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Evolution of as a discipline pdf

Continue Get full access to Churchill's archive on a simple level, history matters because it's useful. History is a powerful tool for developing analytical thinking and good communication. It is no coincidence that many people, studying history, become lawyers, accountants, journalists and business leaders. In short, history develops important skills - analysis, evaluation, argument, the use of evidence and communication - all of which are very useful in many other areas of life, as well as the study of history. Churchill himself was a historian and wrote many books on history. Perhaps the two most famous were his history of English-speaking peoples and his series of World War II books. British troops, Royal Marine Commandos, moved inland from Sword Beach on the Normandy coast during the invasion of France in June 1944. (Photo: Hulton Archive/Getty Images) Want to enlarge, download or print any of the following documents? Schools can take advantage of additional functionality by registering for free access to Churchill's full archive here. Churchill also used his skills as a historian to become a very successful journalist who was in great demand. Available to view with free access to Churchill's archive: View letters from P Watt and Son, literary agents, about the possible publication in the of the volume of WSC articles on a deeper level than finding a job and making a living, history matters just like any subject matter. It is a worthwhile activity that has value for oneself, just as English, math, or geography matter to oneself. History also matters because when it's done properly it's not the body of knowledge that will be studied - it's a discipline in which historians take what's left of the and try to build the most faithful and reliable account of what they think happened. Churchill was no exception in this regard, although, as shown in the document below, Churchill's work has been thoroughly researched, but many of these studies have not been done by Churchill himself! In many ways this writing is a perfect illustration of the length that historians go when piecing together the stories they write. - the process of classifying the past into discrete, quantitative, named blocks of to promote the study and analysis of history - is always arbitrary and rooted in specific regional perspectives, but serves to organize and organize historical knowledge. Analyze the complexities inherent in splitting history with the aim of academic research at Key Takeaways Key Points, the question of what queries are presented by historians, what knowledge they seek, and how they interpret the evidence they find remains debatable. Historians draw conclusions from past approaches to but at the end of the , they always write in context own time, current dominant ideas on how to interpret the past, and even subjective points of view. All events that are remembered and preserved in one form or another, make up a historical history. The task of historians is to identify the sources that can most usefully contribute to the creation of accurate records of the past. These sources, known as primary sources or evidence, were prepared at the time and form the basis of a historical investigation. Periodization is the process of classifying the past into discrete, quantitatively named blocks of time in order to facilitate the study and analysis of history. This leads to descriptive abstractions that provide convenient conditions for periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. All periodicization systems are arbitrary. The common common schism between the backstory, ancient history, the Middle Ages, modern history and modern history is the Western division of the largest blocks of time, agreed by Western historians. Even within this generally accepted division, however, the prospect of specific national events and experiences is often shared by Western historians, since some periodicization labels will only apply to specific regions. The study of world history has become a separate academic field for the study of history from a global perspective, rather than solely the national point of view of the study. However, the field is still grappling with the inherently Western periodization. World historians use a thematic approach to look for common patterns that arise in all cultures. The periodization of world history, however imperfect and biased, serves as a way of organizing and systemizing knowledge. Periodization of key terms: the process or study of the classification of the past into discrete, quantitatively named blocks of time to promote the study and analysis of history. This leads to descriptive abstractions that provide convenient conditions for periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. However, the exact beginning and end of any period is usually arbitrary. World History: (Also Global History or Transnational History): Originated as a separate academic field in the 1980s. It looks at history from a global perspective. World history should not be confused with comparative history, which, like world history, is devoted to the history of different cultures and nations, but does not do so on a global scale. World history defines the common patterns that arise in all cultures. Source: Source information on the topic. When studying history as an academic discipline, the original sources include an artifact, document, diary, manuscript, autobiography, record or other source of information that created during the study. The word history comes ultimately from ancient Greek history, that is knowledge from the investigation, or the judge. However, the question of what queries historians pose, what knowledge they seek, and how they interpret the evidence they find remains debatable. Historians draw conclusions from past approaches to history, but in the end, they always write in the context of their time, current dominant ideas on how to interpret the past, and even subjective points of view. In addition, current events and events often cause what past events, historical periods or geographic regions are considered critical and thus should be investigated. Finally, historical research is designed to provide concrete lessons for modern societies. According to the Italian philosopher and historian Benedetto Croce, the whole history is modern history. All events that are remembered and preserved in one form or another, make up a historical history. The task of historians is to identify the sources that can most usefully contribute to the creation of accurate records of the past. These sources, known as primary sources or evidence, were prepared at the time and form the basis of a historical investigation. Ideally, the historian would use as much information available as possible, but in practice sources may be destroyed or unavailable for research. In some cases, the only eyewitness reports of the may be memoirs, autobiographies or oral interviews taken later. Sometimes the only evidence concerning an event or a person in the distant past has been written or copied decades or centuries later. Historians remain cautious when dealing with evidence recorded years, or even decades or centuries, after an event; such evidence raises the question of the extent to which witnesses accurately remember events. However, historians also note that hardly any historical evidence can be considered as objective, as they are always the product of specific personalities, and dominant ideas. This is why researchers are trying to find as many investigative records as possible, and it is not uncommon that they find evidence that may provide conflicting reports on the same events. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be divided into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved. Historians often consult with all three. Periodization is the process of classifying the past into discrete, quantitative, named blocks of time to promote the study and analysis of history. This leads to descriptive abstractions that provide convenient conditions for periods of time with relatively stable characteristics. To the extent that history is continuous and cannot be summarized, all systems of periodization are arbitrary. determining the exact beginning and end of any period is also arbitrary decisions. After all, the labels of periodization are a reflection of very specific cultural and geographical perspectives, as well as specific sub-drinking or themes of history (e.g. military history, social history, political history, intellectual history, cultural history, etc.). Therefore, not only do blocks of periodization inevitably intersect, but they also often seem to contradict or contradict each other. Some have cultural uses (The Gilded ), others refer to outstanding historical events (inter-war years: 1918-1939), and others are defined by the decimal system of the aperibles (1960s, 17th century). Other periods are named after influential people whose influence may or may not extend beyond certain geographical regions (Victorian , Edwardian era, Napoleonic era). Western Historical Periods The common schism between prehistory (before written history), ancient history, the Middle Ages, modern history and modern history (history in living memory) is the Western division of the largest blocks of time, agreed upon by Western historians and representing a Western point of view. For example, the history of Asia or Africa cannot be clearly classified after these periods. Even within this largely accepted division, however, the prospect of specific national events and experiences is often shared by Western historians, since some periodicization labels will only apply to specific regions. This is especially true of labels derived from individuals or ruling dynasties, such as the Jackson era in the United States or the Meroving period in France. Cultural terms may also have limited, even if larger, coverage. For example, the concept of a romantic period is largely meaningless outside europe and cultures influenced by Europe; even in these areas, different European regions may celebrate the beginning and end of Romanticism in different ways. Similarly, the 1960s, while technically applicable to anywhere in the world under the of measurement, has a certain set of specific cultural connotations in some countries, including sexual revolution, counterculture, or youth rebellion. However, in some regions (for example, in Spain under the authoritarian regime of Francisco Franco) they never appeared. Some historians also note that the 1960s, as a descriptive historical period, actually began in the late 1950s and ended in the early 1970s, because the cultural and economic conditions that defined the meaning of the period dominated longer than the actual decade of the 1960s. Petrarch Andrea del Castagno. Petrarch, an Italian poet and thinker, conceived the idea of a European dark age which later turned into a tripartite Western history in the ancient, Middle Ages and The Modern. While world history (also referred to as global history history) transnational history) originated as a separate academic field of historical research in the 1980s in order to study history from a global perspective rather than solely the national point of view of the investigation, it still struggles with the inherently Western periodization. The general schisms used in the design of comprehensive world history courses at the college level (and thus also used in history textbooks, which are usually divided into volumes covering pre-time and modern ) continue to be the result of some historical events presented in terms of the Western world and specific national experience. However, even the schism between the enlightened and modern epochs is problematic, as it is complicated by the question of how history educators, textbook authors and publishers decide to classify what is known as the early modern era, which traditionally is the period between the Renaissance and the end of the Enlightenment. After all, whether the early modern era is included in the first or part of the world history course, often offered in American colleges, is a subjective decision by history teachers. As a result, the same questions and options apply to history textbooks written and published for American audiences. World historians use a thematic approach to identify common patterns that emerge across all cultures, with two main focal points: integration (how the processes of world history have brought the world's people together) and difference (how models of world history show the diversity of human experience). The periodization of world history, however imperfect and biased, serves as a way of organizing and systemizing knowledge. Without it, history would be nothing more than a disjointed event without a framework to help us understand the past. Dates and While different calendars have been designed and used over millennia, cultures and geographic regions, the Western Historical Scholarship has combined standards for the definition of dates based on the dominant Gregorian . Compare and compare the various calendars and how they affect our understanding of the history of key takeaway points The first recorded calendars date back to the Bronze Age, including egyptian and Sumerian calendars. More calendar systems of the Ancient Middle East became available in the Iron Age and were based on the . A large number of Greek calendars also developed in classical Greece and influenced calendars outside the immediate sphere of Greek influence, which gave rise to various Hindu calendars, as well as the . Despite the various calendars used over millennia, cultures and geographic regions, the Western Historical Scholarship has combined standards based on the dominant . Julius Caesar implemented a radical change in the timekeeping system. The New 's 709 AUC started on January 1 and ran for 365 days until December 31. Further adjustments were made in accordance with August, which introduced the concept of in 737 AUC (4 CE). As a result, the remained almost universal in Europe until 1582. The Gregorian calendar, also called the Western Calendar and the Christian Calendar, is the most widely used civilian calendar to date. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582. The calendar was refined to the Julian calendar, amounting to 0.002% of the year-long correction. While the European Gregorian calendar eventually dominated the world and historiography, a number of other calendars formed timekeeping systems that are still influential in some regions of the world. These include the , various Hindu calendars and the Mayan calendar. The calendar era, which is often used as an alternative name for the long-accepted /before the Christ system is a common or current epoch, is abbreviated to CE. Although both systems are a generally accepted standard, the system of the common era is more neutral and comprehensive non-Christian. Key terms of the Islamic calendar: (also a Muslim calendar or hijri calendar): a consisting of 12 per year 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in many Muslim countries (simultaneously with the Gregorian calendar), and is used by Muslims around the world to determine the proper days on which to observe annual fasting, attend the hajj, and celebrate other Islamic holidays and festivals. The first year is 622 AD, during which time emigrated from Mecca to Medina, known as Hijra. Anno Domini: A medieval that means the year of the Lord, but often translates as the year of our Lord. Dionysius Axigus of Little Scythia introduced a system based on this concept in 525, counting the years since the birth of Christ. Mayan Calendar: A system of calendars used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and in many modern communities in the Guatemalan Highlands, Veracruz, Oahaca and Chiapas, Mexico. Its foundations are based on a system that has been in general use throughout the region dating back to at least the fifth century BC. It shares many aspects with calendars occupied by other earlier Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the fogging and olmeck, as well as with modern or later calendars such as the Mixtec and Aztec calendars. Julian Calendar: Calendar introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC (708 AD), which was a reform of the Roman calendar. It came into force in 45 BC (AUC 709), shortly after the Roman conquest of . It was calendar in the Roman world, much of Europe, and in European settlements in America and other countries until it was refined and gradually gradually Gregorian calendar proclaimed in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582. The calendar was refined to the Julian calendar, amounting to 0.002% of the year-long correction. Timekeeping methods can be reconstructed during the prehistoric period, at least during the Neolithic period. Natural units for timekeeping are used by most historical societies day, sunny year, and lunation. The first recorded calendars date back to the Bronze Age and include Egyptian and Sumerian calendars. More calendar systems of the Ancient Middle East became available in the Iron Age and were based on the Babylonian calendar. One of them was the persian empire calendar, which in turn gave birth to the calendar, as well as the Jewish calendar. A large number of Greek calendars were developed in classical Greece and influenced calendars outside the immediate sphere of Greek influence. They gave birth to various Hindu calendars, as well as an ancient Roman calendar, which contained very ancient remains before the Etruscan ten- solar year. The Roman calendar was reformed by Julius Caesar in 45 BC, the Julian calendar was no longer dependent on the observation of the new moon, but simply followed the algorithm of the introduction of a leap day every four years. This created a calendar month dissociation from lunation. The Gregorian calendar was introduced as a refinement of the Julian calendar in 1582 and today is used worldwide as an actual calendar for secular purposes. Despite the various calendars used over millennia, cultures and geographic regions, the Western Historical Scholarship combined date-setting standards based on the dominant Gregorian calendar. No matter what historical period or geographic areas Western historians explore and write, they adjust the dates from the original timekeeping system to the Gregorian calendar. Sometimes some historians decide to use both dates: dates recorded on the original calendar and date adjusted for the Gregorian calendar, easily recognizable to a Western history student. The Julian Calendar Old Roman Year was 304 days divided into ten months starting in March. However, an ancient historian, Livi, paid tribute to the second Roman king, Numa Pompilius, for developing a calendar of twelve months. Additional months of Ianuarius and Februarius were invented, presumably Numa Pompilious, as stop-gaps. Julius Caesar realized that the system had become unworkable, so he made radical changes in the year of his third since the founding of the city of Rome ) began on January 1 and ran for 365 days until December 31. Further adjustments were made in accordance with August, which introduced the concept of leap year in 737 AUC (4 CE). As a result, the Julian calendar remained almost universal in Europe until 1582. Marcus Terentiy Varro presented the era of , suggesting the founding of Rome in 753 BC The system remained in use in the early medieval period until the widespread adoption of the Dionysian era in the Carolingian period. The seven-day has a tradition dating back to the Ancient Middle East, but the introduction of the planetary week, which remains in modern use, dates back to the Roman Period. The Gregorian calendar, also called the Western Calendar and the Christian Calendar, is the most widely used civilian calendar to date. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582. The calendar was refined to the Julian calendar, amounting to 0.002% of the year-long correction. The motivation for the reform is to stop the drift of the calendar against the equinox and solstice, especially the vernal equinox, which sets the date of The Passover celebration. The transition to the Gregorian calendar will restore the holiday to the time of year in which it was celebrated when it was introduced by the early Church. The reform was initially adopted by the Catholic countries of Europe. Protestants and Orthodox countries continued to use the traditional Julian calendar and eventually adopted Gregorian reform for the sake of convenience in international trade. The last European country to adopt the reform was Greece in 1923. The first page of the papal bull Inter Gravisimas, on which Pope Gregory XIII presented his calendar. Between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to specify a date in both the Julian calendar and the Gregorian calendar. Even before 1582, this year sometimes met twice because of different beginnings of the year in different countries. Calendars outside Europe While the European Gregorian calendar eventually dominated the world and historiography, a number of other calendars have formed timekeeping systems that are still influential in some regions of the world. The Islamic calendar defines the first year in 622 AD, during which Muhammad emigrated from Mecca to Medina, known as the Hijra. It is used to date events in many Muslim countries (simultaneously with the Gregorian calendar), and is used by Muslims around the world to determine the proper days in which to observe and celebrate Islamic religious practices (such as fasting), holidays and festivals. Various Hindu developed in the medieval period with the of the Gupta era as a common base. Some of the most famous regional Hindu calendars include the Nepalese calendar, the Assam calendar, the Bengali calendar, the Malaylam calendar, the , Vikrama Samwat (used in Northern India) and the Shalivahan calendar. A common feature of all regional Hindu calendars is that the names of twelve months are the same (because the names are based on Sanskrit), although spelling and pronunciation have been slightly different from region to region for thousands of years. The month that starts the year also varies from region to region. The and traditional lunar-solar calendars of , , , and are also based on an older version of the . Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Mayans and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex. The Mayan Calendar had two years, a 260-day Holy Round, or tsolkin, and a 365-day Foggy Year, or Haab. The basics of the Mayan calendar are based on a system that has been prevalent throughout the region since at least the fifth century BC. It shares many aspects with calendars used by other earlier Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the fogg and olmeck, and modern or later calendars such as the Mixtec and Aztec calendars. The Mayan calendar is still used in many modern communities in the Guatemalan Highlands, Veracruz, Oahaca and Chiapas, Mexico. The Islamic calendar stamp issued at King Khaled airport (10 Rajab 1428 / July 24, 2007) The first year was the Islamic year beginning in 622 AD, during which there was an emigration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, known as Hijra. Each numbered year is designated either H for hijra or AH for Latin Anno Hegirae (in hijra year). That's why Muslims usually call their calendar a hijri calendar. Anno Domini v. Common Era Terms anno Domini (AD) and before Christ (BC) are used to refer to or number of years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term Anno Domini is medieval Latin, which means in the year of the Lord, but often translates as in the year of our Lord. Sometimes it is set more fully, like anno Domini nostri Iesu (or Jesu Christi (in the year of our Lord Christ). This calendar era is based on the traditionally recognized year of conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting the years after the beginning of this epoch and BC, denoting years before the beginning of the epoch. Alternatively of anno Domini is a common era or current era, abbreviated CE. The system uses BCE as an acronym until the general (or current) era. The CE/BCE designation uses the same numerical values as the AD/BC system, so the two designations (CE/BCE and AD/BC) are numerically equivalent. The expression Common Era can be found as early as 1708 in English and dates back to Latin use among European Christians until 1615 as vulgaris aerae, and until 1635 in English as a vulgar era. Since the late 20th century, the use of CE and BCE have been popularized in scientific and scientific publications, and more generally by authors and publishers wanting to emphasize secularism or sensitivity to non-Christians, because the system does not explicitly use religious names for Jesus, such as Christ and Dominus (Lord), which are used in B.C./AD notation, and does not give an implicit expression of Christian faith that Jesus Christ. While both systems are thus a generally accepted standard, the CE/BCE system is a more neutral and comprehensive non-Christian approach. Imperfect historical records Although some primordial sources are considered more reliable or reliable than others, hardly any historical evidence can be considered as completely objective, as they are always the product of specific people, time and dominant ideas. Explain the consequences of the imperfect historical record of Key Takeaways Key Points In the study of history as an academic discipline the main source is an artifact, a document, a diary, a manuscript, an autobiography, a record or other source of information that was created during the study. History as an academic discipline is based on the primordial sources assessed by the community of scholars for whom the primordial sources are fundamental to the restoration of the past. Ideally, the historian will use as many original sources as possible that were created during the study time. In practice, however, some sources have been destroyed and others are not available for research. While some sources are considered more reliable or reliable than others, historians note that hardly any historical evidence can be considered completely objective, as they are always the product of specific people, time and dominant ideas. The historical method includes methods and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence (including evidence) to study and write historical records of the past. Primary sources may remain in private hands or be in archives, libraries, museums, historical societies and special collections. Traditionally, historians have tried to answer historical questions by examining written documents and Accounts. They also use sources such as monuments, inscriptions and photographs. In general, the sources of historical you can be divided into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved. Historians often consult with all three. Historians use various strategies to restore the past when faced with a shortage of sources, including cooperation with experts from other academic disciplines, primarily archaeology. A secondary source of key terms: a document or record that relates or discusses information originally found in the original production. It contrasts with the original source, which is the primary source of the information discussed; the main source may be a person who knows the situation directly, or a document created by such a person. The secondary source includes generalization, analysis, synthesis, interpretation or evaluation of the original information. First source: When studying history as an academic discipline, an artifact, a document, a diary, a manuscript, an autobiography, a record or other source of information that was created at the time was under study. It serves as the source of information on the subject. Historical Method: A scientific method that incorporates methods and guidelines by which historians use original sources and other evidence (including archaeology evidence) to study and write historical accounts of the past. When studying history as an academic discipline, the main source (also called the original source or proof) is an artifact, a document, a diary, a manuscript, an autobiography, a record, or another source of information that was created at the time. It serves as the source of information on the subject. Primary sources differ from secondary sources that refer, comment or rely on the first itit. In some cases, the secondary source may also be the main source, depending on how it is used. For example, a memoir would be considered the main source of research on the author or his friends, but the same memoirs would be a secondary source if they were used to study the culture in which the author lived. Primary and secondary terms should be understood as relative terms, with sources classified according to specific historical contexts and what is being studied. The use of primary sources: The history of historical methods as an academic discipline is based on primary sources assessed by a community of scholars for whom the primordial sources are fundamental to the restoration of the past. Ideally, the historian would use as many original sources as possible that were created by the people involved at the time studying how access can be accessed. In practice, however, some sources have been destroyed and others are not available for research. In some cases, eyewitness accounts of the event may be memoirs, autobiographies or oral interviews taken years later. Sometimes the only evidence relating to an event or or in the distant past was written or copied decades or centuries later. Manuscripts that are the sources of classical texts may be copies or fragments of documents. This is a common problem in classical studies, where sometimes only a summary of a book or letter is preserved, but not an actual book or letter. While some sources are considered more reliable or credible than others (e.g., an original government document containing information about an event against a witness's record, recalling the same event years later), historians note that hardly any historical evidence can be considered as fully objective, as it is always the product of specific individuals, time and dominant ideas. That's why researchers are trying to find as many records of the event being investigated and trying to eliminate evidence that may provide conflicting reports about the same event. This wall painting (known as a portrait of Pachius Prokulo and now kept in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples) was found in the Roman city of Pompeii and serves as a complex example of the first day. The mural won't tell historians much without appropriate text and archaeological evidence that help establish who portrayed the pair may have been. A man wears a toga, a sign of a Roman citizen, and holds a rotus, suggesting that he is involved in public and/or cultural affairs. The woman has a stylus and a wax plaque, emphasizing that she is educated and literate. There is a suspicion, based on the physical characteristics of the couple, that they are samnit, which may explain the desire to show the status they have achieved in Roman society. The historical method includes methods and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence (including archaeology evidence) to study and write historical records of the past. Historians continue to argue about which aspects and practices of first-information study should be taken into account and what is the first priority in the development of the most effective historical method. The question of nature and even the possibility of sound historical method is so significant that it is constantly raised in the philosophy of history as a question of epistemology. The search for primary sources of first information may remain in private hands or be found in archives, libraries, museums, historical societies and special collections. They can be public or private. Some are associated with universities and colleges, while others are government entities. Materials relating to one area can be distributed to a large number of different agencies. They can be removed from the original source of the document. For example, in the library a large number of documents from the United Kingdom are stored in California. While advances in technology have led to an increasing number of digitized sources, most of the materials of the first yen are not digitized and can only be presented on the Internet with a record or find help. Traditionally, historians try to answer historical questions by examining written documents and oral accounts. They also use sources such as monuments, inscriptions and photographs. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be divided into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved. Historians often consult with all three. However, writing is a marker that separates history from what happens before archaeology is a single discipline that is particularly useful to historians. When dealing with buried places and objects, he contributes to the reconstruction of the past. However, archaeology consists of a number of methodologies and approaches that do not depend on history. In other words, archaeology does not fill in the gaps in text sources, but often contrasts its findings with modern text sources. Archaeology is also an illustrative example of how historians can be helped by the disappearance of written records. Discovering artifacts and working with archaeologists to interpret them based on the experience of a particular historical epoch and cultural or geographical area is one of the effective ways to restore the past. If written records are not available, historians often try to collect oral reports on specific events, preferably by eyewitnesses, but sometimes, due to the passage of time, they are forced to work with the next generations. Thus, the issue of the reliability of oral history is widely discussed. When dealing with many government records, historians will usually have to wait for a certain period of time before documents are declassified and available to researchers. For political reasons, many confidential records can be destroyed, removed from collections or hidden, which can also encourage researchers to rely on oral . Missing records of events or processes that historians believe took place on the basis of highly fragmented evidence, allowing historians to search for information in records that may not be likely sources of information. Since archival research is always time-consuming and time-consuming, this approach creates the risk of never knowing the desired results, despite the time and effort put into finding informative and reliable resources. In some cases, historians are forced to speculate (this should be clearly noted) or simply admit that we do not have enough information to reconstruct specific past events or processes. Historical biases have been part of historical exploration since the ancient beginnings of the discipline. While later scientific practices try to remove earlier biases history, no part of the historical scholarship can be completely free Prejudice. Identify some examples of historical bias Key Takeaway Points Regardless of whether they are conscious or learned implicitly in cultural contexts, biases have been part of historical research since ancient discipline endeavors. Thus, history is a perfect example of how prejudices change, develop and even disappear. Early attempts to make history an empirical, objective discipline (primarily Voltaire) did not find many followers. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, European historians only reinforced their prejudices. As Europe gradually dominated the world through the self-imposed mission of colonizing almost all other continents, Eurocentrism prevailed in history. Even in the Eurocentric perspective, not all Europeans were equal; Western historians have largely ignored aspects of history, such as class, gender, or ethnicity. Prior to the rapid development of social history in the 1960s and 1970s, major Western historical narratives focused on political and military history, while cultural or social history was written largely from the point of view of elites. The biased approach to writing history has also shifted to the teaching of history. From the origins of national mass school systems in the 19th century, teaching history to promote national sentiment has been a top priority. History textbooks in most countries are tools for nurturing nationalism and patriotism and promoting the most favourable version of national history. Germany is trying to be an example of how to remove nationalist narratives from the history of education. The German History Curriculum is characterized by a transnational perspective that emphasizes the all-European heritage, minimizes the idea of national pride and promotes a view of a civil society focused on democracy, human rights and the world. Despite progress and increased attention to groups that have traditionally been excluded from major historical narratives (colored people, women, working class, poor, disabled, lgbt people identified by LGBTI people, etc.), bias remains a component of historical research. The key terms of Eurocentrism are the practice of viewing the world from a European or general Western point of view with an implied belief in the dominance of Western culture. It can also be used to describe a view focused on the history or high-value of white people. The term was coined in the 1980s, referring to the concept of European exceptionalism and other Western equivalents such as American exceptionalism. Prejudice is a propensity or prospect to or hold a partial perspective, often accompanied by a refusal to consider the possible merits Perspectives. Regardless of whether consciously or learned implicitly in cultural contexts, prejudices have been part of historical exploration since ancient beginnings of beginnings Thus, history is a perfect example of how prejudices change, develop and even disappear. History as a modern academic discipline based on empirical methods (in this case, the study of the first and first energy in order to restore the past on the basis of available data) gained notoriety in the Enlightenment. Voltaire, a French writer and thinker, is credited with developed a fresh perspective on a story that broke out of the tradition of narrative diplomatic and military events and emphasized customs, social history (the story of ordinary people) and advances in art and science. His essay on customs traces the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thus rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of reference. Voltaire was also the first scientist to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world by eliminating the theological framework and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. He was the first to highlight the duty of medieval culture to Middle Eastern civilization. Although he has repeatedly warned against political biases on the part of the historian, he will not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and fraud of the Catholic Church over the centuries - a topic that has been Voltaire's lifelong intellectual interest. Voltaire's early attempts to make history an empirical, objective discipline did not find many followers. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, European historians only reinforced their prejudices. As Europe gradually benefited from continued scientific progress and dominated the world in the self-colonization mission of almost all other continents, Eurocentrism triumphed in history. The practice of viewing and presenting the world from a European or western point of view, with an implied belief in the predominance of Western culture, dominated European historians, who contrasted the gradually mechanized nature of European culture with traditional hunting, agricultural and shepherd societies in many parts of the world recently conquered and colonized. These include America, Asia, Africa and, later, the Pacific Ocean and Australasia. Many European writers at the time interpreted the history of Europe as paradigmatic for the rest of the world. Other cultures have been defined as having reached the that Europe itself has already passed: primitive hunter-gatherer, agriculture, early civilization, feudalism and modern liberal-capitalism. It was believed that only Europe reached the last stage. With this assumption, Europeans were also presented as racially superior, and European history as a discipline became essentially a history of white supremacy. However, even in the Eurocentric perspective, not all Europeans were equal; Western historians have largely ignored stories such as class, gender, gender, Ethnicity. Until relatively recently (especially the rapid development of social history in the 1960s and 1970s), major Western historical narratives focused on political and military history, while cultural or social history was written largely from the point of view of elites. Consequently, what was actually the experience of a select few (usually white men of the upper classes, with some occasional mentions of their female counterparts) is usually presented as an illustrative experience of the whole society. In the United States, some of the first to break this approach were African-American scholars who, at the turn of the 20th century, wrote the stories of black Americans and called for their inclusion in the mainstream historical narrative. The front page of the history of the world: A comprehensive account of the rise and development of nations, recorded by more than two thousand great writers of all ages, 1907. Historians' History of the World is a 25-volume encyclopedia of world history originally published in English at the beginning of the 20th century. It is quite extensive, but its perspective is completely western Eurocentric. For example, while four volumes are devoted to the history of England (one of them includes Scotland and Ireland), Poland, the Balkans, Turkey, small eastern states, China, are described in one volume. It was compiled by Henry Smith Williams, a physician and author, as well as other history bodies, and published in New York in 1902 by the encyclopedia Britannica and Outlook. Prejudice in the teaching of history Biased approach to historical writing is also present in the teaching of history. From the origins of national mass school systems in the 19th century, teaching history to promote national sentiment has been a top priority. To this day, in most countries, the history textbook is a tool for nurturing nationalism and patriotism and promoting the most favorable version of national history. In the United States, one of the most striking examples of this approach is the constant narrative of the United States as a State based on the principles of personal freedom and democracy. While aspects of American history, such as slavery, the genocide of American Indians, or the disenfranchisement of broad-day society for decades after the beginning of American statehood, are now taught in most (yet not all) American schools, they are presented as marginalized in the broader narrative of freedom and democracy. In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and written to put national heritage in the most favourable light, although academic historians have often fought against the politicization of textbooks, sometimes with success. Interestingly, 21st century Germany is trying to about how to remove nationalist narratives from the history of education. Since the history of 20th-century Germany is filled with events and processes that are rarely a matter of national pride, the german history curriculum (controlled by 16 German states) is characterized by a transnational perspective that emphasizes the all-European heritage, minimizes the idea of national pride and promotes the creation of a civil society focused on democracy, human rights and peace. However, even in a rather unusual German case, Eurocentrism continues to dominate. The challenge of replacing national or even nationalistic perspectives with a more inclusive transnational or global view of human history is also still very present in college history curricula. In the United States, after World War I, there was a strong movement at the university level to teach Western civilation courses to give students a common heritage with Europe. Since 1980, more and more attention has been paid to teaching world history or the need for students to take courses in non-Western cultures. Nevertheless, the courses of world history are still trying to go beyond the Eurocentric point of view, focusing largely on the history of Europe and its ties with the United States. Despite all the progress and much more attention to groups that have traditionally been excluded from major historical narratives (colored people, women, the working class, the poor, the disabled, lgbt-identified people, etc.), bias remains a component of historical investigation, whether it be the product of nationalism, the author's political views or the interpretation of agenda-oriented sources. It is only pertinent to point out that the current book on world history, written in accordance with the latest scientific and educational practices, has been written and edited by authors produced at American universities and published in the United States. Thus, it is also not free from both national (U.S.) and individual (author's) biases. Prejudice. explain the evolution of history as a discipline

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