THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 1 Few Works

Home , Eros, Iris (mythology), Lebes, Lebes Gamikos, Loutrophoros, Nike (mythology)

THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 1

Few works of ancient Greek art hold the same poignancy for the modern viewer as the Archaic grave kore, Phrasikleia (fig. 1), whose inscription, “I shall be called kore forever, because I won this name from the gods instead of marriage,”1 reminds us that the person immortalized in stone was once a real girl, probably living in eager anticipation of the day she would become a wife, but cheated out of experiencing a full life by her early death. Her story would have aroused even more sympathy in the ancient Greeks, who considered marriage the main object in the life of any woman,2 and the failure to complete it a true cause for grief.3 By dying before marriage, Phrasikleia missed out on what the

Greeks considered the most important transition in the female life: that from girl to woman. Hence, she must always be called Kore or girl, since her role in life must forever remain unfulfilled.

Marriage as the Fulfillment of the Female Role

“There are two days on which a woman is most pleasing—when someone marries her and when he carries out her dead body.”4 So wrote the sixth-century BC poet

Hipponax. Although more than faintly misogynistic in tone, this line nonetheless reflects the ancient Greek thought that wedding day of any woman was, at the same time, the most wonderful and the most crucial day of her life. Becoming a wife was indeed the fulfillment of the female role. In fact, women in ancient Greek literature are often defined by their role as wives: Penelope, for example, emerges as the ideal woman because she remains loyal to her husband for twenty years, patiently awaiting his return

1 Funerary kore inscription, cited in Dillon and Garland 401 2 Just 40 3 Sophocles Antigone 810-816 4 Hipponax 68, cited in Dillon and Garland 398 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 2 and keeping hordes of eager suitors at bay, while Medea, on the other hand, certainly ranks among the worst, thanks to of her failure as a wife and vengeful, unwomanly murder of her own children. This literary prioritization of the female role in marriage is confirmed by archeological evidence as well. Ancient Athenian graves are filled with painted vessels, decorated with wedding scenes and placed there either for the marriage of a dead maiden to Hades, or as a reminder of the most glorious day in the life of a deceased matron. These vessels provide us with images of a wide variety of bridal activities, including preparations, processions, and the arrival of the bride at her new home. This prevalence of the wedding theme on vases, then, combined with references in literature and grave monuments like that of Phrasikleia, is a testament to the vital importance of marriage and the wedding in the lives of women.

My Interest in Nike on Wedding Vessels

Since, in my career at Franklin and Marshall, I had already devoted hours upon hours to the study of women in antiquity, I was naturally drawn to the event that was considered the key moment of the female existence. When I decided to concentrate my independent study on the ancient Athenian wedding, I knew that I would have to narrow my interests to a specific topic. Still, I began by reading The Wedding in Ancient Athens, by John Oakley, a detailed overview of the ritual itself, for background information.

Oakley, who reconstructed the stages of the Athenian wedding by supplementing information from ancient literary sources with details from vase-painting imagery, often mentions the two main vessels associated with weddings: the loutrophoros and the lebes gamikos. As a student of classical archaeology, I knew that I wanted to work primarily THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 3 with some form of Greek art. I also knew that I preferred to analyze vase-painting to sculpture or other forms of art because pottery was a mass-produced commodity, used and owned by ordinary people, and therefore more of an indicator of issues of everyday life. The loutrophoros and lebes gamikos, the two primary vase shapes from the nuptial context, then, became my focus. I set to work searching for images of these shapes.

Oakley, although he mentions them often, provides few pictures of these vessels, the decorative scenes of which do not often depict the wedding procession itself, so I turned to the Beazley Archive, an internet database of Greek pottery that allows the user to search by vase shape. While perusing the Beazley Archive results for loutrophoroi and lebetes gamikoi, I noticed that many of their figural scenes included representations of

Nike, the goddess of victory. I was surprised find that a deity whom I had always associated with athletic feats and battle victory was also linked with weddings. I was excited by opportunity to explore such an apparent contradiction: how could Nike possibly be linked with marriage? Surveying a large body of secondary scholarship on wedding imagery, I realized that no one had addressed this subject in detail. Sabetai notes the presence of Nikai on lebetes gamikoi, but dismisses the figures as little more than generic space fillers.5 Roberts calls them messengers from the netherworld.6 But neither of these two address Nike in her identity as the goddess of victory, and the more examples of Nike in the wedding context I discovered, the more dissatisfied I became with these interpretations. Therefore, in the following study, it is my intent, by concentrating on Nike as the goddess of victory, to determine through which associations she came to be associated with marriage in fifth-century Athenian vase painting.

5 Sabetai, Washing Painter 88 6 Roberts 183 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 4

Methods

I next sought out Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painters, by J. D. Beazley, the largest available listing of vases in the red-figure technique. This three-volume work, which provides information on the period, painter, museum number, provenance, and publication, as well as a description of the figural scene, for a vast body of red-figure vases, became the center of my research. ARV has a useful mythological index, which cites every vase with representations of any given mythological character, including

Nike. Using this index, I then began to format a Microsoft Excel table, listing vessels with depictions of Nike by their page number in ARV, and including information about their museum number, provenance, shape, painter, period, and figural scenes. At first, I collected only loutrophoroi and lebetes gamikoi with pictures of Nike, thinking that I could determine her link to weddings through analysis of these vessels, but I realized that, although they were my primary focus of study, wedding vessels alone would not provide a sufficient view of the associations of Nike. I needed a more complete picture of Nike in red-figure imagery. Thus, since it was my intention to discover a link that associated

Nike with weddings, I began to catalog every appearance of Nike in ARV, so that I could examine all the contexts in which she played a part.7 Microsoft Excel also allowed me to re-sort my list of vases by shape, which proved to be even more useful. Looking over the different shapes with representations of Nike, I found that they fit neatly into three distinct categories: sympotic ware, vessels used by men for the consumption of wine in the symposium; items from the female toilette, such as cosmetic and perfume containers; and wedding-specific vessels, shapes that are primarily seen in wedding contexts. I also

7 Appendix I THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 5

formatted three tables according to these categories.8 Then, assuming that an appearance of Nike with another character implies a victory for her companion, I set out to analyze each scene in light of its context of use to determine for whom Nike most often signified victory, and considering the types of victories she represented, to explain how she may have come to signify victory in the sphere of the wedding.

Structure

In my analysis of the connection between Nike and fifth-century wedding imagery, I will begin by discussing the types of primary evidence that are vital to the reconstruction of the ancient Athenian wedding, stressing the importance of scenes on painted pottery in its study. Then, I will provide an overview of the rituals of the wedding ceremony, to aid in the contextualization of the scenes I will later analyze.

Next, I will discuss the associations between weddings and death in ancient Greek ritual and thought, an important concept in any study of the ancient Athenian wedding. After this information about the wedding ritual itself, I will provide information about the other subject of this study, Nike, drawing information from literary sources and iconography, including a discussion of her popularity in Athens and consequent ubiquity on the

Athenian Acropolis. Then I will summarize the information in my tables drawn from

ARV, describing what kind of characters Nike accompanies on each type of pot and considering each shape in the broader context of the three spheres of use: the symposium, the female toilette, and the wedding. Following that, I will analyze this data to determine for whom Nike signifies victory, considering men and gods, who often

8 Appendices II-IV THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 6 appeared on sympotic ware; women, whose primary appearances are on items from the female toilette; and, since I will argue that there are cases in which women can be victorious, brides, who are the focus of most wedding scenes. I will then argue that Nike signifies that the bride has achieved a victory in her marriage. Finally, to prove that the pattern of representations of Nike on wedding vessels was not the result of merely an aesthetic judgment or a pointless fad, I will suggest several other links between the goddess of victory and marriage, concluding that the main object of these representations of Nike was to allude to the victory of the bride.

Evidence for the Ancient Athenian9 Wedding

Weddings are frequent metaphors in ancient Greek literature. From Homer, who uses a wedding scene to epitomize a city at peace on the shield of Achilles,10 to

Aeschylus, who contrasts the torture of the chained Prometheus with the joy he experienced on his wedding day,11 many authors portray the wedding as brightest point in human life. But these literary references, although they put the wedding in a cultural perspective, do not provide us with a detailed description of the event itself. John

Oakley, author of The Wedding in Ancient Athens, after weighing the evidence from each literary genre, concludes that it is risky to attempt to reconstruct such a wedding ceremony solely from literary sources.12 References to the marriage ceremony itself, he notes, were brief, since the authors, assuming audience familiarity with the subject, felt no need to elaborate in great detail; in fact, not one literary source outlines an entire

9 As the most complete evidence for weddings comes from Athens, I will limit my discussion to that city only, rather than all of Greece. 10 Homer, Iliad 18.491-496 11 Aeschylus Prometheus Bound lls. 552-57 12 Oakley 7 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 7 wedding ceremony. Also, he finds that each genre employed the wedding in service of its own lesson or purpose: for example, comic poets like Menander13 often satirized the wedding feast, ridiculing the excess and expenditure of the ordeal, while tragedians such as Aeschylus14 juxtaposed references to weddings against unfortunate events to highlight the mutability of fortune. Oakley believes that, consequently, none is a completely accurate portrayal,15 an opinion shared by Lissarrague.16

We are not, however, without hope: Oakley suggests it is possible to reconstruct most of the details of the ancient wedding by combining these literary sources with images from vase painting.17 There are many vessels to choose from: searching Attic

Black-Figure Vase-Painters and Attic Red-Figure Vase-Painters, Webster discovered sixty black-figure wedding scenes, mostly on amphorae and hydriai, and one hundred fifty-one such scenes in red-figure, mostly on loutrophoroi and lebetes gamikoi.18

Webster observes that before 480 BC, vases adorned with wedding scenes were usually gifts to the bridegroom, to be used in a symposium at his home, hence the great number of amphorae and hydria with wedding scenes in black-figure. After that date, however, vases with wedding scenes were more often given to the bride for use in her wedding preparation rituals, resulting in the large majority of loutrophoroi and lebetes gamikoi in red-figure wedding scenes. The content of the wedding scenes changes too: in black- figure, the wedding procession itself is the favorite image, while in red-figure, the

13 Menander, Samia 14 Aeschylus Prometheus Bound lls. 552-57 15 Oakley 5 16 Lissarrague 415 17 Oakley 7 18 Webster 105 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 8

preparations of the bride adorn the majority of the vessels.19 Since it is my object to examine the ancient Athenian wedding from the point of view of women, then, I will limit my study to red-figure vases. First, however, I will provide an overview of the wedding festivities, in order to better contextualize the scenes I will analyze.

The Rituals of the Ancient Athenian Wedding

Oakley defines a wedding as “a celebration of a sexual union that was sanctioned by the community,” and a marriage as “a continuation of that union.”20 He points out that marriage was part of the process of establishing the family units that produced both legitimate heirs and citizens,21 a subject of great concern in fifth-century Athens. Thus, marriage, especially between citizens, was necessary to maintain the social structure and hierarchy of the Greek polis.

The wedding, however, was more than just another step in the process of life.

Feted in a manner rivaled only by funerals, the wedding ceremony marked the greatest transition in the lives of two people, and, as Oakley says, “the point of [the bridal couple’s] life’s fulfillment.”22 In addition, the sheer number of rituals known to surround the event attests to the religious significance of the wedding. Truly, their wedding was a high point in both the personal and spiritual lives of the couple.

Athenian weddings could take place at any time during the year, but the preferred month was Gamelion, named for the festival celebrating the wedding of Zeus and Hera, the divine paradigms for marriage. Oakley asserts that most Athenians purposefully

19 Webster 106 20 Oakley 9 21 Oakley 9 22 Oakley 11 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 9 scheduled their weddings during this month, in imitation of the deities. The date for the special day might be further determined by the phases of the moon: the Greeks thought that the full moon was the most auspicious phase for conception, and thus, as producing children was its primary goal, for marriage.23

The typical groom was probably within five years, in either direction, of thirty years old, at which age he should also have achieved sufficient financial independence to support a household. His bride would have been much younger, being considered ready for marriage as soon as she was able to bear children, at around fourteen.24 The groom and the father of the bride took care of arranging the marriage, with little or no input from the bride. During the process of betrothal, these two men formed a contract, in which the father promised his daughter to the groom for the purpose of bearing legitimate children.25

Vase-painting imagery indicates that they sealed the deal with a handshake.26 This contract, called the engye, was the only legal document to vouch for the marriage, indicating the intention of both the father and the groom that the union be legitimate.27

The bride, reared supposedly in seclusion from men and instilled with the greatest hope of someday being married, probably posed little opposition, either in spite or because of the fact that she had never met the groom.

After the betrothal came the wedding, most often a three-day celebration in honor of the new couple. Oakley points to lexigraphic evidence timeline of the festivities: the first day, or proaulia, for preparations; the second day, or gamos, for the great feast, the

23 Oakley 10 24 Oakley 10 25 Menander Perikeiromene lls. 1013-14 26 Oakley 9 27 Oakley 10 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 10 wedding procession, and the installation of the bride in her new home; and the third day, or epaulia for further celebrations after the wedding night.

During the proaulia, the couple paid special attention to religious matters, offering numerous sacrifices, so that the gods would not envy their glory at the peak of their lives.28 Various wedding goddesses especially, received sacrifices. Aphrodite, goddess of erotic love, was given incense along with her sacrifice, in order that she might give her blessing to the couple.29 The bride also sacrificed to Artemis, so that the protector of virgins would not be angry with the bride for leaving her sphere.30 Either the bride or the groom may have sacrificed to any number of other deities, especially to Hera, the “divine exemplar of the bride,”31 who was also highly worthy of wedding day recognition.

The bride alone dedicated certain belongings to the wedding goddesses, in hopes of a propitious future life. Childhood clothes and toys went to these goddesses, showing that the bride was leaving her girlhood behind. Specifically, the hair coverings32 of the bride, soon to be replaced by the bridal veil, and belt,33 a symbol of her virgin status, served both as religious dedications and symbols of the transition the bride was about to make. The groom, having already experienced the transition into adulthood, would have made such dedications of his childhood possessions earlier in life.34

Both the bride and the groom, however, took special ritual baths to mark their separation from their previous existence. The bath of the bride seems to have been more

28 Oakley 11 29 Oakley 11 30 Oakley 12 31 Oakley 12 32 Oakley 15 33 Oakley 15. Sabetai discusses the significance of the girdle in detail in “Aspects” 328. 34 Oakley 15 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 11 significant, as it is a far more frequent subject in vase painting. The public part of this step was the procession leading the bride to fetch her bath water, which was carried by a child in a loutrophoros, a tall, narrow-necked water vessel.35

After bathing, the bride, assisted, as vase painting shows, by a number of female attendants, donned the most extravagant costume of her life. This included a gown, possibly in purple, the color of Aphrodite; copious amounts of jewelry; a crown, called the stephane, and made either of metal or of woven plants; wedding shoes, or nymphides; and a bridal veil.36 Such careful adornment follows the mythical paradigm of Pandora described by Hesiod.37 Scenes of adornment are common in vase-painting and will play a large role later in my study. The costume of the bridegroom, although less elaborate, was also significant: he wore a finely woven himation and a crown woven with love- enhancing plants.38

On the day of the gamos, or wedding, there was a great feast, during which the friends and family of the bridal couple dined on the meat from the prenuptial sacrifices.

This took place at the home of either the bride or the groom, and was probably a collaborative effort on the part of both families. Men and women dined separately.39

Besides consuming the sacrificed meat, both the couple and their guests dined on sesame cakes, a traditional food that symbolized their hoped-for fertility. Wedding music livened the atmosphere, with the guests singing songs in praise of the bride and groom.40 After the feast and in the presence of the convened guests, her father officially gave the bride to

35 Oakley 15 36 Oakley 16 37 Hesiod Works and Days lls. 72-76. “The goddess grey-eyed Athena girt and clothed her;/ The divine Graces and august Persuasion/ Put necklaces of gold around her skin; and the / lovely-haired Hours crowned her with spring flowers;/ and Pallas Athena equipped her with all kind of adornment.” 38 Oakley 16 39 Oakley 22 40 Oakley 23 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 12 the groom, allowing them to see each other for the first time. The anakalypteria, or unveiling of the bride to her groom, may have occurred here as well. At the unveiling, the couple also received gifts.41

Next came the wedding procession, in which the bride was escorted from the feast location to the home of the groom. Oakley calls it the central act of the wedding.42 The bride and groom rode in a cart, followed by guests, singing, dancing, and throwing flowers. The mother of the bride was conspicuous as the bearer of the bridal torches.

Once they had processed to the home of the groom, his mother, also holding torches, lead the bride inside.43 Then, standing in front of the hearth, the bridal pair was showered with the katachysmata, a mixture of dates, coins, dried fruits, figs, and nuts, all symbols of the prosperity of their home.44 Finally, the bride and groom retired to the bridal chamber, finely furnished and decorated even more extravagantly than the rest of the house.45 Their friends remained outside to pound on the door and sing bawdy songs.46

The next day, the couple celebrated with more feasting, songs, and dancing. Then the guests presented them with their gifts, the epaulia, which included many beauty implements for the bride. Thus concluded the wedding: the bride had completed her transition from girl to woman, as well as her transfer from membership of one house to membership of another.

41 Oakley 25 42 Oakley 26 43 Oakley 26 44 Oakley 34 45 Oakley 35 46 Oakley 37 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 13

Marriage and Death

Transition was an important theme in the wedding, so much so that marriage was

often linked with the other great transition in life: death. As noted above, the inscription on the funerary kore of Phrasikleia implied that in death the girl would become the bride of Hades, and Hipponax listed the wedding and the funeral as the highest points in the life of any woman. Hoffman argues that the parallel structures of wedding and the funeral, each of which included a rite of separation signifying death in one state of existence, a phase of “social timelessness,” and a “rebirth” into the next state. 47

Following the same train of thought, Seaford points out some even more striking similarities: “in both wedding and funeral the girl is washed, anointed, and given special peploi and a stephanos in order to be conveyed on an irreversible, torchlit journey (on a cart) accompanied by song, and to be abandoned by her kin to an unknown male.”48

There are a number of literary references attesting to this link, including the doomed

Antigone lamenting that the ruler of the underworld, Hades, will be her groom,49 and

Cassandra, in similar peril, also referring to a marriage to Hades.50 Real-life ancients also made this connection: dead maidens were buried in their wedding attire,51 and the inscription for Phrasikleia, re-naming her “Kore,” refers not only to her permanent girlhood, but also to her “marriage” to Hades.

Since the concepts of weddings and funerals were so entangled, then, it is not surprising that wedding vessels often became grave goods.52 The unmarried deceased,

47 Barringer 662. See Hoffman. 48 Seaford 107 49 Sophocles Antigone lls. 810-816 50 Euripides Trojan Women l.445 51 Seaford 107 52 Oakley 6 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 14 although she would never be able to use the loutrophoros in life, would need it for her marriage to Hades. For this reason, we have many extant wedding vessels, specifically loutrophoroi and lebetes gamikoi, preserved in graves in Athens and elsewhere in the

Mediterranean world. The loutrophoros was a narrow, elongated amphora or hydria with long, thin handles (fig. 2). Oakley thinks the shape was used in an important wedding ritual, the pre-nuptial bath of the bride,53 although Sabetai, citing many examples of the shape with overly narrow necks or of monumental size, allows that its function may have been merely symbolic.54 Two scenes from my database show the bride holding a loutrophoros as she is preparing for her wedding,55 and Oakley provides an image depicting the shape being carried in procession, painted on another loutrophoros (fig. 3), reinforcing its role in the wedding.

The lebes gamikos, a bowl with lid, sometimes on a stand, was the other prominent wedding vessel. The use of this vessel is not clear: while some suggest that it held either heated water for the bridal bath or food for couple in the bridal chamber, others interpret it as being more symbolic as an item in ritual than actually of functional value.56 Sabetai notes that a lebes gamikos appears in a wedding preparation scene on at least one wedding vessel,57 and Oakley provides an image of a lebes gamikos being carried in procession, on a pyxis (fig. 4).58 The last woman to leave the house, presumably a friend of the bride, carries the vase, preceded by a woman balancing a chest on her head, a man holding a torch, and the bridal couple in their chariot. Although, as

53 Oakley 6 54 Sabetai “Aspects” 320 55 ARV2 1266, 1 (a 1); 1266, 2 (a 2) 56 Sabetai Washing Painter 15 57 ARV2 514, 2 (4) 58 Oakley 95 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 15 grave goods, most of our lebetes gamikoi and loutrophoroi were likely never actually used in a wedding context, their imagery is generally restricted to wedding or pre- wedding events, and thus, we have no reason to believe that they were significantly different from those actually used in weddings.

Although we do have a general understanding of the wedding, many questions about the details remain, and perhaps these two vessels in particular may be instrumental in answering some of them. As I stated above, I am primarily interested in the symbolism of Nike in the wedding context, and will devote much of my inquest to the study of the loutrophoros and lebes gamikos, upon both of which she appears much more often than expected.

Nike: Goddess and Personification of Victory

Nike, the personification or goddess of victory,59 was the daughter of Pallas, a

Titan, and Styx. Hesiod records that, because she helped the gods in their battle against the Titans, she was allowed to live in the home of Zeus on Olympos, where it was her duty to do whatever the god commanded.60 Her parentage is questionable, however, as the Homeric Hymn to Ares counters that she is the daughter of Ares. 61 According to

Bacchylides, she stood next to Zeus, judging the contests of both mortals and immortals.62

She helped in both military63 and athletic64 victories. Simonides describes her as a

59 Shapiro, although he names Nike as a personification in Personifications in Greek Art, excludes her from his study, claiming that the cult of Athena Nike “virtually eliminated any notion of Nike as an independent personality” (28). 60 Hesiod Theogony l. 383 61 Homeric Hymn to Ares l. 4 62 Bacchylides Greek Lyric IV frag. 11 63 Simonides Greek Lyric III frag. 15 64 Bacchylides Greek Lyric IV frag. 3 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 16

charioteer, only allowing one man, the victor, to ride in her chariot.65 Thus, her primary association in literary texts is with victory, in particular, athletic victory. No ancient written source links Nike with women.

In Greek iconography, Nike is distinguished by her wings and most often accompanies human victors or gods. One problem, however, in image analyses is her close resemblance to another goddess, the winged Iris, messenger to the gods. Since

Nike also served the gods by delivering messages of victory to them, we cannot automatically identify any winged messenger to the gods as Iris; in fact, Beazley confidently calls most of these figures Nike in ARV2. When he is apprehensive about naming the figure Nike, he allows for the possibility that she may be Iris; however, there is no clear iconographic distinction between figures named Nike and those on which he wavers. Thus, it is difficult to reconstruct the method by which he distinguished between the two winged goddesses.

Popularity of Nike in Athens

After the Persian wars, the Athenians began to pay special attention to Nike, which is demonstrated well in their reconstruction of the Acropolis. Nike had always been present there: a bastion of Athena Nike had originally protected the Bronze Age citadel,66 and in the Archaic period, it became a sanctuary to the goddess, complete with altar and cult statue.67 After the Persians destroyed this Acropolis in 480 BC, it remained in ruins for some time, some say due to the Oath of Plataia.68 However, in the aftermath

65 Simonides Greek Lyric III 66 Hurwit 76 67 Hurwit 105 68 Hurwit 141 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 17 of two Athenian-led victories over the mighty Persian army, the city of Athens could no longer contain its zeal for construction. Victory, and by association, Nike, became a central idea throughout the Acropolis, and the Athenians issued a decree for the construction of a new temple to Athena Nike, providing for a new priestess, specific to the goddess in her aspect of victory.69 The date of the decree is uncertain, but if the construction began in the 440s,70 as it may well have, the Nike temple would have coincided with the beginning of construction on the Parthenon, and may have been a part of the famed Periclean building program that restored its original glory and more to the

Acropolis. The final phase of the temple (fig. 5), built around 425 BC,71 featured an Ionic temple with freezes and pediments depicting the victories of the Greeks and their gods.72

The parapet, added slightly later, was adorned with hosts of Nikai erecting trophies and bringing animals to sacrifice,73 which, as Hurwit proposes, tied together the theme of victory on the Classical acropolis. The Nikai on the parapet wore thin, clingy garments, and were represented in an almost erotic light. For example, one relief from the parapet shows a Nike tying her sandal (fig. 6), a relief that, Hurwit notes, mimics an image of

Aphrodite on the frieze of the Nike temple.74 Thus, on the temple to Athena Nike, Nike was established as a thing of beauty to her Athenian viewers.

Her appearances on the Acropolis were not limited to one temple; in fact, Hurwit argues that Nike was the most conspicuous theme running throughout the Acropolis building program. She made four appearances on the Parthenon frieze or pediment, as

69 Hurwit 160 70 For more on the controversy surrounding this date, see Hurwit 160. 71 Hurwit 209 72 Hurwit 211 73 Hurwit 213 74 Hurwit 214 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 18

well as on the four corners of its roof.75 Inside, another Nike stood in the palm of the cult statue of Athena Parthenos (fig. 7). The temple also held at least eight “golden Nikai,” six-foot tall images of the goddess, covered in two talents of gold.76 Finally, she appeared in dedications on the Acropolis, such as a bronze Nike commemorating the victory at

Sphacteria in 425 BC.77 With so many appearances, Hurwit, concludes, Nike was “as familiar a sight on the Acropolis” as Athena herself.78 From this it follows that, at least at the time of the Classical Acropolis, the Athenians saw Nike as one of the most important aspects both of their patron goddess, Athena and of their own identity.

Nike in Red-Figure Vase-Painting

Nike also became a favorite subject on fifth-century vase-painting. I will next examine the appearance of Nike on each vessel shape, paying careful attention to both the function of the shape itself and the characters accompanying her in the figural scenes, in hopes of discovering what kinds of victories she represented, and for whom. In my search to discover all the associations of Nike, I turned to Attic Red-Figure Vase-

Painters, by J.D. Beazley, using the mythological index to catalogue each of her occurrences by painter79 and vase shape.80

75 Hurwit 230 76 Hurwit 155 77 Hurwit 230 78 Hurwit 230 79 See Appendix I 80 See Appendix II-IV THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 19

Nike on Sympotic Ware

Sympotic vases account for forty-six percent of Nike appearances in ARV2 and can be seen as belonging to the world of men: used at all-male drinking parties, they would not have been meant for the eyes of the women of the house. Consequently, when Nike appears on a vessel from the symposium, we can read her presence in a male context. So,

I will examine representations of Nike on these vessels in order to discover what Nike meant to men. The amphora served as a decanter or wine holder.81 Thus, it is not surprising that the Nikai in amphorae scenes accompany men, including youths82 and a king,83 since these vessels would be most commonly used in a symposium. She also appears once each as a messenger to the gods Poseidon84 and Zeus.85

The neck-amphora, a relative of the amphora, features various representations of

Nike. Often, she is alone on one side of the vessel, lending her associations to the figure on the opposite side. Thus, she appears opposite a citharode,86 a victor,87 a youth,88 a jockey,89 and a warrior.90 She also accompanies a king,91 presumably from the heroic past, and men holding scepters.92 Nike often holds an oinochoe and/or phiale,93 as if about to pour libations for the victor, and even once holding a sash as if to decorate an altar for

81 Kanowski 16 82 ARV2 515, 10; 580, 1 (1); 842, 114 (56) 83 ARV2 1040, 18 (12) 84 ARV2 519, 16 (10) 85 ARV2 580, 3 (a) 86 ARV2 202, 74(60); 202, 75(61); 203, 100(45); 203, 104; 637, 29 (24); 650, 5 (5); 1058, 119 (85) 87 ARV2 446, 263 (202); 487, 65 (49) 88 ARV2 202, 79(64); 202, 89(73); 530, 14; 530, 15 (11); 553, 34 (27); 650, 7 (7); 655, 4; 657, 8; 657, 9; 666, 15 (13); 667, 8 (8); 667, 13 (12 bis); 667, 14 (13); 667, 15 (a 4); 667, 17 (14); 667, 18 (15); 857; 1071; 1192, 2 (2); 1194, 3 89 ARV2 646, 10 (9) 90 ARV2 616, 6 (5); 637, 26 (21); 1070, 4 (4) 91 ARV2 487, 63 92 ARV2 647, 11 (10); 651, 16 (12) 93 ARV2 493, 2 (2); 650, 6 (6); 650, 7 (7); 655, 3 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 20

him (fig. 8).94 The winged goddess sometimes stands with women,95 occasionally with a wool basket.96 Finally, Nike sometimes appears with, or opposite, mythological figures like Apollo and Artemis,97 Zeus,98 and Hephaistos and Thetis,99 and Theseus and

Perithoos.100 One neck-amphora features Nikai ministering to Zeus on side A and another

Nike holding torches for Hera on side B.101 However, since neck-amphorae usually feature at least one other figure, Nike is more often a secondary character than the focus of the scene, likely indicating a victory for the main figure.

On a more specialized shape, the Panathenaic amphora, which held the prize oil for athletic victors, the Nike images undoubtedly commemorated the victory of the recipient. Although there are surprisingly few Nikai adorning this particular shape, she appears with a number of different types of people: a woman, probably pouring a libation, with oinochoe and phiale;102 a youth;103 a victor with tripod;104 a citharode, possibly

Apollo;105 and a goddess, possibly Hera.106

Also belonging to the sphere of the symposium is the cup. Again, Nike is present with gods such as Zeus,107 Dionysus,108 and Hermes.109 In these scenes especially, it is difficult to be certain that she is really Nike, rather than Iris. She also accompanies

94 ARV2 659, 35 (29) 95 ARV2 410, 55 (44); 531, 28 (a ii 1); 535, 4 (a 3); 650, 4 (4); 655, 2 (1); 1193, 1 96 ARV2 650, 6 (6); 655, 2 (1). I will discuss the significance of the wool basket below. 97 ARV2 203, 103 (46) 98 ARV2 202, 73 (59); 513, 2 99 ARV2 306, 2 (2) 13 ARV2 1044, 3 (3) 101 ARV2 292, 38 (30) 102 ARV2 197, 7 (6) 103 ARV2 198, 15; 214, 1 (alpha) 104 ARV2 256, 3 (3) 105 ARV2 987, 3 (3) 106 ARV2 638, 52 (37) 107 ARV2 880, 15 (part of 19 +); 881, 29 (16) 108 ARV2 527, 80; 1513, 24 (41) 109 ARV2 880, 15 (part of 19 +); 940, 6 (5) THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 21

humans: victorious lyre players (fig. 9),110 athletes,111 and the ubiquitous youths.112 Many cups depict Nike standing with women.113 Nike stands with a king inside four stemless cups, the outside walls of which show a youth pursuing a woman and the woman fleeing to a king (fig. 10).114 Nike also appears with the traditional athletes on other stemless cups.115

The hydria, a water jug,116 like other pieces of symposium ware, has varied Nike scenes. She appears alone often117, probably signifying victory for the owner of the hydria, and sometimes with gods, as a messenger.118

I consider all of the kraters together, because, as the symposium mixing-bowls119 of choice, they all served exactly the same purpose and remained within the domain of men.

The kraters with Nike representations include the bell-krater, the calyx-krater, the column-krater, and the volute-krater. Nike appears often in the company of the gods, especially Dionysus and his retinue,120 perhaps symbolizing a victory in a drinking contest.

Many other kraters place her with a youth on the opposite side of Dionysus or his

110 ARV2 838, 19 (39); 891, 1 (1); 918, 3(3) 111 ARV2 1270, 18; 1270, 20; 1393, 33 (17); 1393, 42; 1394, 45 (M 7); 1394, 56; 1512, 20 (4); 1513, 27 (6); 1513, 30 (5); 1513, 33 (21); 1517, 1; 1517, 8 (l 42 quarter); 1518; 1521, ; 1524, 1 112 ARV2 853, 1 (I 14); 881, 31 (18); 895, 82; 903, 50 (10); 903, 51 (N 1); 903, 52 (N 2); 903, 53 (N 3); 907, 4 (43, +); 907, 5 (a 24); 908, 6 (a 12); 918; 918, 3 (3); 922, 3; 922, 4; 927, 32 (22); 939, 1 (1); 939, 2 (2, 3); 940, 4 (4); 940, 5 (5); 940, 9 (13); 941, 31 (11); 955, 5 (4); 956, 21 (8); 1255, 89; 1259, 6 (5); 1259, 6 (5); 1391, 4 (3) 113 ARV2 907, 1(1); 907, 2 (2); 907, 3(3); 911, 63 (a 27); 911, 67 (26); 918, 3 (3); 922, 2 (2). No iconographic symbols identify the scenes, so, although there are many examples, these women must remain anonymous. 114 ARV2 737, 134 (110): 737, 135 (111); 737, 136 (112); 737, 137 (115). Beazley tentatively interprets the pursuit pair as Theseus and Aithra, but I disagree: why would Theseus be pursuing his own mother? Instead, the woman must be one of his many conquests, and the king, since she is running toward him, her father. As the symposium guest finished his wine, the result of the pursuit would be revealed to him. The king is represented with Victory, yet the youth almost certainly captured the woman, leading me to believe that the triumph of the king lay in securing the youth for a son-in-law. 115 ARV2 1400, 1 (1); 1520, 37 (16); 1520, 41 (20) 116 Kanowski 41 117 ARV2 229, 41 (33); 271, 3 (3); 276, 73 (64); 307, 7 (7); 496, 8 (6); 497, 9 (7); 527, 70; 527, 71; 1082, 3 (3) 118 ARV2 294, 63; 573, 12; 1110, 42 (17, +) 119 Kanowski 62 120 ARV2 1439, 1; 1185, 17 (16); 1185, 17 (16); 1444, 2 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 22

followers.121 Frequent also are appearances with gods such as Athena with Hermes and/or

Herakles, 122 Apollo,123 Zeus,124 and the Dioskouroi.125 Often, Nike presides over competitions, appearing with musicians and sometimes their judges (fig. 11),126 and numerous athletes,127 including charioteers.128 She also has her own chariot of victory,129 as mentioned above by the poet Simonides.130 Finally, in many cases, krater scenes show Nike with or opposite unidentified youths (fig. 12).131

The oinochoe, a small vessel often used for pouring wine in ritual functions132 or as a ladle,133 was often decorated with Nikai. In fact, in many lekythos scenes, Nike pours libations from oinochoai. Likewise, a number of the oinochoe scenes show Nike at an altar,134 sometimes even holding a phiale135 or oinochoe.136 Since these actually depict libation scenes, they were probably used for offerings. On a few oinochoai, Nike stands alone, but elsewhere she accompanies musicians137 an athlete,138 and a komast.139 Oinochoai

121 ARV2 1425, 1 (1); 1426, 13 (7); 1426, 21; 1426, 22 (10); 1427; 1428, 5 (4); 1428, 7 (5); 1428, 8 (6); 1428, 9 (8); 1428, 10 (7); 1428, 11; 1428, 12 (9); 1428, 15 ; 1429, 4 122 ARV2 1456, 5; 1457, 6; 1457, 7; 991, 56 (44) 123 ARV2 215, 10 (nu) 124 ARV2 515, 3; 603, 34 (27) 125 ARV2 1334, 16 (11); 1454, 23 126 ARV2 1163, 31 (23); 1186, 24 bis; 568, 32 (26); 1095, 2; 511, 2 (10); 590, 8 bis; 590, 9 (7 bis); 1276, 2 (1 bis) 127 ARV2 1054, 56 bis; 1164, 47; 1333, 1 (1); 1439, 2 128 ARV2 1108, 23 (22); 1109, 26 (25) 129 ARV2 1041, 6; 1431, 32; 1097, 13; 1101, 2; 1104, 4 (4); 1112, 2 (2); 1112, 3; 1112, 4 (3); 1115, 20 (15); 1115, 21 (16); 1115, 22; 1118, 22; 1118, 23 (13); 1120, 4; 1122,; 1340, 5; 130 Simonides Greek Lyric III 131 ARV2 1425, 1 (1); 1426, 13 (7); 1426, 21; 1426, 22 (10); 1426, 25 (11); 1426, 30 (14); 1426, 33; 1427; 1428, 1 (1); 1428, 2 (2); 1428, 4 (3); 1428, 5 (4); 1428, 7 (5); 1428, 8 (6); 1428, 9 (8); 1428, 10 (7); 1428, 11; 1428, 12 (9); 1428, 15 ; 1429, 16: 1429, 4 ; 1430, 19 ; 1430, 20 ; 207, 134 (104); 207, 134 (104); 207, 134 (104); 542, 21 (18); 547, 19 (13); 585, 24 (23); 1096, 3 (3); 1096, 7 (7). The meaning of these scenes remains obscure, but they do convey a general sense of victory. 132 Kanowski, 110 133 Kanowski, 111 134 ARV2 229, 46 (36 bis); 688, 248 (201); 704, 79 (65) 135 ARV2 688, 247 (200); 136 ARV2 649, 46; 137 ARV2 595, 67 (53) 595, 67 bis1324, 39 (31) 138 ARV2 1350, 1 139 ARV2 871, 95 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 23 are much like other smaller vessels in that Nike often takes a dominant role in their scenes, rather than taking the subsidiary role seen on kraters, for example.

Nike appears often, both in human and mythological contexts, on the pelike, a versatile container that held oil, wine, and water.140 She accompanies athletic victors,141 warriors,142 unidentified youths,143 and musicians,144 signifying victories in their respective fields. She also performs religious duties, erecting a trophy145 and leading a bull to sacrifice,146 also commemorating human victories. In the immortal realm, she appears with Athena,147 Herakles,148 Apollo,149 and Zeus and others in his company,150 including Hera.

151 She also occurs alone on both sides of one pelike.152 Nike is seldom the center of any scene.

The rhyton, an animal shaped container, may have served as an ungent vessel,153 but was most closely associated with Dionysus.154 As Nike often appears with Dionysus on kraters, I think her presence on these rhyta is probably due to her association with the god rather than with any particular victory. In fact, on one rhyton, she appears in the company of a maenad and a satyr,155 reinforcing the Dionysus reference. As the only

140 Kanowski 113 141 ARV2 286, 12 (8); 1040, 15; 1342, 1 (1) 142 ARV2 603, 46 (36); 990, 50 (41); 1128, 98 (17) 143 ARV2 119, (u 59); 1136, 10 (10); 1220, 1 144 ARV2 1044, 9 (8); 1084, 16 (10); 1084, 17 (11); 1123, 1(1); 1123, 2 (2); 145 ARV2 857, 2 (2) 146 ARV2 1123, 3 (4) 147 ARV2 736, 114 (3) 148 ARV2 1472, 1 149 ARV2 580, (u 41); 638, 53 (38); 639, 54 (39) 150 ARV2 288, 5 (5); 288, 6 (6); 580, (u 41); 852, 6 (I 8) 151 ARV2 639, 54 (39) 152 ARV2 486, 41 (28) 153 Kanowski 131 154 Kanowski 132 155 ARV2 766, 4 (4) THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 24

figure adorning two rhyta,156 then, she is probably an allusion to Dionysus. She appears with one other mythological figure, Kekrops.157 On another, she is depicted holding a box and sash, items usually assigned to women.158

The skyphos was a less elegant cup, but was nonetheless used at symposia. Nike appears with youths,159 musicians,160 and athletes,161 as well as alone.162 She even holds a wreath for one of the youths,163 preparing to crown his achievement.

The stamnos served as a wine mixing and storage vessel,164 and thus belonged to the realm of men. As a larger vessel, it also allowed for more exalted subject matter.

Thus, Nike appears often in the company of the gods: she attends Zeus (fig. 13), Hera, and/or Athena,165 Poseidon and Dionysus166 or Amphitrite.167 In the mortal sphere, she accompanies youths and men,168 boys,169 and musicians,170 either foreshadowing or commemorating their victories. In one scene, she appears with a woman and a youth, running, while Zeus pursues a woman171 on the opposite side.

We see that Nike is a common character on sympotic ware, usually appearing to signal victories for human men, such as athletes, musicians, and warriors, or as an attendant to gods, such as Zeus and Dionysus. She rarely accompanies women on

156 ARV2 1550, 2; 1550, 5 157 ARV2 764, 8 (7) 158 ARV2 1551, 14 159 ARV2 717, 235 (191); 924, 32 160 ARV2 75; 1302, 23 (a 3) 161 ARV2 1301, 14 (12); 1401, 7 (8) 162 ARV2 661, 87 (70) 163 ARV2 717, 235 (191) 164 Kanowski 142 165 ARV2 208, 148 (116); 296, 8 (7); 361, 8 (6); 639, 54 (39) 166 ARV2 217, 1 (lambda) 167 ARV2 251, 30 168 ARV2 502, 7 (7); 1071, 3 169 ARV2 505, 18 (12) 170 ARV2 1039, 7 (6); 1062, 1 (5) 171 ARV2 259, 2. If the running youth and woman are supposed to echo the pursuit scene on their reverse, Nike signifies success for the pursuing youth. THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 25 sympotic ware. When she is pictured alone, perhaps she commemorates a victory for the owner of the vessel. However, on most sympotic vessels, Nike is one of many figures, usually taking a subordinate role to either the gods she serves or the men whose victory she announces.

Nike on Vessels from the Female Toilette

We now turn to the images of Nike on female toilette vessels, which account for forty-three percent of her appearances in red-figure scenes, and which will presumably reflect the role of Nike in the realm of women. The alabastron was used mainly by women as a perfume vessel. Nike appears on fifteen alabastra always in the company of a woman except for three examples: one on which she accompanies a youth,172 and two where she is alone (fig. 14).173 Once, the woman opposite her holds a mirror and alabastron,174 showing us the context in which this shape was used. Another woman holds only a mirror.175 On one alabastron, the woman on the reverse face of Nike sits at a wool basket. 176 On two others,177 Nike accompanies a woman running with torches.178 Usually, though, her companions hold no props.179 On the alabastron, then, the subjects are overwhelmingly female, and Nike often plays a subordinate role to one other character.

172 ARV2 717, 229 173 ARV2 661, 81 (61); 727, 18 (15) 174 ARV2 726, 6 175 ARV2 727, 21 (18) 176 ARV2 726, 1 (1) 177 ARV2 726, 7 (5); 727, 18 (15) 178 Perhaps a mother of the bride? 179 ARV2 625, 90 (a); 725, 1 (1); 726, 5 (4); 726, 7 (5); 726, 9 (7); 726, 13 (10) THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 26

I consider the askos, which served an ungent vessel,180 also for women, to be similar to the alabastron. On two askoi, Nike accompanies a lone woman.181 Another askos, because it features Nike with Eros,182 could well have been a wedding present.

Nike was the favorite figure for the lekythos, and graces more of them, three hundred and thirty-nine in total, than any other vase, perhaps because these were common gifts for the grave, the context in which most pottery is found. Lekythoi, like alabastra and askoi, served as containers for oil and perfumed oil, often used by women.

Many, especially those decorated in the white-ground technique, were used mainly in the funerary context. 183 These smaller vessels usually have less ornamentation than most other shapes, and Nike is often alone on lekythoi. Many catalogue entries in ARV2 state simply “Nike,” indicating that she is the sole decoration on the lekythos.184 She also holds beauty implements like a fillet,185 headband,186 mirror,187 or alabastron,188 in scenes congruent with the context of the vessel. Sometimes, appearing at a fountain and/or holding hydriai,189 or carrying a wool basket,190 she refers to typical female chores. In many other

180 Kanowski 32 181 ARV2 918, 208 (81); 918, 209 (82) 182 ARV2 664 183 Kanowski 95 184 ARV2 211, 188 (147); 211, 189 (148); 211, 195 (154); 211, 208 (168); 215, 14; 216, 19 (sigma); 307, 17 (15); 309, 13 (12); 309, 14 (15); 310, 20 (19); 310, 8 (6); 423, 121 (102); 423, 122 (96); 423, 127 (99); 423, 128 (101); 447, 269 (205) 452, 1 (1); 520, 46 (27); 556, 102 (56); 556, 104 (58); 556, 105; 556, 106; 560, 6 (6); 561, 8 (8); 624, 79 (71); 641, 91 (70); 642, 102 (77); 642, 114; 643, 118; 644, 3 (10); 645, 9; 656, 24 (10); 659, 46 (34); 670, 14 (13); 670, 15; 673, 16 (14); 674, ; 674, 18 (16); 674, 19 (17); 680, 66 (57); 680, 67 (55); 691, 25 (17); 697, 28 bis; 699, 65 (39); 699, 68; 706, 3 (7); 719, 13 bis; 719, 14; 729, 9-16; 844, 154 (82); 844, 158 (84); 844, 161 (88); 1197, 1200, 1 (1); 1202, 8 185 ARV2 756, 59 (44) 186 ARV2 423, 126 (100) 187 ARV2 702, 14 (17); 705, 1(1); 705, 1 (15); 706, 2 (6); 706, 3 (7); 706, 4 (7 bis) 188 ARV2 423, 125 (95) 189 ARV2 384, 222 (167); 680, 71; 680, 72 (59); 680, 73 bis; 686, 199 (159); 686, 200 (160); 697, 20; 697, 21 (15) 190 ARV2 671, 3; 673, 16 (bis); 697, 24 (a i 4); 697, 26 (a i 9); 706, 1 (11); 706, 4 (a); 731, 11 (15); 1370, 3; 1370, 4 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 27

scenes, the personification of victory appears holding a sash.191 Nike also occasionally stands with men, including a warrior (fig. 15)192 and citharodes.193 She also makes many offerings (fig. 16), holding phialai,194 oinochoai,195 fruit,196 flowers,197 and thuribles198 at an altar. In an example not catalogued by Beazley, she holds a cithara and a phiale, as if about to pour an offering for a victorious cithara player (fig. 17). Finally, Nike appears occasionally in the company of a divine figure, usually as an attendant, as with Zeus199 and

Athena.200 However, besides these few occasions when she accompanies humans or gods,

Nike is usually the central figure on any lekythos on which she appears.

The squat lekythos was a variation of the lekythos, and its decoration followed the same patterns. Often, Nike is alone in the scene.201 She also uses toilette items such as a box202 or mirror,203 and a wool basket.204 Also, standing at205 or moving toward206 an altar, or

191 ARV2 680, 73; 699, 69 (42); 709, 2; 709, 3 (2); 709, 4 (3); 709, 17 (15; 709, 18 (16); 710, 19; 716, 211 (175); 731, 8 (13); 731, 9 (14); 731, 10 (77); 731, 16 (18); 731, 17 (19); 734, 89 (79); 734, 93 (88); 1197, (a); 1200, 1 (1); 1370, 3 192 ARV2 659, 35 (29); 993, 19 (74); 1003, 19 bis 193 ARV2 659, 34 (23); 659, 36 (26) 194 ARV2 310, 3; 310, 9; 446, 268; 642, 103; 656, 22 (12); 659, 33; 662,; 671, 1; 672, 2 (2); 678, 13 (13); 678, 14 (14); 678, 15 (15); 678, 16; 678, 17 (16); 678, 18; 678, 19 (17); 678, 20 (18); 678, 21; 678, 22 (20); 678, 23 (19); 678, 24 (22); 679, 25 (23); 679, 26 (24); 679, 27 (21); 679, 28; 679, 29 (25); 679, 26 (24); 679, 27 (21); 679, 28; 679, 29 (25); 679, 41 (35); 679, 45 (37); 679, 46 (38); 679, 47 (39); 679, 48 (40); 679, 49 (41); 679, 49 (41); 679, 49 (41); 679, 50; 679, 51 (42); 679, 52 (43); 679, 53 (44); 680, 54 (44 bis); 680, 55 (45); 680, 56 (47); 685, 181 (143); 685, 182; 685, 183 (144); 685, 184 (145); 686, 187 (148); 686, 188 (149); 686, 189 (151); 686, 190 (150); 686, 191 (152); 690, 1 (1); 690, 2 (l 46); 690, 3 (a 4); 691, 22 (14); 691, 23 (15); 697, 27 (a ii a 2); 699, 66 (41); 701, 1; 702, 10 (9); 702, 11 (10); 702, 12 (11); 702, 13 (12); 702, 18 (28); 702, 19 (16); 702, 22 (29); 710, 20 (17); 721, 2; 721; 731, 15 (20); 844, 148; 1202, 8 195 ARV2 212, 214 (175); 446, 268; 642, 103; 680, 56 (47); 685, 185 (146); 686, 191 (152); 686, 192 (153); 686, 193 (154); 686, 194 (155); 686, 195 (156); 690, 4 92); 710, 20 (17) 196 ARV2 678, 23 (19); 678, 24 (22); 679, 25 (23); 679, 26 (24); 679, 30 (26); 679, 31 (27); 679, 32 (28); 679, 45 (37); 680, 57 (51); 686, 188 (149); 686, 189 (151); 686, 192 (153); 691, 23 (15) 197 ARV2 679, 28; 679, 29 (25); 679, 32 (28); 685, 185 (146); 690, 2 (l 46); 690, 4 (2) 198 ARV2 212, 214 (175); 659, 38 (27); 659, 43 (30); 697, 25 (a i 8); 699, 63 (38) 199 ARV2 310, 1 (1); 659, 33; 673, 11 (9) 200 ARV2 993, 79 (64) 201 ARV2 687, 228 (184); 729, 20; 1220, 2 (2); 1220, 4 (4); 1220, 9 (6); 1221, 1; 1221, 2; 1364, 1; 1364, 2; 1368, 3; 1368, 4 202 ARV2 1363, 10 203 ARV2 705, 5 (19) 204 ARV2 705, 5 (19) 205 ARV2 687, 229 (182) THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 28

holding a phiale207 as if about to pour libations, she serves as an executor of religious functions.

Women usually used the pyxis as a container for cosmetics and jewelry,208 There are only four pyxides with images of Nike, but since they are so strongly associated with women, and were even given as wedding gifts, I will include them in the study, considering them as in the same context as the alabastra, askoi, and lekythoi. One pyxis, which features Nike with “mistress and maids” and Eros209 in a scene very similar to those on many wedding-specific vessels, was almost certainly a wedding gift, especially since these “mistress and maid” scenes have been clearly identified by Reilly as wedding preparation scenes.210 Another pyxis, which depicts Nike with Eros pursuing a woman,211 also probably belonged in the nuptial context. In two other scenes, Nike accompanies a lone woman.212 Unlike the other vessels from the female toilette, however, pyxides rarely show Nike alone.

On items from the female toilette, Nike iconography is fairly specific to women.

These vessels have far fewer representations of the gods or male victors than those used at the symposium. Instead, female toilette imagery abounds, with Nike or her companions often holding mirrors, alabastra, and ribbons more than anything else. The goddess of victory also makes numerous appearances with items symbolizing typical female chores, especially wool baskets. Finally, Nike appears many times, especially on lekythoi, to pour offerings.

206 ARV2 687, 227 (183); 707, 2 (30); 735, 105 (92); 740, 2 (2); 1220, 2 (2) 207 ARV2 687, 227 (183); 687, 229 (182); 701, 14 (a iv 3); 707, 2 (30); 717, 220 (183) 208 Kanowski, 128 209 ARV2 1360, 3 (3) 210 To be discussed below 211 ARV2 1297, 14 (6) 212 ARV2 1297, 14 (6); 1223, 4 (5) THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 29

Nike on Wedding-specific Vessels

My study was inspired by representations of Nike on wedding-specific vessels, and the following images will form the crux of my argument. Since it is my goal to determine why the victory goddess appears so often in the nuptial context, having already outlined in which contexts she appears on sympotic vases and vessels form the female toilette, I will now examine appearances by Nike on the two vessels most associated with the Athenian wedding.

The loutrophoros affords us many images of Nike, in a variety of bridal contexts.

These representations span the late Archaic to the Classical period, and seem to indicate that the bridal couple has achieved a sort of victory. In all the other loutrophoroi from the Classical period until the late 5th century, Nike appears only in wedding preparation scenes, as opposed to depictions of the ceremony itself. She appears, holding torches,213 possibly taking the role of the mother of the bride, on a vase showing a wedding procession, not in the wedding scene itself, but on the neck. She also rides in a wedding chariot, accompanying the bride, the groom, and Hermes,214 and again with a wedded pair in their chariot.215 In another scene, she follows the bride and groom in procession (fig.

2),216 flying between a female friend of the bride and her mother, holding a sash, while the groom, grasping her wrist, leads his bride home. Nike twice accompanies a bride being prepared for her wedding, not represented standing under the handles, but actually taking

213 ARV2 261, 27 214 ARV2 581, 9 215 ARV2 1079, 1 216 ARV2 1127, 13 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 30

part in the preparations.217 In these examples, the women are certainly preparing for a wedding, as the bride holds a loutrophoros. On three vessels, she appears with Eros as well as the bride,218 another sure type of pre-wedding scene, with Eros foreshadowing the love of the couple. Finally, in four other examples, Nike occupies the area under the handles of the loutrophoros.219

Another vessel connected closely to the wedding was the lebes gamikos.

Consistent with the trend in loutrophoros decoration, most artists followed the pattern of placing a Nike under both of their handles,220 sometimes holding torches (figs. 18 and

19),221 wool baskets (fig. 20),222 and chests and sashes (fig. 21).223 On one example, the bride actually holds a painted lebes gamikos (fig. 18).224 She also holds such items as the wool basket (fig. 22),225 the harp and a chest (fig. 23).226 Others bring items such as a loutrophoros (fig. 23),227 an alabastron (fig. 24),228 and a mirror (fig. 25).229 In lebes gamikos scenes, the bride is often visited by Eros or Erotes (figs. 21, 24, and 26)230 in addition to her female companions. Eros occurs much more frequently in the later

217 ARV2 1266, 1 (a 1); 1266, 2 (a 2) 218 ARV2 1320, 3 (16); 1323, 31 (17); 1323, 32 219 ARV2 519, 25; 1266, 5; 1266, 6; 1277, 17 220 ARV2 516; 545, 8 (2); 548, 34 (27); 548, 44 (28); 841, 70 (47); 841, 71 (48); 841, 72 (49); 871, 74 (51); 1080; 1098, 34 (27); 1098, 35 (28); 1098, 35 bis; 1098, 38 (31); 1098, 39; 1102, 5 (l. 30); 1103, 5; 1103, 6; 1178, 1 (1); 1179, 4 (3); 1225, 1; 1225, 2; 1126, 1 (1) 1126, 2 1126, 3 (2) 1126, 4 (3) 1126, 5 (4) 1126, 6 (5); 1267, 12; 1277, 15 (11); 1320, 1 (25); 1320, 2 (23); 1322, 11 (24); 1322, 12 (27); 1322, 13 (26); 1322, 14 (29); 1322, 16 (18); 1322, 18 (21); 1332, 1; 1332, 2; 1332, 3; 1332, 4 221 ARV2 514, 2 (4); 1322, 11 (24) 222 ARV2 1103, 6 223 ARV2 1322, 13 (26) 224 ARV2 514, 2 (4) 225 ARV2 548, 44 (28) 226 ARV2 1126, 1 (1) 227 ARV2 1126, 1 (1) 228 ARV2 1126, 6 (5) 229 ARV2 1277, 15 (11) 230 ARV2 548, 43 (27); 1126, 2; 1126, 4 (3); 1126, 6 (5); 1179, 4 (3); 1320, 1 (25); 1320, 2 (23); 1322, 11 (24); 1322, 12 (27); 1322, 13 (26); 1322, 14 (29); 1322, 16 (18); 1322, 18 (21); 1132, 1; 1132, 2; 1132, 3; 1132, 4; 1460, 67; 1460, 68; 1460, 69; 1506, 1; 1506, 1; 1506, 2; 1506, 3; 1506, 5; 1506, 6 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 31

vessels, and his mother, Aphrodite, also makes two appearances.231 Nike appears under the handles of the vessel in a few “mistress and maid,”232 scenes, as Beazley calls them. In a study of Attic lekythoi with the same subject, Reilly persuasively argues that these

“mistress and maid” scenes are wedding preparations scenes, contending that the “maid” is actually of equal status to the “mistress” since both usually wear the same clothing,233 and re-identifying many objects in the scenes, including the basket, the fillet, the wreath, the plemochoe, the alabastron, and the casket, as wedding paraphernalia.234 In one scene,

Nikai hold perfume vases and boxes,235 helping in the preparation of the bride. Nike almost always remains under the handles, on the outskirts of the scene, like a stock figure, included as a rule, but not fully incorporated in the action. Thus, as we have seen on most other large vessel shapes, Nike is a supporting rather than central figure. Yet, she is present in this capacity on at least forty-two of the lebetes gamikoi in ARV2; therefore, I suggest that depicting Nikai under the handles had become an established element of lebes gamikos iconography by the fifth century.

This pattern is consistent between both types of wedding vessels. Although she actually accompanies the bride and groom in procession on some of the older loutrophoroi, on wedding shapes from later in the fifth century, whose iconography is limited to the bridal preparations, she appears almost without exception on the sidelines, under the handles, as one of many attendants to the bride, often bringing gifts or toilette items. I am interested in discovering what sorts of associations linked Nike with

231 ARV2 1126, 6 (5); 1178, 1 (1) 232 ARV2 545, 8 (2); 841, 70 (47); 841, 71 (48); 841, 74 (51); 1277, 15 (11) 233 Reilly 418 234 Reilly 417-420 235 ARV2 1452, 13 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 32 weddings to such an extent that she became a stock character on so many wedding vessels, and will attempt to answer the question below.

Who is victorious in red-figure vase painting?

Since Nike is primarily a goddess of victory, when she accompanies another character in a figural scene, she usually signifies a victory for that character. I will next examine the types of people who share space with Nike, in hopes of identifying the different categories of victors.

Victorious Gods and Heroes

With the gods, Nike often appears as an attendant, serving as the messenger of victory to the gods. She was especially linked to Zeus, as Hesiod says it was her job to do his bidding.236 Her many appearances with Dionysus are more puzzling.237 However, in the example of the Athena Parthenos statue, she certainly represents the victorious attribute of the patron goddess of Athens, so her appearances with other gods could ascribe victory to them as well. Likewise, with heroes such as Theseus and Herakles, she seems to indicate their accomplishments, again, a symbol of victory.

236 Hesiod Theogony l. 383 237 Nicholas J. Richardson (“Iris,” Oxford Classical Dictionary) says that Iris, a winged messenger to the gods often confused with Nike, “sometimes appears as a lone traveler beset by satyrs and centaurs.” Beazley sometimes confused Nike and Iris in ARV2, and as I have been able to discover no connection between Nike and Dionysus, perhaps any Nike with Dionysus is actually an Iris. As I noted earlier, it is often impossible to distinguish between Nike and Iris in the company of the gods. THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 33

Victorious Men

Most of the representations of a lone Nike, as well as all of those where she is accompanied by any sort of athlete, symbolize an athletic victory. Today, we have come to associate Nike with athletic prowess thanks to an aptly named brand of sports apparel, and even in ancient Greece, the goddess was strongly tied to athletic competition. I cite as proof the many vases listed above that show Nike crowning an athlete, as well as literary evidence from the lyrics of Bacchylides, who describes Olympic horses that

“sped in the company of pre-eminent Nikai and Aglaiai,”238 and speaks of an athlete binding his blond head with flowers “by the grace of Nike.”239

Nike appeared almost as often with musicians, indicating a victory in a musical competition. In fact there were as many competitions for musicians in panhellenic and local games as there were for athletes.240 Thus, a victory in one such contest would certainly be worthy of commemoration through a Nike vessel, and it is clear from the prevalence of “Nike with citharode” and “Nike with flute-player” scenes that victorious musicians believed themselves, just like athletes, to be crowned by Nike.

Nike also accompanied many warriors. As some called her the daughter of Ares,241 she was ideally suited to award victory in battle, and Simonides refers to the Greeks driving out the Persians “by the might of Nike and the work of Ares.”242 Certainly, when the Athenians erected the temple to Athena Nike, they thought that Victory had been on their side during the battles. Thus, for men, Nike could symbolize victory in athletics, music, or battle.

238 Bacchylides Greek Lyric IV frag. 11 239 Bacchylides, Greek Lyric IV frag. 10 240 Barker 1003 241 Homeric Hymn to Ares l.4 242 Simonides Greek Lyric III frag. 15 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 34

Victorious Women

That men had many opportunities for victory, and that these victories were often commemorated by Nike-ware is no surprise, especially given her presence on sympotic vessels; however, appearances by the goddess in the company of women and on female vessels indicates there were ways for mortal women to be considered victorious as well.

Such a concept is not discussed in the written sources, so our only hope of understanding it is through the study of images.

A Nike gracing a vessel meant for the female toilette might first seem out of place. Why would the goddess have anything to do with perfumed oil or cosmetics? It is possible, though, that painted on a container for beauty implements, she may have symbolized a sort of victory available through beauty, implying that the woman using the items had reached the peak of beauty. Two alabastra,243 six lekythoi,244 and one squat lekythos245 show Nike with a woman holding a mirror, indicating that the victory of woman is in her reflection. Likewise, when she is holding beauty implements, such as the fillet,246 headband,247 or alabastron,248 she also speaks to the beauty of the owner of the vase. In fact, victory in beauty was hardly a foreign concept to the ancient Greeks: the kallisteion, or beauty competition, was a common theme in myth and literature,249 and women were certainly familiar with the story of the Judgment of Paris,250 which centered around a beauty competition among the goddesses. Although no ancient authors actually

243 ARV2 726, 6; 727, 21 (18) 244 ARV2 702, 14 (17); 705, 1(1); 705, 1 (15); 706, 2 (6); 706, 3 (7); 706, 4 (7 bis) 245 ARV2 705, 5 (19) 246 ARV2 756, 59 (44) 247 ARV2 423, 126 (100) 248 ARV2 423, 125 (95); 726, 6 249 Hawley 37 250 Cypria frag. 1 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 35 mention Nike in the story, she does appear on a pyxis opposite a Judgment of Paris scene

(fig. 27). In this scene, however, she seems to be approaching Hera: perhaps this scene depicts the moments before the judgment, in which Paris is still uncertain of whom he will choose. Another mythological beauty contest was held between Thetis and Medea.

Thetis, the winner, emerged idealized as the perfect wife, while Medea became the paradigm for the dangerous, unwomanly female.251 There is also evidence for mortal beauty contests in Greek literature:252Nicias, as recorded by Athenaeus, says that the tyrant

Cypselus held a beauty contest, awarding first prize to his wife.253 Athenaeus also records a fragment by Theophrastus254 describing a beauty contest at Elis, the winners of which was awarded the duty of serving the goddess Hera. Other contests were held in Tenedos and Lesbos.255 Though our references to both mythological and mortal beauty contests are scattered, they do allow us to hypothesize that victorious beauty was a concept in ancient

Greek thought. Thus Nike, holding beauty implements or even standing alone on a toilette vessel, leads us to infer that a woman had achieved a victory in beauty.

Nike appeared often with female spinners and their wool baskets as well. Perhaps this link with textile production implies another competitive sphere for women. After those of wife and mother, wool working was most significant role of a woman in ancient

Greece. If a woman could weave, she could be married and run a house, at least by the standards of Xenophon, who excused a young, somewhat incapable bride as follows:

“Don’t you think it was adequate if she came to me knowing only how to take wool and

251 Athenodorus of Eretria, FHG iv 345. 252 Hawley 38-39 253 Athenaeus xiii 609e=FHG iv 463 254 Theophrastus lls. 563-564 255 Hawley 38 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 36

produce a cloak?256” Proficiency in weaving, then, was certainly a more important female accomplishment than beauty. There even may have been wool-working competitions for females: an inscription on an Attic black-figure cup257 says “I am Melosa’s prize. She won me in the wool-carding event.” Ferrari reads the inscription on the cup as a dirty joke, saying that its owner was probably not a “nice girl” since a piece of sympotic ware would not have been an appropriate trophy for a girl.258 Even so, the allusion to a wool- working competition may well be based on reality. So, as we see in at least six examples depictions of Nike holding a wool basket or standing with a woman holding weaving paraphernalia could symbolize excellence or victory in textile production.

Ferrari also points out a connection between wool-working and maidens in ancient Greek thought, citing both the general limitation of weaving imagery to parthenoi scenes in vase-painting and literary representations. Even the most famous weaver in literature, Penelope, she argues, was more in the position of the parthenos than the wife because she was, although wrongfully, considered marriageable after the long absence of her husband, Odysseus.259 Deities also follow this pattern, for the virgin goddesses

Artemis and Athena are associated with textile production, while Hera, a wife and mother, is not.260 Spinning and wool-work, she concludes, belongs to the romantic world of maidens, beautifully dressed and scented, and visited by suitors. Carrying wool baskets, then, Nike not only symbolizes the spinning and weaving prowess, but also the beauty and marriageablility, of the women she accompanies.

256 Xenophon Oec., VII.6; later, it seems, he had to teach her everything else about housekeeping, but he was happy enough that she could weave. 257 Metropolitan Museum of Art 44.11.1 258 Ferrari 59 259 Ferrari 57 260 Ferrari 58 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 37

Victorious Brides

Finally, Nike appears at least seventy-seven times on the two most prominent wedding vessels, the loutrophoros and the lebes gamikos. Sabetai notes the frequency of

Nike representations under the handles of lebetes gamikoi, but does not care to further address their identity. 261 They are present, she says, as “intermediaries between the heavenly and human sphere,” following the Classical tradition of fusing the divine and mortal in order to humanize and one and elevate the other.262 Sabetai also points out three earlier interpretations of the Nikai: Kenner, who believes that they were connected with the winged demons, or chthonic spirits, who had appeared under the handles of several archaic vases for the purpose of warding off evil, and associated them with death, and

Götte and Mark, who both argued that they were heavenly forces. 263 Indeed, our Nikai look nothing like demons, and such morbid imagery would not have been appropriate in a wedding scene. Roberts agrees with Kenner, stating that the purpose of the winged figures was to bring blessings from the netherworld to the couple.264

Still, neither Roberts nor Sabetai explores the implications of the presence of the winged figures or of Nike, the goddess of victory. Vestige though she may be of a tradition involving chthonic spirits, she in no way resembles a harpy or a sphinx, neither of which would, after all, have been appropriate in the setting of a wedding. Sabetai says that the artist could have chosen any other winged creature to fill their space on the

261 Sabetai 88. She only refers to them as “Nikai” by default, since Iris and Eos never appeared in duplicate. 262 Sabetai 88 263 Sabetai 88 264 Roberts 183 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 38

lebetes gamikoi.265 Although this is true, in almost every example, the artist specifically chose Nike, selecting the goddess even over Eros, a figure much more directly linked to the wedding. Thus, judging from their frequent systematic placement on lebetes gamikoi, these Nikai are significant not only because of their compositional value and their divine associations, but also for their own association. Nike, the goddess or personification of victory, lends the quality of victory to whomever she accompanies on vase-painting, so why should she not signify a type of victory for the bride?

In many figural scenes, the bride is surrounded by reminders of her great beauty, like the alabastron (fig. 24)266 and mirror (fig. 25),267 as well as testaments to her skill as a spinner, the wool baskets (figs. 20 and 22).268 Although the bride hold does not hold all of these items in every situation, they are her property, and therefore reflect her character.

Since I have already shown that Nike symbolizes victories in beauty and female chores on other female vase shapes, I acknowledge that her presence with these items does, on one level, indicate the victorious beauty and skill of the bride. However, the goddess of victory seems also to be connected with the wedding itself. On some loutrophoroi, Nike appeared in a wedding procession itself,269 signaling the victory of the couple in having reached the peak moment of their existence. So, when she appears with a woman during her bridal preparations, Nike must also signify that the bride is about to be victorious in her wedding.

265 Sabetai 88 266 ARV2 1126, 6 (5) 267 ARV2 1277, 15 (11) 268 ARV2 548, 44 (28); 1103, 6 269 ARV2 261, 27 269 ARV2 581, 9; 1079, 1; 1127, 13; 1266, 1 (a 1); 1266, 2 (a 2) THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 39

Why would Athenian brides have considered marriage a victory? Although as

Just says, marriage and motherhood were considered the “fulfillment of the female role,”270 not all young women seem to have been fortunate enough to have the opportunity to step into that role. Blundell thinks that an oversupply of marriageable females may have lead to the exposure of infant girls in Athens,271 and even some of those who were spared exposure still faced an uphill battle in the marriage market. And if a girl were unsuccessful, her life would be grim indeed: Dillon says that a woman who did not marry had no role in society.272 Even Aristophanes commented on plight of the old maid.

In Lysistrata, the title character expresses pity for “maidens growing old in their chambers,”273 each of whom must remain “wretched and lonely the rest of her life,”274 since she will be too old to marry when the men return from war. Even worse, Blundell believes that poverty forced some of these women into prostitution,275 noting that some concubines were freeborn women.276 Young brides, although probably kept as ignorant as possible about such other women, certainly must have felt their fortune in having the necessary wealth, connections, beauty, and household skills to be married. Nike, then, just as she symbolizes the accomplishments of the weaver or spinner, lends her associations to a girl celebrating the highest, and most victorious, point in her life.

270 Just 40 271 Blundell 131 272 Dillon 212 273 Aristophanes Lysistrata l. 592 274 Aristophanes Lysistrata lls. 595-596 275 Blundell 147 276 Blundell 124 THE VICTORIOUS BRIDE 40