Predicting U.S. Adolescents' Purchasing of Denim Jeans Using

Volume 11, Issue 3, 2020

Predicting U.S. Adolescents’ Purchasing of Denim Jeans using Quality Attributes, Behavioral Characteristics, and Sociodemographics

Michelle Clouse, Kelsey Hall, Amber Williams Utah State University

ABSTRACT

Jeans were predominant in American closets until the early 2000s when athleisure grew and passed denim in sales. Currently, athleisure is leading the mindshare of adolescents and has been since spring 2014. Youth have as much discretionary spending as college-students, but youth have fewer to no financial responsibilities. This study sought to establish a predictive model of the factors that contribute to the decision-making process when purchasing denim by 13- to 19- year-old adolescents living in the United States. A conceptual model was developed from the buyer-decision process, quality attributes, behavioral characteristics, and sociodemographics to predict an adolescent’s denim purchase intention. An opt-in panel of 460 adolescents living in the United States took a researcher-developed questionnaire online. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to predict the intention to purchase denim jeans using product attributes, sociodemographics, and purchasing behaviors of denim jeans. The statistically significant predictors of intention to purchase denim were intrinsic attributes-appearance of fabric on body, cognitive attributes, if denim had a tighter fit, and if denim was purchased in the last three months. Predictors that decreased respondents’ intention to purchase denim jeans included if the price for one pair of denim was increasingly more than $40 and gender. The findings suggest the factors adolescents consider important when purchasing denim jeans so that manufacturers could adjust production and marketing as needed. Research efforts should include interpersonal and media influences in the conceptual model to predict denim jean purchases. Qualitative research should have youth evaluate product attributes when denim jeans are present.

Keywords: adolescent, survey, denim jeans, buyer-decision process, purchase intention, marketing, quality attributes

Introduction 2019). Not far behind, athletic wear became Denim jeans have been a staple in the a fashion statement in the early 1980s, but it American closet since Levi Strauss & was in the early 2000s when athleisure made Company came out with the first riveted an impact on the fashion world and in the blue jean in 1873 (“The Invention of the closets of women (Payer, 2018). Blue Jean,” n.d.). Jeans expanded from the The athleisure trend is replacing working class to the general population denim jeans with leggings, jeggings, and during the hippie movement in the 1960s; tights in many closets. Piper Jaffray surveys then in the late 1970s designer jeans became about 6,000 upper income teens, with an a high-end fashion garment (Montanez, average age of 16 years, every six months to

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find out their preferences in fashion, movies, clothing, such as jeans, in Canada (Rahman, food, etc. In 2014, athleisure passed denim 2011, 2012), Shanghai, Bangalore (Jin, Park, as the preference for female teens at 14.4% & Ryu, 2010; Wu, 2005), India (Binwani, of the mindshare compared to denim at 2014), Australia (Jegethesan, Sneddon, & 12.7%. In spring 2015, athleisure took an Soutar, 2012), and South Africa (Herbst & even higher set of the female teen mindshare Burger, 2002; Klerk & Lubbe, 2008). Fewer at 15.6% with denim only at 9.1%. In spring studies have focused on consumer denim 2018, the athletic brands continued to lead preferences within the United States, which the market with Nike (23%) and Adidas is an interesting gap in the research because (6%) being two of the top five clothing jeans were first worn by male miners on the brands and making up 29% of the mindshare west coast of the United States (Binwani, for all teens. 2014; Shin, Fowler, & Lee, 2013). The apparel industry is recognizing Adolescents have had their own the discretionary spending Generation Y subculture since the 1950s when the concept (Millennials) and Z possess. Lindstrom of a “teenager” was accepted. Since this (2004) stated that these generations are the time, teenagers have been recognized as “richest generations in history” (p. 191). having different values and responsibilities Royer, Jordan, and Harrison (2005) found that make them a separate market group to that the discretionary spending of youth is be studied (Brown, 1972). Many of the just as much as college-students, but youth studies on denim jeans have primarily have fewer to no financial responsibilities. examined preferences in consumers who are On top of this financial freedom, 93% of 18 years and older (Feather, Ford, & Herr, parents of Gen Z children said their children 1996; Hull, 1963; Klerk & Lubbe, 2008; influenced their family and household Schutz & Phillips, 1976; Swinker & Hines, spending (as cited in Fromm, 2018). Gen Z 2005). Thus, the present state of knowledge is on track to directly spend up to $143 about consumer preferences is limited to billion a year. In spring 2017, Piper Jaffray those purchasing the clothing; however, reported teens were spending 19% of their additional research is necessary to income on clothing. Since that time, Piper investigate the preferences of 13- to 19-year- Jaffray reported overall teen spending was old adolescents (Shin et al., 2013). up 2%, and since fall 2017 it was up 6%. With new technology shifting the The Statistic Brain Research Institute markets, it was important to see what the compiled statistics on teen spending and current consumer preferences are. It was intentions for spending during 2016. Using also important to see what would keep teens the numbers from Statistic Brain and the purchasing “traditional wear,” such as percentage from Piper Jaffray, teen spending denim. This investigation was undertaken to on clothing comes out to be about $39.3 explore the factors adolescents, ages 13-19, billion per year. This age group is powerful use when deciding to purchase denim. and profitable in the market (Zollo, 1999); Female teens are normally the innovators therefore, a better understanding of and early adopters of fashion (Beaudoin, consumer preferences toward denim jeans Lachance, & Robitaille, 2003; Goldsmith, from 13- to 19-year-old adolescents would Heitmeyer, & Freiden, 1991). Fashion give designers, manufacturers, and innovators and early adopters are important marketers the opportunity to create and sell in to the fashion world by getting new denim jeans that are more appealing and designs out by word-of-mouth and relevant to fashion innovators and early electronic word-of-mouth (Bush, Bush, adopters. This change could help take back Clark, & Bush, 2005; Martínez & Polo, their market share and mindshare of 1996; Phau & Lo, 1996; Wolny, 2013). adolescents 13- to 19-years-old. These become important factors for the A few studies have looked at denim industry as they are coming back consumer preferences toward denim from a sales lull due to the rise of athleisure

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wear. Determining what product attribute information search, evaluation of discrepancies exist may help the denim alternatives, purchase decision, and post industry to change their model and further purchase behavior. The scope of this study increase sales. only encompassed the first four steps of the Since athleisure was launched, there is buyeer-decision process. The entire buyer- still a large portion of the mindshare that is decision process is important to marketers, preferring athleisure over denim. This has rather than just the purchase decision, also lowered the overall sales of denim because they can better predict the needs of jeans. A better understanding of consumer consumers and adjust as needed (Kotler & preferences toward denim jeans from 13- to Armstrong, 2016). 19-year-old adolescents will give designers, The buyer-decision process begins manufacturers, and marketers the with consumers recognizing a need. This opportunity to create and sell denim jeans need can be recognized through internal that are more appealing and relevant to stimuli (hunger, thirst, general needs, etc.) or fashion innovators and early adopters to external stimuli (peers, parents, advertising, compete in a changing market. etc. (Kotler & Armstrong, 2016). The decision process can end here; consumers Purpose and research objective may recognize the need but not want to The purpose of this study was to move forward or may not have the means to establish a predictive model of the factors move forward (Engel et al., 1968). After the that contribute to the decision-making need is recognized, consumers start finding process when purchasing denim by 13- to options that are viable. Consumers use 19-year-old adolescents living in the United cognitive attributes to find information to States. The research objective addressed in help them make their purchase decision. this manuscript was to determine what They look to personal sources, such as quality attributes, past experience, and friends and family; commercial sources, sociodemographic characteristics predict such as advertising; public sources, such as intention to purchase denim jeans. mass media and social media; and To fulfill the objectives of the study experiential sources, such as using the the following hypotheses will be explored: product (Engel et al., 1968; Kotler & (1) Quality attributes (e.g. intrinsic Armstrong, 2016). Consumers also look to attributes-appearance of fabric on the body, intrinsic and extrinsic attributes they have intrinsic attributes-physical composition, seen in their past experiences, such as trying extrinsic attributes, cognitive attributes, on the product in the dressing room (Kotler denim jean design feature preferences) have & Armstrong, 2016). The process may stop no effect on U.S. adolescents’ decision- at this point because consumers could not or making process when purchasing denim did not want to find alternatives. jeans. (2) Previous purchase behavior have After the information has been no effect on U.S. adolescents’ decision- collected, consumers will evaluate each of making process when purchasing denim the options. They continue to use personal jeans. (3) Sociodemographics have no effect and media influences, as well as product on U.S. adolescents’ decision-making attributes (intrinsic and extrinsic) that are process when purchasing denim jeans. from previous experiences and new experiences to make this decision. They will Theoretical framework/Literature review decide which attribute is the most important First introduced by Engel, Kollat, and to their situation, what they believe about Blackwell (1968), the buyer-decision the various brands they have explored, and process is the five steps consumers go how satisfied they think they will be with through when deciding on whether or not the product (Kotler & Armstrong, 2016). they should make a purchase. Five steps The decision process could stop at this step exist in this process: need recognition, because consumers are too cautious to move

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forward, or none of the options seem to fit The definition of intrinsic attributes the needs of the buyers (Engel et al., 1968). has been agreed upon by many as the Each of the preceding steps has led to the inherent attributes of a garment that cannot purchase itself, but there is still not a be changed without changing the garment guarantee of purchase. The influence of itself (Abraham, 1992; Bayraktar et al., friends and family may still affect the final 2015; Olson & Jacoby, 1972; Rahman, decision, as well as unexpected situations 2011; Wang & Tang, 2011). Intrinsic that were not in the consumers’ initial attributes include, but are not limited to, analysis (Engel et al., 1968; Kotler & fabric (e.g., weight, construction, fiber Armstrong, 2016). content), style (e.g., boot cut, skinny jean, flare, etc.), color, pattern, texture, fit, Product attributes in clothing coordinating notions (e.g., buttons, zippers, In a seminal publication, Schutz, ribbon, etc.), garment construction (e.g., Cardello, and Winterhalter (2005) separated plaids match, seams well stitched, cut on the construct of clothing comfort into three grain, etc.), and design details (e.g., darts, distinct categories, including intrinsic, pleats, gathers, necklines, length, etc.) extrinsic, and attitudinal/cognitive attributes. (Abraham, 1992; Rahman, 2011; Schutz et Intrinsic and extrinsic product attributes are al., 2005). also commonly used by researchers to assess A discrepancy exists between what consumer views on products (Olson & intrinsic attributes consumers focus on and Jacoby, 1972; Rahman, 2011, 2012). Other what intrinsic attributes manufacturers focus research implied that attitudinal/cognitive on. Consumers generally focus on the attributes play a role in assessing aesthetic part of the garment, such as consumers’ view, even if they have not been additional style details, if the garment is put in these terms before (Norman, 1976; trendy, and the image it portrays. Rahman, 2011, 2012). Manufacturers may shift their focus to those Product attributes are used by attributes as well, instead of the manufacturers and consumers to determine construction, fabric, and notions. This shift if the garment meets industry standards and in focus may cause manufacturers to lower if the garment meets personal standards their quality standards on the construction of (Swinker & Hines, 2005). Abraham (1992) the garment itself (Swinker & Hines, 2005). identified 79 attributes consumers use when The challenge facing the industry to use evaluating clothing and making a purchase, consumer perspectives to measure quality is which are further divided into four themes: that consumer perspectives change over time physical appearance, physical performance, as they become more experienced shoppers expressive, and extrinsic. Rahman (2011) (Abraham, 1992). Intrinsic attributes, in stated that the product attributes can help a relation to extrinsic attributes, are more consumer compare products in the decision- influential when young consumers are making process. Wearers then use each of deciding on what garment to purchase (De these attributes to decide what they value Long, LaBat, Nelson, Koh, & Kim, 2002; out of their clothing; consumers may prefer Rahman, 2011; Rahman, Yan, & Liu, 2009; construction over brand name, country-of- Rahman, Zhu, & Liu, 2008; Swinker & origin over aesthetics, or fit over comfort. If Hines, 2005). the decision-making process turns out Comfort is an intrinsic attribute that is favorable toward the garment, then the not normally independent of other product decision may result in a purchase. Product attributes (Abraham, 1992). Clothing attributes are important to continue to be comfort is a relative construct to people. studied because there is not a consensus on Research has been conducted to understand what attributes are affecting consumer what factors impact the perception of purchases more than others (Swinker & clothing comfort. Comfort also encompasses Hines, 2005). the same aspects when looking at product

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attributes. Schutz et al. (2005) separated the done by TRU Teenage Marketing and construct of clothing comfort into three Lifestyle Study (1997), as cited in Zollo distinct categories including intrinsic, (1999), 62% teens stated they bought the extrinsic, and attitudinal/cognitive factors. A same brand of jeans the last two or three person’s perception of level of comfort in an times they went shopping. TRU (1997) also article of clothing can be determined by, but found that 46% of boys found jean brand is not limited to, the feel of the fabric, the choice to be important and 33% of girls. fit, the construction of the garment, the style Hansen (1969) was one of the first to of the garment, the activity the person is propose that clothing evaluation should participating in, the person’s mood, and include the attitudes and the perceptions of other environmental factors (Kamalha, the consumers. In the modern age, Zeng, Mwasiagi, & Kyatuheire, 2013). Fit is purchasing clothing has become more than closely related to comfort because if the just a physical need (Rahman, 2011). Schutz garment does not conform well to the body et al. (2005) suggested that the attitudinal or (Rahman, 2011), then the wearer may not cognitive factors was the most dynamic purchase the item. The physical factors of category. Cognitive attributes are the comfort and fit were the two most influential interpretations of a product based on components when determining if a knowledge (Hines & Swinker, 2001), consumer was satisfied with the article of emotions (Klerk & Lubbe, 2008), personal clothing (Kaplan & Okur, 2008; Morris & values (Hines & O’Neal, 1995), experiential Prato, 1981). values (Rahman et al., 2010, 2011), social Extrinsic attributes are the parts of the values (Rahman, 2012), psychological product that can be changed without values, symbolic meaning (Rahman, 2012; influencing the physical garment (Wang & Rahman et al., 2010, 2011), and religious Tang, 2011). Extrinsic attributes were found beliefs and values (Harrell, 1986; Pişkin, to not be as influential as intrinsic attributes, 2000). Cognitive attributes included in general (Olsen & Jacoby, 1972) and for elements such as the functionality of the denim jeans (Rahman, 2011; Rahman, Jiang, garment, sensory properties of the garment & Liu, 2010). The extrinsic attributes (Rahman, 2012), and influenced by the relevant to consumers for a product like opinion of the wearer. They indicated that denim jeans were branding, store, reputation these attitudes are formed through the of the manufacturer, and care instructions consumers’ previous experiences with (Bayraktar et al., 2015; Olsen & Jacoby, similar garments or the brand, peer groups, 1972; Rahman, 2011; Schutz et al., 2005; and advertising efforts by the garment Wu, 2005). designer. In summary, cognitive attributes Branding is an effective tool of were the intangible aspects of clothing marketers. In fall 2018, Piper Jaffray evaluation. They are the filter through which reported 45% of teens said brand in the consumer sees intrinsic and extrinsic important when making a purchase. In attributes (Swinker & Hines, 2005). contrast, Zollo (1999) said there was a In the recent past, there has been an decrease in brand loyalty in apparel among increased consumer awareness of adolescents because of the increase of brand sustainability in the fashion industry options. Herbst and Burger (2002) also (Fernando, 2007). Manufacturers and found that adolescents were willing to retailers have put a greater focus educating switch jean brands if the prices become too consumers on eco-friendly choices on due to high. Often brand alone was not a significant the mass consumption of clothing product attribute when purchasing denim (Fernando, 2007; Shen, Zheng, Chow, & jeans; but when it was correlated with price, Chow, 2014). Although adolescents are style, quality, and perception of self, the open to environmentally safe practices, relationships were significantly positive sustainability is not usually a concept they (Rahman, 2011; Wade, 2011). In a survey relate with fashion. “Fast-fashion” is the

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antithesis of sustainability as it is meant to Research has also been done how often be inexpensive and only last as long as the denim is worn and what consumers are latest trend. This is appealing to young willing to pay on denim. Most consumers consumers as it imitates high fashion but in also indicated they wear denim almost every their budget (Joy, Sherry, Venkatesh, Wang, day (Rahman, 2011; Rahman et al., 2010). A & Chan, 2012). denim jean market analysis indicated that Denim preferences. Fit was the most 60% of consumers wear denim jeans an important attribute to consumers when average of four days a week (“Denim Jeans determining if they like a pair of denim Industry Market Analysis,” 2018). The jeans (Morris & Prato, 1981; Rahman, 2011, average price of a pair of denim jeans in the 2012; Shin et al., 2013; Wu, 2005); United States was $46.43 (“Denim Jeans consumers relate the fit to the overall quality Industry Market Analysis,” 2018). Most of the denim jeans and their personal consumers were willing to spend about $45 satisfaction (Rahman, 2011). Specific on an item of clothing (Son, 2007) and attributes of fit are relative to the current anywhere from $6-$18 on a single pair of trends. For example, Rahman (2011) found denim jeans (Fadiga, 2003; Wu, 2005). low-rise form-fitting jeans were preferred, while Young (1979) found high-rise and Sociodemographic characteristics and flare jeans were preferred. Other attributes clothing that were found to be important in denim Some sociodemographic selection were comfort (Morris & Prato, characteristics affected the consumer 1981; Rahman, 2011; Upadhyay & decisions that were made but did not affect Ambavale, 2013), fabric, stitch, style, and the views of clothing standards. Influential color (Rahman, 2011, 2012). sociodemographic characteristics included In a study done by Rahman (2012), age, gender, education, and ethnicity the visual judgements of denim jeans (color, (Mascarenhas & Higby, 1993; Moschis & fabric, and stitch) were associated with Churchill, 1987; Peters, 1989; Shim & Koh, price, quality, social appropriateness, and 1997; Yoh, 2005). Ostermeier and Eicher appearance and body image. The tactile (1966) found that adolescent girls generally judgments of denim jean (hand feel and agreed on clothing and appearance, stretch) were associated with price, quality, regardless of social class. and shape retention—physical and A visual conceptual model illustrating psychological comfort. Rahman (2011) also what was described in the preceding found that denim jeans could be used as a paragraphs is shown in Figure 1. To signifier of image. summarize, from the buyer-decision process, influential quality attributes are used by Previous denim purchase behavior respondents in the information search and The “Denim Jeans Industry Market evaluation of alternatives. Each of these Analysis” (2018) analyzed the denim jeans factors then assist in predicting purchase market and found that 96% of consumers in intentions of denim jeans for adolescents. the U.S. own a pair of jeans. On average, Previous denim purchase behavior and most consumers, in and out of the United sociodemographics also affect denim States, own five to 10 pairs of jeans purchase intention for adolescents. This (Rahman, 2011; Rahman et al., 2010; Son, model informs the research design and the 2007; Wang & Tang, 2011; Wu, 2005). variables.

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Need Recognition Quality Attributes Intrinsic

Denim Jean Design Feature Information Search Extrinsic

Price

Evaluation of Alternatives Cognitive

Previous Denim Jeans Purchase

Intention to Purchase Denim Jeans Sociodemographics

Figure 1. A conceptual model of intent to purchase denim jeans by U.S. adolescents.

Methods company used representative balancing to This study used survey methodology ensure the opt-in panel respondents reflected to answer the research hypotheses. The the age and gender of youth from the U.S. population for this study was adolescents census. This addressed exclusion, selection, ranging in age from 13 to 19 from the and nonparticipation bias, all limitations of United States. The U.S. population for youth nonprobability sampling (Baker et al., between the ages of 10 to 19, as well as the 2013). number of factors used in the regression The face and content validity of this model led the researchers to request 460 study was established by a panel of faculty usable responses. at [university]. A soft launch of the A questionnaire created in Qualtrics questionnaire, similar to a pilot study, consisted of five sections. Sections one ensured the questionnaire worked properly through three measured quality attribute and allowed the researchers to revise the preferences using a 5-point Likert scale instrument before the questionnaire was ranging from 1 = not important to 5 = very administered to the actual survey important. Section four measured participants. To ensure consistency of purchasing behaviors of denim jeans using Likert-type scale items within the multiple choice questions on specific denim questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha (α) was features and past purchasing behaviors of used. The researchers reported a reliability denim jeans. This section also measured score of .81 for intrinsic attributes, .73 for purchase intentions using a 5-point Likert extrinsic attributes, and .91 for purchase scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 intentions. The cognitive attributes construct = strongly agree, and purchase likelihood had the lowest reliability with a Cronbach’s using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 alpha of .69. The results and conclusions = very unlikely to 5 = very likely. Finally, drawn from this construct should be used section five asked multiple choice questions with caution. to gather sociodemographic information An exploratory factor analysis further from participants. determined internal consistency amongst the Non-probability sampling and an opt- 19 quality attribute items in the actual in panel was used to collect the sample for survey. The orthogonal rotation returned a this study. The marketing research and component matrix. The items that were survey company, Centiment, distributed the cross-loaded were placed with the factor that questionnaire online to the participants. The had the higher indicator loading. Price was

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an item that did not load with the four behavior (owns 1-5 pairs of denim jeans, factors and was removed from the extrinsic purchased denim 0-3 months ago, spent less attributes construct. Seventeen items were than $40 on one pair of denim jeans), and kept for the PCA model. These four factors how respondents pay for clothing (credit account for 58.35% of the variance, and card). The second model was also were labeled as intrinsic attributes-physical statistically significant, F = (15, 441) = composition (29.10% of the variance), 14.36, p = .000. The intrinsic attributes- intrinsic attributes-appearance of fabric on appearance of fabric on the body body (12.95% of the variance), extrinsic subconstruct was still a predictor. The attributes (9.94% of variance), and cognitive addition of the variables in this model did attributes (6.36% of the variance). make the cognitive attributes construct significant. The factors of tighter fit (p = Results .001), the purchase of denim jeans less than The majority of respondents were 3 months ago (p = .000), and $40 or less male (n = 228, 49.6%) and roughly one-third spent on a pair of denim jeans (p= .001) of respondents were 18 years old (n = 176, were identified as significant predictors of 38.3%). They mainly identified as Christian purchase intention as well. When compared or Protestant (n = 145, 31.5%), white or to looser fit and no preference, preference Caucasian (n = 235, 51.1%), and not for tighter fit jeans showed a .32 greater working for pay outside the home (n = 287, intention to purchase denim jeans (B = .32). 62.4%). Respondents mostly shopped in Respondents who had purchased denim less store (n = 398, 86.5%) and paid less than than 3 months ago, compared to those that $100 on clothing per month (n = 238, had never purchased denim or more time 51.7%) with a credit/debit card (n = 254, had elapsed since purchasing denim, also 55.2%). had a .36 greater intention to purchase A hierarchical multiple regression was denim jeans (B = .36). Finally, every one- run to determine the factors that predict unit increase for those that spent more than adolescents’ intention to purchase denim $40 on a pair of denim jeans estimated a .17 jeans (see Table 1). The first model used decrease in intention to purchase denim only the quality attributes (intrinsic-physical jeans (B = -.17). The R2 value increased appearance, intrinsic-appearance of fabric from the first model by .12, accounting for on the body, extrinsic, and cognitive). The an additional 12.4% of the variance in model was significant, F (4, 452) = 28.92, p regards to purchase intention. = .000, and the intrinsic attributes- Finally, the third model included all of appearance of fabric on the body the aforementioned factors as well as subconstruct was identified as a significant sociodemographic characteristics (age, male, predictor (p = .000). The R2 value was .20, white or Caucasian, Christian/Protestant, which indicated this construct accounted for work for pay outside the home, and doing 19.7% of the variance in intention to the majority of shopping in store). Model purchase. three statistically significanntly predicted The second model built on the first 34.7% of the variance, R2 = .35, F(21, 435) model by adding respondents’ preferences = 10.99, p = .000, adjusted R2 = .32. Males for specific denim design features (tighter were a significant predictor (p = .013); fit, darker color, thicker material, material males had less intention than females to doesn’t matter, plain pockets, regular rise, purchase denim jeans (B = -.23). skinny leg), previous denim purchase

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Table 1. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Predicting Intention to Purchase Denim Jeans from Quality Attributes, Previous Denim Purchase Behavior, and Sociodemographics

Intention to Purchase Denim Jeans Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Variable B 𝛽 B 𝛽 B 𝛽 Constant 1.62 2.18 1.52 Intrinsic Attributes-Physical .03 .03 .06 .05 .04 .04 Composition Intrinsic Attributes-Appearance of .43*** .38 .25*** .22 .22*** .20 fabric on body Extrinsic Attributes .08 .08 .07 .07 .09 .09 Cognitive Attributes .07 .09 .07* .09 .07* .10 Tighter fit .32*** .16 .27** .14 Darker color -.04 -.02 -.02 -.01 Thicker material .04 .02 .06 .03 Material doesn’t matter .05 .02 .07 .03 Plain pocket design .07 .03 .06 .03 Regular rise -.16 .08 -.09 -.05 Skinny leg -.04 -.02 .03 .01 Owns 1-5 pairs of denim jeans -.14 -.07 -.13 -.06 Purchased denim 0-3 months ago .36*** .18 .36*** .18 Spent less than $40 on one pair of -.17*** -.18 -.16*** -.17 denim jeans Pay for clothing with credit card .12 .06 .11 .05 Age .06 .08

Male -.23* -.12 White or Caucasian .04 .02 Christian/Protestant -.10 -.05 Work for pay outside the home -.05 -.02 In-store shopping -.03 -.01

R2 .20 .33 .35 F 28.92*** 14.36*** 1.00*** ΔR2 .12 .02 ΔF 7.42 2.06 Note. N = 456. *p < .05, **p < .01, *** p < .001

Discussion/Conclusions/Recommendation information search and evaluation of s alternatives in the buyer-decision process. The first model yield results to show The intrinsic attributes subconstruct of first hypothesis was rejected. The quality appearance of fabric on the body was a attributes have do have an effect on U.S. significant predictor of intention to purchase adolescents’ decision-making process when across all three models. The most important purchasing denim jeans. In this study, the attribute in this subconstruct was “comfort significant quality attributes were intrinsic and fit” and was also shown to be a attributes-appearance of fabric on the body, significant predictor of intention to purchase cognitive attributes, and tighter fit. These for respondents. In other denim jeans factors were important contributors to studies, comfort and fit was also rated as a respondents as they went through the significant predictor across age groups,

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genders, and countries (Auty & Elliott, switch brands due to the increase of brand 1998; Binwani, 2014; Herbst & Burger, options (Fromm, 2018; Zollo, 1999). Brand 2002; Jegethesan et al., 2012; Jin et al., image may also not be as important to this 2010; Morris & Prato, 1981, Rahman, 2011; generation has it has been in the past. Rahman, 2012; Rahman et al., 2010; Shin et When the second model was added al., 2013; Upadhyay & Ambavale, 2013; the second hypothesis was rejected. Previous Wu, 2005). As tighter jeans are preferred, in purchase behavior did have an effect on U.S. comparison to looser fit and no preference, adolescents’ decision-making process when there is a greater intention to purchase purchasing denim jeans. Significant past denim jeans (B = .27). This further purchasing behaviors included if confirmed the finding that fit was important respondents had purchased denim in the last to consumers when selecting denim jeans. three months and the price of one pair of While fit is relative to the wearer, tighter fit denim. Respondents that had purchased being preferred could also be seen in leg denim in the last three months showed a preference where all but 8.3% (6.3% positive significant effect on purchase bootcut, 1.1% flared, 0.9% wide leg) of the intention. This may be accounted for denim study’s respondents preferred a straight leg jeans recently being an object of research or a leg with some sort of taper. and purchase. They may have used the Cognitive attributes were also found denim they just bought as a point of to be a significant positive predictor of reference when responding to the intention to purchase denim jeans. Attributes questionnaire. Also, for every unit of that made up this construct included increase on the price denim jeans over $40, personal values, morals, religion, and social there was a decrease in the likelihood awareness. The increased consumer respondents would purchase. This might be awareness of sustainability in the fashion due to the limited funds of the respondents industry could explain the significance of and, according to Piper and Jaffray (2018), this construct (Fernando, 2007). Cognitive teens still spend most of their money on attributes may also be a significant predictor food. of adolescent denim purchasing because Finally, males also showed a Generation Z wants a cause to stand up for significant decrease in intention to purchase more than past generations. The clothing denim jeans over their female counterparts. that they wear can be more than just useful, This might be accounted for in that male but also have a story behind it. Significance teenagers spend less time at the mall than could also been achieved by the variability females (Maurya & Sharma, 2014; Zollo, in interpretation of the respondents. The 1999). Gender discrepancies could also be attributes in this construct are highly significant because of the different ways interpretive and influenced by the males and females consume clothing. experiences adolescents have had with Female teens are normally the innovators denim jeans (i.e. intrinsic and extrinsic and early adopters of fashion (Beaudoin, attributes) and their sociodemographic Lachance, & Robitaille, 2003; Goldsmith, situation. Heitmeyer, & Freiden, 1991), while males Extrinsic attributes were not found to are more influenced by peers in their be a significant predictor in this study. This clothing choice (Maurya & Sharma, 2014). may be accounted for in previous research that found extrinsic attributes are not as Implications influential as intrinsic attributes (Olsen & This study’s findings suggest that Jacoby, 1972; Rahman, 2011; Rahman et al., manufacturers use the latest trend 2010). Brand was included in the extrinsic forecasting reports and studies to know what attribute construct. Brand may have styles are going to be the most relevant in contributed to the insignificance of this the coming fashion season. Rahman (2011) construct because of teen willingness to found high rise was not preferred because it

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was out of style, while Young (1979) Areas for future research discovered high rise was preferred. This Lennon and Fairhurst (1994) showed that consumer denim preference is suggested that there could be discrepancies subject to the current trends. In this study, in evaluating product attributes if the regular rise for males and high rise for garment is present at the time of evaluation females were the preferred rise of denim. or not. This study could be repeated with Continued awareness of trends and fashion physically present denim jeans as the movements, will be important for respondents answer the questions. The study manufactures to capture the younger market. could be modeled after research conducted This is because the younger market are often by Rahman (2012) with a smaller sample the innovators and want to have something size, qualitative methods, and jeans that are new and different than the general public. physically present, but with a younger age Manufacturers should also continue to group. A longitudinal study could also be expand the social awareness and conducted with this research. This would communication with consumers about their create an understanding of denim sustainable practices. They have the preferences as a generation gets older. The opportunity to educate consumers on study could show if there is a move away sustainable fashion choices to decrease the from tighter fitting denim, similar to the fit environmental impact the denim industry of athleisure wear, as a person ages. has on the environment. Since adolescents Additional research could better determine found the cognitive attribute to be important which specific attributes are influencing when purchasing denim, this education intrinsic attributes-appearance of fabric on could have an impact on sales. If body and cognitive attributes to be manufactures were to attach this education significant predictors of adolescent denim to their brand, then brand images may also purchasing. Influential factors of this study become important for their consumers. could also be studied by gender to see if Finally, attaching obvious sustainability there were significant differences. Each of could also entice adolescents’ to remain these are more ambiguous consumer loyal to a brand. Finally, intrinsic cues, concepts that usually require other attributes specifically appearance of the fabric on the to definitively assess their value. Finally, body, continue to be more important to since athleisure wear is what took a portion adolescent consumers than extrinsic cues. of the denim market, repeating this study Manufacturers and retailers should focus with athleisure wear and comparing the their production and marketing on comfort results could be useful. and fit, body perception, aesthetics, stretch, and color of the denim, because that is what References the consumer sees and notices. But still be Abraham, L. K. (1992). Consumers’ aware of the quality their consumer expects conceptualization of apparel attributes out of their garment. This study was looking and apparel quality (Doctoral at mainstream denim. Consumers of high- dissertation). Available from ProQuest end denim may value different attributes Dissertation and Theses database. than those that purchase mainstream denim. (UMI No. 9220965) Manufacturers need to be aware of these Auty, S., & Elliott, R. (1998). Fashion differences that may exist in their involvement, self-monitoring and the consumers. Manufacturers often have high- meaning of brands. Journal of Product and low-end lines. If manufacturers are & Brand Management, 7(2), 109-123. trying to target a mainstream U.S. doi:10.1108/10610429810216874 adolescent, then they probably should not price their denim over $40.

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