Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant O 10.1179/175638012X13285409187955 DOI Maney by Published ß pigil,UA ihe cmd,BadnugUiest of University Germany Brandenburg Cottbus, Planning, Schmidt, Environmental Irbid, of Department Michael Anthropology, Technology, History, and USA. of al-Sababha, Department Archaeology University, Springfield, Hussein State Missouri of Walker, al-Muheisen, Bethany Faculty Jordan. Zeidoun University, Shiyab, Yarmouk Mohammed Atef [email protected]. Shunnaq, email: of Germany; University Friedrich-Alexander author), Erlangen-Nu (corresponding Lucke Bernard read not could sites biblical settled, ru sparsely well-preserved appeared of full that but land a encountered they Roman and Bible the in tioned the growing AD, century and 19th after early science Europeantravellersattemptedtorediscoverplacesmen- the and during of geography in advance conquest interest Western the Muslim With from the Crusades. disappeared after largely literature had Transjordan Introduction and numbers population which again, Rising settle to population. tribes Keywords: most of caused century control. exchange 20th government early place improved larger the of in continuity Ottoman conditions a the late climatic and favourable the against abandoned never in probably speaks place was Medieval took Abila names the decline of During vicinity another AD. by the until 536 However, accompanied ‘Mystery again year period. the was within increased the of in and density event rapidly described climatic settlement AD Procopius the occurred period, centuries by historian triggered Byzantine 7th have or the early caused which to been and Veil’ have seems 6th might It late change events. rainfall the climatic heavy in The years strategies 100 nomadism. subsistence approximately rapid in to a a changes by socio-economic for agriculture caused triggered evidence probably also northern is from was which This there in aridity period. but Decapolis to Byzantine fertile, shift Late the always significant the of and during empty Abila change landscape never site intense was was ancient and land development environmental the the the and This that near incursions, found created century. study nomadic Jordan case 20th governance, Transjordan our early (Muslim) However, in bad the by degradation. during excavations caused resettled be to and only to leading considered periods, were century Islamic which the 19th during lands reduced ‘empty’ strongly the were numbers of population that impression reports travel European Zeidoun Ba Shiyab, Rupert Atef al-Sababha, Walker, Hussein Bethany al-Muheisen, Shunnaq, Mohammed Lucke, Bernhard Lands’ ‘Empty the of of Paradigm Review Critical A Desertification: Historic Transjordan’s Questioning oni o rts eerhi h eat2012 Levant the in Research British for Council rbr,Isiueo egah,Kcsr /,904Erlangen, 91054 4/4, Kochstr. Geography, of Institute ¨rnberg, lmt hne addgaain vrrzn,aadnet ytr el bl fteDecapolis the of Abila Veil, Mystery abandonment, overgrazing, degradation, land change, climate ins,andinwhichmanyofthe l eietfid hscnbe can This identified. be ily ore.I Transjordan, In sources. uighsvsto 5Fbur 86 ‘U 1806: February fu 25 Wasser on visit his during d Seetzen centuries, for church Catholic place the in see titular the a ( is been (Wineland still empire and had Byzantine 110) the which 2001, in Abila, bishopric a of of site centre the with illustrated naiat a cuidteland? the (pastoral?) occupied new had the inhabitants before passed le centuries had many area, had the what left ruins? all beautiful But these they built Had 371). had who people 1854, to happened (Seetzen Granit’ grauem Fundamente, viele Sa noch dort well Stu sieht were ruins ‘Man the But preserved: 371–72). 1854, (Seetzen wohnt’ ga die Stadt, die blnsi Palaestina in Abilenus ue of cmti-eßmMro,Bsl und Basalt Marmor, schmutzig-weißem vorfn ¨ulen cevndrscho der von ¨cke ¨ me n ihe Schmidt Michael and umler hten tien Bru steinerne eine ¨hrt nlc zersto ¨nzlich nnatnSatae,Gewo Stadtmauer, alten ¨nen .A h rtErpa ovstthe visit to European first the As ). Levant vn e desc few aving r s,udw en Seele keine wo und ist, ¨rt srbdteriso Abila of ruins the escribed cevnenmBgnin Bogen einem von ¨cke 2012 ¨ e a kleine das ber nat,and endants, VOL 44 ¨lbe, NO 1 101 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 102 Levant o h osrcino h mrsiemonuments have could impressive change the climate Additionally, of antiquity. of sufficient construction economy the and to for population hard could a environment it supported semi-arid have found current the who that imagine 249–82), (1911, by most suggested first Huntington The change, climate forward. is these put of important been also have desertification often 201–03). 2003, are Rackham this and in (Grove management practices environment subsistence worst land the among pastoral counted and while 8–23)) (2003, grazing Rackham and exemplary Grove the by (see summary ‘ruined’ steppes as adjacent described are its desert land- and and the the Mediterranean now, the is of this Even scapes to degradation. Related land 6). of 1990, paradigm (Issar sites of desert desertion the the near for the considered usually explanation is first raids For Bedouin opinion. of popular paradigm on the example, impact profound a continue have, and and to had, in ideas point Glueck’s some peninsula, history. at recent Levant Arabian more the to migrated the have to in claim their see somewhere whom of origin many current the Transjordan, of civilization. of narratives of inhabitants and the by ‘blessings’ nomads, supported is the deserted few idea of This a ‘empty’, ignorant by as only viewed in inhabited lands, resulted desertified the this to succumbed to ‘desert’, civilization supply. of due water forces limited land the a Whenever barren and of erosion soil encroachment overgrazing, its the ‘desertifica- firstly, i.e. secondly meant, and tion’, he themselves Bedouins, ‘desert’ the defend By inhabitants to desert. the lands’. urban civilizations the on against those 1968), dependent ‘empty of 1951; were ability Transjordan (1940; the in Glueck settlements extensive of to his the According of narratives of one context contributed best-known the and in surveys, of archaeological visits texts the biblical of and time 417). the (1823, Burckhardt at and Abila 364) (1854, at Seetzen case This the 35). 1989, was (Abujaber alliances and were tribes and local Empire, by nomin- Ottoman only the belonged to areas ally whole large a have period, as this to Transjordan during for appeared fact, that In villages abandoned. beggar been many to and by raiders, passed medicine had Bedouin and of of threat who omnipresent man the of 362–71), a because as (1854, himself the Seetzen disguise by illustrated of be can journey nomads potentially the The of the role country. for negative the blamed of been development often limited too all have Transjordan lentv xlntosfrTasodnsperceived Transjordan’s for explanations Alternative reports travel the elaborated (1968) Glueck Nelson 19th-century of inhabitants nomadic largely The usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 2012 VOL 44 NO 1 efacto de ruled opoiebidn aeildrn h ai growth dismantled rapid was the ruins during the material of building part provide great to appears, a It that century. some fact, 20th to in early were the region in an the resettled in degree is sites Byzantine it of major all context, nearly the since this exception promising In and important resettled 114–15). the be 2001, after to (Wineland abandoned never apparently was Caliphate, and Abbasid period the during Islamic declined early Abila record, an to archaeological with According the agriculture. period, large rain-fed on Byzantine a based was the economy it during steppe, centre the urban from Mediterranean far a not in the environment Located of example scenario. ‘classic’ Jordan lands’ a 2001, is ‘empty its Northern (Wineland it because 58 and in chosen no. was site Irbid 14), Abila approxi- Glueck’s of Abila, of 1). located north (Fig. site km are the 18 which mately of villages, study surrounding case short questions a these a approach using After lands’ we ‘empty degradation’, fertility? of ‘land soil paradigms of and the that in of severity discussion decline assumption the general a the of was is sure there sound be unquestioned How upon we depopulation? to rest seeking Can often approaches assumptions. many and in decline, elide explain to seem tion’ paper. perspective, this in Euro-centric challenge to rather attempt a we which reflects sown’ and the desert ‘the between conflicts and to the degradation Transjordan land of history We seeking the attributing 3–10). that in here 1990, argue successful (Issar explanation quite possible simplest usually pers. are Kennedy, natural sciences (H. although 2010), simple September Damascus, too comm., climate rather connecting with is Transjordan that variations of (Lowdermilk think development historic researchers climate the Some than 3–6). anthropogenic rather 1953, to attributed degradation usually anti- land is since this decreased but have semi- quity, and might Mediterranean environments in previous arid yields the that among authors sense in general many unspecified outlined an is As there paragraph, settlement. ancient was for that variation climate thresholds of set a that to when determine difficult to can course, of semi-arid similar is, it distribution a but rainfall today, had a always with probably climate area 2007, Rosen The 122–56; 2007, 150–71). (Cordova past antiquity historic a during the or of pattern indication climate no different is significantly there unknown, exact although mostly are and yields today, in cultivated present indi- was are crops as have of antiquity range same excavations the much However, that cated 151). 2007, from (Rosen migrations triggered h aaim f‘mt ad’ad‘addegrada- ‘land and lands’ ‘empty of paradigms The h tpe n deserts and steppes the significant Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant adcp hnewt itrcadsocio-economic and historic of with evidence physical change the landscape combine to is therefore, aim, of Our paradigms 1953). Lowdermilk the (see of lands degraded ‘proof’ and as empty used often is kind and that the site for of environmental characteristic fairly its be to consider settings cultural of We reach within raids. it put Bedouin which desert, the to closeness despite its economy, agricultural good rain-fed stable the a a precipita- for sufficient provides tion of receives imperial that site location most from a the of case-study, example far for a located As and was frontiers. it Abila, periods crossed historical route trade the Neither hadj 22–44). ‘x’ 1889, 20th with (Schumacher 19th–early marked late AD were the centuries sites in sampling villages surrounding sediment the and of Soil area. study case the of Location 1 Figure Ilmcplrmg)nrayohrimportant other any nor pilgrimage) (Islamic ostest ouetterstlmn faln once or land civilization? modern a city, of of ‘empty’ resettlement ancient the the the document site between of the does residents connection the a and In inhabitants lasted. there process the is long how short, the and land, use, the land used of who form Abila, at happened what to trace order in villages, present-day the about information iiiain ra es rgee ea,b over- maintain to by inability decay, an by triggered and livestock, least of grazing at destroyed or threatened who always desert-dwellers civilization, of were tribes desert migrating the by of margins flourishing the civilizations at (1968), Glueck to According land and lands’ ‘empty degradation the of paradigms The uk tal. et Lucke usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning Levant 2012 VOL 44 NO 1 103 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 104 Levant 83 ls oSeznsvstt bl n osdrda considered and Abila to visit Seetzen’s to close year the 1813, for Even 111). 1995, Lancaster had and (Lancaster area Kerak the the the that for Jordan, 1880 southern and tax in 1596 plateau Ottoman between 70% to than according more of decline found, a despite 7) that registers, fig. Hu 57, complex example, (1977, a however, For found, pattern. numbers precise decline more assumed the in specify to attempted which Studies were raiding and surpluses reduced the that 3. and reduced, been had surpluses agricultural that 2. decline population significant a was there that 1. main three on based are assumptions: arguments and 93–95, These poor 2005, 98–100). very (Neumann Ottoman was disastrous and Levant environmentally Arab the for that in management and land 201–07), detrimental Rackham and 15, Grove 10, was, Transjordan in 2003, summary in and exemplary present an those (see is, as such use environments land that agreement pastoral widespread 25, nonetheless, 1986, is, (Banning There 45). niches ecological exploita- different a the of in tion but by conflict, characterized to coexistence prone symbiotic less as pastoralists and ers abandon malaria- to land. farmers created the forcing and finally visible erosion swamps, system ensuing infested slopes drainage the hill the from resulting blocked rocky silt bare, while today, the overgrazing. conquerors, produced nomadic to of led they sequence the so in and last large the sheep Being and introduced goats terrace protection, of of herds soil understanding and little by maintenance with conducted and warriors conquests, land Islamic tribal of long the managers from However, careful soil. degradation were land and of knew experience problem periods Byzantine the and about Roman agricultural the ancient of that societies assumed 10) (1953, nomads Low- dermilk whenever civilizations. urban (1940; repeated neighbouring was Glueck overpowered pattern to this According 1968), systems. agricultural oercn eerhse h eainhpo farm- of relationship the sees research recent More usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning eutn nln-emdtroaino fertility of change. deterioration landscape and long-term use, in land resulting human poorly-adapted with in connected decline a to leading activity; caused economic raiding, governments and central by insecurity control less the that of because ruins); least abandoned of not number being large nomads, (farmers by exchange replaced population and/or 2012 VOL increased 44 NO 1 ewe hs w dates two these between teohadAbdulfattah and ¨tteroth eteetdensity settlement oa population total of in netgto,hdas enasrn ( of strong area a tax our seen to also the closer had more is investigation, by which to plain, testified Irbid The due as registers. control, Transjordan government in a effective considered phase Ottoman often civilized’ the is which that ‘more during and flourishing, time was a century empire being 16th the latter in the than — higher was plateau of Kerak population total the the 24–32), in 1989, density (Abujaber population Jordan low and decline economic of time .ta hne ntepyia adcp occurring landscape physical the in changes that 3. were strategies subsistence modified the that 2. or decline population dramatic no was there study: that alternative case our an 1. in test offer to land intend or we we which exchange hypothesis contrast, population In of proof degradation. not as cannot far it taken that so think be do has we development explained, completely this been Byzantine although Late the and the during to era, compared Transjordan reduc- as in period, significant settlement Medieval secure a urban was in lack We there tion quantified. that they be however, can know, because they which Transjordan, against standards domina- in pastoral of this ‘abandon- tion periods and for In ‘decline’ problematic terms is 119–21). the ment’ of 1995, use the economy inhabit- Lancaster context, subsistence its and semi-pastoral if (Lancaster a ‘abandoned’ practice been ants has landscape or growth. population of century consequence 20th logical the a to 19th appears the resettlement from rapid transition the the view around of point this from nomadic and 488– a 89), 1865, over- support Tristram 137–59; to was 1860, ability (Wetzstein land its lifestyle of the century, terms that 19th in impression late populated the the during give land actually pasture late the over during wars cultivation (Hu of century peak 16th the 30% at around been than total have higher However, to AD. appear 1800 numbers by population villages of number the of ti culyqiedfcl odfiewe village a when define to difficult quite actually is It o eutdfo ua cin u eecaused were fertility, but periods general action, human of Ottoman from degradation resulted late a nor to to led Byzantine neither the from religion, variations) environment; (climate (economy, natural and cultural politics) markets, both regarding framework — environmental changed a to responses and demographic patterns; economic, cultural a but modified slowly but which steadily strategies peoples, subsistence new in change of immigration large-scale a copne yvoeteteerainfall extreme violent by accompanied that aridity was increased towards change climate a by teoh18,4) eot ftribal of Reports 43). 1987, ¨tteroth y 0)reduction 70%) Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant ecmie h vlaino aata maps, the of cadastral inhabitants of with interviews evaluation photographs, the air combined We Methods relocated locations. have these might to settlement city the their ancient whether investigate the could of we inhabitants that included so were study these our and in Harta, close and very Hubras located Abila: villages or to 114– modern two pastoral 2001, are of There 15). (Wineland remains light the encampments represent semi-pastoral very may remains, this only archaeological and the periods, by Ayyubid, attested is Ottoman Fatimid, occupation the and For settlement Mamluk the 247–78). of 1987, vicinity the (Fuller in was Abila agriculture of 12,000 on economy based to The 246). up 1987, (Fuller reached Roman- people the population during peak period its 95–115), at Byzantine Age 2001, that estimated Bronze (Wineland is it Early period and the Abbasid 34). from the site 1889, until urban an was (Schumacher as Abila settled excavations, water’ archaeological to of According consider- ‘proof any amount was carries never bridge able Kueilby the el of Wady vault the that Schumacher small the bridge’. that ‘Roman stated the is building Schumacher called this Today and commonly bridge. small 371) a It as (1854, 33–34) river. (1889, Seetzen Abila Yarmouk by of the described into site flowed the and crossed site the 1 of approximately at Queilbeh originated Ain which spring pumping), the modern (until of stream perennial arrival a the hosted valleys, the the Queilbeh, of Wadi largest wadis. incised sharply the dom- in Rendzinas inate greyish-white Soils, Mediterranean adjacent the of parts and valleys hill the plateau. cover settlement on to the found later, to expanded are While next site settlement position. the the hill, defensive of this strong remains earliest a the it small another giving by plateau wadi, the wadis a from two separated covered of located is junction Abila which the is at east). Abil) isohyet (Tell the hill mm settlement to 200 the km 50 (the to close approximately desert lies semi-arid It and mm. steppe the 400 precipi- approximately annual in of an tation al- with horizon- plateau zone a or climate on limestone Mediterranean Kenana located layered is Beni 1) tally (the Fig. see Abila region, Kefarat city ancient The area study case The hl h lta scniuul oee yRed by covered continuously is plateau the While vns n okpaei h otx fearth- of context the wars. and in plague place quakes, took and events, via ale structure, vaulted a ? msouth km 5 aig(R,p,eetia odciiy organic conductivity, soil electrical CaCO Redness matter, for pH, of sedi- analysed (RR), were soil analysis Rating samples of soil the study The a ments. with though land intensity vegetation, historic development and on documents use, with archives villages, ntedr sn ufrd(H3 (pH buffered extracted using dark were the oxides in thermo-flame-spectrometer). pedogenic crystallized Unicam, Poorly mea- by (AAS, contents spectrometer M-series absorption manganese atomic and an with iron sured the and 1995), (Schlichting Holmgren room to at according dithionite temperature determined sodium with extracted was were Schlichting oxides loss to Ignition N-contents. according and C- total the delivered a which C/N-analyser, in TrueSpec loss Leco ignition determining after and before doubles 08 3 h od‘olsdmn’i sdfrfine showing for soil, former used eroded of is of remains sediment’ mainly ‘soil consisting word sediment Lucke The in Reference found 23. World be 2008, can the (WRB) Resources to Soil according of the Base area of this classification in detailed soils more paper. the terms this the for in use Examples Rendzina we and simplicity, Soil of Mediterranean sake Red the point For genetic view. a of from development soil allow element of parameters comparison these total because texture, susceptibility, and contents magnetic oxides, nese ape codn oDN501(03.Pril sizes Particle (2003). wavelength- 51001 DIN to a preparing according after samples 2400 using PW X-ray type spectrometer (XRF), with dispersive examined analysis were fluorescence contents element Total (Schlichting Schwertmann to according ouino : acrigt Schlichting soil:water to a (according in 1:5 meter of conductivity solution 3410 GMH a by soil:waterwith a 423 with 1:2 InLab of solution water, electrode distilled with in WTW, (pH- Mettler-Toledo) electrode by glass 530 a using meter determined soil). was the Hurst pH was redder The to the smaller (RR) according becomes index samples Rating (the (1977) dry Redness the The with computed chart. colour Munsell soil the using light standardized fraction under laboratory the with conducted analyses , further and archived, all and determined layers/ was content) identified (skeleton at hours the 72 for of 40 air-dried middle were samples the The horizons. in a strip from filled thick were bags freezer samples, soil of otnso CaCO of Contents mm. 2 oorwsdtrie rmdysmlsi the in samples dry from determined was Colour u n hnsee y2m.Tefraction The mm. 2 by sieved then and C uk tal. et Lucke ? 3 .Eetia odciiywsmeasured was conductivity Electrical 5. cnet eoei rnadmanga- and iron pedogenic -content, nsitu in 3 n C and usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning eoeei.Frcollection For pedogenesis. Levant org tal. et eedtrie using determined were ? 5 oxalate-solution 25) 2012 19) Pedogenic (1995). tal. et tal. et VOL 44 . c .5cm 1995). 1995). 2mm tal. et NO 1 105 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 106 Levant bl,tenx osbest ol etemodern the be from would settlement supply site of water possible relocation excavated. If next the up. the been in Abila, dried role yet since to a has next not played spring which a has tell been close the have but may probably there wadi, was Alternatively, Wadi settlement the of the to part the of pumping: northern part modern of earliest earliest the advent the the in before that Queilbeh ran perennial the suggests which from Abila stream themselves of supplied tell inhabitants the main of the spirits the and Djinn the a and die, by dead. and haunted sick is as turn place people Abila cannot because one of there narratives, live their site to according Local archaeological and, Syria. cursed the from came regard from who people ‘Oglat came to and and who Sukhni Egypt, from Safadi the came who the al-Aryan for the Palestine, accounts explana- also This landlords. tion Obeidat groups for whole The other farmers the as the why tribe. work is over which Kenana, Hijjat Beni control of the region gained with eventually settlement they clashes Obeidat Their Then region. initiated Kenana governorate. there Beni Irbid the the in to the village moved of a al-Mazar, part in settled western and north moved they the Obeidat Afterwards to Jordan. of the in south first the settled inhabitants, in and Kerak Arabia local Saudi al- from of came the originally accounts are the According tribes Sukhni. to and other Safadi ‘Oglat, The Hijjiat, the Aryan, (95%). to belong tribe actual region the Kenana Obeidat of Beni Most describe the history. of recent the inhabitants less tribes or there of migrated more current have the builders to in claim the all the Rather, from sites. ancient of ‘empty descended of as none idea themselves the as confirm to the lands’, seem of area population study present-day case the of narratives The Beni the in district settlement Kenana and population present-day The Results CaCO removing after analysed were ahdotadtesmlsdsesdwt sodium with then dispersed (Na samples was hexametaphosphate the (HCl) and acid out be washed hydrochloric could reaction The visible observed). no (until acid hydrochloric h ukssetblt a eemnduiga using determined meter Hz). susceptibility (875 was magnetic KLY-3S susceptibility Kappabridge 1991). bulk (Gerzabek (Micromeritics) The with 5100 analysed 19683, Sedigraph were DIN particles a smaller to the (according while fraction 1973), sand the mined h bec fasrn nteimdaevcnt of vicinity immediate the in spring a of absence The usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 2012 VOL 44 NO 4 P 1 2 O 4 .Wtseigdeter- sieving Wet ). 3 ih10% with prl nalreatfiilbsn n pumping. and basin) rainwater artificial collected large a the on in largely (partly is immediate depends its however, in and spring no vicinity Abila, has which of Harta, of village site to archaeological closest village a modern the The around Hubras. clusters Wadi core in original spring Its Hubras. of village togyrdcdadteihbtnsbitamuch a been built had inhabitants the population and the reduced early however, strongly the By century, taxes. Early barley amiral 20th and the into wheat In divided on based was 158). estates village 2008, the (al-Bakhit period, Cairo Ottoman later in career academic life his in died made Hubras, having of 1019/1610, village in the a from al-Hubrasi, scholar al-’Ajluni well-known biographi- Nu’man one Sheikh to account, according and cal century: alive 17th was the that in tradition well educational relatively an are as to nonetheless, allude Hubras, general historically, to in references trace Occasional Jordan scarce. to on difficult sources the after textual are village the century of (Ibn fortunes 16th regionally The court, services 693). a 2003, judicial have Hijji provided town Hubras, it the and that did but Irbid only not both 15th that early served suggesting the judge In one 189). 1997, century, Shuhba Qadi (Ibn Ibn year the of al- in companion’ died Musa ‘long-term Taymiyya, b. a Ahmad as Shaykh described as Zura’i, one biographical 762/1360, Damascus, a of In from them. entry providing scholars potentially attracted as well Mamluk it of as life scholarly Syria, the in Damascus participated town actively The of 169–200). 1982, network Shobakis (Ghawanmeh Hisbanis Kerakis, and extensive Irbidis, included They an that throughout). intellectuals of 1997, part Shuhba a were Qadi bearing (Ibn origin obituaries scholars the religious in ‘Hubrasi’ century, biographical Damascus-based in 14th found latter of be the large to of are a entries period and this market the in is to town local references it earliest as thriving The area, mosque. a congregational the had in Late It village and today. prominent most Middle Hubras Beni the period, the Mamluk was the the of During most periods. dominated Islamic for which region economically Hubras, Kenana of and village nearby long socially the been have by to appear subsumed lands Its 92). 1989, of Hmoud ‘Ajlun Liwa’ for Mufassal reading c Defter (the the century in 19th ‘Harta’ Arabic the of in until ‘invisible’ texts textually Turkish is and Harta of village The Kenana Beni the in district settlement Mamluk and Ottoman 4 H13 Di o eti a-ahtand (al-Bakhit certain not is AD AH/1538 945 . nisba h unm ugsigpaeof place suggesting surname the , medina tw)o ursthat Hubras of (town) Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant ofimdby confirmed (12 larger mihrabs a of single sanctuary a with toa miea h ie.Tergseso the years of the the registers for Kenana of The Beni time). currency of the main land at the Empire were Ottoman 500 which (at 1523 coins, century. in a silver revenue 16th produced tax moreover, the high floors, in relatively threshing region its the on Hubras in of Taxes yields highest the The the point: one were regions. on and clear are villages registers different in and among and lands local markets general time in over productivity documenting relative settlement the and comparing use in land surveys in useful changes cadastral are, very they earlier 1998), Schick nonetheless, from 18; frequently 1994, than Singer data registers 1992; (Lowry the (rather later on expected economic and relied recorded for revenues care they collected) with as registers history, such use the to should were according ( barley, that registers and tax apparently s wheat commodity, s/1530 single only 950 a producing of the basis the villages in on several taxed Jordan of northern one was in Hubras region, Kenana thus identified been Jordan. have in use far of this length of and mosques historical antiquity other the No as century. 20th used mid were mosque medieval village the see Walker of reports, and ruins 2006 The architectural Kenney and and Walker excavation 1970 until the village the this was (for of and mosque mosque, structure Friday medieval smaller the the remained of a interior in 1931, the complex in In built ritual century. larger ( 18th a fountain the producing it, water to and adjacent as auxiliary excavators shrine period; the a Ottoman by identified the tentatively through buildings, used be continued the century, mosque to outgrew Mamluk-era 13th The physically the sanctuary. population older in village width the in when doubled was period, h tutr ossso mle oqe(6 mosque smaller Hubras. a of of consists structure settlement The uninterrupted evidence long-term, telling most for the provided 2006 in excavation medieval the of one 49–64). of 1986, ruins (Ghawanmeh mosques the in mosque smaller rgnlpaeo ryr( ipe qaebuilding square simple, (a The prayer 12 ceramics. of and place architecture original of analysis stylistic 54ad10/569 ouettecontinued the document 1005/1596–97 and 1534 eadn h itrceooyo h Beni the of economy historic the Regarding h oqei fpriua neet ic its since interest, particular of is mosque The 6 5mi ie,cntutdi h aeUmayyad late the in constructed size), in m 15 kuttab n uhodr(3hcnuy n:dates one: (13th-century) older much and ) etrmufassal defter cide’ u’ncsho)utlthe until school) Qur’anic (children’s 14 mihrab ,acietrlisrpin and inscriptions architectural C, ul n13 ihnthe within 1931 in built ) 6 ftepro.Wieone While period. the of ) 0m ihtoo three or two with m, 30 sabil c 3/53 950/ 930/1523, . ,wr added were ), tal. et akche 6 2007). 0m, 10 ,or etr.A h ags ilg ntedsrc ( district the 16th and in the village of largest population course the the As over century. the village the about of production information detailed provincial the 14). to 1989, directly (al-Bakhit paid governor were taxes Ajlun market Salt, the Kerak, of (Hu the those Irbid of as and end large the as by century, was, 16th period, or Mamluk the shrines, in three existed controlled and zawiyyas mosques two Hubras them, had to According Hubras century. 16th of the productivity through agricultural and occupation eeusaepriual nomtv.I 1523, agricultural (12,400 In for 10% informative. figures contributed particularly The Hubras from are 432 61). of families revenues rate 1989, the by at to Bakhit taxed cultivated water was and supplied was Hubras that Abila) spring ancient the the around example, for for located afield 1534, in further harvest: mazra’a lands the to and planting travelled local This of who mobility time. the into in farmers, over reflected dispersal the be villages also a at may new dispersal far) with or by farmsteads rule, largest former Ottoman the of was beginning (Hubras handful a villages in clustered of Kenana that Beni suggesting of century, population the the over occupation income year-round taxable with and villages of growth number Beni gradual the in a in with settlement coincide trends largest These of the Kenana. end the than remained of by and bigger century region beginning the the times in village four the largest next was the Hubras At rule, respectively. 1534 Ottoman 1523, 1596–97, in Kenana Beni and of population 8% total and the 13% of 33%, represent men) figures single These additional 1596–97. 23 century by (with mid 56 the to at by reduced 90 was households to and century 78 the from of beginning grew the Hubras six century of the population of end the khatibs by occupied; Hubras densely mosques, was functioning and endowed two with talt lv re.I diint ri,the livestock, grain, on to taxes addition paid In (300 6% trees. Hubras contributing olive of to reference population no all and end at century’s of documentation until among no crops’ with were The ‘summer district), (which the district. from period in highest this same primarily the in came the barley and Hubras in wheat of the ones at taxes new grow agricultural not as did rate village the same 5% but lesser time, over a stable 1596–97 in and (12,500 revenues, tax district’s h he eitr o eiKnn provide Kenana Beni for registers three The peces evdiscnrgtos The congregations. its served (preachers) akche ioae ed f‘y aia(h area (the Qaliba ‘Ayn of field) (isolated a-aht18,1,11.Ismre,which market, Its 111). 15, 1989, (al-Bakhit uk tal. et Lucke teohadAdlath17,8,199); 87, 1977, Abdulfattah and ¨tteroth ;telvlo rdcinremained production of level the ); usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning akche Levant ,1%(550 12% ), 2012 akche VOL akche akche )ofthe 44 nahiya and ) (al- NO ), 1 107 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 108 Levant h td fJrainln itr,seFshahand 1991). Fischbach Amawi see late history, for land of Jordanian registers of potential land study the Mandate-era the British (on and remained period Ottoman have is Ottoman that 1876 the registers DSL from land of the Amman; oldest Department in the and the office among Surveys 79), at and kept 2007, Lands now Smith is of and village documentation the (Mundy from were al-Rafid registrants trees, early great olive their These of old age. because fruits very little relatively by gave reported surrounded which who was is 182) Harta earlier (1897, that much Schumacher planted by been indicated have must of olives with some That these today), 1876. (as December olives in in authorities Ottoman planted largely land, the its in ing villages participate first to the Jordan of of in one our target was a It to became documentation. again official was, once Hubras that time farmland this during village documented. not the knowledge, of the fate Unfortunately, importance. former its in lost 7 Hubras place fig. took 79, which 2004, Arab earthquake (Migowski 1837 an the controlled or and 1834, who in rule revolt the Egyptian Pasha, against 1833–41. Ibrahim upheaval Transjordan the under also followed law- 112) Egyptians a that (1865, in period Tristram disappeared less villages visit. many a by that pay still passed mentioned not only a but did as district, and the village. Hubras in the mentioned village prominent rebuilding 460) in, (1865, had and moved Tristram village had century another families population to the new then Christian by in relocated earlier largely apparently identified a The reported Burckhardt later, he 182–83). (Schumacher region, Harta residents years 150 1897, 10 the some and huts to in than 40 visit of village landowners second less a 155); Obeidat during 1926, the (Steuernagel for sharecroppers of caves, residences al-Kefarat working incorporating the as ‘huts’ identified in he 30 which By largest with 169). impo- village relatively the 1995, a verished found Sha’r village. of Schumacher however, Abu 1889, the one 269; 1823, of as describes (Burckhardt 1812, village images in Hubras the conflicting visited who be Burckhardt, to appear and productive very northern stable. was the and Hubras whole, particular, a in as region Jordan of base tax the to otdrn h he er frgsrto,ad15% and registration, of years (250 three the during goat (250 2% twsdrn h azmtisie eitainof registration Tanzimat-inspired the during was It what offer century 19th the of accounts Travellers’ usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning akche 2012 akche ftetxso e ie n13.Relative 1534. in hives bee on taxes the of ) etrasasi Defter ftedsrc’ ae nsepand sheep on taxes district’s the of ) VOL 44 NO 1 # // o ursi o as not is Hubras for 5/2/1 ? tapu ) ih xli why explain might 7), rcs,register- process, .Ln s:Tergsrnswr eidthe levied were registrants The Use: Land 2. the in registered was land The History: Settlement 1. emerge. this history use of land basis and settlement the to relevant patterns On following the accomplished. register, unpublished when was 1876, in survey fields those the of value the and of lands, rural development structure, social the regarding mation lands endowed — religiously use land of to location related planted, issues (crops on registers later as detailed .Ln erdto:I sntcerwa the what clear not is It Degradation: Land 3. awqaf h pria mutb h a in tax the by dividing amount by appraisal determined last the 1992), the for (Mundy land years the 10 cultivated have who tenants mu’tad maps. al- present-day also in Umm registers appear the in Hibal, al-’Ala) Qata’eya, al-Sheikh al-Duhna, Hummayd, al-Hur, Traytab, (Umm Sama) names Fallah, al-Khrayba, place (‘Izrit, local villages and names. place be the local also of of can Many continuity settlement, the actual in of identified not and al- longevity if for place, (Mundy ‘Ali evidence of Indirect family and 262). the Salih 2007, Smith of al-Din, sides Sa’d Muhammad Muhammad) sons and Khalil) his distributed and (and and Qaftan al- time) Sa’d ‘Ali, sons the his Din, (and at Ibrahim the m between evenly sq 919 150, 100, mately 72, 500 70, 60, and 50, of 175 40, plots (10, 67 sizes into different divided 10 was land Hartha (Peake The al-Rafid 233). the and in 1958, settled is Hubras also branch which both This today. clan, in Obeidat family Beni al-Din prominent the Sa’d the of of branch members individual of names vlal’posi hssne(20–25 sense this most The in use. land plots of history ‘valuable’ of terms 1 in of means and range size a plot the in by resulting rate (deter- tax the values dividing by appraisal mined in difference significant of cropping vegetables. diversified and a grains farmers’ to (‘the allude of al-Zira’ waterwheel’) (‘garden Gharafa Quweibeh and Hayr Quweilbeh’) Hubras’), of floors (‘threshing Hubras Biyadar regime: kind agricultural particular of a suggest to do plots place registered register, registers of the names later Nonetheless, this information. grown; of such crops include basis the is the It for payers. account on tax new possible, the by not period cultiva- some of for continuity tion documented thus, period). is, Ottoman late There the of currency of unit main t.,bti oscnanipratinfor- important contain does it but etc.), , a,a h aeo %o h advlefor value land the of 5% of rate the at tax, dunum —a ? 3–25 dunum qurush en approxi- being qurush per qurush/ dunum harc-i (the ) Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant eiKnn eini h 9hcnuytraced century 19th the in region the of inhabitants Kenana some least the Beni at that considered mean monuments), might he and Roman-Byzantine (these the Ghassanid of Levant builders main the the to regarding migration (1860, considerations Wetzstein’s matches 104–37) story oasis. an this supplied which Interestingly, break that would prophesized dam was ancient it an because around Yemen migrated from who AD ancestors 600 their 396). about tale 1837, Szakher a Beni tell were (Robinson the that reports Obeid Beni 489–90) Hubras (1865, Beni Tristram confirmed of as also of He presence group. same the inhabitants this of part the the not apparently probably but is Szahher), (which Bedi the by Szakher controlled largely was region the reported Beni 424). Djomha, 1823, Beni (Burckhardt descen- Obeid of Beni be tribes and to Bottein legendary claim the not of area did dants the but in times, lived ancient had area since they of the that Burckhardt inhabitants and told contemporaneous Irbid region Obeid The Kenana Irbid. Beni Beni around the and owned Bottein who Beni Djohma, Burckhardt ( 1806. Beni in the that Szahhar reports Burckhardt this. Beni confirmed 417–18) (1823, the of tribal the by alliance controlled was it that reported 364) (1854, door. grave a evidence of however find remains church, except not activity a did Hubras Byzantine 2006 for of in the site found. Walker the by that excavations on be built suspected could was 22) mosque pottery (1970, Mamluk Mittmann Late and found Hubras, In Abbasid survey Harta. in material His Mamluk at and activity. Byzantine located human at or were some settlements, villages least earlier hosted all already which nearly 1960s places the that during Abila noted of and vicinity the surveyed in (1970) sites Mittmann smaller by names. indicated place and pattern land a the the followed in region settlement Kenana of Beni concentration and dispersal The 5 hnRbno 13,11 iie h ra he area, the visited 191) (1837, Robinson When Seetzen area, the in living tribes the Regarding bia? ol etenmso nin tribes ancient of names the be would Obeidat?) urs(tefrieln fHba’ n al-Wa’r terrain’). and rocky Hubras’) (‘the of al- land Mughill fertile as (‘the such register, Hubras the in names paralleled in place is by manner unevenness this in The suggested quality land Harta. towards north-east, plots largest second (100–150 the village; watered the of south and well plains (500 be plots largest to 175 The roads. appear near what locations in village, dunum dunum r oae otenrhadsuho the of south and north the to located are ) dunum nsz)aelctdi h etyrolling gently the in located are size) in r lsee otenrhand north the to clustered are ) hi ad nodrt vi ae n iiayservice 205). military and 1989, register taxes (Abujaber avoid not to did order and in lands rule their where Ottoman areas the in example, resisted settled labourers tribes were for who the as, Circassians, his the fits practice with story inhabitants governance this Ottoman Possibly, its late 15). became 1889, and thus (Schumacher vicinity property its and his Amrawah village Bedouins. government local The with Ottoman skirmishes bloody the and long with after expropriated registered was as and Abila received he of land which site property, the his that now that local claimed The Shellalah. Jeber of Wadi sheikh east of km side eastern 6 the lies on which Abila Amrawah, village the in night common a seems Arabia history. the throughout from case, phenomenon tribes any new In of Ghassanids. arrival the to back themselves rnihdcmnscudb dnie:Aaa— Avara identified: be Hawara in could mentioned in places documents Sueta’ the Frankish of ‘Terra Four called period. area crusader the the to Kenana belonged Beni district the 250), (1970, district Mittmann Kenana to Beni According the in settlement Ayyubid to Umayyad itm,prasterao h epeconsidered plague people for why and reason probably the reused graves, perhaps been AD victims, mass had 747/748 into tombs mentioned converted in Byzantine (1987) some region Fuller that 113–14). the 2001, struck (Wineland earth- Umayyad which an the and quake plague population during with connected decrease that possibly period, to appears started It numbers 114). which 2001, evidence, periods (Wineland these archaeological during occupation substantial a the suggests is by This 106). supported an 1987, Umayyad as (Walmsley Khurradahbih and district Ibn Abbasid administrative by listed the was Abila For periods, towards era. century 9th Medieval the the from observed be Kenana Beni can the region in settlement urban of level the in tion the to back the traced Essentially, be AD. can crusades. villages 1187 Crusaders was of in the pattern probably Saladin current between of battle site forces a the and of of site Ras Jalak, north-west or Habis Habis km first of 5 the complex Yusuf cave after fortified Abila 250–51). the controlled that crusade: certain Kingdom 1970, is Latin it (Mittmann 114), the (2001, Wineland period to to According least medieval at back traced Umayyad be the late can its Harta also with but Hubras mosque, only not that — assume Arthe/Kaharte and hnShmce iie bl n18,h pn a spent he 1888, in Abila visited Schumacher When otatn ihti tblt,antbedeteriora- notable a stability, this with Contrasting ar— Zaar , uk tal. et Lucke Zahar usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning eaa/eaa — Betaras/Petaras , Harta Levant ecntherefore can We . 2012 VOL etRas Beit 44 NO 1 109 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 110 Levant n nyamnriprac fln s,wiethe while use, land of soil importance minor actual a formation, soil only in impor- the and factors an geological local 132–33), suggests for role Jordan tant (2008, northern in Lucke distribution later and the or 84) Schmidt antiquity to According in periods. areas exposed historical these been that already indicating had quarrying, frequently of they signs plateau, outcrops limestone show rock the as nomen- on far present As soil are 23). and 2008, types Lucke soil see cover clature, of soil description for Rossa, detailed continuous Terra a or a Soils Mediterranean by Red around (mostly the characterized landscape from is the arise lands, Abila that degraded expectations of the paradigm to contrast sediments and In soils to according development Landscape name, its of Umayyad/Abbasid of time case its the some In Abila, during 124). 1860, Gadara (Wetzstein at history medieval station establishment toll the people. a to refer of that new merely and might Arabic Qays’ of in ‘Umm uncommon such not settlement that are out changes points Umm name the 352) to (1864, to Wetzstein Gadara/Jadar However, from points name Qays 282), of (1987, change Walmsley the to tax Ottoman according as Early while, exist the registers, in to mentioned continued are and apparently Ras, villages latter Beit and the Jerash and because than Abila abandonment strongly more by context, been affected have this to seem In Qays Gadara/Umm 282). 1987, (Walmsley villages. many lands rural with cultivation as were area under they the described as instead al- who century, and Yaqubi, al-Baladhuri 9th geographers Arab the the by during omitted was time some of at Qays, abandoned point completely or Gadara/Umm village a to and reduced Ras of towns the with Capitolias/Beit together town, district 281– a (1987, as Walmsley Abila 82), to According cursed. as site the yerhuksi h er 115 Dad1201–02 and AD affected AD. 1151–52 were years the Qays, in Umm earthquakes and by Taqabat surrounding Ras Jerash, the Beit Irbid, in Madaba, Fahil, villages Amman, of including number area, great Abil/Abila this a Al-Bagdadi, and 63) Allatif (1992, Abd Ghawanmeh quoted the who to of during According name continuity place era. the Medieval least to at or pointing Decapolis settlement the some 46), of which Abila 1889, as 1225, (Schumacher place in same Zait’ the az is geographer probably ‘Abil the least, one place not of mentioned but continuity Yakut Last a area. the to in pointing names today again known Abil, is Tell which tell, as central the by maintained iia ae huhaltl ae,afce Jerash affected later, little a though fate, similar A usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 2012 VOL 44 NO 1 Abil tal. et a still was , (2006, in,adwsnmd‘pe m el-Amad Umm ‘Upper named excava- was Abila the by and investigated towards tions, been tunnel had connecting Abila site The supplied the tunnel. which branch system a tunnel via large two a connecting Queilbeh, of University Wadi parts over of water Yarmouk part carried southern bridge the from aqueduct this Jaradat that by showed measurements Rasheed Geoelectrical Dr 2). in (Fig. potsherds by mortar was period the Byzantine tentatively bridge Late could the which aqueduct to dated fill be buried valley the a under detected Queilbeh profile Wadi southern the in to close Queilbeh: Wadi crossing 1). Fig. see sites, sampling the the of (for was location bridge’ exact ‘Roman the profile called the commonly Schumacher of is by single which described ruins vault the the under a Abila, within of site Queilbeh addition, Wadi in In excavated spring the Queilbeh. of south the to Ain Queilbeh, Wadi south in located site is the It of history. sedimentation local evidence first the the for as studied presented been is far This laboratory. so the has in Wadi them of of one sequences only fill similar sediments, very of valley showed the all they in While Hubras. profile Wadi one of fill and valley the Queilbeh, in profiles five total in excavated metres sediments several finer sediment. is rubble, soil of which and layers fill, of wadi consists the valley and of (Koeppel a thick bottom by The terraces 27). occupied fig. step-like like is 27, 20, natural appear fig. 22, a can 1930, into which weather pattern and harder limestone of levels alternating softer weathered terraces the artificial but weakly slopes, of as the remains on and no Rendzinas are crumbled greyish There limestone. the of of mostly products consists this and published been have 55–134). Abila 34–44, 2008, of agricultural quick (Lucke site elsewhere the a the of to around Studies led new soils woods). century growing the 19th of the late depletion how the Schumacher noted in and also settlements who 516–42, of 1–15, 1865, description 1890, Tristram the in see 229–31; forest 145–64, nomadic 2008, to Lucke (Lucke shifts from strategies result subsistence unlikely soil an that indicating reforestation is use, erosion natural land pastoral of with coincided periods of herding, impact the degrada- nomadic Considering soil activity. and for human to use evidence due land no tion is and there cover that vegetation concluded of context the Lucke in day. present the in al. et fertile be to continues area h Rmnbig’wsntteol bridge only the not was bridge’ ‘Roman The we Hubras, and Harta Abila, of vicinity the In cover, soil little bear valleys the of slopes steep The 20,128)rvee h itiuino soils of distribution the reviewed 182–84) (2008, tal. et 08 180–82; 2008, Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant rmteepsdwd lps hyrs nhuge on rest They slopes. debris wadi calcareous exposed with The the Soil 3). from Mediterranean (Fig. mixture a Red represent depth to of seemed cm sediments 450 of m at 2 upper reached was which 24). spring 2001, the (Wineland from site the water to carried Queilbeh which Ain period and Hellenistic Umm earlier the (‘Lower buriedor to Abila dating at the aqueduct’) there tunnel el-Amad that aqueduct of mentioned second be a a construction is should It providing the bridge. thus aqueduct 24), for 2001, time-frame AD by (Wineland cut centuries tunnel were 6th that the tombs through and 3rd inscriptions to el-Amad the according Umm to Upper tunnel The the water bridge. dated aqueduct excavations the in Abila Byzantine found the we with which inconsistent (307– pottery not I is Gebele which king AD), Ghassanid 17 the constructed of was rule aqueduct the during Hamze large this geographer that Arab mentioned the 123), Do (1860, (see Wetzstein Syria in Jordan in Dille long Qays with a Umm of connected part which was system It tunnel 24). 2001, (Wineland Queilbeh aqueduct’ Wadi in aqueduct buried The 2 Figure h l nWd uibhwsecvtdt bedrock to excavated was Queilbeh Wadi in fill The rn,20) codn to According 2005). ¨ring, lek15,16,tesuhr ato h aihas wadi the of part southern the 34; 126), 1889, 1951, Schumacher Glueck the 371; of 1854, edge (Seetzen the southern site the at ancient to the originating close in Queilbeh Queilbeh, Ain ran Wadi spring that of stream part perennial northern travel a historic Although describe Queilbeh. south reports Ain lies section spring this the as of pumping modern to tied not Late pers. the Kafafi, to (Z. dated 2008). July pottery be period comm., rounded likely Byzantine most strongly Roman–Early can Byzantine-era and con- that small gravel the sherds few sorted is a and tained this well-rounded The aqueduct that the surface. indicating of foundations bridge, perennial the layer a the to is of this bed 4): corresponding (Fig. river flooding small periodic with the stream of and to remains the seem well-sorted the which be of found layer, were part gravels rubble wadi well-rounded as the misidentified Below manual bedrock. were during at attempt they that first 39) sampling, large (2008, Lucke’s so during excavation were and These stones large rubble. numerous of consisting layers debris oa hspr fWd uibhi r,astatus a dry, is Queilbeh Wadi of part this Today uk tal. et Lucke usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning Levant 2012 VOL 44 NO 1 111 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 112 Levant pe 8 mo eiet eedpstdslowly. deposited were sediments the of that cm and case 180 cultivated latter upper was the valley in the ploughing, that of mud indicating effect huge the few to a or be flows, during might sedimentation mixed This below to appears structure. attributed profile sediments distinguished the the of without part and of upper the layering cm, to 180 fluvial contrast In clear rubble. in the the of cm deposition sedimenta- 10 soil the of after every understanding tion better analysed a get Queilbeh and to Wadi order the sampled of part was this fill, profile the of cm 180 first sum- 1 Queilbeh. Table Wadi in period. sequence Byzantine sediments Late the marizes the sediments after by or buried ing were hydrolo with substantial and a dry during connected ran which probably springs the period, that evidence Roman-Byzantine sign a is was showed table It which groundwater stratigraphy. profiles, identical other the nearly in the confirmed r of was a in part already dry this been that had wadi clear making paleosol, developed upn ftesrn a o asdtewhole the caused now up. has dry to spring wadi the Modern of dry. Wadi as pumping described of been reports fill available all valley in the in excavated profile The 3 Figure u otevr ooeeu perneo the of appearance homogeneous very the to Due h rvl fteancie the of gravels The usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 2012 Queilbeh VOL 44 NO 1 ia hnesmtm dur- sometime change gical tsra eto well- a on rest stream nt fiatyhge uigthe during higher ificantly mt at hspattern This past. emote aiu it s4 is width maximum ftebig ol ecret ic nac it of width arch an since width correct, 2 and be length would the bridge of the visit. of measures his Schumacher’s context, during this true In that was assume height to reason same every the is there and 5), (Fig. 2006 rbbydet roscnetn ersit feet: is 1 into his only error metres was arch of converting height accessible errors the Neither The to supported. due vault. probably be the can of statements foundations as bridge basalt 3 the or of ft arch 11 the approximately described Schumacher fig.) 1888, see In 34, century. (1889, the Wadi 20th the in the up first of since dried half only surprising second the Queilbeh Ain not to by supplied is stream degree which some profile, Queilbeh to differs bridge’ years. the during 1500 valley the past this give of drying Queilbeh gradual wadi a Wadi of steep in impression sediments the soil along The exposures slopes. chalk debris wide and dust the with from the mixed was from that Soil plateau adjacent Mediterranean Red eroded rubble represents the above fill valley the Our that down. is laid impression overall was sediment the of part that this when some time suggests for present profile was groundwater lower or water more stagnating the pedogenic a in of oxides elevation form manganese The to body. ought sediment mudflows uniform huge during deposi- tion mixed since cultivation, second during sedimentation the supports slow above, mentioned top scenario sedimentation possible the wadi towards develop- the intensity soil from diminishing ment of debris gradient clear or The slopes. dust calcareous enrich- and/or with desiccation gradual ment a to point 2) Table saot8 mhge hnteotrsds which sides, outer did the he because than probably mention higher not did vault cm Schumacher the 80 of part about large inner is of no the made well, but As is bridge, ashlars. vault limestone the whole of The end foundation. basalt southern the at observed perennial 1888. the in that it flowing This exception as still the 6). was same with (Fig. stream the — looked high 2001 1888 in m in 4 did bridge are the that arch means the the fact in above but ft fig.), 4 stones see 34, about 1889, spoke (Schumacher 1888 Schumacher in carrying: pavement is the bridge for occurred the have to seems error height egtmauei rn n easm that assume we and — wrong or 1 is width Schumacher’s measure been either have could height So arch 1888. the of in height accessible m 1 than more no ? ? 0mwsvsbei 88adi 06 u its but 2006, in and 1888 in visible was m 90 0mwswogytasae o1 t similar A ft. 11 to translated wrongly was m 10 h euneo eiet eo h ‘Roman the below sediments of sequence The in Q1–18 (samples fill valley the of analyses The eadn h aat e aatbok a be can blocks basalt few a basalt, the Regarding ? 5mfrhrdw.Therefore, down. further m 35 ? 5mhg.H loreported also He high. m 35 ? 0mhg n20 and 2001 in high m 10 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant eycae eiet.Tepteyassemblage, Roman/ Late pottery by dominated The everywhere is sediments. however, clayey very alo nrse tns h alo undressed of wall The stones. 2 is undressed stones a of with wall on ends rests a which stones course, well-hewn foundation protruding of slightly sediment wall and architecture The the pattern. of change profound a endpstd(i.7.A et f4 of depth a At 7). (Fig. deposited m. been 8 equalled vault the of height total the 90 the point the meets 4 At vault lost. was the part vault a where the The but left above 1888), built-up in 1888). are (as the m in of surface 21 Schumacher is old partially length by vault the remaining have measured of m (as the arches 11 today cross only outer to so means and the collapsed city a However, the than of more wadi. centre far the m, structure probably in 16 This was space m. covered 39 public m of once a 7 width created total arches is a arch in outer results inner which both The and bridge. the wide, below crawl well-sor not of consisting section profile the of Close-up 4 Figure ? 5mwd.Acrigt rb u obedrock, to dug probe a to According wide. m 35 h rb lorvae ht7mo eiethad sediment of m 7 that revealed also probe The a nti ato h aidrn h oa-yatn period Roman-Byzantine the during Wadi the of part this in ran ? 0mhg,adascae ihrd sticky, red, with associated and high, m 60 u al,tecanlis channel the walls, ? 0m hr is there m, 40 e,wl-one rvl,idctn htaprnilstream perennial a that indicating gravels, well-rounded ted, h or ntesdmns iue8peet a Wadi presents the in 8 layer Figure sediment sediments. the of the sketch of in schematic location exact hoard but the know 2008), the not May do comm., we pers. unfortunately Kharasneh, this supports (W. vault the date Department under the Jordan by of found Antiquities of coins Ayyubid 7 of fig. hoard 79, 2004, A (Migowski AD ( 1202 of AD earthquake 1206 of Bru OSL-date JORD pre-date RF2007 The a channels century. below these 13th sediment vault, OSL-date, the the soil from an the ashlar in to fallen later quartz and According vault from the sediment. acquired of sides with channels the dis- at small filled dug was interesting been had excavations An that after these 2006. vault from of bridge whole covery excavation the Abila of m the 2 upper the vated bridge. pers. sediment the the Kafafi, under summarizes (Z. Age sequence 3 channel Table Iron the 2008). one July of comm., as bottom the well at Late as piece do appear, occasionally sherds Only Byzantine sherds. Byzantine Early h eateto niute fJra exca- Jordan of Antiquities of Department The uk tal. et Lucke ce orsod elt h large the to well corresponds ¨cke) usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning Levant 2012 VOL 44 ¡ ? NO 65, 7). 1 113 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 114 Levant Q8 Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 Q17 Q16 Q15 Q14 Q13 Q12 Q11 Q10 Q9 3–5 akrdsi ihmn ml,wl-one limestones. well-rounded small, rust many red with dark soil of red lot Dark a stones, few 450 very sediment. cutans, soil clay red clay-rich, 430–450 clay-rich, extremely of soil, lot red a Dark with mixed gravels Wadi 370–430 300–370 No. Sample Q18 al olaaye fteuprsdmnsi aiQu Wadi in sediments upper the of analyses Soil 2 Table is charcoal the since age maximum a acquired represents meaning was approxi- it sediments, that date the until this with deposited 4; deposited charcoal Table from been (see AD had 591 m, mately of 5 note consisting to sediments, lower interesting these the is of it part and largest total deep, the m The that 7 dates. is available 4 fill all Table sediment of available. summary as presently a bridge’, far dates presents as the ‘Roman sedimentation with the the possible correlate under to and attempting profile Queilbeh fil valley the of layers fluvial the of Description 1 Table 7–0 aigaeswtotsi eiet cainllre one tns(seemingly stones rounded larger occasional sediment, soil without gravels the Wadi towards increasing sediment, soil some breccia, and 270–300 stones with fluvial gravels indicates Wadi clearly layering rounded, structure rarely crumbly boulders, otherwise flint rounded, limestone, not 240–270 Large rarely stones, stones, fist-sized small many and sediment, medium soil frequent Red with small 180–240 structure many crumbly and sediment, medium-sized soil frequent Red with structure crumbly 90–180 sediment, soil Red 60–90 0–60 Description [cm] Depth z usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 50 0 35 0 33 0 33 0 33 1 33 25 1 25 00 0 20 0 20 0 27 0 27 0 22 0 27 0 20 27 (dry) RR 00 20 90 29 rnetatdwt dithionite with extracted iron uibh( 32 (N Queilbeh n Fe and rsne nTbe2wt ape –8(ah1 cm). 10 sherds (each body 1–18 weathered period. Q Byzantine-Umayyad highly the samples of from with mainly mainly 2 consists Table which in presented 2012 81 agns cuuain u hc r eydiffuse. perhaps very are are areas which darker but groundwater), accumulations periodic manganese to due concretions (iron ietn n ln cmne aigaesdpstdo otlimestone). soft well-rounded on hard, deposited many gravels contains wadi which (cemented lime flint of and matrix limestone a of consisting Bedrock, otr,poal aeRmnEryBznie(?). Byzantine Roman–Early Late probably pottery, ttebnso omrcek,wl-otd elruddsalgaespitn to pointing 30 gravels of small bed well-rounded a well-sorted, with creek), stream former perennial a a of the banks of the discharge at ‘flashy’ a to change a indicating pottery. rounded, stream, rarely stones the top, pottery. absent, nearly sediment soil deposition, pottery. stones, small and medium frequent with pottery. rounded, zone. Plough pottery. Frequent rounded. often stones, C % t ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? org 5 8 250 4 9 744 7 347 7 552 6 353 6 851 7 448 6 649 3 9 433 7 435 8 634 8 536 637 10 7 543 7 449 7 547 3 8 132 436 11 VOL ee otettlcnet fteelements. the of contents total the to refer 44 CaCO % u 40 NO 3 9 1 17 [mg/g] Fe ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? d 8 40 30 80 00 30 80 10 50 40 00 40 70 70 80 50 50 90 60 0 ,E035 [mg/g] Fe n xlt,rsetvl.Mn respectively. oxalate, and ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1 0 413 0 312 0 314 0 312 0 313 0 313 0 215 0 411 80 0 48 0 46 0 58 48 0 311 0 410 0 412 0 312 70 0 411 47 o u 51 6 9 (Fe Fe 0c,ctb h rfl,frtapaac of appearance first profile, the by cut cm, 50 51 d t / /CaCO ? 5 0 2 s) h rt10c eeaaye ntesi a n are and lab soil the in analysed were cm 180 first The asl). m 420 , 3 ) ibh( –8.R sterdesrtn,adFe and rating, redness the is RR 1–18). (Q eilbeh Mn Mn nWd uibha ape ntevle ot fAin of south valley the in sampled as Queilbeh Wadi in l x ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 8148 8 8 164 8 58 133 8 62 128 7 63 132 7 64 139 63 146 77 136 58 3268 8 8 226 8 63 224 7 63 222 8 216 62 8 61 236 8 81 204 8 60 176 56 168 58 175 67 4218 8 211 84 216 65 stemgei susceptility. magnetic the is t d olmxdwt hs eiet,adtedeposition the little and very sediments, is these there with mixed because very soil debris, and is erosion the the it of to deposition context, contributed use this land that In of unlikely earthquakes. amounts flash and the strong huge floods with when connected by probably period buried debris, angular was Byzantine stream Late changed perennial the wadi the during of only character the the of foundations bridge, the aqueduct by given date the to According not / * x ihu igotc n rmmxdcnet,probably contexts, mixed from and diagnostics without - pH E-3 d (1/kg) nsitu in twsntytpsil or to possible yet not was It steMnaeeetatdb ihoie hl Mn while dithionite, by extracted Manganese the is n ol aebe oe hr later). there moved been have could and ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 4 32 24 32 36 2 45 3 25 36 3 26 73 17 3 26 71 59 5 28 71 6 21 69 5 20 74 140 23 1 74 147 1 72 147 3 136 1 155 2 154 8 557 9 3 52 32 55 35 3 26 3 22 42 3 19 75 23 3 21 78 16 4 22 76 24 4 21 75 25 3 24 75 135 6 24 1 72 138 4 21 2 73 135 23 2 73 141 0 73 114 7 152 3 138 2 135 3 105 0 5 42 42 25 6 3 20 22 74 75 154 1 133 4 ( conductivity m S/cm) bridge aqueduct the of foundations and pottery to according Roman–Byzantine Late Dating % Clay lal aetepottery, the date eliably % Silt % Sand d n Fe and % Skeleton o the t Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant h rcino h al.Telyr nietetheatre the inside layers first The walls. a the of after erection fighting of second the in indicates involved theatre a was of repair Ras side of Capitolias/Beit east that the erection and at wall the city larger Damage and and wall, 9). city (Fig. connecting fill walls of theatre sediment layering the clear preserving the the trap, sediment of wall, as acted pressure recon- and city the been despite the had intact of stage remained part the as of structed wall rear the (Kharasneh only Because was chance theatre the by and sediment height discovered The in m River buried. 12 completely reached of the body was deposition the it of of as scale sediment east the well theatre illustrates Jordan, Roman the was which largest theatre, The km second 1). 10 Fig. about see Capitolias, Abila, city of south ancient (the theatre Ras nearby Beit the of in layers debris huge to correspond place likely took and earthquake. probably strong, heavy which a very after — of rainstorms result sudden, the They merely frame. time s seem short a the during occurred at apparently Queilbeh Wadi crossing bridge’ ‘Roman The 5 Figure h aeBznierbl nWd uibhmight Queilbeh Wadi in rubble Byzantine Late The rmtesouth the from tal. et 02 10). 2002, hyloe iefl-s n ol edtdby dated be could and fly-ash like looked fill. the They throughout occurred bands ash Four much 10). 2002, also but (Kharasneh ware, ware Slip material, domestic Byzantine-Umayyad Red African Late and Byzantine-Umayyad as C such Roman pottery, Roman and Late stamped Byzantine-including of Roman mixture and chaotic Roman a Late contained Late they as since Umayyad, dated be roughly indeed events. rainfall were regional this fill heavy that to sediments possible Queilbeh due seems happened it those Wadi action, fluvial by if the deposited to striking: similarity our appears In the sedimentation. for opinion, available which the rubble activity and the human down, made or — earthquake laid necessary an are been the of they assistance have sort which would to in water and manner much Ras the Beit in of stones theatre the of the quantities of large outskirts into such the move rubble to on order slope In a city. of ancient part position a central is at the and which on sediment of movements, amount fluvial this for by unusual deposition to point t fAiai 06we xaaincmecd View commenced. excavation when 2006 in Abila of ite h eiet nteteteo etRscould Ras Beit of theatre the in sediments The uk tal. et Lucke usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning Levant 2012 VOL 44 tal. et 14 NO C, 1 115 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 116 Levant etigo oasadteetbiheto a of establishment the and nomads the of as period Glueck Mandate settling the like process during registration the Scholars land perceived of Harta. (1944) the of Lowdermilk in and village land (1940) connect the how landscape sketch of and to case use attempt land we least, ownership, not Harta but in landscape Last and patterns use land ownership, Land muiltiple on based was AD sediments 667 (approximation and the 521 of cal between part approximately deposited major the that Roughl indicating excavation. after 2008 in bridge’ ‘Roman The 6 Figure 94 n c oe (Larson cores ice and 1994) been has Veil’ ‘Mystery climatic event the climatic world-wide of the for a Evidence plague. caused radi- and famine and sun or chaos, of months eruption reduction 18 volcanic global for a large ation to a led 1–4), collision (1999, asteroid Keys to by ing described Pro as historian AD been Byzantine 536 had sun’ the without which ‘year Veil’ the the ‘Mystery in with seen the that coincided of possible event sedimentation appear climatic of it beginning make the dates These 4). Table usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 2012 otmi ece.Vee rmtesouth the from Viewed reached. is bottom VOL 44 NO ois(es19) Accord- 1999). (Keys copius 1 tal. et on nte ig (Baillie rings tree in found 2008). 14 -ae,see C-dates, fsdmnsrmi ob xaae eoetewadi the before excavated be to remain sediments of m 5 y acse 95,wt h ifrneta ea was Kerak that difference the with 1995), and Lancaster Lancaster 1995; (Tarawneh one Kerak the from with reported agreement different badly, in is a paid ownership to land he of given pattern If be well. might paid land he the if promoted was of number and the and land the the ploughmen, of tribesmen). size fellow the on his Depending (mostly ploughmen to parcels a we ya land the by The owned management. demonstrates was land 15) of system 1889, Ottoman Late (Schumacher Abila of land Mandate and patterns. older Ottoman to the referred essentially both registration ignores that it fact Secondly, place. the in Mandate left conducted the mostly which registration government period, Ottoman land Late the the during of importance underestimates the during firstly, It, registration period). Mandate land British the (the landmark’ ‘mother of the misconception collective a is for however, previously This, ownership, herding. used livestock been land has private that land of over pattern new completely cuahrsrpr fsek ee’ ownership Jeber’s sheikh of report Schumacher’s sheikh sheikh adtxst h government the to taxes paid or mukhtar h distributed who , mukhtar This . Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant eitainatdmil hog the through mainly Ottoman the acted while individuals, registration single used to and parcels existing land the distributed that period difference Mandate important the the with records, rights written ownership pattern, land to oral use transferred land they rather new but a the during introduced registration period land Ottoman nor during period landmark’ Mandate ‘mother the the to Neither tribute tribe. or tax master some pay new to or — became owners who land the ones stronger as for work ploughmen to dependent forced were tribes movements, weaker population how reflected major but or in result use not land the did of on century changes 18th possession the land since plateau in Kerak changes 12– (1995, how Tarawneh outlined to 1894. 29) returned in and only alliance control bridge’ tribal Ottoman ‘Roman strong the a under by bedrock ruled to long excavated trench probe deep The 7 Figure rbsi re oesr htec rb eevdafair a received tribe each that the ensure among to parcels order of in tribes rotation of charac- irregular was system an which by place, tribal terized the in partly old that use the argued land collective be left can registration it TarawnehOttoman land, Therefore, of form 36–38). the in 1995, leader his to gave tribe mukhtars sethe (see sharha rgf hc conquering a which gift or sheikhs and oai rbsstlddw ihtertr fthe of return the with down settled tribes nomadic Wa by Salt of for vicinity reported the been also has pattern This are land. from family which separated the physically Abila, not of but dis- individually vicinity owned the be as fields, in also of visible strips might frequently long e.g. units plots, smaller land into tributed Individual internal land. by regarding but benefits the borders, and duties field distributing in something regulations reflected owners, 20 not to is one up how that have show might maps land cadastral of In the piece paper. Harta, land on of only this case cases the Yet most 1983). in (Dregne ‘mother exists fragmentation erosion the soil manage- and marked land since ment ineffective a in parcels to resulting thus led land landmark’, law of argued inheritance been fragmentation Muslim has It the 41). tribes that 1995, the (Tarawneh from families shifted merely to This rotation. collective the and end use completely not did period Mandate for 106). account 1995, to Tarawneh fertility, (e.g. soil productivity of differences land’s the of share nteKrkpaeu aynmdcadhalf- and nomadic many plateau, Kerak the On the since ownership land private in growth The uk tal. et Lucke usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning hi (1994). ˚hlin Levant 2012 VOL 44 NO 1 117 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 118 Levant 7–0 oreaglrgae ihalto otr n oefs-ie stones fist-sized some and pottery of lot a with gravel angular Coarse sediment. soil red concretions. unclear. 700 Sticky iron stones, features: more reduction few strong A sticky, very ashlar) clay, huge 670–700 Red one (including stones big 635–670 many with gravel 625–635 Coarse 600–625 560–600 9–6 eyhmgnosrdsdmn,fwcas ad e pottery, few sand, coarse few sediment, red clay. homogeneous red Very in sand coarse More but few with clay red into 490–560 changes sediments of character 465–490 The flow. gravels, No coarse stones. well-rounded No many matrix. stones, 440–465 silt angular grey fist-sized a few in A layer charcoal thick A 410–440 mixed fist-sized), (mostly sizes 405–410 all of debris angular silt, grey sand of coarse Mixture some unclear, and weak but activity, fluvial Some 225–405 215–225 et c]CmetDating matrix: red a in stones big of number a with gravel fine and Coarse Comment 0–20 [cm] Depth 0–1 rysilt to Grey well-oriented pottery, and stones angular fist-sized Deeper debris, channels. Coarse root oxidized features: Reduction 200–215 gravel. no silt, Grey sections. side channel the side in mostly 150–200 gravel, the Coarser in much not Is sediment, flow?). Brownish-orange constant but (weak well-sorted 120–150 but gravel, fine 110–120 Very Department 105–110 the to According (channels?). possible sides a the of at collapse 100–105 deeper local mud, to Red related bottom. probably the stones, at coarse gravel of fine Layer some gravels with and sediment stones Reddish coarser few a 95–100 sands, gravels/coarse small very flow. Few reduced water, clay/standing 85–95 Reddish 60–85 45–60 20–45 oenrstlmn n gi onigto pointing former to due again in, is casualties. belief plague the and believe if population of — people without continuity Jordan in resettlement local ruins major modern curse the con- of not probably one the preserving was is with Abila Abila of Kerak, nected exception to The income contrast resettled. of In source today. the important until and an remained basis, animal breeding However, temporary 105–07). 1995, agricultural (Tarawneh a by activities more and on more secured was used livelihood before had been which locations only at 1894, in state Ottoman bridge’, ‘Roman the under sediments of Sequence 3 Table z usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 54 2012 ? 2 0 035 E , navr tcyrdmatrix. red sticky very a in matrix. clayey red a in pottery of lot a and ietn bedrock. Limestone charcoal. stones. a undressed into of changes structure wall well-built The but rounded. rough well sand, coarse omnipresent and vault the protruding with Charcoal. with connected construction. associated stones channel matrix, dressed red of clayey layer in foundation pottery, of lot a – boulders huge many part, floods? allow upper flash to the strong irregular In to too bed. related but river flow, a water of - some formation orientation under no debris sand, of coarse deposition and gravel fine with flow. water indicate to seems lsyadmdyrvrfo,pr rvl lent ihmdpans: mud with alternate gravels pure creek. flow, small river muddy and flashy aifo,poal igesdmnainevent. sedimentation single probably flow, wadi channels? dried-up sides: the at channelling? to due cm), (10–15 sides the at these thicker seems it flow?). As (weak of irrigation. mud sides for with inner perhaps filled the water channels at the built directing been vault, had the channels excavation Antiquities, vault. of larger once a of part standing still partially matrix. clay red in lpws rmdebris. from slopewash VOL 44 u z 52 uhcaca,n tns ornigwtr probably water, running No stones. no charcoal, much 9 16 NO ? 1 9 0 8 asl). 381 , hnes lwlk nteteupr02 cm. 0–20 upper the the in like flow channels, . rsigWd uibhwti h ieo bl N32 (N Abila of site the within Queilbeh Wadi crossing rbbysteady probably o xml,Tl lJr(tehl ftept’ outlines pits’) the of hill (‘the Jor al that Tall topography. appears example, physical it the For to use, related place much in very the we are were they long borders Although how area for and out. names evidence present carried yet was cannot villagers landmark’ the the by which ‘mother on the basis known the tradition, showing as oral their map to units according a land but of ownership, distribution private of cadastral the aerial not map is an This vicinity. with its and combined Harta of names photo place the and village Harta, the by administered territory the of distribution iue1 n al hwteata land actual the show 5 Table and 10 Figure 4 D( AD 240 0hcentury 20th 19th/early late probably 26A ( AD 1206 ODBru JORD 9 D( AD 591 ¡ ¡ ce OSL ¨cke) ¡ 47)(Erl-9940) 36)(Erl-14527) 65)(RF2007 14 C 14 C u 40 9 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant Erl-14527 Erl-9940 Bru JORD RF2007 Queilbeh Wadi Bridge Roman Erl-11141 Erl-11142 z z z Erl-11143 z apenm Delta name Sample Erl-11144 Ras Beit Theatre al umr faldtsd dates all of Summary 4 Table period. the Byzantine during Late formed which topography landscape the related pattern to use land medieval probably, its a, has in distribution origin 1806. land in present found the be that indicates to This were city where, the of area remains an standing of number highest tell, the 372), the (1854, Seetzen at to according core near Abila settlement ancient oldest of ruins the the of Qweilbeh part Khirbet small likely. a very outlines seem past the a of in quarrying existence hamlet the let by which cisterns, characterized large and lands area activities an active around of extends area an t at layers sediment the showing sketch Schematic 8 Figure ¨cke r-33 1581 Erl-13433 r-33 1601 Erl-13431 r-33 1668 Erl-13432 r-33 1401 Erl-13434 tal. et eemndi obe nodrt order in doubles in determined ae hc r urnl vial eeaddi italic in lines added dotted were with connected available were currently els are which dates 2009). 2 2 5OLo urz800 quartz of OSL 95 – 2 2 2 2 21 21 24 24 24 24 ? ? ? ? ? ? 2 hrol1773 charcoal 525 4 0 abnzdoie1480 olive carbonized 200 9 0 3 7 3 13 et c]CmetAeB Error BP Age Comment [cm] Depth C 2 1501 520 1 abnzdolive carbonized 410 2 1378 320 4 1319 240 is hl hre Kasim Khirbet while lips, susd(rbblte nb in (probabilities iscussed osrcintime construction - mortar from seti h aig h ae eeca were dates The dating. the ascertain o . 1742 eWd uibhpol n ne h Rmnbig’ The bridge’. ‘Roman the under and profile Queilbeh Wadi he akt) h sampl The rackets). stoecoet bl,pitt hf towards shift a to point Abila, to close such those units, Large as patterns. small disaggregated by highly characterized near and and mountains region), Kenana Ajloun Beni the the as (such terrain well- watered rocky, on located usually are villages Long-term agricultural semi-farmers. by inhabited would zone Abila/Harta the plateau, match the Kerak the to ownership from land patterns of relates soil classification and his and Applying rainfall fertility. to regard pattern, with position ownership geographical land from deduced be their can tribes of organization economic ,adtepsil orsodn aeso nua grav- angular of layers corresponding possibly the and s, codn aanh(95 0) h oiland social the 106), (1995, Tarawneh According ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ 620A 1–6 (31 214–264 AD 240 36 751A 4–2 (61 547–622 AD 591 47 510 D–- – AD 1206 65 655A 3–2 (64 534–623 AD 585 46 040A 428 AD 490 50 466A 1–7 (68 617–673 AD 646 44 046A 414 AD 456 50 537A 263 AD 347 45 464A 609 AD 624 44 479A 5–1 (50 656–711 AD 709 44 129A 1–0 (67 213–405 AD 259 81 AD/BC age Cal uk tal. et Lucke sfo h har fBi a were Ras Beit of theatre the from es 7–3 (36 273–335 2–3 (6 623–633 478 476 331 4–6 (17 745–766 rbblt im rbblt % probability Sigma 2 % probability Sigma 1 irtdacrigt nCl9(Reimer IntCal09 to according librated – – – – – – – 3 (34 534 7 (0 477 2 (62 425 3 (68 535 7 (32 470 7 (5 276 6 (68 661 usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning Levant ? ? ? 5) )343 5) )253 8) ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 7) 6) 8) 9) )4244(18 432–494 1) 5) )386 3) )5071(91 580–711 3) 8) )8–3 (93 82–436 1) )564 3) 6) 7) 3–4 (94 133–346 2–5 (85 529–653 3–4 (72 539–644 4–7 (94 640–778 2012 – – – – 6 (95 568 9 (95 594 4 (86 441 8 (95 684 ? 3) VOL ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 5) 1) 4) 4) 1) 9) 7) 6) 4) 7) 44 NO 1 119 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 120 Levant .Teei oidcto htln s lyda played use land that indication no is There 2. during occurred change landscape significant A 1. pattern: following the revealed results Our Discussion findings. history, our with settlement agreement the in of is which point some at Ras Beit pastoralism of theatre the burying Sediments 9 Figure usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 0 07)pit u,acag oad more towards change a out, points 70–77) 44, 50, (2005, Seuffert and As onwards. earthquakes period Late Byzantine the from of aridity increasing of role proof — floods indicated from clearly apart — is the it to Queilbeh, Wadi 28–33) in fill (2005, valley Seuffert the of model the Applying fills. valley the of deposition the for role significant stable. these largely After appears rubble. landscape the deposited events, the the to of regard with part least half major at AD, second century the 6th the during of rapidly have very might place of deposition taken the theatre that the ground- indicate in Ras the Beit sediments of Similar is lowering table. a which water in and fill period, valley Queilbeh huge a Byzantine Wadi of deposition late the by the reflected after or 2012 VOL 44 NO 1 .Teei oidcto htteln was land the that indication no is There 3. iereoin( as ( erosion erosion rains, linear area convective more result more in will conditions, to arid more for switch characteristic a fill, valley a since of deposition the by materialize Abila must of vicinity the like environment an in aridity opeeyaadnd h eiKnn district Kenana Beni The abandoned. completely AD. century 7th early and 6th late the approximately in years during 100 and heavy mainly floods, occurred strong very possibly very some caused to that points rainstorms debris sedimen- its This that for role tation. unlikely significant a seems apparent played it use the land deposition, and of Queilbeh, time Wadi short the in the of of fill light part valley lower vegetation the the constituting in the debris but massive clearing erosion, since area promotes aridity, climatic a to of those to shift effects land similar Intense have Queilbeh. can Wadi use in as such a fill, a of a huge establishment is the and in for erosion pre-condition linear results possible the which of weakening drops, further table groundwater Linienerosion Fla ¨chenerosion .I diin the addition, In ). n less and ) Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant iue1 i htgaho h iiiyo at ihln div land with Harta of vicinity the of photograph Air 10 Figure htAiawsrdcdt ua ilg or village rural a periods, Islamic to the during reduced encampment seems pastoral was It a Abila agriculture. not that of but strategies, abandonment use general land pastoral between agricultural of shifts and and variations density strong population experienced apparently nsme 00 cl :500(o geo-referenced) (not 1:25,000 scale 2000, summer in fte‘ohrlnmr’ i ht c photo Air landmark’. ‘mother the of uts fteRylGorpi Centr Geographic Royal the of ourtesy so kthdacrigto according sketched ision iut fpaenmsadbidns uha the of as such proof buildings, con- and the names direct place period, of have Fatimid tinuity the not period. during do settlement Mamluk to we the shifted Although during and settlement town prominent a of prosperous became which centre Hubras, the nearby that and uk tal. et Lucke fJra,poon.15,taken 1458, no. photo Jordan, of e usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning lc ae sda h basis the as used names place Levant 2012 VOL 44 NO 1 121 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 122 Levant .Atog otata rbscamt have to claim tribes actual most Although 5. older much seems pattern use land current The 4. blAo h oe fAkol of Columns Ropes the The Qweilbeh of of Mother Hamlet The The Qweilbeh Land Spring Khirbet Rocky the The Amad of Al Qweilbeh Orchards Umm of The wellspring Pipet Orchards Treitab dropping The (literally) Akol Hbal Mangroves AlHajih ‘Ain Basatein Drum the Qweilbeh of Basatein Mother Bee The the Dawageer of Al Mother Breaker Town The Stone The AlKattarah Kasim Treitab of Hamlet The Aligram Castle of Tablah Mother WaterfallsUmm The of Valley Nahleh The most Umm means killed) the Aleksarah (literally Albalad Kasim Pits Khirbet the Olives of Olives Cape Hill AlShallaleh Unripe The The Wadi Spindels The the of Kal’ah Mortar Pits Umm Ropes the The The of Olives The Almagateel AlBurnos Zeitoun Alajrah Zeitoun AlMadag Zeitoun Jor Al One Chisel-user Tall High The The Outer Mjadil Alghotoos Southern Jor Abu The Southern The Outer Alghotoos Alhibal Northern Abu The Aljanoobi Northern Alghotoos The Abu Alshamali Alghotoos Abu Aljanoobi Detained Kharij and the Al Mortar of the Cave Alshamali of The Kharij Slopes Al The Alnaggar Tree Valley Oleander Higher ‘Olah Valley The The Al Prison Dune the Sand of Orchards Tree The Turpentine Madag The Al Khalayil Garden The Habeis Al Iraq Alsijin Wadi Basatein ‘Olah Al Mill Batain the of Straight Doflayeh The Al Layer Lineage the David’s Argoub of of Al Irrigation Mill The Nassrah The of Layer Albodmah The Aljinaineh Translation/Meaning Mathanah al Zoor Dawood Mathanat Tabagah Al Sigi territory Nasrah the Tabgat in meaning name their Place and names Place 5 Table usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning irtdt h raa oetm nterecent the in time some at area the to family migrated current with found be patterns. ownership still this can of Remnants pattern tribes. the by organized collec- to use a land back by tive characterized is dates and probably period Crusader pattern written The to rights files. oral divisions transferred land essentially older and reused registration registration. land land This Mandate the by suggested than of history fiction’. ‘archaeological settlement an the is the Jordan in 183), (1987, vacuum Walmsley assumed to According abandon- total ment. against argue Hubras, at mosque fHra(e i.10). Fig. (see Harta of 2012 VOL 44 fHajih of Depression) Kattarah (The Wasteland the probably Pestle NO 1 .Orcs td rudAiaidctsta there that indicates Abila around study case Our 7. farmers, between distinction clear no is There 6. hc per usinbei h ih of light the in questionable 485–88), appears 1985, by 59; cities which 1984, Decapolis (Smith the authors of various demise as used the been explain such had and to see Qays, cities Umm earthquake and Sea, in Jerash latter Pella, damage Dead The considerable the 79). epicentres caused of 2004, their shore had Migowski northern both the and 7 at AD at scale, 747 the estimated Richter the of was on strength higher the earthquake and and 8 scale, of Richter strength had a earthquake AD estimated 551 an stronger (the AD was 747 in earthquake one than AD 551 the evidence, etr n52ad51A seas Migowski also 7 (see fig. AD 76–79, 551 2004, and 6th 502 the in during 30/ century occurred period two the and AD, for BC–757 texts 31 earthquakes historical large in 13 attested are 229–35), (1985, probably and Zuhair According was to Queilbeh earthquakes. Ras, and Wadi Beit war with of in connected theatre fill The the in valley time. debris huge this deposition the the at for of sediments the region the of explain the mobilization could of Roman- which the flourishing during period, available Byzantine water more was down. settle to right urbanized were increasingly conditions once an society into turned shows, history tribes modern the as and fluid, were those groups between and of borders farming the and in population husbandry animal both rural involved was The Transjordan of city-dwellers Abila. the for ancient case the the to been have belong might that not said be did of only group populations can it village Kerak, of the case the put for 121) it (1995, Lancaster the and Lancaster in As area. nomads and semi-nomads, semi-farmers, monuments. Roman-Byzantine who the population erected original Arabian the the with from than peninsula migrated it who identify ancestors to case, Jordan with in any popular more In is it that Obeidat. seems dominant Burckhardt today’s by are reported Obeid’ the whether ‘Beni ascertain legendary to unable At are tribes. we new point, this forming and tribes, migrating with mixing the masters, new depen- the as for ploughmen place dent the in that remained assume population to reason original much is conquered there tribe area, new the a when changed land ownership how Considering population. remnants original no the are of there that unlikely seems it past, Hadhari cvlzdubnscey,which society), urban (civilized ? ) codn oteseismic the to According 7). ? 0–7 ? nthe on 4 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant .Coeraigo ete’ 15)adBurckhardt’s and (1854) Seetzen’s of reading Close 8. naiat eea h itrpsueo their of pasture winter the the because at travellers were the inhabitants villages to some century. ‘empty’ that 18th appeared suggested late 211) the irrigation (1987, in Shami perhaps summer ago, probably of long breakdown died, not a had of groves because many although farmed, was villages abandoned of apparently vicinity many the in land that indicates reports (1823) it part upper rubbish. its still only in trapped should But sediments. theatre the trapped buried although have the later with ceased depression because sedimentation events, rainfall the extreme defences, of and city’s cluster trap, a the sediment with of strong sufficiently part a a creating to with connected conversion is Ras its Beit at the theatre that the by think of burial We buried sediment). not of knowledge amounts Philadelphia/ similar our in to one were the Amman, as be similar such should a position, in relief theatres it ancient other (although that remarked processes ‘normal’ due The been to rain- have activity. might the theatre the human of of disappearance and contribution earthquakes the climate, storms, current quantify the to to and regard with would ‘normal’ frequency is which be It assess Ras. to in Beit possible of yet sediments not theatre the the and of Queilbeh deposition Wadi of probably the vicinity were in the magnitude involved in such hail of Events m the to 1 Irbid. and of about river, of flooding Yarmouk deposition the to over a led bridge how railway once belt. witnessed rainstorm desert 314–15) heavy the in (1913, unusual Schumacher not are events deposition. to of Such point agents Abila as near rainfalls fill of heavy valley torrential theatre the the in and in Ras sediments Beit of layering the debris. Both of context mobilization probable the a wars is for AD, century Byzantine-Sassanian 6th the the during this, with that think combined We environs 24). 2001, the (Wineland Abila for could of archaeologically and 44–46), confirmed 1985, be (Russell Palestine Syria and in damage AD considerable 551 caused earthquake the to AD), (1081–118 and According Cedrenus AD) Georgius (758–817 2008). at Theophanes of Qays, chronicles observations the Umm abandoned (field and been earthquake Jerash already had the sites before the layers of that debris indicating part columns, of fallen light the of the some below in and 114–15), 1987, usata bai res Abbasid substantial tlmn (Walmsley ettlement opoieafaeokwti hc l human all which out. carried within be to framework have activities a seems water provide of availability the to to The back least. traced at be era can Crusader and settlement old, existing very the The seems no today. pattern from area is different the in there greatly living tribes were Abila, they Byzantine that of indication inhabitants descendants the the trace of directly not could we Although Conclusion omt iiiain,i isdEuropean biased a is only that civilizations, perspective. bringing clear as to Bedouin, seems doom the it of view But Glueck’s descended nomads. are settled today, Jordanians until from of majority Jordan the of since state. development the the of pered authority supreme Hu the accept the reluctant to lived and unskilled, were despised still work, They physical life. hard settlers of way pastoral new a the of traditions these on but hand, population, other steady rural a was of there hand, replenishment one the On areas. unculti- vated of resettlement the for a role played double-edged nomads by the that acquisition noted He the land tribes. settling are collective Jordan repeated of of result areas rural pasture. most and dominating wells to access Hu or flocks their they when lost settle to forced always were tribes Poor 54). (Hamarneh 1987, moving often simply could by taxed taxes group paying were latter evade the nomads since and unevenly Farmers very settle. incentive strong to a not been however, have the time taxation, some of for might Ottoman settlement nomads. the desert controlled neither forces nor Ottoman of initiated presence pointed the (1994) that Johns out and 52) However, (1987, 29). Hamarneh 1890, Schumacher (Abujaber 163–64; Ajloun of 1989, district the the of for step development important very a was al-Arab 1840s Wadi the during the the of vicinity of of the in annihilation tribe process al-Sa’aidi the example, the for supported settlement: of garrisons establishment The Ottoman they taxes. because paying ownership avoided to had claim tribes. land their Arab ‘empty’ lost the of They in expropriation fact, government in meant, Ottoman the refugees by possessor Circassian of settlement without the how showed land no (Hu was There herds. teoh(97 24)asmdta hsham- this that assumed 42–44) (1987, ¨tteroth fields long the that proposed (1968) ¨tteroth teoh18,4) bjbr(99 205) (1989, Abujaber 40). 1987, ¨tteroth uk tal. et Lucke usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning Levant 2012 VOL 44 NO 1 123 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 124 Levant togai vn a dnie nteEnGd core Gedi Ein the in 1 identified between was event arid (Migowski strong time conditions this drier during to points 2004; chemistry sediment (Ken-Tor) lake the (Bookman period Migowski Byzantine the during late levels hand, high one very reached the temporarily on least which, at level, lake the (Migoswki of fluctuations Sea the from reconstructions Dead climate context, that this remarkable during is In it period transition. dry Byzantine-Umayyad a of the conclusion the support 2011) al. et plague 1999). (Keys triggered pests have and 1985) also and (Ghawanmeh might heavy change very Climate 4). of 1– 1999, occurrence (Keys events precipitation the convective frequent and to 1994) (Baillie led AD 536 probably in area large Veil’ a ‘Mystery affected the that of event climatic the been with have connected could change climate The area. the have of general decline the the to during may contributed probably wars which rubble century, and 6th earthquakes this rubble major of with huge started of mobilization deposition The the layers. and/or to intensity led high that of This frequency events rainfall period. heavy accompa- by Byzantine or nied preceded Late seemingly was the change climatic after marke and a during Wadi suggests in fill valley The Queilbeh fill. are valley these the that under and buried period, now Byzantine the in Abila near in favourable springs more gravels existed there a of that suggests distribution Queilbeh to Wadi the context, the due this during mainly In region climate. was the period of flourishing Byzantine the that (2004) odtos hystlddw,wihautomatically control. which government down, improved ecological settled improving they which with conditions, agriculture, connected of probably benefits once was the round: realized way other tribes the controlled the was nor It government. initiated the neither by the of was of settling tribes the powerful However, result over- land. and the the government of exploitation the were of determination Transjordan missing lacking and of depopulation development Europeans, many of the In eyes economies. from semi-pastoral resulted of partially foreign perceptions had biased of error work His the powers. central was Transjordan in civilization proposed indications. as these period, rainfall with consistent drier heavy is generally above, occasional a of during pattern events a that suggest te eetciaercntutos(Bar-Matthews reconstructions climate recent Other Hirschfeld of conclusion the match results Our lek(90 a rn hnh sue that assumed he when wrong was (1940) Glueck usinn rnjra’ itrcDesertification Historic Transjordan’s Questioning 98 Orland 1998; 2012 ? tal et n 0 and 5 06 2,fi.3.O h te hand, other the On 3). fig. 425, 2006, . VOL 44 ? y P(Heim BP kyr 4 tal. et NO tal. et 09 aba n Black and Rambeau 2009; 1 hf oad aridity towards shift d tal. et 06 on strong found 2006) 06 2)ada and 426) 2006, tal. et 97.We 1997). b h’,H h (1995) Gh. H. Sha’r, Abu the Bibliography anonymous improve three to and helped considerably. are manuscript comments we Editor least, whose Hon. not reviewers the but to Last support. grateful their for for of Jordan Antiquities Excavation of Department Abila the and cooperation, the their OSL-dating, providing Goedicke buried for Christian Queilbeh, the Wadi of in bridge measuring aqueduct geoelectrical for Jaradat the Rasheed thank conducting to acknowl- like the gratefully would we we from Also, edge. which grant 1637/4-1) SCHM a BA no. 2107/2-1, grant by (DFG, foundation supported research German was research This Acknowledgements atdieso rnjra’ eteethistory. settlement impor- Transjordan’s most of the think drivers indeed tant we were strategies, variations subsistence climate that of peoples, shifts of going merely and but did coming the history mean settlement primarily in not changes the this that history. Repeating its settlement of the subsequently (2004), variations of and Zohar environment determined culture and fluctuations Issar and climatic to strategies According survival deter- inhabitants. environment the biased Transjordan’s mined and that of unfair suggested harshness He to the culture. led Levantine of had assessments foreigners’ of somehow views was during that was era. it use level Roman-Byzantine intensity, the land present a the historic with reached comparable any have if during might However, Glueck sacred’ was times. practices. soil ‘the Roman that modern believed 128) with (1968, seem these no compared that had use but minor land history, that during say impacts survival to negative not allowed is This and strategies millennia. sustainable, for use more land much traditional seem The monoculture Lucke artificial 1986; 199–200). to (Shoup the 2008, drylands the due to in herds due of risk watering overgrazing for fire and pastures drought), reforestation, reserve of kept of (which times machinery, loss grazing of traditional heavy pumping, the system of of to abandonment use due biodiversity, unwise depletion problem, the groundwater modern by a merely created seems connected contrast, In degradation was areas. land some This of strategies, reforestation pastoralism. natural subsistence with of to shift the farming a but from to degradation, led climate land drier man-made for evidence amn(98 0)rmre htte‘childish the that remarked 209) (1928, Dalman no is there view of point environmental an From Nashr. 1850 – 1928 .Biu:a-usaaa-rby i-iaa wa-al- lil-Dirasat al-Arabiya al-Muassasa Beirut: M. . ri aJwrh NhytBn ‘Obeid) Bani (Nahiyat Jiwaruha wa Irbid Hima - Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant rge .(1983) H. 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Isis Istanbul: . gr .Kezi n .Uhlig H. and Krenzlin A. ¨ger, utrayResearch Quaternary nice Geographischen ¨nkischen odn rts Academic British London: . ilg,Sep n State. and Steppe Village, le,K .WlkadK. and Welck v. K. ¨lger, siaudTransjordanien und ¨stina 2012 ¨ller. — dA al-Kanadari. A. ed , 54 doi:10 35/4, ahntnDC: Washington . niomn and Environment odn Victor London: . aihInQadi Ibn Tarikh elte fthe of Newletter otn&New & Boston . olm n – und ¨oklima VOL nrSedimente ¨ner etcrf des Zeitschrift asd Proche du ¸ais 44 Geological 63 421– 66/3, ¨ln. . 1029/ NO 1 . . 125 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Council for British Research in the Levant uk tal. et Lucke 126 Levant (1890) — Decapolis. the of Abila (1889) G. Schuhmacher, Ba B., Lucke, M., Schmidt, clctn,E,Bue .P n th,K (1995) K. Stahr, and Early H.-P. the Blume, in E., Palestine/Jordan Schlichting, of archaeology The (1998) and R. Palestine Schick, of chronology earthquake The (1985) W. K. Russell, (2007) A. Rosen, (1837) G. 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