Effects on the heart 84 8.7.2 Vascular effects 85 8.7.3 Electrophysiological effects 86 8.7.4 Effects on synaptic transmission and catecholamine release 87 5 8.7.5 Effects on the immune system 87 8.7.6 Ocular system 88 9. EFFECTS ON MAN 89 9.1 General population exposure 89 9.1.1 Acute toxicity - poisoning incidents 89 9.1.2 Short-term controlled human studies 91 9.1.3 Epidemiological studies 92 9.1.3.1 Cardiovascular disease 92 9.1.3.2 Other effects 93 9.2 Occupational exposure 94 9.2.1 Effects of short- and long-term exposure 94 9.3 Carcinogenicity of barium chromate 95 10. EVALUATION OF HUMAN HEALTH RISKS AND EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT 96 10.1 Evaluation of human health risks 96 10.1.1 Exposure levels 96 10.1.1.1 General population 96 10.1.1.2 Occupational - air exposures 96 10.1.1.3 Acute exposures 96 10.1.2 Toxic effects dose-effect and dose- response relationships 97 10.1.3 Risk evaluation 98 10.2 Evaluation of effects on the environment 98 11.
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  • Characterization of White Pigments E

    Characterization of White Pigments E

    Palamara et al. Herit Sci (2021) 9:100 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-021-00575-4 RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access Towards building a Cathodoluminescence (CL) database for pigments: characterization of white pigments E. Palamara1,2* , P. P. Das3,4, S. Nicolopoulos4, L. Tormo Cifuentes5, E. Kouloumpi6, A. Terlixi6 and N. Zacharias1 Abstract Paintings and painted surfaces are considered to be extremely complex due to their multitude of materials and thus form the basis for particularly intricate Cultural Heritage studies. The combination of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Cathodoluminescence (CL) can serve as a powerful tool for the identifcation of individual pigments. SEM/ CL has the potential of identifying both organic and inorganic pigments and can focus on a micrometer or even nanometer scale. The combination with Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS) allows for robust, cross-checked, ele- mental and mineralogical characterization of pigments. In order to apply SEM/CL in a routine-based way for the iden- tifcation of pigments, it is necessary to have a robust, open-access database of characteristic CL spectra of pigments. A large project has been undertaken to create such a database, focusing primarily at the pigments, both organic and inorganic, which were most commonly used from antiquity until today. In the present paper, the CL characterization of common white pigments is presented. White pigments were selected, due to their signifcance and frequency of use, since they were also present on the ground layers or mixed with other pigments in most of the painting layers. More specifcally, the CL spectra of samples in pure form of calcite, kaolinite, lead white, zinc oxide, barium sulfate, lithopone and titanium white are presented.