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abusers target same-sex victims, and there are sex ABUSIVE SUPERVISION differences in terms of the ways in which men and women abuse their subordinates; women bullies Abusive supervision refers to sustained displays of engage in more social manipulation (i.e., rumors and nonphysical forms of hostility perpetrated by supervi- insulting comments about one’s personal life), and sors against their direct reports. Examples of behavior male bullies engage in more covert aggression, acts that fall within the abusive supervision content that on the surface appear rational, such as appraising domain include public derogation, undermining, and targets unfairly and preventing them from expressing explosive outbursts. Key features of the construct are themselves. that abusive supervision refers to ongoing manifesta- tions of hostility rather than discrete episodes and that OBSTACLES TO SYSTEMATIC abusers may or may not intend to cause harm. Hence, EMPIRICAL INQUIRY for example, yelling at subordinates for the purpose of eliciting greater task performance could be considered There are challenges associated with studying abusive abusive. It should also be noted that abusive supervi- supervision, not the least of which is the fact that sion constitutes a subjective assessment, in the sense researchers typically rely on subjective reports as to that behavior that is perceived to be abusive in one individuals’ level of exposure. A problem with this context may not be so perceived in another context, approach to measuring abusive supervision is that and two subordinates could render different interpre- some people may underreport their level of exposure tations of the same supervisor behavior. Similar con- because they are reluctant to admit that they have been cepts that have been the focus of systematic empirical victimized, whereas others exaggerate their super- research include bullying, petty tyranny, and down- visors’ hostility. A related obstacle to conducting valid ward mobbing. empirical research is that linking abusive supervision and important outcomes requires gathering data from abused subordinates who are willing to identify them- EPIDEMIOLOGY selves. Failing that, perceived abuse cannot be linked According to epidemiological studies, abusive super- with data collected from independent sources (e.g., vision is much more common than physical violence observers, supervisors, archival records). A third chal- or sexual harassment; one in seven employees reports lenge is that organizations may be hesitant to allow that his or her current supervisor is abusive, approxi- researchers to administer surveys on the topic. What is mately 50% of employees can expect to have an abu- clear is that although abusive supervision is a low- sive supervisor at some point in their working life, and base-rate phenomenon that is difficult to study, the most abusers target multiple subordinates simultane- research to date consistently suggests that its effects ously. Half of abusive supervisors are women, most can be severe.

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CONSEQUENCES OF ABUSIVE SUPERVISION good citizenship makes the workplace a more attrac- tive and comfortable environment. However, it was Compared with nonabused subordinates, abused sub- found that this was not the case for work groups in ordinates have higher quit rates, and among those who which the supervisor was more abusive. In those stay in the job, abusive supervision is negatively instances, employees were less satisfied when their related to subordinates’ job satisfaction, commitment coworkers engaged in greater citizenship behavior. to the organization, and trust in the supervisor, and Subsequent inquiry explained why this was so. In positively related to psychological distress (i.e., groups led by abusive supervisors, subordinates per- depression, anxiety, and burnout) and conflict between formed citizenship behaviors not out of a genuine work and family obligations. The cost per serious case desire to benefit the organization, but to portray them- of abuse in the workplace has been estimated at selves in a favorable light, to make their coworkers between $17,000 and $24,000 in terms of absen- look less dedicated by comparison, and to direct their teeism, turnover, legal costs, and reduced productivity, supervisors’ hostility at others. Consequently, acts of and the total cost to organizations has been estimated citizenship may cause fellow coworkers to experience to be more than $23.8 billion in the United States unfavorable attitudes when the supervisor is abusive. alone. Abusive supervision is not strongly related to bottom-line measures of productivity such as sales MODERATING FACTORS volume, number of units produced, and work quality. The most likely reason for this is that employees can- Abusive supervision does not affect all employees the not easily modify these kinds of performance contri- same way. In three studies, it was found that the dele- butions, regardless of how they might feel about their terious effects of abusive supervision on employees’ boss. For example, assembly-line workers cannot sim- attitudes and psychological health were more pro- ply stop producing when they do not like something at nounced when the subordinate has less job mobility work, and salespeople on commission cannot stop (i.e., when the subordinate is trapped in a job because selling to get back at their boss, at least not without he or she has few attractive alternatives to the current hurting themselves. But research suggests that abused position), when the abuse is selective rather than dis- subordinates will retaliate against their supervisor and tributed (i.e., when subordinates are singled out for their organization by withholding citizenship behav- abuse as opposed to being targeted along with others), iors, contributions such as being helpful and courte- and when the target attributes the abusive behavior to ous, and showing initiative. Abused subordinates can stable characteristics of the supervisor (e.g., mean- express their resentment by modifying their citizen- ness, incompetence, or indifference) rather than to ship behavior, because these contributions are to a characteristics of the organization (e.g., time pressures large extent discretionary, meaning that they fall or competitive work climates). beyond the job requirements. These kinds of contribu- Another study found that subordinates’ personali- tions are very important because they provide organi- ties influenced how they responded to abusive super- zations with flexibility and the capacity to cope with vision. This study suggested that abused subordinates uncertainty. Hence, organizations may be at a com- were more likely to engage in dysfunctional forms of petitive disadvantage when a substantial percentage of resistance (i.e., nonconformity to downward influence subordinates withhold citizenship because their super- attempts that involves outright refusal and ignoring visors are abusive. the supervisor’s requests) and that this effect was Although abused subordinates tend to perform more pronounced among subordinates who were dis- fewer acts of citizenship than do nonabused subordi- positionally disagreeable (i.e., unconcerned about nates, some abused subordinates will nevertheless do the quality of their interpersonal relationships with so. However, there are differences in the ways abused coworkers) and dispositionally low in conscientious- subordinates respond to their coworkers’ citizenship ness (unconcerned about fulfilling task-related obli- performance. Intuitively, we would expect that gations). This research provides support for the idea employees will have more favorable attitudes toward that subordinates’ personalities influence the extent to their job when their coworkers perform more acts of which they engage in retaliation behaviors against citizenship. This notion is rooted in the assumption that abusive supervisors; employees retaliate against A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 3

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abusive supervisors by actively refusing to do what than active coping but that the use of active coping is their supervisors want them to do, but only when they a more effective strategy; in a 6-month longitudinal are unconcerned about the relational and task-related study, it was found that the relationship between consequences associated with noncompliance. abusive supervision measured at Time 1 and psycho- logical distress (i.e., burnout, anxiety, and depression) measured at Time 2 was stronger when subordinates ANTECEDENTS OF ABUSIVE SUPERVISION used avoidant coping and weaker when subordinates Comparatively little research has explored the used active coping. That is, active coping buffered the antecedents of abusive supervision. One study revealed stressful effects of abusive supervision and avoidant no consistent relationships between hostile supervisor coping exacerbated those effects. behavior and supervisor disposition (e.g., theory X beliefs, low self-esteem, and low tolerance for ambi- CONCLUDING COMMENTS guity), situational factors (e.g., institutionalized Given the significant costs that abusive supervision norms, power, and stressors), or their interactions. A can have for organizations and their members, organi- more promising line of inquiry has taken a victim- zations would be well-advised to take it seriously. precipitation perspective, the notion that some indi- This involves a two-pronged effort focusing on both viduals may become at risk of being victimized by (a) prevention and (b) management of abuse when it eliciting or provoking the hostility of potential perpe- does occur. Organizations can prevent the occurrence trators and that perpetrator and situational factors of abusive supervision by fostering a culture of civil- contribute more strongly to the occurrence of abusive ity that is incompatible with abusive behavior. This supervision when a vulnerable target is available. The can be accomplished by implementing 360-degree study in question found that supervisors who experi- feedback programs and training employees and man- enced procedural injustice (i.e., decision makers using agers to develop the skills needed to provide and to unfair procedures during the process of rendering openly receive constructive feedback. Where abuse allocation decisions) were more abusive when they occurs, organizations can manage its effects by devel- had a high negative-affectivity subordinate, one who oping disciplinary procedures for those who violate was dispositionally inclined to experience high levels the norms for acceptable interpersonal behavior, of distressing emotions and who was likely to be per- encouraging victims and witnesses to come forward, ceived as weak, vulnerable, and ripe for exploitation. and sending the message that those claims will be An implication of this finding is that supervisors taken seriously. The evidence suggesting that direct inclined to hostility choose targets strategically, focus- coping produces more favorable outcomes than ing their abuse on subordinates who appear to be avoidant coping means that it may be fruitful to “good” targets. This work also suggests that perpetra- encourage rank-and-file employees to bring abusive tors may express their hostility against targets other behavior to the attention of higher authorities. In addi- than the source of their frustration (i.e., subordinates tion, managers should be trained to spot some of who are not responsible for the injustices supervisors the markers for abusive behavior, such as withdrawal experience). behaviors, low morale, and distrust. —Bennett J. Tepper COPING WITH ABUSIVE SUPERVISION Is there anything abused subordinates can do to cope See also Leadership and Supervision; Workplace Incivility with their supervisors’ hostility? Abused subordinates use two general kinds of coping strategies, which may FURTHER READING be labeled avoidant coping (physical and psychologi- Aquino, K., Grover, S. L., Bradfield, M., & Allen, D. G. cal withdrawal, maintaining physical distance, not (1999). The effects of negative affectivity, hierarchical coming to work, and reliance on drugs and alcohol) status, and self-determination on workplace victimiza- and active coping (directly communicating injustices tion. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 260–272. to the supervisor). Research suggests that abused Ashforth, B. (1997). Petty tyranny in organizations: A pre- subordinates are more likely to use avoidant coping liminary examination of antecedents and consequences. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 4

4———Academy of Management

Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 14, communicate between the board and the academy’s 126–140. committees, task forces, divisions, and interest groups. Einarsen, S. (2000). Harassment and bullying at work: A review of the Scandinavian approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5, 379–401. MEMBERSHIP Tepper, B. J. (2000). Consequences of abusive supervision. The Academy of Management comprises more than Academy of Management Journal, 43, 178–190. 15,700 members from 90 countries. Its membership Tepper, B. J., Duffy, M. K., Hoobler, J., & Ensley, M. D. (2004). Moderators of the relationships between cowork- includes researchers from colleges, universities, and ers’ organizational citizenship behavior and fellow research organizations, as well as practitioners who employees’ attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, work in businesses, government agencies, and not-for- 455–465. profit organizations. Although there are no require- Tepper, B. J., Duffy, M. K., & Shaw, J. D. (2001). ments to become a member, those interested in joining Personality moderators of the relationships between the academy must apply to one of four membership abusive supervision and subordinates’ resistance. categories: (a) academic (e.g., researcher, teacher); (b) Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 974–983. executive (e.g., management, consultant); (c) student; Zellars, K. L., Tepper, B. J., & Duffy, M. K. (2002). and (d) emeritus (i.e., member for at least 10 years Abusive supervision and subordinates’ organizational prior to retirement). A majority of the membership is Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, citizenship behavior. in the academic category. 1068–1076.

MISSION The mission of the Academy of Management is to ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT enhance the profession of management by advancing the scholarship and enriching the professional devel- The Academy of Management is the oldest and largest opment of its members. The academy is also dedi- scholarly professional management association in the cated to shaping management research and education. world. Founded in 1936 by professors Charles L. Several core values guide the achievement of this mis- Jamison and William N. Mitchell, the academy was sion: (a) to conduct and share high-quality research, formed to create and exchange knowledge about teaching, and practical applications of management; the discipline of management. Broadly defined, this (b) to promote and encourage ethical conduct in activ- diverse field ranges from the study of organizational ities pertaining to management research, teaching, processes, structures, and behaviors to the examina- and practice; (c) to foster an environment that respects tion of environmental, cultural, industrial, and eco- diverse points of view; (d) to encourage members to nomic factors that affect organizations and their share their knowledge of management and new devel- employees. opments in the field with members located in different Located at Pace University and the Lubin School of institutions and countries; and (e) to build opportuni- Business in New York, the Academy of Management ties for professional collaboration and networking to is a member-driven association led by a 16-member advance the field. board of governors, elected by voting members of the academy. Committees and task forces are appointed FUNCTIONS by the president of the academy to carry out services and conduct projects for the association. The Academy of Management sponsors a number of The Academy of Management has 24 professional activities in pursuit of its mission. Each year, the divisions and interest groups, and members belong to a academy holds an annual meeting, which is attended minimum of 2 of these groups. The divisions with the by more than 6,000 people. This meeting provides a most (i.e., more than 2,500) active members include setting in which to share research and expertise in all Organizational Behavior; Business Policy and disciplines of management via invited papers, compet- Strategy; Organization and Management Theory; itive paper sessions, panel discussions, symposia, Human Resources; Organizational Development and workshops, eminent speakers, and special sessions for Change; and International Management. Liaisons doctoral students. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 5

Action Theory———5

In addition, the Academy of Management pub- approaches, German work psychologists initiated the lishes a variety of management-related periodicals. development of action theory in the late 1960s. As the Among these publications are four scholarly journals: core concept of the theory, action is conceived of as (a) Academy of Management Learning and Educa- goal-directed behavior. Actions are behavioral units tion, (b) Academy of Management Journal, (c) oriented toward their own distinct goals, whereas Academy of Management Review, and (d) Academy of operations (e.g., movement patterns) are subordinate Management Executive. The Academy of Manage- action components. As anticipatory cognitive struc- ment also publishes a newsletter and a best papers tures, goals guide the action process, because they proceedings CD from its annual meeting. Each divi- function as relatively invariant set points for the inter- sion within the academy disseminates newsletters for pretation of feedback. Action theory explains both the its members, as well. sequential ordering and the hierarchical structuring of In terms of electronic communications, the action. Academy of Management hosts a wide variety of list- servs, in which interested parties can post or view THE ACTION SEQUENCE messages about the full spectrum of management top- ics. Several online discussion boards are also hosted Action theory differentiates five phases of the action by the academy. sequence: (a) goal development and choosing between Another program offered by the academy is a competing goals; (b) orientation (i.e., collecting rele- career development and job placement service. Job vant information about the task and the conditions interviews and career growth workshops are con- in one’s work environment) and prognosis of future ducted at the conference, and a searchable database events; (c) plan development and selection; (d) execu- system is offered for organizations to post positions tion of the plan and monitoring; and (e) the process- and view applicant credentials, and for potential appli- ing of feedback, which in turn influences the cants to search for available positions. Professional development of subsequent goals. These action steps development opportunities are also available through are not always taken in the same order (e.g., initial forums on special topics considered timely and impor- plans may be refined during action execution). The tant to members of the academy. Further, in recogni- action sequence allows for an analysis of the interface tion of contributions to the field, the Academy of between the objective work environment and subjec- Management sponsors a number of professional tive task representations, because employees’ specific awards for notable achievement. redefinitions of tasks presented by the organization —Jennifer L. Burnfield (e.g., to operate a machine) determine their individual goals and plans (e.g., whether and how to take action See also American Psychological Association, Association when the machine breaks down). for Psychological Science; Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology FOUR LEVELS OF ACTION REGULATION From a structural point of view, actions are organized FURTHER READING hierarchically, because higher-order goals are broken Academy of Management Web site. Retrieved February 28, down into subgoals, and higher levels of conscious 2006, from http://www.aomonline.org/ intellectual regulation are superordinate to lower levels of automatic operations. Recent versions of action theory distinguish four levels of action regula- tion, ordered from lowest to highest: ACTION THEORY 1. Sensorimotor level. Stereotyped and automatic Action theory represents a general model of work- movement sequences are organized without con- related cognition and behavior with implications for scious attention. a wide range of topics in industrial/organizational 2. Level of flexible action patterns. Ready-made action psychology. Inspired by Lewin’s field theory, schemata that do not require conscious representa- American cybernetic models, and Russian and Polish tion are tailored to situationally defined parameters. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 6

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3. Intellectual level. New actions in a complex environ- Conceptualizing stress as a disturbance of action ment are consciously regulated. regulation, action theory offers a theoretically grounded stressor taxonomy, composed of three cate- 4. Heuristic level. Metacognitive strategies such as gories: (a) regulation obstacles (i.e., interruptions and general problem-solving approaches are pursued regulation difficulties such as poor visibility or lack of either consciously or automatically. information); (b) regulation uncertainties (e.g., role ambiguity); and (c) overtaxing regulations (e.g., time THE OPERATIVE IMAGE SYSTEM pressure). Multiple job analysis tools have been devel- oped based on action theory. These tools typically One’s accumulated knowledge of the relationships provide a structured assessment of regulatory require- between specific conditions, actions, and results is ments and difficulties (e.g., the degree to which the stored in the so-called operative image system. This work requires a conscious development and coordina- system reflects the cognitive base for action regulation tion of new plans). The function of emotions for action and entails long-term representations of schemata or regulation, particularly in service work, has also been strategies applicable to action regulation at all four analyzed within an action theory context. Emotions levels (e.g., movement-oriented schemata to be regu- enable people to continue with the action process lated at the sensorimotor level, and strategies to despite barriers and difficulties. Examples are the moti- be implemented at the intellectual level). Originally, vation derived from pride in anticipation of goal attain- cyclical test–operate–test–exit (TOTE) units, which ment and the role of negative affect in facilitating an imply that action is taken until there is congruity objective assessment of environmental barriers. between the current state and a criterion, were consid- ered the basic units of action regulation. To reconcile this classic discrepancy reduction approach with the THE VALUE OF ACTION THEORY notion of discrepancy creation, action theorists have As an integrative metatheory, action theory illuminates emphasized the role of goals as desired end states and the implications of specific cognitive and social psy- the impact of active approaches on the environment. chological theories for industrial/organizational issues. For example, studies based on the theories of action- state orientation and self-discrimination revealed that APPLICATIONS OF ACTION THEORY distractible state-oriented individuals are less likely to Action theory has implications for several domains, efficiently translate intentions into action and more including stress, training, job analysis, work design, likely to falsely redefine external demands as their error management, emotion regulation, competence own goals. Action theory also helps explain the impact development, and personality enhancement. Action of societal transformations on work activities. Longi- theorists emphasize socialization processes by consid- tudinal research based on action theory demonstrated ering malleable facets of personality, motivation, and that increases in the levels of complexity and control cognitive ability as dependent variables that may be experienced by East German employees after the coun- affected by work action. For example, work environ- try’s reunification enhanced their personal initiative ments encouraging forward thinking induce action (i.e., organizationally functional forms of self-started, styles such as planfulness (i.e., the detailed develop- proactive, and persistent behavior). ment and persistent implementation of long-range In conclusion, action theory distinguishes itself plans). New ideas on error management and the func- from most micro industrial/organizational models tion of errors in the learning and training process were because of its scope, its versatility, its theoretical also derived from action theory. Research examining foundation in cognitive science, its applicability to why so-called superworkers produce superior results various facets of everyday work behavior, and its without spending more time at work revealed that they simultaneous consideration of objective environ- engage more frequently in planning and have better ments, internal mental operations, and observable operative image systems, reflected in greater knowl- behavioral outcomes. By bridging the gaps between edge of error frequencies, the signals indicating the environment and cognition (e.g., via task redefini- errors, and the duration and efficiency of different tions in the action sequence) and between cognition strategies of dealing with errors. and action (e.g., via plans as starting points for A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 7

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action), action theory integrates cognitivist and behav- performer from an average performer on the basis of ioral approaches. Action theory has been described as relevant factors. In contrast, discrimination of the first a way of thinking that leads to a sharper understand- form invokes notions of preference and social injus- ing of how our cognitive apparatus is used and shaped tice. Meaningful differentiation is decidedly absent in the workplace and in relation to the world we as people are distinguished based on demographic, inhabit. nonrelevant factors. Because individuals differ on the —Michael Frese and Johannes Rank basis of many characteristics, organizations must reg- ularly discriminate between individuals when hiring, See also Goal-Setting Theory; History of Industrial- allocating resources, and rewarding to effectively Organizational Psychology in Europe and the United manage a workforce. When organizations differenti- Kingdom; Job Performance Models; Performance ate individuals based on job-relevant or organization- Feedback relevant factors, this discrimination is meaningful and warranted. When organizations instead differentiate FURTHER READING individuals on the basis of stereotypes and allow that differentiation to influence decision making, the orga- Frese, M., & Sabini, J. (1985). Goal-directed behavior: The nization has engaged in workplace discrimination. concept of action in psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Frese, M., & Zapf, D. (1994).Action as the core of work psy- PERCEPTUAL FORCES chology: A German approach. In M. D. Dunnette, J. M. BEHIND DISCRIMINATION Hough, & H. C. Triandis (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 271–340). The approximately 80,000 complaints filed annually Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions— (EEOC) indicate that employment discrimination is Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, common. Sex and racial biases influence performance 54, 493–503. appraisals and promotion decisions. Black and Hispanic Hacker, W. (2003). Action regulation theory: A practical applicants tend to receive less favorable evaluations tool for the design of modern work. European Journal during interviews. Interpersonal discrimination— of Work and Organizational Psychology, 12, 105–130. avoiding, distancing, and excluding members of a Zapf, D. (2002). Emotion work and psychological strain: A group—regularly limits minority group members’ review of the literature and some conceptual considera- access to developmental mentors and networks and tions. Human Resource Management Review, 12, interferes with workplace productivity. Further, reports 237–268. continue to document the presence of a “glass ceiling” that blocks women and racial minorities from gaining leadership positions in organizations. ADVERSE IMPACT/DISPARATE The perceptual processes theorized to produce dis- criminatory behavior explain part of why discrimina- TREATMENT/DISCRIMINATION tion at work persists. For individuals, discrimination AT WORK originates with the need to sort people into personally meaningful categories as a means of efficiently pro- The phrase to discriminate has two interpretations: cessing the myriad perceptual stimuli encountered (a) to display prejudice toward members of a group each day. This social categorization is often based on through unjustified negative actions, and (b) to mean- whether a person is perceived by the individual to be ingfully differentiate between people on the basis of similar or different, and it is facilitated by stereotypic their characteristics. Discrimination of the second beliefs that a person categorized within a specific form involves the ability to ascertain the presence and group possesses certain traits purely because he or she degree of characteristics that distinguish one person is a member of that group. For example, a female can- from another. For example, a classical music critic didate for a management-level position may be passed should discriminate among pianists on the basis of over for promotion if the stereotype held by evaluators technique and interpretation. This interpretation holds leads them to assume that she will become emotional that it is meaningful to differentiate an exceptional when under stress. As illustrated, the categorization A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 8

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process influences how individuals evaluate and feel Title VII explicitly allowed for discriminating about other people. Persons categorized as members between individuals on the basis of a job-related, of one’s own group invoke more favorable reactions, meaningful reason or in response to a bona fide senior- whereas persons categorized as members of another ity system. The act also required organizations to group invoke less favorable responses. provide reasonable accommodation for employees to However, the tendency to categorize others does engage in religious practices, unless doing so would not necessarily translate into discriminatory actions. pose an undue hardship. The act created the EEOC, the Various individual and contextual variables, such as federal agency charged with enforcing the provisions the social composition of the workplace, the salience ofemploymentdiscriminationlegislation.Asamended, of group membership, and the presence of organiza- the act banned the adjustment of assessment scores, tional and local norms, will either facilitate or impede whether gathered for purposes of promotion, training, the emergence of discriminatory behavior. or selection, on the basis of protected class status; less- ened the impact of a mixed-motive defense for organi- zations wherein legitimate reasons in justification of a EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION LAW discriminatory action are rendered in conjunction with The legal environment also plays an important role in unlawful reasons; and limited the ability of individuals managing the occurrence of discriminatory behaviors. to allege reverse discrimination in the context of judi- Federal, state, and municipal statutes, as well as vari- cially approved affirmative action plans. ous constitutional amendments and executive orders, afford individuals rights and protection in the event The Americans With Disabilities Act that they are discriminated against in an employment setting or are involved in any way in an employment The Americans With Disabilities Act (Title I, 1990) discrimination suit. The three primary pieces of fed- prohibits organizations with 15 or more employees eral legislation responsible for regulating discrimina- from discriminating against disabled individuals, tion at work are the Civil Rights Act, the Americans individuals who have a record of a disability, and indi- With Disabilities Act, and the Age Discrimination in viduals perceived to be disabled in all aspects of Employment Act. employment. Disabled individuals are defined as those persons who suffer from a physical or mental impairment that is not correctable and substantially The Civil Rights Act limits at least one major life activity, such as thinking The Civil Rights Act (Title VII, 1964, and as or standing. For example, a legally blind individual amended in 1978 and 1991) prohibits organizations who requires the assistance of a seeing-eye dog would with 15 or more employees from discriminating against be considered disabled, but a legally blind individual individuals on the basis of race (e.g., Caucasian, whose vision can be corrected by wearing glasses African, and Asian), ethnicity (e.g., Hispanic), color of would not. Essentially, the verification of a disability skin, national origin (e.g., Mexican), sex (and preg- must go beyond a medical diagnosis to consider how nancy or pregnancy-related medical conditions), and that condition affects an individual’s daily life. religion in all aspects of employment (e.g., hiring, Organizations are required to provide reasonable compensation,training,performancemanagement,dis- accommodation to disabled individuals who are other- charge). The act defined a protected group as a class wise qualified to perform the essential (i.e., most of individuals who are similar on one of these bases. integral or critical) functions of the job. This may However, protected group membership is context- mean, for example, adjusting break times so that a dia- specific. For example, a male applicant for an accoun- betic may stop work to conduct necessary insulin tant position may not be considered a minority group tests. An accommodation that would involve excessive member in that context, but he would likely be consid- expense relative to an organization’s resources, dra- ered a protected group member if he applied for a flight matically alter the job or business in question, violate attendant position. Thus, the appropriateness of identi- current organization systems or policies (e.g., seniority fying certain individuals as minorities depends on the systems), or represent a direct threat to the health and demographic makeup of the applicant pool, current safety of other workers may be viewed as an undue jobholders, and the relevant labor market. hardship for the organization and hence deemed A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 9

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unreasonable. Thus, the reasonableness of a given her membership in a protected group. For example, accommodation is individual-, organization-, job-, and after September 11, 2001, the EEOC experienced an context-specific. Although the disabled individual is increase in the number of complaints filed by Arab initially responsible for requesting accommodation, Americans and Muslims who experienced harassment the organization and the individual are encouraged to or discharge allegedly on the basis of their national work together to identify possible accommodations. origin or religion. Proving that the organization had intent or motive to discriminate is a central aspect of a disparate treatment lawsuit. Because intent can rarely The Age Discrimination be known, disparate treatment must often be inferred in Employment Act on the basis of circumstantial evidence. To establish a The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967) prima facie case of discrimination, the plaintiff must prohibits organizations with 20 or more employees prove that he or she was differentially treated because from discriminating against individuals age 40 and of membership in a protected group. This may be older in all aspects of employment. Similar to TitleVII, accomplished by demonstrating that members of a the act explicitly allowed for discriminating between specific protected group consistently received dispro- individuals in the presence of a rational, job-related portionately unfavorable actions. reason. In addition, the act identified a series of policy Under a pattern-and-practice claim, this may exemptions wherein an age requirement would be be accomplished by demonstrating that members of viewed as lawful. These include (a) organization poli- a specific protected group consistently received cies that identify a mandatory retirement age of 65 for disproportionately unfavorable actions. Under the bona fide executives, (b) state or local statutes that McDonnell Douglas/Burdine framework, this establish a mandatory retirement age for police officers may be accomplished by showing that the plaintiff and firefighters, and (c) various age restrictions in the was adversely treated relative to an individual of commercial airline industry. The act also prohibits age- a different group who was otherwise similarly based discrimination even when the individuals situated in terms of qualifications and job-related involved are both within the age-based protected class; circumstances. for example, an individual who is 60 can allege dis- In response, the organization must provide a legit- crimination in favor of an individual who is 45. imate, nondiscriminatory reason for its actions. The organization may argue that the plaintiff did not have the necessary job-related qualifications or display the TYPES OF EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION expected level of performance. In a case of disabil- When these laws are violated, an individual may seek ity discrimination, the organization may argue that legal redress by filing a claim of discrimination with the requested accommodation was unreasonable. Or the EEOC. Assuming the claim has merit, the EEOC the organization may defend the action by stating will pursue conciliation with the offending organiza- that the decision was based on a bona fide occupa- tion to settle the dispute. If attempts at conciliation tional qualification (BFOQ). Through BFOQs, orga- fail, the suit will proceed to the court system. The nizations may overtly exclude individuals on the overwhelming majority of complaints are resolved basis of sex, age, religion, or national origin when before reaching federal court. Complaints that do such exclusion is required for business survival reach a courtroom proceed through a series of phases and/or public and personal safety. A BFOQ assumes in which the burden of proof is shifted back and forth that most individuals within a given protected group between the plaintiff (the individual allegedly dis- will be unable to execute a central job requirement criminated against) and the organization. The process and that failure to do so will risk the health of the through which that burden is met depends on the type organization and the broader public. For example, air of discrimination alleged. traffic controllers may not be older than age 49. In the event that the organization successfully puts forth an acceptable justification, the plaintiff may Disparate Treatment establish that the proffered reason is merely a pretext Disparate treatment occurs when an individual suf- and that discrimination was the true reason behind fers intentional discrimination on the basis of his or the action. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 10

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Adverse (Disparate) Impact the business. In most cases, this amounts to demon- strating that inferences drawn based on the employ- Adverse (disparate) impact is discrimination that ment practice are valid in that the practice allows occurs when members of a protected group are system- the organization to meaningfully differentiate among atically excluded based on an employment policy or individuals on the basis of job-relevant knowledge, practice that is neutral on its face. Disparate impact skills, or abilities. Should the organization be success- lawsuits do not require proof of intent. Instead, to estab- ful in offering evidence of business necessity, the lish a prima facie case, the plaintiff must provide statis- plaintiff may argue for the substitution of an employ- tical evidence that a particular minority group is being ment practice that is equally relevant to the job but adversely affected by a specific employment practice. less discriminatory. This evidence may come in three different forms: —Jill E. Ellingson 1. Documenting that pass rates for a decision- See also Americans With Disabilities Act; Bona Fide making hurdle do not fulfill the four-fifths rule. This Occupational Qualifications; Civil Rights Act of 1964, EEOC rule of thumb states that if the pass rate of a Civil Rights Act of 1991 minority group for a particular hurdle is less than 80% of the pass rate for the group with the highest pass rate, the comparative rates are different enough to FURTHER READING warrant a conclusion of adverse impact. For example, in Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971), the plaintiff pro- Covington, R. N., & Decker, K. H. (2002). Employment law in a nutshell (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West-Thomson. vided evidence that the organization requirement to Dipboye, R. L., & Colella, A. (2005). Discrimination at complete a cognitive ability test as part of the selec- work: The psychological and organizational bases. tion process had a pass rate for White applicants of Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 58% (the highest pass rate) relative to a pass rate for Landy, F. J. (2005). Employment discrimination litigation: Black applicants of 6%. The pass rate of the minority Behavioral, quantitative, and legal perspectives. San group was 10% of the majority group rate, and thus Francisco: Jossey-Bass. far below the 80% criterion. Player, M. A. (2004). Federal law of employment dis- crimination in a nutshell (5th ed.). St. Paul, MN: 2. Providing evidence of a restricted policy West-Thomson. whereby individuals are excluded on the basis of a required characteristic that is associated with mem- bership in a protected group. For example, instituting a minimum weight requirement of 130 pounds for a given position will disproportionately exclude AFFECTIVE EVENTS THEORY females, in that females as a population weigh pro- portionately less than males. Affective events theory (AET) is a theory of affect (the broader term for emotional experiences, including 3. Conducting a workforce utilization analysis emotion and mood) in the workplace. In addition to comparing the percentage of minority group mem- focusing on affect, it encompasses cognitions, behav- bers within an organization and within a job to the ior, attitudes, and other crucial psychological con- percentage of minority group members in the rele- structs to explain job behavior and performance. The vant labor force for this organization and this job. If theory primarily builds on the already established protected group members are being consistently cognitive appraisal models and has gathered support screened out, they should be underrepresented in the from many areas of study in the field of emotions to organization relative to their availability in the labor create a more encompassing theory of work behavior. market. Affective events theory proposes that there are two paths to job behaviors, both of which are at least In response to statistical evidence documenting partially influenced by affective reactions to events at a disparity, the organization must prove that the work. However, cognitive processes play an essential employment practice is consistent with business role in the creation of these reactions. The theory necessity and/or is necessary for the safe operation of builds on past theoretical successes while also adding A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 11

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a few new elements (in particular, the notion of time behavior. However, the starting point for AET is the is essential to the model, as well as a more detailed event. Within AET, an event is defined as a change in explanation of emotion in the workplace) in explain- the environmental circumstances that one is currently ing job behavior. experiencing. That change then elicits affect, which then can influence behavior directly (affect-driven behavior) or go through job attitudes to influence ASSUMPTIONS OF AET behavior indirectly (judgment-driven behavior). Affect-driven behavior is an almost instantaneous Affective events theory makes several assumptions reaction to an event. In many cases, affect-driven about the workplace and the constructs that describe responses happen almost immediately after an event people’s reactions to events that happen there. The occurs. An example might be when, after being yelled first is that job satisfaction is different from affect. at by the boss, an employee quits his or her job with- Nevertheless, AET also assumes that affect con- out any thought in the heat of the moment. Judgment- tributes to job satisfaction and can be used to help pre- driven behaviors, on the other hand, go through a dict job performance. Related to that, AET assumes cognitive evaluation via job attitudes. This is a longer that affect influences performance, typically in a detri- process and is usually more deliberate. Referring back mental way because emotion is assumed to draw to the example, if the employee did not quit immedi- resources from other areas, such as cognitive process- ately but went back to his or her desk and thought ing, motivation, and attention, among others. briefly about the other components of the job, such as Another major assumption in the AET framework is his or her coworkers and the job tasks, and then fac- that events happen over time, which changes affect tored those considerations into his or her decision and continuously. Those events influence a person’s imme- reinterpreted the situation, the result would be a diate affective state but also vary over time as new judgment-driven behavior. This process might or might events arise. Some events are likely to create positive not lead the person to quit. The resulting behaviors of reactions, others negative, and the degree of intensity affect-driven and judgment-driven processes may not will also vary from event to event. Because affect is be different, but the decision process is. As the terms continuously changing within an individual, its influ- themselves imply, affect-driven behavior is primarily ence on behavior is also continuously changing. influenced by immediate emotional reactions to an event and is typically regarded as a single-step process, whereas judgment-driven behavior is influenced by THE STRUCTURE OF AET both emotion and cognition and is regarded as a two- Affective events theory proposes the following model step process that involves a reinterpretation of the orig- for predicting workplace behavior. Work environment inal event and the emotion associated with it. features (such as office features) precede work events (such as a meeting), and those work events cause APPRAISAL OF EVENTS affective reactions. Dispositions influence the causal LEADING TO BEHAVIORS transition from work events to affective reactions, as well as the affective reactions themselves. Those Cognitive appraisal theories argue that people strive to affective reactions then influence affect-driven behav- make meaning of work events. The meaning of the iors, as well as work attitudes. Work attitudes are also events then sets the stage for emotional reactions to influenced by the work environment. Work attitudes the event. There are many theories on how people in turn influence judgment-driven behaviors. appraise meaning, but the general idea is that every From that model, one can see that AET proposes situation has a meaning underlying the event and two different paths to behavior, both of which are pre- those meanings are arrived at by a person’s interpreta- ceded by affective reactions. Affect-driven behaviors tions of the situation. Different appraisals of situations stem directly from affective reactions to events in the lead to different emotions and then behaviors among workplace. Judgment-driven behaviors, on the other individuals. Individuals emphasize different appraisal hand, are arrived at by a longer route, going from processes when assigning meaning to an event, and affective reactions to work attitudes (which are also that is why individuals can have different emotional influenced by work environment features) and then to reactions to the same situation. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 12

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The process of appraising is often regarded as a The secondary appraisal process that leads to two-step model. The first step, usually termed primary judgment-driven behavior is more deliberative and appraisal, includes several mechanisms, but the basic requires individuals to take more time (although it idea is how much an event is congruent or incongru- could be only a few seconds) to assign the value as ent with one’s goals, attitudes, values, and so forth. If compared with primary appraisals and affect-driven an event is seen as congruent, it is assigned a positive behavior. Primary appraisals that lead to affect-driven value, and if incongruent, the event is viewed nega- behaviors are not completely cognition-free, although tively. The primary appraisal mechanisms are con- they are more automatic reactions. However, if the cerned with whether a stimulus has to do with a strength of the initial appraisal and the ensuing person’s well-being, which leads to a basic assign- emotional reaction is robust enough, the primary ment of “good” and “bad” labels. In many instances, appraisal and the affect-driven response can last for the primary appraisals assign enough meaning to the some time. phenomenon to elicit an affective response. Examples For every event, the possible responses of an indi- of these affective responses can be positive emotions, vidual to a given stimuli may initially seem endless, such as love and relief, but also include negative emo- but once a person appraises the situation, the behavior tions, such as fright and anxiety. A fuller example choices become narrowed down based on the person’s with workplace behavior consequences might be affective reactions. To date, there is little research one’s computer freezing up, which might lead one to on what types of behavior result from the different hit it out of frustration via primary appraisal, as only paths. However, by definition, affect-driven behaviors a “bad” label has been placed on the event and the should be more impulsive and less controlled than reaction is immediate without cognitive factors con- judgment-driven behaviors, which consider more fac- tributing to the behavior. tors before a behavior is pursued. Therefore, affect- Secondary appraisals consist of more cognitively driven behaviors should disrupt job performance driven processes, such as future expectations or mem- because of their potentially more abrasive social nature, ory, in addition to the primary appraisal. Many emo- as well as their ability to draw cognitive resources. tions occur only when secondary appraisals take place Judgment-driven behaviors also should reduce job in conjunction with the primary appraisal. An example performance, because they reduce time spent on job of a negative emotion that requires both stages is anger. tasks as well as draw mental resources away from A positive emotion that requires the secondary stage of those tasks. appraisal is happiness. In both cases (anger and happi- ness), the emotion is targeted at a specific situation and not a general affective response, as is the case with pri- SUMMARY mary appraisals. In other words, secondary appraisals Affective events theory is a theory of how events in lead to the assignment of more complex meaning to the the workplace (in particular, those events that change event; no longer is the situation just “good” or “bad.” a person’s affect) influence behaviors at work over Once that greater meaning is assigned to an event, a time. Affect then influences behavior in two possible discrete emotion then emerges that influences one’s ways, the first being a direct cause of affect-driven behavior in conjunction with current job attitudes. So behavior, which is an almost automatic emotional in the example of a computer freezing up, instead of response to an event. The second way behavior is hitting it immediately in a pure affective reaction, the influenced by affect is through its influences on cog- person would pause for a brief moment and the event nitions and attitudes (in addition to the initial affective would be evaluated in two stages, first if the event is response), which in turn cause judgment-driven behav- good or bad via primary appraisal, and then adding ior; this is regarded as a more deliberate response to an other information to deal with the situation via sec- event or series of events. ondary appraisal. Affective events theory proposes that if job attitudes are positive, one might not hit the com- —Brian Francis Redmond puter and would instead take the time to call a techni- cian for help. If attitudes are negative, one might still See also Affective Traits; Emotions; Job Satisfaction; just hit the computer. Judgment and Decision-Making Process; Mood A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 13

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FURTHER READING possible to be simultaneously high or low in both TPA Fisher, C. D. (2002). Antecedents and consequences of and TNA, high in TPA and low in TNA, and vice real-time affective reactions at work. Motivation and versa. Combinations between the extremes are possi- Emotion, 26, 3–30. ble, too. The term affective traits refers to a person’s Grandey, A. A., Tam, A. P., & Brauburger, A. L. (2002). average level or typical amount of a given emotion, Affective states and traits in the workplace: Diary and whereas affective states are more temporal, situation- survey data from young workers. Motivation and bound experiences of moods and emotions. Emotion, 26, 31–55. Both TPA and TNA can be interpreted as the diag- Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: onal coordinates in a circumplex model of affect that Oxford University Press. is built on the orthogonal dimensions of activation and Lazarus, R. S., & Cohen-Charash, Y. (2001). Discrete emo- pleasantness. High TPA in this model is a combina- tions in organizational life. In R. Payne & C. Cooper tion of high activation and high pleasantness, and high (Eds.), Emotions at work (pp. 45–81). New York: Wiley. TNA is a combination of high activation and high Paterson, J. M., & Cary, J. (2002). Organizational justice, change anxiety, and acceptance of downsizing: Pre- unpleasantness. liminary tests of an AET-based model. Motivation and Whereas TPA has been shown to be robustly Emotion, 26, 83–103. related with extraversion, TNA has been similarly Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events linked with neuroticism, two personality factors from theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes the five-factor model of personality (Big Five), and consequences of affective experiences at work. although the fit is not perfect. As an explanation, Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 1–74. Timothy A. Judge and Randy J. Larsen have devel- Weiss, H. M., Suckow, K., & Cropanzano, R. (1999). oped a model for integrating affect with personality, Effects of justice conditions on discrete emotions. referring to these relationships. They present evidence Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 786–794. that certain personality traits dispose people to be more or less reactive to hedonic stimuli, and they demonstrate that other personality traits indirectly dis- AFFECTIVE TRAITS pose people to modulate their emotional reactions. Extraversion and neuroticism are considered to repre- sent differential sensitivity to typical TPA and TNA THE CONCEPT OF AFFECTIVE TRAITS stimuli. High-neuroticism individuals are mainly Trait affect is defined as a tendency to respond to motivated to avoid punishment (negative stimuli), specific classes of stimuli in a predetermined, affect- whereas high-extraversion individuals are mainly moti- based manner. Therefore, an affective trait is consid- vated to gain rewards (positive stimuli). ered a relatively stable characteristic of personality. Affective traits are genuinely individual-level con- There are two general bipolar dimensions of affective cepts. In a group work context, individual affective responding: trait positive affect (TPA) and trait nega- traits may combine into a group-level affective tone tive affect (TNA). High TPA is characterized by that in turn is related to experiences and behaviors in the tendency to experience positively activated emo- the work group. tions in general, such as excitement, high energy, joy, enthusiasm, and exhilaration. Persons with low TPA MEASUREMENT OF AFFECTIVE TRAITS have a general tendency to be lethargic, apathetic, and listless, but they do not necessarily experience nega- Several instruments are available for measuring affec- tive affect. High TNA is defined as the tendency to tive traits. The instrument that is most often used is experience feelings of anger, guilt, fear, annoyance, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and nervousness. Low TNA is the other pole of the developed by David Watson and his coworkers. It com- TNA dimension, characterized by being placid, calm, prises two 10-item scales, one for assessing positive and contented. The two dimensions, TPA and TNA, and one for assessing negative affect. The items refer to are conceptualized as orthogonal or at least separable the high-activation aspect of negative and positive dimensions, and they show zero to moderate negative affectivity, respectively. Because the PANAS scales correlations with each other. This implies that it is lack low-activation markers of negative and positive A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 14

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affect, they sample only a limited part of the affect AFFECTIVE TRAITS AND JOB PERFORMANCE circumplex. The PANAS shows good reliability and Potential relationships between affective traits and job high discriminant validity with low intercorrelations performance have been discussed in the context of the between the positive and negative affectivity scales. happy-productive worker hypothesis and the power In addition to direct measures of affective traits of being positive. By drawing on expectancy theory, such as the PANAS, researchers use personality mea- some researches have argued that individuals high on sures, particularly neuroticism and extraversion scales, TPA should show higher task performance because of for assessing TNA and TPA, respectively. their positive expectations about the relationship between effort and performance and between perfor- mance and positive outcomes. In addition, it has been AFFECTIVE TRAITS AND JOB SATISFACTION suggested that TPA should lead to higher goals and Affective dispositions influence the extent to which more persistence in the face of obstacles. Moreover, people are satisfied with their jobs. A recent meta- researchers have proposed that TPA is associated with analysis conducted by Carl J. Thoresen and his asso- extra-role and citizenship behaviors, whereas TNA ciates extracted an estimated mean population impedes supportive social interactions. correlation of ρ=.33 between TPA and job satisfac- Although there are many studies on the rela- tion and of ρ=−.37 between TNA and job satisfac- tionship between trait affect and job satisfaction, far tion. Those correlations indicate a rather modest but fewer empirical studies have examined the relation- nevertheless substantial relationship between trait ship between affective traits and job performance. affectivity and job satisfaction. There is also evidence Studies that used rather broad well-being measures from longitudinal studies for a predictive value of as indicators for affective traits found positive TPA and TNA for several aspects of job satisfaction relationships between an individual’s tendency to experi- up to 2 years later, as well as correlations of disposi- ence and show positive affect at work and supervi- tional affect in younger years with job satisfaction in sory rating of job performance, also when using older years. longitudinal designs. Managers experiencing higher The underlying processes through which trait levels of well-being and positive affect showed affectivity influences job satisfaction are not well higher decision-making accuracy, higher interper- understood. Most studies concerned with trait affec- sonal performance, and higher managerial perfor- tivity and job satisfaction are correlation studies and mance. In contrast, most studies that used the do not allow one to test for causality. Research has PANAS to assess trait affect failed to find significant concentrated on TNA rather than TPA. Because high- bivariate relationships between TNA or TPA and TNA individuals are more sensitive to negative stim- task performance. Trait affect has been shown to be uli, they are likely to react more negatively when empirically related to extra-role performance at the experiencing negative job events, which consequently individual level (e.g., coworker support and work lowers job satisfaction. Furthermore, it is possible that facilitation) and to prosocial behavior and coopera- high-TNA individuals have a higher threshold for pos- tiveness at the group level. itive stimuli and therefore react with a lower magni- It has been suggested that individual core self- tude to positive events. They may experience the evaluations play an important role for organizational effects of positive mood-inducing events to a lower behavior. Core self-evaluations comprise self-esteem, extent or for shorter periods of time than do low-TNA generalized self-efficacy, emotional stability (i.e., low individuals. There is some evidence for the assump- neuroticism), and locus of control. Although these tion that TPA represents reward-signal sensitivity and core self-evaluations are not affective traits in a nar- TNA represents punishment-signal sensitivity. For row sense, findings on the relationship between example, TPA is related to pay satisfaction (i.e., a emotional stability and job performance are relevant salient reward), but TNA is not. Additionally, TNA here, because the emotional stability construct largely individuals may dwell on their failures and those of overlaps with TNA. Meta-analytical evidence sug- others, thus causing negative interpersonal interac- gests that emotional stability as an aspect of core self- tions with their peers and superiors and lower job evaluations shows a weak positive correlation with job satisfaction. performance. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 15

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In addition, meta-analyses on the relationship Cropanzano, R., James, K., & Konovsky, M. A. (1993). between personality factors and job performance shed Dispositional affectivity as a predictor of work attitudes some light on the relationship between affective traits and job performance. Journal of Organizational and job performance. Neuroticism shows a negative Behavior, 14, 595–606. relationship with various facets of job performance, Cropanzano, R., Weiss, H. M., Hale, J. M. S., & Reb, J. with most true-score correlations not exceeding ρ=−.20. (2003). The structure of affect: Reconsidering the relationship between negative and positive affectivity. Extraversion is positively related to job performance, Journal of Management, 29, 831–857. with most true-score correlations staying in the range Judge, T. A., & Larson, R. J. (2001). Dispositional affect ρ= ρ= between .10 and .20. and job satisfaction: A review and theoretical extension. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Making, AFFECTIVE TRAITS AND THE 86, 67–98. Thoresen, C. J., Kaplan, S. A., Barsky, A. P., & de STRESSOR–STRAIN RELATIONSHIP Chermont, K. (2003). The affective underpinnings of Affective traits, particularlyTNA, are related to percep- job perceptions and attitudes: A meta-analytic review tions of job stressors and strains, with individuals high and integration. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 914–945. on TNA reporting higher levels of job stressors and Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Develop- strains.These relationships imply that the observed cor- ment and validation of brief measures of positive and Journal of Person- relation between self-reported job stressors and strains negative affect: The PANAS scales. ality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. may be partially caused by TNA. Therefore, it has been suggested that researchers should statistically control for TNA when analyzing relationships between self- reported job stressors and strain. However, this view AFFIRMATIVE ACTION has been challenged in a lively debate in which it has been argued that TNA plays a substantive role in the Affirmative action has been one of the most con- stressor–stain relationship. troversial public policies of the past 40 years. A conceptual definition of affirmative action is any CONCLUSION measure, beyond a simple termination of discrimina- There is broad empirical evidence that affective traits tory practice, adopted to correct for past or present are related to job satisfaction. However, the processes discrimination or to prevent discrimination from underlying this relationship need further research recurring in the future. In practice, organizational attention. Although well-being measures were found affirmative action programs (AAPs) can and do encom- to be related to job performance, the empirical rela- pass a multitude of actions. These actions are shaped tionships between affective traits and related person- by federal, state, and local laws and regulations. ality concepts, on the one hand, and task performance, Although some educational institutions apply affir- on the other hand, are weak. Affective traits, however, mative action to student admissions and many coun- seem to be more relevant for contextual performance. tries have corresponding laws and regulations, this Therefore, one might assume that group or organiza- entry is limited to workplace affirmative action in the tional performance benefits more from TPA than does United States. individual job performance. —Sabine Sonnentag and Jennifer L. Sparr LEGAL ISSUES Affirmative action law in the United States is jointly See also Emotions; Job Satisfaction; Mood; Stress, Coping and Management determined by the Constitution, legislative acts, executive orders, and court decisions. It is complex, incomplete, and open to revision. The Office of FURTHER READING Federal Contract Compliance Programs is responsible Brief, A. P., & Weiss, H. M. (2002). Organizational behav- for developing and enforcing most AAPs, although ior: Affect in the workplace. Annual Reviews of the Equal Opportunity Employment Commission Psychology, 53, 279–307. (EEOC) enforces AAPs in the federal sector. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 16

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A distinction exists between so-called set-aside relevant labor markets. The relevant labor market for AAPs and organization-specific AAPs. Set-aside any position includes only those individuals who are AAPs exist when a pubic organization (e.g., a munici- qualified for that position and who reside in the recruit- pality or federal agency) is required to set a goal for ment area. If the utilization analysis reveals that all directing a certain percentage of its budget to qualified groups are reasonably represented, no further actions firms—typically those owned by members of an are required. If the utilization analysis reveals that any underrepresented group. group defined by gender, race, or ethnicity is underrep- In contrast, organization-specific AAPs are created resented, the firm must establish flexible goals to elim- for one of three reasons. First, some organizations are inate the underutilization and must make a good faith required by a court order or an EEOC consent decree effort (i.e., take affirmative actions) to meet those to establish an AAP to compensate for illegal discrim- goals. Utilization analyses are not required for other ination. These AAPs are relatively rare. Second, many protected dimensions (i.e., disability, veteran status, organizations establish AAPs to satisfy regulatory religion), so it is impossible to determine whether requirements. Specifically, the Rehabilitation Act of underrepresentation exists along these dimensions. 1973 and the Vietnam Era Veterans’ Readjustment An important question is which actions are permit- Assistance Act of 1974 require certain federal con- ted when underutilization is revealed. Federal regula- tractors to take affirmative action to employ individu- tions strongly emphasize nonpreferential actions such als with disabilities and certain veterans, respectively. as the elimination of barriers and the use of targeted Most important, Executive Order 11246, signed by recruitment or training. Because these approaches President Lyndon Johnson in 1965 and subsequently may fail to eliminate substantial underrepresentation, amended, requires federal contractors to take affirma- some organizations may want to take stronger actions. tive action to eliminate discrimination on the basis of In so doing, the firm must not violate the constraints race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Along the established by the Constitution and antidiscrimination same lines, state and local laws and regulations may law. It is clearly illegal to use quotas or to give prefer- require organizations to take affirmative action to ences to unqualified members of the underrepresented improve the employment opportunities of various group (e.g., through race norming of the selection groups. Third, some organizations establish AAPs on test). Furthermore, Supreme Court decisions have a fully voluntary basis. determined that any AAP that gives a positive weight Precisely which organizations are required to to racial minority status is subject to “strict scrutiny.” establish AAPs and which actions are required, per- Such an AAP must be remedial, narrowly tailored, mitted, or forbidden varies with the legal basis for and temporary; must not trammel the rights of others; the AAP. Furthermore, actions of state and federal and must further a compelling governmental interest. governments are limited by the U.S. Constitution, Note that the final requirement can be satisfied only whereas actions of firms in the private sector are con- within the public sector. Although it has been sug- strained by state and federal legislation (e.g., the Civil gested that private-sector organizations might use the Rights Acts of 1964 and 1991). The following brief economic value of diversity to justify positive weight- and incomplete description focuses on affirmative ing of racial minority status, it is not clear that such an action as required by Executive Order 11246, because argument would be approved by the Supreme Court. that is the primary source of AAPs in the United Although positive weighting of gender requires only States and is the basis of much of the controversy. intermediate scrutiny rather than strict scrutiny, it Organizations with annual federal contracts of at would still be a risky approach. least $10,000 are required to take affirmative action to eliminate discrimination on the basis of race, color, EMPIRICAL RESEARCH religion, sex, or national origin. They must establish nondiscrimination policies and communicate those As mentioned previously, affirmative action is a con- policies to employees and applicants. Organizations troversial public policy. The debate regarding whether with at least 50 employees and contracts above $50,000 it should be eliminated, perpetuated, or expanded is are further required to perform and report the results of complex. For example, philosophical arguments have utilization analyses in which they compare the gender been offered regarding the appropriateness of using and racial distributions of their workforce to the race-conscious approaches to attain a race-blind A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 17

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society. These arguments tend to focus on race-based organizations are not required to report employment affirmative action and occasionally gender-based statistics of these groups, such effects would be diffi- plans; they rarely mention policies that target veter- cult to document. ans or individuals with disabilities. These debates also There is also some evidence that affirmative action focus on preferential forms of affirmative action rather may lead to stigmatization of individuals who belong than the more common, and legal, nonpreferential to the AAP target group. The logic is consistent with forms. Empirical research, in contrast, has focused the discounting principle of attribution theory. When on the consequences of affirmative action and on targeted individuals are selected in the context of an predictors of attitudes toward affirmative action. AAP, others are uncertain about whether their selec- tion was because of their performance or the AAP. In the absence of affirmative action, this uncertainty CONSEQUENCES OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION disappears and the individual is assumed competent. For Organizations Research reveals such stigmatization when observers believe or are told that the AAP involves preferences. A logical analysis shows that affirmative action It can be eliminated or greatly reduced by providing could either help or hurt organizational performance, compelling evidence that the AAP is nonpreferential depending on details of the AAP and on the procedures or that the selected individual is fully qualified or has used by the organization in the absence of affirmative performed well. action. Positive effects should occur if the AAP A related stream of research deals with self- increases the organization’s access to the labor market stigmatization by target group members. According (e.g., through intensive recruitment) or decreases dis- to the logic outlined above, members of AAP target crimination against women or racial or ethnic minori- groups may doubt their own competence and conse- ties. Negative effects should occur if the organization quently lose confidence and interest in the job. uses a preferential AAP that supplants a nondiscrimi- Although this effect has been observed, almost all natory procedure. In addition, organizations must bear supportive evidence has come from laboratory the costs of administering AAPs. Consistent with the research in which White female college students are logical uncertainty, empirical research has failed to explicitly told that they have been preferentially demonstrate any substantial effect of affirmative action selected on the basis of their gender. There is little evi- on organizational performance. dence for this effect among racial or ethnic minorities, and the effect is absent or much smaller when partici- pants are given clear evidence of their competence or For Target Groups are told their selection was based in part on merit. A different line of research has assessed the eco- nomic impact of affirmative action on the targeted For White Males groups. Affirmative action appears to have improved employment outcomes of targeted groups, but the A final question concerns the impact of affirmative effects have varied in complex ways depending on action on White males. Although there are many factors such as the targeted group, geographic region, reports of backlash—opposition by White males time period, and type of position. For example, affir- based in part on the belief that they have been hurt by mative action had a substantial positive impact on affirmative action—there is surprisingly little research African Americans in the South between 1965 and on this question. Logically, the effect should be nega- 1975, presumably because that time and place offered tive if affirmative action reverses traditional biases a substantial opportunity for improvement. On the that favor White males or if preferential forms of affir- other hand, affirmative action had virtually little or no mative action replace nondiscriminatory procedures. effect during the 1980s, perhaps because the Reagan The limited research that exists reveals such a nega- administration decreased support for the regulatory tive effect. Of course, this assumes a “fixed pie” agencies and substantially revised those agencies’ situation; if implementation of an AAP enhances policies and procedures. Little or no research exists organizational performance because of the increased on the effects of affirmative action on employment diversity, that increased performance may help all of individuals with disabilities or veterans. Because organization members. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 18

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Attitudes Attitudes are also associated with several opinion variables. Most significantly, opposition increases Perhaps the largest body of empirical research on with the respondent’s racial prejudice and sexism. In affirmative action has dealt with public attitudes addition, those who subscribe to a conservative polit- toward the policy. This work has assessed the effects ical ideology or who identify with the Republican of structural predictors, perceiver variables, and psy- Party report greater opposition than do those who are chological mediators of the effects. politically liberal or who identify with the Democratic The structural predictor that has received the most Party. Opposition also increases with the level of the attention is AAP strength—the weight given by the respondent’s social dominance orientation—an indi- AAP to demographic characteristics. Specifically, vidual difference variable that represents a general the public strongly supports AAPs that require only opposition to equality and support for group-based the elimination of discrimination. Support decreases dominance. Finally, support for affirmative action is somewhat for AAPs that are designed to enhance tar- associated with the belief that the target group experi- get group opportunities—for example, by requiring ences discrimination and thus that affirmative action targeted recruitment. There is a further drop in support is needed. if the AAP requires selection of underrepresented Research on psychological mediators finds that group members when their qualifications are equiva- support for affirmative action is positively associated lent to those of other applicants. Note that such an with anticipated positive effects of the AAP on AAP would rarely if ever pass legal muster. Finally, the respondent’s personal self-interest and on the there is strong opposition to AAPs that require prefer- respondent’s demographic group. But the strongest ential selection of underrepresented group members association of all is with perceived fairness of the even when their qualifications are inferior to those of AAP—people support AAPs they consider fair and other applicants. Although such an AAP would be oppose those they consider unfair. As this would sug- illegal, many scholars who study attitudes toward gest, providing a justification increases support for affirmative action attitudes have described it in those affirmative action, but only if the justification refers to terms, and many people believe preferences are com- the value of diversity or the need to make up for past mon. Indeed, although most research on AAP strength discrimination; simply citing underrepresentation has involved manipulation of the AAP, research on typically decreases support instead of increasing it. public beliefs reveals corresponding effects, so that individuals who believe affirmative action merely —David Albert Kravitz requires the elimination of discrimination have more See also Adverse Impact/Disparate Treatment/Discrimi- positive attitudes than those who believe it involves nation at Work; Attitudes and Beliefs; Banding; Civil preferences. Rights Act of 1964, Civil Rights Act of 1991; Diversity The only other structural predictor that has in the Workplace; Race Norming; Recruitment; Sexual received enough attention to merit conclusions is the Discrimination; Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selec- identity of the target group. It appears that attitudes, at tion Procedures least of White respondents, are more negative when the AAP is described as targeting African Americans FURTHER READING or minorities than when it is said to target women or individuals with disabilities. Crosby, F. J. (2004). Affirmative action is dead; long live The two perceiver variables that have received the affirmative action. New Haven, CT: Yale University most attention are respondent race and gender. In gen- Press. eral, African Americans report the strongest support Crosby, F. J., & VanDeVeer, C. (2000). Sex, race, and merit: Debating affirmative action in education and employ- for affirmative action and Whites the strongest oppo- ment. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. sition, with Hispanics and Asians reporting intermedi- Doverspike, D., Taylor, M. A., & Arthur, W., Jr. (2000). ate levels of support. However, this race effect is Affirmative action: A psychological perspective. moderated by AAP strength, increasing in size as the Huntington, NY: Nova Science. AAP gives greater weight to demographic status. The Edley, C., Jr. (1996). Not all Black and White: Affirmative effect of gender on attitudes is much smaller, but in action, race, and American values. New York: Hill & general, women report more support than do men. Wang. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 19

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Gutman, A. (2000). EEO law and personnel practices fact that benefits costs may be higher for older work- (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ers, the ADEA allows employers to provide different Holzer, H. J., & Neumark, D. (2000). Assessing affirmative benefits to older and younger workers if the amount action. Journal of Economic Literature, 38, 483–568. spent on benefits received by older and younger work- Kravitz, D. A., Harrison, D. A., Turner, M. E., Levine, E. L., ers is the same. The ADEA also recognizes several Affirmative Chaves, W., Brannick, M. T., et al. (1997). general defenses that may provide a legal justification action: A review of psychological and behavioral for policies or practices that adversely affect older research. Bowling Green, OH: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. workers, as discussed in the following section. Leiter, S., & Leiter, W. M. (2002). Affirmative action in antidiscrimination law and policy: An overview and ESTABLISHING AND synthesis. Albany: State University of New York Press. DEFENDING ADEA CLAIMS Rubio, P. F. (2001). A history of affirmative action, 1619–2000. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Violations of the ADEA may be established using Spann, G. A. (2000). The law of affirmative action: Twenty- either the disparate treatment or disparate impact theo- five years of Supreme Court decisions on race and reme- ries of discrimination. The legal defenses that are rele- dies. New York: New York University Press. vant and potentially available to an employer depend on which theory of discrimination the plaintiff relies on.

AGE DISCRIMINATION Disparate Treatment IN EMPLOYMENT ACT The disparate treatment theory of age discrimina- tion, or intentional age discrimination, requires plain- The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) tiffs (job applicants or employees) to prove that the of 1967 (amended in 1986) is a U.S. federal law that employer used age as a factor in an employment deci- prohibits discrimination in employment against indi- sion or action. Examples include the refusal to hire viduals who are at least 40 years old. It was enacted older workers based on stereotypes about their limited by the Congress to promote the employment of older capabilities and excluding older workers from certain people based on their ability and to prevent intentional types of training. and nonintentional forms of age discrimination. The In cases where it is established that the employer act applies to private, public, and foreign companies has a policy or practice that treats individuals differ- with more than 20 workers located in the United ently based on age, the employer must prove that the States, as well as to unions and employment agencies. age standard it used is a bona fide occupational qual- ification (BFOQ) for the job in question to avoid a finding of illegal discrimination. The BFOQ defense PROHIBITED PRACTICES is narrowly construed and difficult to establish. The The ADEA makes it unlawful to discriminate against employer must prove that age is directly related to the a person because of his or her age “with respect to any ability to perform an important aspect of the job that term, condition, or privilege of employment.” That goes to the essence of the employer’s business. It is prohibition applies to such things as hiring, firing, job not enough to merely show that younger workers tend assignments, promotions, training opportunities, dis- to perform better on the job; it must be shown that cipline, and employee compensation. The ADEA cov- substantially all persons over the age limit cannot suc- ers individuals age 40 and above; a worker who is 39 cessfully perform the job, or that it is highly impracti- years old at the time of the alleged discrimination is cal to assess the relevant ability on an individual basis. not entitled to ADEA protection. The ADEA also pro- Age-based BFOQs are most commonly supported in hibits employer discrimination among older workers. jobs directly involving public transportation or safety, For example, an employer cannot hire a 50-year-old for which there is credible evidence that abilities over a 60-year-old simply because of age. essential to the job diminish significantly with age. Although the ADEA restricts the use of age by In the more typical case, where there is not an employers, it allows age to be taken into account in explicit age-based policy or practice and the employer some situations. For example, in recognition of the denies that age played any role in the challenged A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 20

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employment action, the plaintiff must make an initial performance would be sufficient, but it may not be showing of intentional age discrimination using either necessary. For example, in a 2005 ruling (Smith v. City direct evidence (e.g., help-wanted advertising indi- of Jackson, Mississippi, the Supreme Court held that cating age preferences, disparaging age-related the employer’s perceived need to offer junior police comments) or circumstantial evidence. To establish a officers salaries that were competitive in the job mar- prima facie case of disparate treatment using circum- ket was an RFOA that justified an employer policy stantial evidence in a refusal-to-hire case, the plaintiff that adversely affected older officers. must show that (a) she or he is a member of the pro- tected age class; (b) she or he was qualified for the REMEDIES FOR ADEA VIOLATIONS position in question; (c) she or he was denied the position; and (d) someone significantly younger, with A range of remedies are potentially available to suc- similar or lesser qualifications, received the position cessful plaintiffs in ADEA cases, including reinstate- she or he was denied. ment to their old job, employment, back pay, front If the plaintiff establishes the foregoing, the pay, promotion, and court costs. In addition, if it employer must rebut the circumstantial evidence of is shown that the employer knew that its actions intentional discrimination by producing evidence that violated the ADEA or showed reckless disregard for it had a legitimate, nondiscriminatory explanation for whether its actions violated the act, then the court its action (e.g., poor job performance, good faith has discretion to award liquidated damages equal to belief that someone else was more qualified). If double the amount the plaintiff is otherwise owed. the employer is able to provide such a reason, then the Noncompensatory damages (e.g., pain and suffering) burden shifts back to the plaintiff to show that the are not available. reason offered by the defendant is a pretext for discrimination. IMPACT OF THE ADEA Without question, the ADEA has increased U.S. Disparate Impact employers’ awareness of and sensitivity to the use of Disparate impact age discrimination claims involve job applicant and employee age in employment deci- employer policies or practices that appear neutral on sions. Some provisions of the ADEA have had a direct their face but that have a substantially greater negative and manifest impact on employer practices. For exam- impact on older individuals when put into effect. For ple, the 1986 amendment to the ADEA has eliminated example, in several cases, the employer’s use of what the use of once common age-based mandatory retire- appeared to be age-neutral physical fitness require- ment policies for all but a relatively narrow group of ments in hiring decisions were found to have a sub- employees (high-level executives and employees in stantially greater impact in screening out older selected occupations in which age is a BFOQ). The employees. continued dramatic growth in the number of lawsuits Even if a plaintiff meets his or her burden of iden- alleging ADEA claims suggests that older workers tifying a specific employer policy or practice that have also become more aware and less tolerant of age- adversely affects older workers, the employer may based employment discrimination. Research investi- still prevail if it can show that its policy or practice gating the impact of the ADEA suggests that although involves a reasonable factor other than age (RFOA). evidence of differential treatment based on age can The RFOA defense, unique to the ADEA, requires still be found in the American workplace, overall, the the employer to demonstrate that there is a good or ADEA has had a positive impact on the employment rational business reason for the employer policy or prospects of older workers. More specifically, empiri- practice. The RFOA defense requires a standard of cal evidence indicates that the ADEA helped boost justification that is significantly lower than the BFOQ the employment levels of older workers, particularly defense (i.e., an RFOA is much easier to establish) those aged 60 and over. and somewhat higher than the legitimate nondiscrim- —Mark V. Roehling and Lisa M. Finkelstein inatory reason showing that will rebut a circumstantial prima face case of disparate treatment. Evidence that See also Adverse Impact/Disparate Treatment/Discrimination the challenged policy or practice is related to job at Work A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 21

American Psychological Association, Association for Psychological Science———21

FURTHER READING doctorate in psychology from an accredited institu- Bennett-Alexander, D. D., & Hartman, L. P. (2004). tion); (b) student affiliate (programs for graduate, Employment law for business. New York: McGraw-Hill. undergraduate, and high school students); (c) teacher Clark, M. (2005). Court: Workers can sue for unintentional affiliate (community college or high school teachers); age bias. HRMagazine, 50(5), 29–32. (d) international affiliate (psychologists who live out- Lindeman, B., & Grossman, P. (1997). Employment dis- side the United States and Canada); and (e) fellow crimination laws (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: The (elected status; members who have demonstrated Bureau of National Affairs. unusual and outstanding contributions or performance Neumark, D. (2003). Age discrimination legislation in in psychology on a national level). the United States. Contemporary Economic Policy, 21, 297–317. Robinson, R. K., Franklin, G. M., & Wayland, R. (2002). Mission of APA The regulatory environment of human resource manage- The mission of APA is to advance psychology as a ment. New York: Harcourt. science and profession and as a means of promoting Smith v. City of Jackson, Mississippi, No. 03-1160, 544 health, education, and human welfare. Five mecha- U.S. (2005). nisms are used to accomplish this mission: (a) broadly and liberally encouraging all of the psychological dis- ciplines (specialty areas); (b) promoting psychologi- AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL cal research and improving the methods and manner ASSOCIATION, ASSOCIATION in which these studies are conducted; (c) improving the qualifications and value of psychologists by main- FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE taining high standards for professional conduct, ethics, education, and achievement; (d) maintaining The two primary professional psychological associ- the utmost standards for professional ethics and con- ations in the United States are the American duct of members of APA; and (e) increasing and Psychological Association (APA) and the Association spreading knowledge of psychology through a variety for Psychological Science (APS; formerly called the of methods (e.g., meetings, publications, networking, American Psychological Society). and discussions).

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL Functions of APA ASSOCIATION (APA) The association sponsors services to advance the Description of APA education and practice of psychology, including con- The American Psychological Association was tinuing education workshops, an annual convention, founded in 1892 as a scientific and professional and an awards program. Publications of APA include Monitor on Psychology membership organization for the field of psychology a monthly news magazine ( ); in the United States. Headquartered in Washington, specialized newsletters; division newsletters; hundreds D.C., APA comprises 53 divisions, covering the spec- of books; more than 40 journals; videos; practice- trum of psychological specialties (e.g., clinical, exper- related pamphlets; and the largest online research imental, developmental, educational, personality, and database for psychological information in the world social). The association is a corporation governed by (PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES). A major function of a six-member board of directors and a council of APA is to advise decision makers in Congress on a representatives. Many of the organization’s tasks are diverse range of legislative and regulatory issues (e.g., carried out by boards and committees. aging, crime, terrorism, substance abuse).

APA Membership ASSOCIATION FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Formation of APS in Relation to APA With more than 150,000 members, APA is the largest psychological association in the world. During the 1970s, many members of APA grew Membership categories include (a) member (i.e., discontented with the association’s primary focus on A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 22

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issues pertaining to clinical practice (e.g., health care). awards. Further, APS has been actively involved in This focus led many members to believe that their obtaining legislative and federal support for scientific needs and interests as scientific and academic psy- psychological research (e.g., increasing visibility for chologists were not being met. Proposals submitted to health and behavioral research within agencies such make APA the primary association for scientific psy- as the National Institutes of Health). chologists were not approved by the membership. —Jennifer L. Burnfield Consequently, in August 1988, the American Psycho- logical Society (APS) was formed to advance psy- See also Academy of Management; Society for Industrial chology as a scientifically oriented discipline. In and Organizational Psychology January of 2006, APS officially changed its name to the Association for Psychological Science to better reflect is core mission and values. FURTHER READING American Psychological Association Web site. Retrieved February 28, 2006, from http://www.apa.org/ Description of APS Association for Psychological Science Web site. Retrieved The Association for Psychological Science is a February 28, 2006, from http://www.psychological national nonprofit membership organization governed science.org/ by an 11-member board of directors, representing dif- Hakel, M. D., & Herring, L. (2000). Association for ferent fields of psychology. In contrast to APA, APS is Psychological Science. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclo- pedia of psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 154–157). Washington, not divided into specialty areas; rather, it considers the DC, and New York: American Psychological Association/ scientific field of psychology as a whole. Oxford University Press. Kraut, A. G. (2001). Association for Psychological Science APS Membership (APS). In W. E. Craighead & C. B. Nemeroff (Eds.), The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology and behavioral There are more than 14,000 members of APS, science (3rd ed., pp. 94–96). New York: Wiley. including academics, researchers, clinicians, teachers, and administrators. Membership types include (a) member (i.e., doctoral degree in psychology or a related field, or sustained contributions to scientific AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT psychology); (b) retired; and (c) student affiliate (grad- uate, undergraduate). The association also offers other In 1990, Congress passed the Americans With categories of membership, which have reduced mem- Disabilities Act (ADA) to provide equal protection bership rates (e.g., first-year PhD, postdoctorates). under the law to disabled citizens, who are not identi- fied in the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 or 1991 as a pro- Mission of APS tected group. The ADA covered various aspects of daily life for the disabled, which are addressed under The mission of APS is to promote, protect, and the following titles: advance the interests of scientifically oriented psy- chology in research, application, teaching, and the Title I: Employment improvement of human welfare. Title II: Public Services

Functions of APS Title III: Public Accommodations The association publishes a newsletter and three Title IV: Telecommunications journals: Psychological Science, Current Directions Title V: Miscellaneous Provisions in Psychological Science, and Psychological Science in the Public Interest. Each year, APS sponsors a pro- This entry considers only Title I, on employment. fessional conference. In addition, APS honors partic- Title I of the ADA was intended to strengthen the ularly notable contributors to the field by awarding existing Rehabilitation Act (RA) of 1973 by making them fellow status and through specific achievement language more specific and by including private-sector A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 23

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employers under the previous umbrella of the RA. It walking, talking, seeing, hearing, and breathing. But provided standards for enforcement of the law and often, the category is not so obvious, and the individ- charged government with the responsibility for ual may claim that the limited life activity is actually enforcement. The ADA is administered by three that of working. When this is the case, the claimant different agencies: the Department of Justice, for must show not merely that he or she is unable to per- public-sector employees; the Equal Employment form a single job but that he or she cannot perform Opportunity Commission (EEOC), for private-sector successfully in a broad range of jobs as a result of the employees; and the Department of Transportation, for disability. An example from a court case provides an nonfederal sectors affecting commerce. Although example of the requirement. An individual with a fear originally covering only employers with 25 or more of heights is not seen as substantially limited simply employees, the act was amended in 1994 to apply to because he or she cannot work on the upper floors of all businesses with 15 or more employees. a building, because a wide variety of other jobs are Statistics from the EEOC demonstrate that the available from other employers that do not require rights of the disabled are being increasingly defended employees to work in high locations. through litigation. In 1992, ADA claims represented In addition to showing that they are disabled using less than 2% of all claims filed with EEOC. From any of the definitions above, claimants must also 1993 through 2003, these claims have averaged demonstrate that they are qualified. It is not sufficient approximately 20% of all claims filed with EEOC. To for claimants simply to show that they possess the put this figure in context, the respective figure for knowledge, skills, or abilities needed to do the job. claims alleging discrimination on the basis of race or Rather, to meet this requirement, a claimant must color is 36%; on the basis of sex, 31%; and on the show that he or she has the knowledge, skills, and basis of age, 21%. In the year 2003 alone, ADA abilities to perform essential job functions and can claims filed through EEOC resulted in total benefits to successfully perform those essential functions with or disabled claimants of $45.3 million. An ADA claim without a reasonable accommodation. Both of these typically consists of an individual’s assertion that he conditions must be met before the court will consider or she is disabled, had the necessary qualifications for any claims of discrimination on the part of the the job in question, and was denied an accommoda- employer. If the person is not considered disabled tion that would have made it possible to successfully (with the added qualification that the disability sub- perform the job, or at least the essential functions of stantially limits a major life activity) or does not pos- that job. The issues of accommodations and essential sess the necessary qualifications to perform essential function are discussed below. functions of the job, then the case is dismissed. Although race, sex, and age are relatively clear In a general sense, essential functions define why attributes allowing for a simple determination of who the job exists. For example, the essential functions of is covered, the disability statute is not so easily a bus or train driver are to guide a vehicle on a pre- applied. Since the passage of ADA, the U.S. Supreme scribed route within a fixed period of time and to pick Court has heard 11 cases involving it, many of them up and discharge passengers. Essential functions of a dealing exactly with issues related to who is covered firefighter are to suppress fires while protecting lives by the act. The determination of who is a member of and property. Essential functions are usually identified the class of disabled depends on several statutory def- through the completion of a job analysis or the exam- initions. A person may be classified as disabled if (a) ination of a job description that resulted from a job he or she has a current mental or physical impairment analysis. Since 1990, many job analyses have identi- that limits a major life activity, (b) can demonstrate a fied certain functions as essential to comply with history of such an impairment, or (c) can show that he ADA requirements. Various courts have ruled that to or she is being treated as if he or she has, or is per- meet the burden of showing that one can perform the ceived to have, such an impairment. But for an indi- essential functions of a job, a claimant must show that vidual’s claim to be covered by the ADA, it is not he or she can perform all of the essential functions sufficient to simply demonstrate that he or she has an with or without an accommodation, not merely some impairment. This impairment must be shown to sub- of them. This logic also affects the very definition of stantially limit a major life activity. Major life activi- what a job is. Claimants have often argued that they ties include obvious categories such as self-care, could perform a job if some of the essential functions A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 24

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were moved to other jobs. Courts have held that the treatment program, and (d) providing the opportunity employer is not required to redefine a job for purposes for inpatient treatment if outpatient treatment is of accommodating a disabled applicant or employee. unsuccessful. On the other hand, the employer cannot exclude a Those individuals diagnosed with AIDS and other disabled applicant or employee from a job because infectious diseases are also protected by ADA, to the the disabled individual cannot perform a nonessential extent that the condition does not pose a direct threat function. As an example, a recent amputee who had to the health and safety of other individuals. As exam- been a former patrol officer could ask to be placed on ples, an HIV-positive surgical nurse who refuses to desk duty in a police precinct. The department might transfer to a nonsurgical area is not protected by the argue that even desk officers may be required to ADA from involuntary reassignment or termination. respond to outside events in an emergency; however, In contrast, a hospital clerical worker who is HIV- if it could be shown that no such emergency had ever positive cannot be excluded from that position as a occurred, then the hypothetical essential function of result of some general and nonspecific fear that the dis- the desk-duty officer to respond to outside emergen- ease might be transmitted to patients or coworkers. cies would be seen as nonessential. These examples help to demonstrate the more general Drug and alcohol abuse occupy special status in principle of context. Diabetics and epileptics might ADA. Only rehabilitated drug abusers are protected; function fine in certain job contexts (e.g., routine office individuals currently using illegal substances (e.g., work) yet be considered threats to the health and safety heroin, cocaine, marijuana) are not. The act permits of others in other contexts (e.g., jobs involving the use drug testing of employees, including former addicts, of heavy machinery or working in sensitive positions in provided these tests are reasonable. In this context, air traffic control or nuclear power). reasonable means an articulated policy that is nondis- The reasonable accommodation requirement of criminatory. For example, a drug testing policy specify- ADA is unique. It means that the employer may be ing that testing will occur after a workplace accident required to make modifications of the application or as part of a return-to-work determination after process, the work environment, and/or the way in an injury would be seen as nondiscriminatory. In con- which the job functions are performed. It is assumed trast to those using illegal drugs, those who might be that there will be a dialogue between the employer defined as current alcoholics may be covered by the and the disabled applicant or employee that will iden- ADA and may request accommodations. However, tify what might be considered a reasonable accommo- alcohol abusers are held to the same standard as any dation for the disabled individual. As an example, other employee with regard to not consuming alcohol individuals who are visually impaired may request an at the work site and not being under the influence oral assessment or someone to read test questions and of alcohol when reporting to work. In these instances, possible answers to them. Such individuals, if hired, alcoholism is not protected as a disability. Neverthe- may request a modified work environment to offer less, an employer may not take adverse employment protection from moving equipment. Finally, they may action against an alcoholic employee because of the request various technical devices (e.g., voice recogni- consumption of alcohol during nonwork hours unless tion equipment, high-power lighting, or magnifica- the consumption has resulted in behavior (e.g., DUI or tion) to enable successful completion of essential job assault on coworkers during nonwork interactions) functions. Such accommodations must be reasonable that would have led to dismissal or suspension for any and entail looking at various characteristics of the other employee who engaged in similar activities. employing organization, including the cost of the Appropriate accommodations for alcoholic employ- accommodation, the financial resources available for ees might include (a) making sure the employee such an accommodation, and the effect of such an knows about available counseling, (b) asking the accommodation on the overall capability of the orga- employee to make a commitment to rehabilitation, nization to conduct business. understanding that failure to honor this commitment The ADA also has practical implications for the might result in termination, (c) establishing a ladder application and employment process. Individuals may of progressive discipline (e.g., verbal warning → not be asked to disclose information about a disability written warning → suspension → termination) for (other than a request by that individual for an accom- those who continue to drink while in an outpatient modation in the application process) until after an offer A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 25

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of employment has been made. This is to prevent and dialogue between an employer and a disabled individuals from being unfairly discriminated against applicant or employee. The courts look favorably on as a result of a covered disability during the employ- evidence of good faith efforts by both parties to work ment screening process. The most obvious point at out a reasonable accommodation where possible. It which to run afoul of this protection is the preemploy- is best for neither the applicant/employee nor the ment physical. Although it is permissible to give a employer to forget the importance of this dialogue in preemployment physical to any individual (including an eventual judicial decision, should such a decision disabled applicants), it cannot be administered before a become necessary. conditional offer of employment has been given to suc- —Frank J. Landy cessful applicants. A conditional offer is one that is contingent on passing a physical examination. Further, See also Civil Rights Act of 1964, Civil Rights Act of 1991; such physicals must be administered to all applicants, Drug and Alcohol Testing not simply to those who appear to be disabled or who have asked for an accommodation. Even at early stages FURTHER READING of the application process—before a conditional offer of employment is made—an employer is permitted to Cascio, W. F., & Aguinis, H. (2005). Applied psychology in human resource management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: ask individuals if they think that they can perform Pearson/Prentice Hall. essential functions that are described to them. Asking Gutman, A. (2000). EEO law and personnel practices applicants to undergo testing for illegal drug and alco- (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. hol use as part of the application process does not Papinchock, J. M. (2005). Title I of the Americans With violate the provisions of the ADA. Disabilities Act: The short but active history of ADA W. F. Cascio, in 2005, suggested several ways in enforcement and litigation. In F. Landy (Ed.), Employ- which employers may embrace the spirit of ADA. ment discrimination litigation: Behavioral, quantitative, These include the following: and legal perspectives (pp. 294–335). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. • Making the workplace more accessible to individuals with various physical impairments by installing ramps for individuals in wheelchairs or with visual impairments and installing TTY (teletypewriter) and APPLICANT/TEST-TAKER REACTIONS voice amplifiers for individuals with hearing impair- ments. Newly designed keyboards and computers The term applicant reactions is used to refer to an have been developed for quadriplegics and individu- als with cerebral palsy. applicant’s affect, attitudes, and cognitions toward a • Creating a position within the equal employment selection process. Applicant reaction models suggest opportunity domain of an organization for an indi- that reactions are very complex and involve percep- vidual who would focus on disability issues. Such a tions of multiple aspects of specific tests and the test- position would include responsibility for the orienta- ing process in general. Stephen Gilliland was one of tion and socialization of newly hired disabled work- the first researchers to put forth a theoretical model of ers. This orientation would include the supervisors applicant reactions, and this model has guided much and coworkers of the disabled employee. of this research over the past decade. Gilliland’s • Educating senior managers in disability issues and model is based on theories of organizational justice. gaining commitment to recruit, select, and accom- Organizational justice is concerned with the fairness modate individuals with disabilities when necessary. of the distribution of organizational outcomes (out- • Analyzing jobs with the specific aim of identifying come fairness) and the fairness of procedures used tasks and functions for which various disabilities are not an impediment to successful performance. to distribute these outcomes (procedural justice). • Describing successful accommodation experiences Gilliland adapted the basic principles of organiza- to the employees within the organization as well as tional justice to provide a comprehensive model of to those outside of the organization. how applicants perceive and react to selection proce- dures. This model has received considerable support. The ADA is a complex statute that is still evolving. Glliland’s model suggests that selection systems It was written in a way that encouraged cooperation and tests are viewed favorably by applicants A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 26

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(i.e., are considered fair) to the extent they comply 2. Opportunity to perform. The extent to which appli- with or violate procedural and distributive justice cants perceive that the test or test process allows rules. These procedural and distributive justice rules them the opportunity to express themselves prior to a are standards that applicants hold for how they expect selection decision to be treated and how selection procedures should be 3. Reconsideration opportunity. The opportunity to administered and used. These justice rules determine challenge or modify the decision-making process perceptions of process and outcome fairness, such that 4. Consistency of administration. The extent to which when the rules are satisfied, the selection process and selection procedures are used consistently across outcome are perceived as fair, but when they are vio- applicants lated, the selection process and outcome are perceived as unfair. As will be discussed, applicant perceptions 5. Feedback. The extent to which applicants receive of the fairness of a selection process can influence a timely and informative feedback number of important individual and organizational 6. Selection information. The extent to which appli- outcomes. It should be noted that according to cants are informed how the test and selection proce- Gilliland’s model, justice rules would not directly dures will be used and why they are used relate to applicant intentions or behavior, but would 7. Honesty. The extent to which recruiters and test do so indirectly through process fairness perceptions. administrators are truthful and honest in their com- For example, perceived job relatedness is an example munication with applicants of a procedural justice rule. Perceived job relatedness 8. Interpersonal effectiveness of administrator. The refers to the extent to which the applicant perceives extent to which applicants are treated with respect that the content of a test reflects the content of the job and warmth from the test administrator (e.g., the knowledge, skills, and abilities required by the job). Perceived job relatedness has been recog- 9. Two-way communication. The extent to which appli- nized as the most important procedural justice rule cants have the opportunity to offer input and to have their views on the selection process considered because it consistently influences fairness perceptions and, through fairness perceptions, test performance. 10. Propriety of questions. The extent to which questions Over the years, several researchers have modified on tests are appropriate and not offensive and expanded Gilliland’s original applicant reactions model to include a number of additional antecedents Distributive Justice Rules and moderator variables. For example, Ann-Marie Ryan and Robert Ployhart revised the Gilliland model 1. Equity. The extent to which applicants perceive that and included an applicant’s affective and cognitive the outcome of the selection process (whether they states during the selection processes, as well as gen- are hired or not) is based on competence or merit eral perceptions about testing and selection, as impor- 2. Equality. The extent to which applicants, regardless tant in understanding antecedents and consequences of knowledge, skills, and abilities, have an equal of applicant reactions. chance of being hired for the job 3. Needs. The extent to which job offers are distributed on the basis of individual needs (e.g., preferential JUSTICE RULES treatment for a subgroup) In applicant reaction models, procedural and distribu- tive justice rules are important antecedents of fairness CONSEQUENCES OF APPLICANT REACTIONS perceptions. Although a number of procedural and distributive justice rules exist, Gilliland specified 10 Applicant reactions toward selection procedures have procedural and 3 distributive justice rules, and these been found to affect a number of important outcomes, have received research attention: both directly and indirectly. It has been shown that when applicants react positively toward a test, they are more likely to accept a job offer from the company, Procedural Justice Rules recommend the company to others, reapply for a job 1. Job-relatedness. The extent to which a test appears to with the company, and perform well once they are measure content relevant for the job employed by the company. It has also been suggested A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/15/2006 11:29 AM Page 27

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that negative applicant reactions may result in a greater the relationship between applicant reactions and test number of employment lawsuits and a decreased prob- performance. It has been found that when applicants ability an applicant will buy the company’s products in have favorable reactions toward a test or testing pro- the future. cess, they perform better on the tests. One of the most important consequences of appli- More recently, researchers have sought to deter- cant reactions is the effect reactions have on applicant mine precisely how motivation mediates the relation- test performance. However, this research has almost ship between applicant reactions and test performance exclusively examined the effects of applicant reac- by considering the multidimensional nature of moti- tions on cognitive ability test performance and has vation. Based on an established theory of motivation, neglected the effects of reactions on other test mea- VIE (valence–instrumentality–expectancy) theory, a sures. This research has shown that when applicants multidimensional measure of test-taking motivation react favorably to a cognitive ability test, they are more has been developed. The three components of VIE likely to perform well on the test, although the effects theory are defined as follows. Valence is the desirabil- are modest. ity or attractiveness of an outcome. Instrumentality is the belief that a behavior will lead to a specified out- come. Expectancy is the subjective probability that REACTIONS TOWARD effort will lead to a specified outcome. In a testing DIFFERENT SELECTION MEASURES context, valence refers to the value one places on get- Initial applicant reactions research focused on com- ting the job for which one is taking the test, instru- paring reactions to different types of measures. For mentality is the belief that good test performance will example, research suggests that reactions toward lead to one getting the job, and expectancy is the assessment centers and work simulations tend to be expectation that one will do well on the test if one puts more favorable than paper-and-pencil tests (e.g., cog- effort into doing well. Early results suggest that these nitive ability measures). The reasoning is that assess- three dimensions of test-taking motivation are dis- ment centers and work simulations appear to be more tinct, as they demonstrate different relationships with job-related and therefore result in more favorable test performance and applicant reactions. reactions on the part of the test taker. Further, research suggests that personality measures tend to be per- PRE- AND POSTTEST REACTIONS ceived less favorably than other types of selection measures. Some research has examined both pre- and posttest Although tests seem to differ in the reactions they reactions and how time of measurement influences evoke, research suggests that reactions toward tests relationships. Pretest reaction measures are adminis- can be altered in several ways. For example, research tered before the applicant takes the test or takes part in has shown that making a test more job-related will the selection process in question. Posttest reaction result in more favorable applicant reactions. That is, measures are administered after the applicant has by ensuring that the content of the test (regardless taken the test or been through the selection process. of test type) reflects the content of the job, one can Research generally finds that responses to pre- and increase the likelihood that applicants will respond posttest reaction measures are similar but not identi- favorably to the test. Further, research suggests that cal. Therefore, researchers have tried to understand providing an explanation for why the test is used can precisely why pre- and posttest measures are some- make reactions toward the test more favorable, as can times different. making selection decisions in a timely manner. In particular, the self-serving bias may explain how applicants respond to posttest reactions and motiva- tion. Specifically, if applicants have already taken a TEST-TAKING MOTIVATION test, their perceptions of how they performed may Test-taking motivation is an important component influence their reported test reactions and test-taking in all applicant reactions models. One of the most motivation. Those who believe they did poorly on the important and researched outcomes of applicant reac- test may be inclined to blame the test and report that tions is test performance, and research has clearly they have negative test reactions or indicate that they shown that test-taking motivation partially mediates did not even try to do well on the test (i.e., they report A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 28

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low test-taking motivation). Attributing one’s negative applicants are likely to be most influenced by how they performance to lack of effort or to a problematic test perceive the selection process. Thus, ensuring that may help protect one’s self-esteem. Given these find- selection procedures are viewed favorably by appli- ings, it is important for researchers to be aware that cants may have the added benefits of increasing minor- pre- and posttest reaction measures may result in ity representation in the selection process and retaining different outcomes. the most qualified job applicants. To increase the chances that tests are perceived favorably by applicants, organizations can ensure the RACE DIFFERENCES IN tests they use are job-related, provide explanations for APPLICANT REACTIONS why the test is being used (e.g., the test administrator Racial differences in applicant reactions exist, with can provide information about the validity of the mea- Blacks and Hispanics being more likely to have nega- sure), explain how the selection process will proceed tive reactions than White individuals. It is believed (e.g., clearly explain the stages of the selection that these race differences in applicant reactions may process), provide feedback to applicants in a timely contribute to race differences in test performance. In manner, and treat applicants consistently and with particular, it is well documented that White individu- respect throughout the selection process. Doing so als, on average, score substantially higher on cogni- may result in more favorable reactions. tive ability tests than Black and Hispanic individuals. —Lynn A. McFarland It is believed that differences in applicant reactions may contribute to the differences between how Whites See also Individual Differences; Organizational Justice and minorities perform on cognitive ability tests. Therefore, considerable research has focused on how applicant reactions may affect the race–test perfor- FURTHER READING mance relationship. Research has shown that race pre- Anderson, N., Born, M., & Cunningham-Snell, N. (2002). dicts test reactions, test reactions predict test-taking Recruitment and selection: Applicant perspectives and motivation, and test-taking motivation influences test outcomes. In N. Anderson & D. S. Ones, Handbook of performance. Thus, race differences on tests may be industrial, work, and organizational psychology: Vol. 1. larger when minority reactions are negative because Personnel Psychology (pp. 200–218). Thousand Oaks, minorities will have lower test-taking motivation and CA: Sage. hence lower test performance. Although research Gilliland, S. W. (1993). The perceived fairness of selection shows that reactions indirectly account for significant systems: An organizational justice perspective. Academy of Management Review, 18, 694–734. variance in race–test performance relationships, appli- Gilliland, S. W., & Chan, D. (2002). Justice in organi- cant reactions do not account for the majority of race zations: Theory, methods, and applications. In differences in test performance. N.Anderson & D. S. Ones, Handbook of industrial, work, and organizational psychology: Vol. 2. Organizational PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF Psychology (pp. 143–165). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. APPLICANT REACTIONS RESEARCH Ployhart, R. E., & Harold, C. M. (2004). The applicant attribution-reaction theory (AART): An integrative the- As noted earlier, applicant reactions have a number of ory of applicant attributional processing. International important consequences. Therefore, test administra- Journal of Selection and Assessment, 12, 84–98. tors and human resource professionals would be wise Ployhart, R. E., Ziegert, J. C., & McFarland, L. A. (2003). to make applicant reactions to selection procedures Understanding racial differences in cognitive ability as favorable as possible. This is especially true when tests in selection contexts: An integration of stereo- type threat and applicant reactions research. Human an organization is trying to meet diversity goals. Performance, 16, 231–259. Research suggests that minorities tend to have less Ryan, A. M., & Ployhart, R. E. (2000). Applicants’ percep- favorable reactions toward selection procedures than tions of selection procedures and decisions: A critical majority group members. Therefore, minorities will be review and agenda for the future. Journal of Manage- more likely to self-select out of the selection process or ment, 26, 565–606. even be less inclined to take a job if one were offered. Truxillo, D. M., Bauer, T. N., Campion, M. A., & Paronto, Research also suggests that the more qualified job M. E. (2002). Selection fairness information and A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 29

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applicant reactions: A longitudinal field study. Journal for the Beta test were given in pantomime, using of Applied Psychology, 87, 1020–1031. pictures and other symbolic material to help orient Truxillo, D. M., Bauer, T. N., & Sanchez, R. J. (2001). examines to the tasks that made up this test. Army Beta Multiple dimensions of procedural justice: Longitudinal included seven subscales: (a) maze, which required effects on selection system fairness and test-taking looking at a graphic maze and identifying the path to International Journal of Selection and self-efficacy. be taken; (b) cube analysis, which required counting Assessment, 9, 336–349. cubes in the picture; (c) X-O series, which required reading symbol series to identify patterns; (d) digit symbol, which required matching digits and symbols; (e) number checking, which required scanning and ARMY ALPHA/ARMY BETA matching graphic symbols in numeric forms; (f) pic- ture completion, which required examinees to identify The United States entered World War I late in the con- features required to complete a partial picture; and (g) flict and faced the problem of turning large numbers of geometrical construction, which required examinees to often poorly educated draftees into an effective army in manipulate forms to complete a geometrical pattern. a short period of time. The American Psychological Association volunteered its services to the war effort, ADMINISTRATION AND USE and a committee, headed by Robert Yerkes and includ- OF ARMY ALPHA AND ARMY BETA ing psychologists such as Arthur Otis and Lewis Terman, was assigned the task of developing a practical The Army Alpha and Army Beta were administered to method of measuring the intellectual level of individuals more than 1.5 million examinees. Scoring guidelines in large groups. Their efforts led to the development of were developed with the aim of making Army Alpha two tests, Army Alpha and Army Beta. Army Alpha was and Army Beta roughly comparable. Scores on both a written test that could be administered to large groups tests were sorted into eight order categories (A, B, C+, of recruits and that provided a rough measure of general C, C−,D,D−, E). Those with the lowest letter grade intelligence. Army Beta, a nonverbal test designed for were generally considered unfit for service. Examinees illiterates and for recruits who spoke little or no English, receiving grades of D or D− were recommended for could also be administered to groups and used simple assignment to simple duties, working under close pictorial and nonverbal instructions. supervision. Examinees with scores in the middle of Army Alpha was made up of 212 true–false and the test score distribution were recommended for nor- multiple-choice items, divided into eight subscales: mal soldier duties, whereas men receiving higher (a) oral directions, which assessed the ability to follow scores were recommended for training as noncommis- simple directions; (b) arithmetical problems; (c) prac- sioned officers and for officer training. tical judgment problems; (d) synonym–antonym Army Alpha and Army Beta were perceived as use- items; (e) disarranged sentences, which required sub- ful at the time they were introduced. These tests pro- jects to rearrange fragments into complete sequences; vided at least a rough classification of men, which was (f) number series completion, which required exam- of considerable utility in making the large number of inees to infer and complete patterns in series of num- selection decisions necessary at that time. The appar- bers; (g) analogies; and (h) information, a general ent success of the army’s group tests did not go unno- knowledge subtest. The most basic purposes of Army ticed in business circles and educational settings. Alpha were to determine whether recruits could read Soon after the war, the demand arose for similar tests English and to help in assigning new soldiers to tasks in civilian settings; by the mid- to late 1920s, intelli- and training that were consistent with their abilities. gence testing was widespread, particularly in schools. Several of the scales and test formats developed by Yerkes and his colleagues for Army Alpha are fore- CONTROVERSY OVER runners of tests still in use today. ARMY ALPHA AND ARMY BETA Many draftees were unable to respond to written tests, because of their limited literacy or their limited The use of psychological tests to make high-stakes command of English; Army Beta was developed to decisions about large numbers of individuals was con- assess the abilities of these examinees. The instructions troversial at the time these tests were developed, and A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 30

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Army Alpha and Army Beta continue to be sources of See also Cognitive Ability Tests; Individual Differences; controversy. First, many of the psychologists who Selection Strategies developed these tests were extreme proponents of hereditarian points of view and often were enthusias- FURTHER READING tic supporters of the eugenics movement. Yerkes and his colleagues used Army Alpha and Army Beta data Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor. Westport, CT: Praeger. to argue against immigration and racial mixing, claim- Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and ing that the addition of intellectually inferior races and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: groups to the American melting pot was responsible Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, for what they regarded as low levels of intelligence 262–274. in the American population. Psychologists involved Waters, B. K. (1997). Army alpha to CAT-ASVAB: Four- in the development of Army Alpha and Army Beta score years of military personnel selection and classifi- played a prominent role in supporting legislation after cation testing. In R. F. Dillon (Ed.), Handbook on World War I that greatly curtailed immigration. testing (pp. 187–203). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Second, serious doubts were raised about the valid- ity and the utility of both tests, particularly Army Beta. Despite efforts to train test administrators, Army Beta could be a particularly intimidating and confus- ASSESSMENT CENTER ing experience, and it is unclear whether this test pro- vided useful information. More generally, evidence The assessment center is a skills-evaluation process that Army Alpha and Army Beta actually contributed that has been used historically in selection and place- to the success of the army in assimilating and training ment decision making, in employee skill develop- the vast group who were tested is thin. In part, the ment, and more broadly in career development and problem lies with the fact that the United States organizational succession planning. The process was entered the war so late that the success or failure of initially developed in the 1930s by the German mili- this test was simply hard to gauge. Army Alpha and tary for the primary purpose of officer selection. The Army Beta were a tremendous administrative methodology was adopted, based on familiarity with success—they allowed the army to quickly process the German model, shortly thereafter by the British huge numbers of recruits. However, this set of recruits military for similar purposes, and subsequently by the barely had time to receive training and were mustered Australian and Canadian militaries. out of the army shortly after the conclusion of the war. The assessment center process was first used in the The hypothesis that the use of these tests led to better United States by the Office of Strategic Services decisions than would have been made using more tra- (OSS) during the middle to late years of America’s ditional (largely subjective) methods of classification involvement in World War II (1943 to 1945), to help simply could not be tested during World War I. The in the selection of operatives for spy missions. The documented validity and utility of successors to Army personality theorist Henry Murray had earlier devel- Alpha and Army Beta suggest that these tests were oped and applied a multiple assessment methodology likely to make a real contribution, but definitive data in a research project aimed at better understanding about the impact of these tests does not exist. personality. Subsequently, Murray participated fully Finally, controversy over Army Alpha and Army in the creation and implementation of the OSS assess- Beta reflected broader controversy over the value (if ment center, which also borrowed heavily from the any) of psychological testing in general and intelli- earlier German and British efforts. For a variety of gence testing in particular. Early proponents of psy- reasons, including Murray’s strong influence, the chological testing sometimes made extravagant three-day OSS assessment process was centered on claims about the value and the importance of these measuring relatively holistic personality variables, tests, and there was a substantial backlash against the rather than job-specific competencies. more sweeping claims about the importance, validity, The first publicized business application of the and implications of tests like Army Alpha and Army assessment center methodology took place at AT&T Beta. in the mid-1950s, in what was called the Management —Kevin R. Murphy Progress Study, conceived and led by Douglas Bray. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 31

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The classical AT&T assessment center became the be considered an assessment center, are identified, as prototype of the many business applications that were follows: to follow. The AT&T process was built directly on the OSS model, but with heavier emphasis on exercises 1. Job analysis. Required to establish the critical, comprising situational, job-sample tests to assess job- relevant, observable performance elements and related competencies than on the assessment of holis- competency categories to be assessed. Competency- tic personality variables. modeling procedures may be substituted for classical job analysis. The point is to establish through rigor- The AT&T process was aimed at aiding in the ous methods the observable behaviors and compe- selection and development of managers for the com- tencies to be assessed. pany. Several hundred candidates were assessed in groups of 12 in a three-and-a-half-day process, spread 2. Behavioral classification. Behaviors demonstrated over a four-year period. Initially, a set of characteris- by participants must be classified and categorized tics of successful managers, or what we would now into dimensions, skills, competencies, abilities, and call management competencies, was identified based so forth. on literature review and the judgment of AT&T inter- 3. Assessment techniques. Must be designed to reveal nal subject matter experts. Note that no explicit job performance relative to the key dimensions and analysis was done to identify these characteristics of competencies that are critical in the performance of successful managers. Then a series of activities was the job. created that would allow the assessors to rate partici- pants in each identified skill area. Activities included 4. Multiple assessments. A mix of techniques must be a series of in-basket activities (still a standard feature selected to allow behaviors revealing of the critical competencies to be observed and assessed. of management assessment centers), leaderless group discussions (also a centerpiece of the methodology), 5. Simulations. The techniques employed must include and a variety of individual and group problem-solving job-related simulations, although the assessment situations. The issues dealt with were selected to be center overall need not be limited to job-related simu- realistic ones for the job of manager in the organi- lations. Although relatively low-fidelity simulations zation. In addition to such high-fidelity job-related may be adequate for some purposes, especially early- activities, several projective and structured personality career selection programs for nonmanagement jobs, inventories were given, participants were interviewed high-fidelity simulations are preferred, especially for developmental (not only or mainly selection) extensively, and each was required to write an autobi- programs for experienced, high-level incumbents. ographical essay. The assessors were largely a mix of Acceptable simulations require that the assessee actu- consultants and psychologists, with some involvement ally demonstrate behaviors, not merely select from of AT&T incumbent managers, as well. a list of multiple-choice options or state intended Since the foundational AT&T study, the assessment actions. center methodology has been refined, researched, and applied internationally and domestically, in a wide 6. Assessors. Multiple assessors observe and assess variety of work settings, prominently including each participant, with a typical ratio of 1:2. Assessors government work (especially police and fire depart- should not be immediate supervisors of a participant. Diversity (functional, ethnic, organizational level, ments), service industries, and industrial settings. gender) in the pool of assessors is considered highly These subsequent applications of the assessment desirable. center methodology still draw on many of the core features of the seminal AT&T program. 7. Assessor training. Assessors must demonstrate com- So widespread has the methodology become that petence in their role, based on targeted assessor train- specific and detailed structural, ethical, and profes- ing prior to using those skills. Typically, assessors sional guidelines have been established by an organi- should receive two days of training for each day of zation called the International Task Force on the assessment process itself. Assessment Center Guidelines. In the most current 8. Recording behavior. Assessors may not rely solely version of those guidelines (the first were codified in on memory but must document through notes, 1975), 10 essential elements of the assessment center behavioral/competency checklists, video recording, methodology, which must be present for a process to or some similar method that allows later review. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 32

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9. Reports. It is expected that assessors draft prelimi- role being assessed, such data can be used to support nary reports, based on their records of the behavior training and development programs and other relevant of assessees. skill-building processes in the organization. Such a 10. Data integration. Assessors are required to pool their finding could also affect the company’s recruiting and observations through some accepted methodology, hiring strategies. Similarly, longer-range succession such that final reports represent the integration of all planning is supported by having assessment data on a relevant data. pool of incumbent employees who have the core skills necessary for higher-level jobs. In general terms, The assessment center process sometimes runs for assessment centers can provide a level of information only a day, or even less, but more commonly is a mul- that is valuable to the organization, beyond the skills tiday affair, with the period of two to five consecutive and developmental needs of individual candidates. days being common. Assessees are always put through Since the introduction of the assessment center the process in groups (the typical size being 6 to 12 par- concept into business in the 1950s, the methodology ticipants in a center, assessed by three to six assessors, has been employed by thousands of organizations. although there are exceptions to these dimensions). Recent estimates indicate that assessment centers in Assessors, usually higher-level managers in the com- one form or another are used regularly by as many as pany, sometimes aided by psychologists or other con- 2,000 companies in the United States, and perhaps as sultants, typically do not know the participants they are many as 70% of large organizations in the United assessing. However, there is some recent evidence to Kingdom. They are widespread in industry in other suggest that center ratings may have higher criterion- parts of Europe, as well. Additionally, they are partic- related validity when in fact the assessors are familiar ularly likely to be used by public-sector organizations with the participants they are assessing. such as local police and fire departments. Some applications of the methodology aim mainly There is a huge base of research on the assessment or exclusively at selection. When that is the case, it is center methodology. Despite some flexibility and common for participants to receive feedback that variability in how the methodology is applied (e.g., includes only or mainly the final hiring recommenda- number and kinds of activities, duration of the center, tion and to be given the rationale for that recommen- level of training of assessors, and even the extent to dation only on request. When the primary goal is which the guidelines are adhered to), the data gener- development, however, and whenever the assessees ally support the conclusion that assessment center are current members of the organization, participants scores show very good criterion-related validity in are typically given much more detailed feedback, predicting job performance in the role being assessed. usually including the final feedback report. Indeed, On average, meta-analyses across many studies show where assessment centers are part of a broader career- criterion-related validity estimates for a broad range planning and/or succession-planning process, it is of indicators of performance in the +.35 to +.45 range, common for the feedback shared with the participant and often higher for certain submeasures or for com- to be highly detailed and for extensive developmental posite measures. Also, assessment center results have planning and coaching to be included as a key element shown reasonable validity generalization across dif- in the overall assessment process. ferent jobs within broad job families. It is also often Although the focus of the assessment center is noted that compared with other selection and develop- mainly on profiling the competencies of the individ- ment approaches, the assessment center methodology ual, there are numerous collateral benefits. A well- has very high face or content validity, as judged by designed center gives candidates a kind of realistic job candidates, assessors, and other subject matter experts preview. Also, when an organization has assessed a alike. Thus, the level of participant acceptance of the number of internal candidates, the organization can process is typically high. Further, it is widely claimed get a valuable perspective on where general skill that compared with other selection processes, assess- strengths and deficits are by averaging across the indi- ment centers are fair. In general, they are found not vidual profiles. Thus, for example, if most internal to discriminate against women, minorities, or other candidates score poorly on the competency of delega- groups protected by the Equal Employment Opportu- tion, and the company in question has legitimately nity Commission. In short, they are so popular because determined that such skills are indeed important in the they work and are legally defensible. (Note, though, A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 33

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that there is some recent evidence that older candi- Another growing trend is toward more integrated dates may be rated generally lower than younger total or continuous simulations, rather than a bits-and- candidates, suggesting the possibility of age bias.) pieces, stop-start approach that takes each exercise as Primary criticisms of the assessment center method- a discrete event. Participants in continuous simula- ology center on complexity and cost. Developing and tions are assigned a role, with relevant background running an effective high-fidelity assessment center information about that role, including a set of role is time-consuming and expensive, to the extent that players with whom they may interact in the course of unless it is going to be run many times, it may be cost the center. Participants and role players then stay in prohibitive for an organization to develop one. Even if role for the duration of the session. it is to be run multiple times, each session is time- To combat the high cost and time investment of the consuming and expensive in itself, requiring training classical assessment center, there is also a developing time for assessors and a significant time commitment trend toward what is being called ongoing assessment, for assessors, participants, role players, administrators, for career developmental purposes. In this application, and so on during the session. Thus, the methodology is internal candidates may meet briefly with assessors at used more by large organizations that have large num- mutually convenient times to do more or less standard bers of managers and potential managers, and where assessment center exercises. Rather than conducting the costs of a poor selection or career development the assessment intensively over a period of a few days, decision are great. In such cases, again, the assessment it may be spread over several weeks in and around center methodology is widely supported as a valuable other work responsibilities, thus being accomplished selection and development tool. in a less labor-intensive and costly format. The lack of construct validity has also been identi- The methodology is now being increasingly fied as a criticism of the assessment center methodol- extended beyond the traditional target group of man- ogy. It has been found in terms of convergent and agers and potential managers to include candidates especially discriminant validity; there is sometimes for positions such as members of self-directed work little consistency between a participant’s scores on a teams. Indeed, the need to qualify people for such given competency from one exercise to another, and expanded roles (including leadership roles in the flex- within a given exercise, scores on different dimensions ible, high-performance workplace) has become a pri- are often highly correlated. Recent research aims at mary impetus for the application of the methodology. determining why assessment centers are so effective in From its earliest applications in the organizational terms of their ability to predict job success, despite the setting, the assessment center has grown to be a lack of demonstrated construct validity. major tool for selection, promotion, and development One current trend of note is the growing use of tech- of critical organizational talent around the world. nology as an aid to the assessment process. Thus, there Researchers continue vigorous programs to determine is increasing use of video recording of participants’ why assessment centers work to the extent they do and performance during the session, allowing later review how they can be made more effective. by assessors and enhancing the feedback opportunities —John Kello for participants, including self-feedback. Also, there is increasing use of the computer as an aid in integrating See also Assessment Center Methods; Leadership scores across different assessors. Additionally, as com- Development munications technology has become more widespread in the workplace, there is less reliance on paper-and- FURTHER READING pencil activities and increased use of tools such as voice mail and e-mail as the more ecologically valid in- Bray, D. W., Campbell, R. J., & Grant, D. L. (1974). Formative years in business: A long-term AT&T study of basket of today’s workplace. managerial lives. New York: Wiley. There is an increase in the integration of various Gaugler, B. B., Rosenthal, D. B., Thornton, G. C., III, & forms of 360-degree feedback processes (usually abbre- Bentson, C. (1987). Meta-analysis of assessment center viated compared with conventional stand-alone 360s) validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(3), 493–511. into the assessment center feedback package, such that Howard, A. (1997). A reassessment of assessment centers: those familiar with the work of the assessee contribute Challenges for the 21st century. Journal of Social to a richer overall feedback experience for participants. Behavior and Personality, 12(5), 13–52. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 34

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International Task Force on Assessment Center Guide- correlate with overall assessment center scores. At any lines. (2000). Guidelines and ethical considerations for rate, especially where the focus is more on develop- assessment center operations: International task force ment and less on near-term selection, personality on assessment center guidelines. Public Personnel Man- feedback is commonly part of the assessment process. agement, 29(3), 315–331. Tests of general cognitive ability are also some- Schmitt, N., Gooding, R. Z., Noe, R. A., & Kirsch, M. times included as a collateral part of the assessment (1984). Meta-analysis of validity studies published center process. Much like personality tests, cognitive between 1964 and 1982 and the investigation of study characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, abilities tests represent a source of additional feed- 207–213. back to the assessee, as well as potential predictors Spychalski, A. C., Quinones, M. A., Gaugler, B. B., & of future work success. Cognitive ability scores do Pohley, K. (1997). A survey of assessment center prac- correlate significantly with overall assessment center tices in organizations in the United States. Personnel scores, which in turn are broadly predictive of job Psychology, 50(1), 71–90. success. Thornton, G. C., III. (1992). Assessment centers in human Interviews are another familiar support tool of the resource management. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. assessment center methodology. The interviews may be very general, unstructured ones, aimed at identify- ing the assessee’s background, interests, career goals, and so forth. Or they may be more structured, even sit- ASSESSMENT CENTER METHODS uational, in which case they may form integral parts of the assessment process. A typical situational interview The assessment center is a methodology used to would describe a scenario of the sort an incumbent select, promote, and develop people, usually man- might experience at work—say, problems with an agers, in an organization. From the earliest efforts in upset customer, a conflict between sales and opera- the 1930s and 1940s in the military, aimed at selecting tions, or an employee not following safety procedures. officers and key operatives for highly sensitive mis- After specifying the situation in detail, interviewers sions, to the first systematic application in the organi- would ask the assessee how he or she would handle zational setting in the 1950s, the assessment center the situation. The assessee’s answers would then be has become a familiar tool for skills evaluation. rated in terms of the underlying competencies being A defining feature of the assessment center method- assessed (e.g., relationship management, communica- ology is that it comprises a battery of tests. Further, the tion, problem solving). tests must represent a multiplicity of types. No single Beyond personality or intelligence assessment and instrument or single type of instrument is sufficient to interviews, the heart of the assessment center method- qualify a skills assessment process as an assessment ology is a series of individual and group activities in center, by that name, according to the International which candidates, working individually or in various Task Force on Assessment Center Guidelines. groupings, handle work-related problems and issues. The earliest iterations of the assessment center Many of these individual and group exercises were methodology focused to a significant extent on indi- pioneered in the earliest applications of the methodol- vidual-differences assessment. The American military ogy and continue to be centerpieces of the assessment application, for the selection of spy operatives in center process. Included in this mix of classical meth- World War II, was influenced strongly by the work of ods are the venerable in-basket, leaderless group dis- Harvard psychologist and noted personality theorist cussions, and role plays. Henry Murray and included a good deal of personal- The in-basket is sometimes considered the defining ity profiling. It is still common today for personality tool of the assessment center methodology. The basic assessment to be incorporated into an overall battery idea of the in-basket is that participants are assigned a of assessment center instruments. With the develop- role, namely the role for which they are being assessed, ment of the five-factor model of personality, the NEO and are given the kinds of memos, reports, notes, and tests have become an increasingly familiar part of the other communications that an incumbent in the role overall assessment center process. There are recent being assessed might receive in her or his in-basket on data suggesting that scores on the conscientiousness a given day. The participants must then act on the and extraversion scales, in particular, may generally in-basket information in the way they would in the A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 35

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real world, prioritizing issues, writing reply memos, in-basket communications) for them to think strategi- gathering information, calling meetings, and so on. It cally about the problems. In some cases, individual is common for the in-basket exercise to be timed. participants are given different information, or dif- When possible, participants might subsequently be ferent perspectives on the issue at hand, such that interviewed after the exercise, to better understand the disagreement and conflict are more likely in the rationale for their responses to in-basket items. discussion. The in-basket provides opportunities to observe In the course of the leaderless group discussion, how the participant prioritizes and plans, solves prob- participants gravitate to roles in which they are com- lems and makes decisions, and communicates and fortable. Usually, someone will structure the meeting coordinates with key resources, for example, all of approach, someone will keep notes, some bring orga- which are common competencies of the managerial nized proposals, some brainstorm well, some show role. In-basket activities can be considered a kind of skill at developing others’ ideas, and some participate multidimensional work sample test, to the extent that little. The format provides an excellent opportunity the role being assessed requires just such handling of for assessors to see a whole range of competencies incoming communications. related to communication, influence, collaboration, One benefit of the in-basket method is that it resolving disagreements, problem solving, relation- typically includes some documented output by the ship management, and the like. To the extent that the participant. The written recommendation, or market contemporary environment of work puts a premium analysis, or meeting agenda, or reply memo is a piece on joint, collaborative work and the ability to cooper- of data that assessors can review and reflect on offline ate and compromise as well as provide direction, this at their leisure, assisting them in the skills evaluation tool gives assessors a snapshot of candidates’ interac- process. tive skills and general approach to teamwork. The Today, managers spend quite a bit less time than in leaderless group discussion has been called the pro- the past handling memos in paper form and a much jective test of leadership. If the scenario is realistic greater amount of time in e-mail, voice mail, and cell and engaging, participants can get caught up in the phone communication. It is increasingly common for issue and reveal much about their real approach to col- the methodology of high-fidelity assessment centers to laborative work. One caution is that strong individual reflect current technology. Thus, participants’ work- personalities can shift the dynamics of a leaderless space in a modern assessment center may include a group such that it is hard to get a valid view of each desktop computer, through which they can receive and individual’s approach. For example, one extremely send e-mails, and a phone/voice mail system, through competitive participant can cause others to become which they can communicate with others. The avail- more aggressive, or for that matter more compliant, ability of such technology greatly increases the fidelity than they normally would be. Assessors must be alert of the work setting in the assessment center but also to such artifacts. greatly increases the workload on the assessors who In the role-play method, participants are given a have to keep track of such rapid communication via role and a scenario to act on with a role player/assessor, multimedia for several participants. whose role is also specified. At the appointed time, the The leaderless group discussion is also a familiar assessee and the role player interact as assessors classical feature of the assessment center methodol- observe and make notes. For example, a participant ogy. Typically, participants are given an issue to dis- may be in the role of a supervisor in a team-based pro- cuss and make recommendations about. As the title duction environment whose crew has been complain- suggests, no member of the group is formally desig- ing about how the previous shift leaves a mess that nated as leader. They may be told, for example, that they have to clean up before they can start running they are all regional sales managers for XYZ Corp., production. They have asked her to talk with the peer which is facing a declining market, new competition, supervisor of the off-going shift (played by the role and quality problems in production. They are then player). The role player is provided with specific asked to meet and fully discuss the issues and make guidelines as to how to act and the kinds of themes to a recommendation to the vice president/general weave into the role play (e.g., be a bit defensive— manager on how to address the problems. They will express thoughts such as “I don’t tell you how to run have been given sufficient information (e.g., through your shift!”). He is further directed to act realistically A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 36

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to that role and to base further responses on the positions, it is common for the process to be longer approach the assessee takes to the problem. Finally, he (on the order of 2 to 5 days), more detailed, and is asked to keep in mind that the point of the role play, higher-fidelity. Also, under the latter circumstances it as with all of the exercises of the center, is to provide is common for the various exercises of the assessment a realistic forum in which to see the participant’s skill process to be integrated rather than discrete. That is, level on key competencies, so he should give the par- candidates will be given highly detailed information ticipant ample opportunity to show active listening about their role at the outset of the process. Thus, if skills, project empathy, be results oriented, and so on. they are in the role of a plant manager in a manufac- Beyond the classic “big three,” additional exercises turing environment, they will be given specifications that are often found in assessment centers include such as a personal work history (how long they have structured meetings, presentations, and written analy- been in that role, where they worked before), the ses. In a structured meeting, the participant’s role parameters of their plant, organizational charts, is specified. Thus the participant might be a sales detailed information on their division and company, manager leading a meeting with his three sales reps recent history of their plant, background on their around a given market issue. An example of a presen- employees, and key challenges facing their plant. tation might be a 10-minute overview of plant status Then from the time the center begins until it is con- by a plant manager, given to his boss (role player), or cluded, they stay in that role. All the issues that come a sales presentation given by a sales manager to a up are consistent with the information they have been national client (role player). Written analyses might given. They role play with key individuals who have include completing a budget or doing a cost justification been identified in the initial information they have for the purchase of a major piece of equipment. Again, received (e.g., their boss, their sales counterpart, key as always, such exercises are anchored in the compe- direct-report employees, the union president). Such an tencies that are being assessed. integrated total simulation approach, if well designed, Finally, it is normal for some self-assessment (and is typically seen by participants as having especially at times 360-degree feedback) to be included in the high face validity. overall assessment center process. Early iterations of Modern technology is not only used to increase the the methodology had participants write autobiographi- fidelity of the work simulation for participants. It is cal statements. More recent applications may directly also used as a powerful aid to the assessor in the roles call for self-assessment, such as “On a five-point scale, of observer, role player, behavior analyzer, and report rate your ability in the area of delegation...whatare writer. For example, it is increasingly common for your specific strengths in this area...whatareyour assessors to videotape group discussions, role-play specific developmental needs in this area?” Or activi- interactions, presentations, and so on. Then the tapes ties may be built into other exercises that precipitate can be reviewed later for more detailed and thorough such self-assessment indirectly. Thus, an in-basket analysis. Additionally, the videos can be incorporated memo from the boss might ask the participant to list directly into the feedback process, potentially enrich- what he or she sees as the critical competencies of the ing the experience for the participant. Technology can job in question and to self-assess and identify personal also be used for the delivery of some elements of the training and development needs in these skill areas. assessment process, including personality profiles or A major methodological question centers on the cognitive-abilities assessments, online. level of fidelity of the simulations in the assessment In general, given the complexity and cost of assess- center. Especially if the goal of the process is to select ment centers, there is constant pressure to simplify nonmanagerial employees from a pool of outside and shorten assessment centers without sacrificing applicants, it is common for the center to be brief fidelity and predictiveness. Thus, there is some move- (1 day or less) and relatively low-fidelity. Thus activ- ment toward the use of online situational interviews in ities might be more generic (e.g., a leaderless group which participants choose a multiple-choice response discussion about how to motivate employees) than as their output. Such an item can be taken by an indi- detailed and specific to the role (a leaderless group vidual quickly and automatically scored and inte- discussion about changes to a specific incentive bonus grated with other scores. In a similar vein, there is a plan, based on information given in the in-basket). move toward a less formalized overall approach to With internal candidates, and especially for managerial assessment centers, in which the assessment is done A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 37

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with internal candidates, typically individually, in Attitudes form a central foundation of the way that brief interactions over a longer period of time, still individuals think about and come to understand the using assessment center tools such as in-basket activ- world around them; consequently, they influence and ities and role plays. One distinct advantage of such are influenced by people’s beliefs and cognitions. ongoing assessment is that it can be done when the Much research has focused on the structure and company has fewer than the usual 6 to 12 candidates measurement of attitudes, as well as their relation to but needs to assess competencies in a couple of key affect, beliefs, and behavior. A central question that individuals now. Such truncated methods can be built has been raised with regard to attitudes is whether to have good criterion-related validity, even though they are accurate predictors of behavior. Understand- they are not fully consistent with the guidelines of the ing processes of attitude formation and change has International Task Force on Assessment Centers. In also been a dominant avenue of research. the contemporary organizational climate of change, it is expected that such variations on the core methods of ATTITUDE STRUCTURE the assessment center will be increasingly common. —John Kello Attitudes are based on cognitive, affective, and behav- ioral information. Beliefs provide the cognitive basis See also Assessment Center of an attitude. A belief is the cognitive information that one has about an attitude object. For example, a workplace attitude might be based on beliefs, or cog- FURTHER READING nitions, about one’s job. The affective basis of an atti- Bray, D. W., Campbell, R. J., & Grant, D. L. (1974). tude refers to the emotional response that one has Formative years in business: A long-term AT&T study of toward the attitude object—for example, the affect managerial lives. New York: Wiley. that one feels toward one’s job. The behavioral basis Byham, W. C. (1970). Assessment centers for spotting of an attitude refers to actions that are taken with future managers. Harvard Business Review, 48(4), regard to the attitude object, such as job-related 150–167. behaviors that reflect one’s attitude toward work. An International Task Force on Assessment Center Guidelines. attitude might be based on any combination of these (2000). Guidelines and ethical considerations for assess- three components. For certain attitudes, components ment center operations: International task force on can be evaluatively inconsistent with one another. For assessment center guidelines. Public Personnel Manage- ment, 29(3), 315–331. example, a person with an emotionally grueling job Moses, J. J., & Byham, W. C. (Eds.). (1977). Applying the might experience negative affect toward his or her assessment center method. New York: Pergamon. work but at the same time hold positive cognitions by Schippmann, J. S., Prien, E. P., & Katz, J. A. (1990). believing that the job is important and useful. This Reliability and validity of in-basket performance leads to attitudinal ambivalence, which is described as measures. Personnel Psychology, 43(4), 837–859. a state of holding both positive and negative evalua- Thornton, G. C., III. (1992). Assessment centers in human tions of the same attitude object. resource management. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. The issue of attitudinal ambivalence has received Thornton, G. C., III, & Byham, W. C. (1982). Assessment recent attention, reflected in the debate over whether centers and managerial performance. New York: attitude structure is bipolar or bivariate. Evaluative Academic Press. processes have been traditionally conceptualized as bipolar. According to a bipolar model of attitudes, people’s attitudes can range from very negative (and not at all positive) to very positive (and not at all neg- ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS ative). This conceptualization implies that negativity and positivity are reciprocal, opposing forces; conse- Attitudes are the positive or negative evaluations made quently, the more positive one’s attitude is, the less about people, issues, or objects. For example, in an negative it will be, and vice versa. One limitation of organizational setting, employees might hold attitudes this conceptualization is that it precludes the possibil- toward their employer or coworkers, toward work- ity of attitude ambivalence. To address this issue, an place issues or regulations, and toward the job itself. alternative conceptualization of attitude structure has A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 38

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emerged in which attitudes are viewed as bivariate person is consciously aware of and can report, for rather than bipolar. The bivariate perspective suggests example, on a self-report measure. A large volume of that positivity and negativity are separable attitudinal research has focused on understanding and assessing substrates, rather than opposite ends of the same con- explicit attitudes. However, recent attention has turned tinuum; further, each can be separately activated and to the existence of implicit attitudes, attitudes that are exert an independent influence on behavior. involuntary, uncontrollable, and, in some cases, not accessible at a conscious level. Although implicit atti- tudes are not consciously accessed, they are found to ATTITUDE FORMATION still exert influence on behavior. Take, for example, a Attitudes form through a variety of processes. Many person who holds sexist attitudes in the workplace but attitudes are developed through direct experience with is not consciously aware of holding these attitudes. an attitude object or learned through processes of These are implicit attitudes, which could exert influ- operant and classical conditioning. A growing body of ence on this person’s workplace behavior with regard evidence suggests that attitudes may also have a to female employees. The relationship between genetic basis. implicit and explicit attitudes, along with their influ- ence on behavior, is a topic of ongoing investigation Direct experience. Attitudes may form through direct among attitude researchers. With regard to attitude experience with a person, issue, or object. Direct inter- measurement, implicit and explicit attitudes may action with the attitude object contributes to the forma- require different methods of assessment. Because tion of a positive or negative evaluation.Attitudes formed people are not able to directly access and report through direct experience are strong predictors of future implicit attitudes, traditional means of attitude mea- behavior. surement may be less effective, indicating a need for more indirect methods of assessment. Classical conditioning. When a positive or negative stim- ulus is paired repeatedly with an initially neutral attitude object, attitude formation through classical conditioning ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT may occur. When this occurs, the evaluation paired with the neutral stimulus eventually becomes associated with Attitudes are frequently assessed through self-report the attitude object itself. Attitude formation through this measures. Three common scale methodologies used to process often occurs at an unconscious level. assess attitudes are the Thurstone scale, Likert scale, Operant conditioning. Attitudes are formed through and semantic differential. A Thurstone scale is devel- operant conditioning when an attitude object becomes oped by having individuals rank order opinion state- associated with a positive or negative consequence. ments about a particular attitude object according to Specifically, when behavior toward an attitude object is their favorableness. A subset of items representing a reinforced, a positive attitude toward the attitude object wide range of opinions is then selected and used to will form. When behavior toward an attitude object is assess attitudes. A Likert scale consists of a series of punished or associated with negative consequences, an items for which people indicate the strength of their unfavorable attitude will form. agreement with each statement (e.g., “I enjoy my job”) Genetic determinants of attitudes. Identical twins (even on a rating scale that encompasses low to high levels of when raised in separate environments) show a higher agreement. The semantic differential assesses attitudes correlation in their attitudes than fraternal twins, provid- by providing opposing adjective pairs (e.g., good–bad; ing evidence for a genetic basis of attitudes. This is foolish–wise) on which the individual rates a specific likely because of the influence of genetics on tempera- attitude object. ment and personality, which in turn influence attitudes. Although there are advantages to measuring atti- Attitudes that have a genetic basis appear to be more dif- tudes through direct self-report measures, such as ficult to alter and exert a stronger influence on behavior. availability, speed, and ease of use, there are also lim- itations associated with their use. For example, many existing self-report measures make the implicit IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT ATTITUDES assumption that attitudes are bipolar (rather than A distinction has been made between implicit and bivariate) and, therefore, may not detect levels of atti- explicit attitudes. An explicit attitude is one that a tudinal ambivalence. Further, when individuals are A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 39

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asked to report attitudes on controversial topics, they In the 1980s, dual-process models, such as Shelly may be less likely to report their true evaluations and Chaiken’s heuristic-systematic model and the elabora- instead report responses that they perceive to be tion likelihood model, developed by Richard Petty socially desirable. Similarly, if attitudes are not con- and John Cacioppo, emerged as dominant models of sciously accessible, as in the case of implicit attitudes, persuasion. These models suggest that persuasion can individuals may not be able to accurately report them result from two types of message processing: thought- on these measures. To overcome these concerns, ful processing of the arguments contained in a mes- researchers can use indirect methods of attitude mea- sage, or less effortful processing of cues or heuristics surement, such as unobtrusive behavioral measures, pertaining to the message. Whether one engages in physiological measures, or techniques, such as the more or less effortful processing depends on one’s Implicit Association Test, that are designed for assess- ability or motivation to elaborate on the message. ing implicit attitudes. Although attitude change can occur through either process, persuasion that results from more elaborative processing of a message has been found to be more DO ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIORS? persistent, resistant to counterpersuasion, and predic- The question of whether attitudes guide and predict tive of future behavior. behavior is an issue that has been central to the study —Jennifer L. Welbourne of attitudes. Several critical challenges to the com- monsense assumption that attitudes determine behav- See also Measurement Scales; Theory of Reasoned ior emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, as numerous Action/Theory of Planned Behavior studies indicated little or no relationship between atti- tudes and behaviors. Consequently, by the 1960s there was a call by many researchers to abandon the study FURTHER READING of the attitude. Since then, researchers have reexam- Cacioppo, J., Gardner, W., & Berntson, G. (1997). Beyond ined the attitude–behavior link and articulated partic- bipolar conceptualizations and measures: The case of ular conditions under which attitudes will be likely to attitudes and evaluative space. Personality and Social guide behavior. Attitudes that are accessible, specific, Psychology Review, 1, 3–25. strong, or formed through direct experience are found Kraus, S. (1995). Attitudes and the prediction of behavior: to exert stronger influences on behavior. Additionally, A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Personality the theory of reasoned action, developed by Icek and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 58–75. Olson, J., Vernon, P., Harris, J., & Lang, K. (2001). The Ajzen and Martin Fishbein, and the theory of planned heritability of attitudes: A study of twins. Journal of behavior, developed by Ajzen, provide models of how Personality and Social Psychology, 80(6), 845–860. attitudes can guide deliberative behavior through their Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. (1999). The elaboration likeli- influence on intentions. hood model: Current status and controversies. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories PERSUASION in social psychology (pp. 41–72). New York: Guilford Press. Persuasion refers to an active attempt made to change Wood, W. (2000). Attitude change: Persuasion and social another person’s attitude toward some issue, object, or influence. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 539–570. person. Seminal studies conducted during the 1940s by Carl Hovland and his research group atYale University led to the development of the message learning approach, which became a primary template for per- ATTRACTION–SELECTION– suasion research. The message learning approach sug- ATTRITION MODEL gests that persuasion occurs through a sequence of stages including attention, comprehension, yielding, The discipline of organizational behavior focuses and retention of a message. It asserts that persuasion is on the study of organizations and the people who influenced by characteristics related to the source of populate them. Generally and historically, the field the message, the nature of the audience (or message has been largely divided into those who study the recipients), and qualities of the message itself. attributes of organizations and their markets (macro A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 40

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organizational behavior) and those who study the reporting relationships, and even what industries or attributes of people in organizations (micro organiza- markets to enter. The decisions made are influenced tional behavior). Typically, macro approaches have by the underlying values, motives, and dispositions of focused on explaining organizational performance the founder. So, for example, the ASA model would and draw their intellectual heritage from sociology postulate that the cultural differences between Apple and economics, whereas micro approaches have Computer and Microsoft had their origins in the per- focused on explaining and predicting individual sonality differences of their founders, Steve Jobs and behavior and performance and draw their heritage Bill Gates. As Apple Computer and Microsoft grew, from psychology. Although the recent history of orga- the policies and procedures established were a reflec- nizational behavior has seen attempts to integrate tion of their founders’ early influence, and over time these two paradigms, the micro and macro distinction these policies and procedures created a culture that is has led to a scholarly division with two largely non- somewhat unique for each company. So, the genesis overlapping, independent literatures. As a conse- of an organization’s culture can be traced to the initial quence, there is little cross-fertilization of ideas across decisions made by founders and the unique imprint micro and macro perspectives and little attempt to they put on their organizations. This, too, is the begin- understand the processes that translate the characteris- ning of the ASA cycle. tics and behavior of people to the performance of their The ASA cycle begins with the attraction process, organizations. In his 1985 presidential address to the which concerns the fact that people’s preferences for Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, particular organizations are based on some estimate of Benjamin Schneider noted this distinction in the liter- the fit or congruence of their own personal character- ature and offered an attempt to bridge the micro and istics (personality, values, and motives) with the macro distinctions. In its most basic form, his model, attributes of the organization they are evaluating. That the attraction–selection–attrition (or ASA) model, is, people find organizations differentially attractive as postulates that it is the characteristics of people in an a function of their implicit judgments of the congru- organization that partially (if not largely) determine ence between those organizations’ goals (and struc- the organizational attributes typically studied by macro tures, processes, and culture as manifestations of researchers. those goals) and their own personalities. For example, an IT engineer may choose to work for Apple Computer, as opposed to Microsoft, because she or he OVERVIEW sees the company as innovative and flexible, which The ASA model delineates a framework for under- conforms to the engineer’s own values of creativity standing organizational behavior that integrates both and independence. Ample research evidence suggests individual (micro) and organizational (macro) perspec- that job applicants make assessments of fit when tives by explaining macro organizational attributes choosing among employment alternatives. with micro person characteristics. The framework pro- The next step in the ASA cycle refers to the formal poses that the outcome of three interrelated dynamic and informal selection procedures used by organiza- processes, attraction–selection–attrition, determines tions in the recruitment and hiring of people with the the kinds of people in an organization, which conse- attributes the organization desires. Many organiza- quently defines an organization, its structures, its tions explicitly use fit as a criterion in the hiring processes, and, ultimately, its culture. process. Based on ample research demonstrating that At the core of the ASA model are the goals of the fit to an organization’s culture has implications for organization originally articulated (implicitly or employee job satisfaction, turnover, and absenteeism, explicitly) by the founder. Organizational goals, and this criterion seems justified. The greater the degree of the processes, structures, and culture that emerge to misfit, the more likely an employee will be to experi- facilitate attainment of these goals, are suggested to be ence dissatisfaction with the job, be absent, and quit. reflections of the particular characteristics (i.e., per- Research also suggests that fit assessments affect hir- sonality) of the founder and those of his or her early ing procedures not intended to assess fit. For example, colleagues. Schneider suggests that founders are faced research suggests that assessment center ratings and with a variety of decisions to make regarding whom to interviewer judgments are influenced by conscious or hire, how to compensate employees, how to structure unconscious evaluations of applicant fit. A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 41

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Finally, the attrition process refers to the idea that effectiveness, and the predictions made by the ASA people will leave an organization they do not fit. The model are complex. For example, the ASA model turnover literature is quite clear about the fact that would predict that during the initial founding and people who do not fit an organization will tend to early history of an organization, homogeneity breeds leave it. Of course, economics and job market the commitment that is needed to retain people and prospects moderate the extent to which people leave grow the enterprise. Only after an organization matures an organization they do not fit. In summary, ASA pro- and the market becomes more complex and turbulent poses that three processes—attraction, selection, and does homogeneity produce negative consequences. attrition—result in organizations containing people Research does indicate that as the average tenure of with distinct personalities, and it is these distinct the senior managers increases, the fit between the personalities that are responsible for the unique struc- organization’s strategy and demands of the business tures, processes, and cultures that characterize organi- environment decreases. Although not a direct test of zations. Organizational and personal characteristics the negative consequences of homogeneity, this find- are self-reinforcing. The characteristics of people in ing is consistent with the logic of the hypothesis. an organization determine the policies and practices, Additionally, research in social psychology on the which, in turn, determine the people who are attracted effects of homogeneity on group problem solving to and remain with the organization. supports the notion that groups engaged in creative problem-solving tasks do better if they are heteroge- neous. The conflict that is created by different perspec- IMPLICATIONS FOR ORGANIZATIONS tives is important in these ill-defined problem-solving As an outcome of the ASA model, Schneider and situations—situations analogous to the strategic deci- colleagues postulated that organizations will become sions made by top managers. As this research implies, increasingly homogeneous over time. In other words, the ASA model predicts that the negative conse- they will come to be populated by people of a similar quences of homogeneity may only manifest themselves personality profile.Toassess this hypothesis, Schneider at the upper levels of the organizational hierarchy and colleagues examined the personality profiles of (where managers are faced with strategic decisions). approximately 13,000 managers from 142 organiza- Elsewhere the positive benefits of homogeneity may tions in the United States. The organizations in their outweigh the costs. sample represented a broad cross section of industries. Consistent with the homogeneity hypothesis, their results suggested that managers were more similar to IMPLICATIONS FOR managers in their own organization than they were to ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR THEORY managers in the other organizations.This remained true The ASA model provides an example of multilevel when you looked within an industry. That is, even organization theory. Specifically, the psychological within an industry, managers were more similar to oth- attributes of people (in the collective) are hypothe- ers in their organization than they were to managers in sized to be the antecedents of important organiza- other organizations within their same industry. tional characteristics. In this way, the ASA model Although we previously indicated that there are offers a bridge between the micro and macro perspec- positive consequences of good fit for people and orga- tives. Additionally, the ASA model provides insight nizations (regarding satisfaction, commitment, and into a long-standing argument within psychology— turnover), the ASA model suggests that the outcome the person–situation debate. This debate seeks to good fit could be detrimental to the long-term viabil- determine which set of attributes (those related to the ity of an organization, particularly if an organization person, or the situation/environment) are the primary experiences volatility in its market. The primary neg- predictors of behavior. The ASA model suggests that ative consequences of good fit or homogeneity are the attributes of people shape their environments. The the potential inability for an organization to sense two sets of attributes are not mutually exclusive; changes in its environment and adapt to those changes rather, they are mutually determined. You cannot and the demise of competitiveness through easily pre- separate people from the situation. dictable decision making. There is limited research on the consequences of homogeneity for organizational —D. Brent Smith A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 42

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See also Employee Selection; Organizational Develop- an organization’s work processes, including produc- ment; Person–Environment Fit; Prescreening Assess- tion control, customer billing, and human resources. ment Methods for Personnel Selection; Recruitment; Estimating the uptake of CIT is difficult. However, a Selection Strategies survey in Australia, Japan, and the United Kingdom, published in 2002, found that approximately 33% to FURTHER READING 40% of larger manufacturing companies (employing more than 250 people) were significant users of CIT. Giberson, T. R., Resick, C. J., & Dickson, M. W. (2005). The same survey in Switzerland reported substantial Embedding leader characteristics: An examination of use in around 60% of companies. The findings are homogeneity of personality and value in organizations. similar for ERP systems. By the late 1990s, it was Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1002–1010. Schneider, B. (1983). Interactional psychology and organi- estimated that around 40% of large U.S. companies zational behavior. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw and 60% of small ones had deployed ERP systems. By (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 5, 2004, the worldwide market for ERP systems was pp. 1–31). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. estimated to be around $79 billion per annum. Schneider, B. (1987). The people make the place. Personnel Over the last decade, there has also been growing Psychology, 40, 437–454. investment in systems to integrate activities between Schneider, B., Goldstein, H., & Smith, D. B. (1995). The organizations, a good example being e-business ASA framework: An update. Personnel Psychology, 48, systems that allow electronic ordering and billing 747–773. through a supply chain and on the part of customers. Schneider, B., Smith, D. B., Taylor, S., & Fleenor, J. (1998). By the year 2000 it was estimated that around 20% Personality and organization: A test of the homogeneity to 25% of companies in the United States, Canada, of personality hypothesis. Journal of Applied Psy- Europe, and Australia were trading online, although chology, 83, 462–470. the proportional value of goods traded online was much lower (less than 10%). It is almost certainly the case that these amounts have grown and will continue AUTOMATION/ADVANCED to grow. MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY/COMPUTER-BASED MOTIVES AND IMPACTS INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY Such investments are usually undertaken for a mix of motives. Machines may do the work more cheaply, Automation usually refers to the replacement of human more quickly, to a higher quality, with more repeata- work by machines. The word was first used by the Ford bility, with reduced errors, and with reduced lead Motor Company in the 1940s to describe automatic times. For these reasons, many companies have handling and machine-feeding devices in their manu- become enthusiastic adopters of such new technolo- facturing processes. Advanced manufacturing technol- gies. They are also mindful that if they don’t innovate, ogy (AMT) is a special instance of automation and their competitors might, thereby gaining a significant usually refers to computer-based manufacturing tech- advantage in the marketplace. This can feed so-called nologies and support systems. Examples include fads and fashions, often vigorously supported by computerized numerically controlled machine tools, an active community of suppliers of equipment and computer-aided design, and computer-supported pro- expertise, including consultants. duction control systems. There will be few, if any, man- Unsurprisingly, such changes are also often accom- ufacturing companies in the developed world that have panied by fears on the part of employees. Will the not undertaken some investment in AMT. adoption of new technology lead to reduced head- Computer-based integrated technology (CIT) count and thereby redundancy? Will the remaining refers to higher levels of integration and comprises jobs become deskilled, with previously skilled systems that cut across organizational functions. For employees being reduced to unskilled labor? example, enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems It is certainly the case that the trend to automation include a centralized database and sets of integrated can reduce headcount. To give a specific example, the software modules designed to manage all aspects of city of Sheffield in the United Kingdom, famous for A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/12/2006 11:43 AM Page 43

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its high-quality steel, produces the same amount as it EFFECTIVENESS AND THE ROLE OF ever did in its postwar prime, but now with 10% of the INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY earlier workforce. The foregoing description gives the impression of But at the same time, the development of comput- inevitability and, although difficult perhaps for some ers and their increasing application to different individuals in the short term, of benign and effective domains has spawned whole new industries, thereby progress. However, the position on the ground is a good creating many new jobs. New organizations have deal more complex. Let us look now at some of the data grown up around the development, provision, market- on the effectiveness of such new technologies. ing, and support of computer hardware and software, The data from economic analyses, surveys, case project management, knowledge management, com- studies, and expert panels is consistently disappoint- puter simulations, software games and entertainment, ing. Turning first to ERP systems, many are scrapped and communications, to name just some—all enabled (estimates vary between 20% and 50%), and overall by the onset of sophisticated computerization. failure rates are high (again, estimates vary, at around Concerns over deskilling are equally complicated 60% to 90%). Indeed, it is now commonplace for to assess in practice. Whereas some organizations economists to bemoan the lack of impact of invest- have used computer-based operations to deskill their ments in IT (information technology) on overall pro- operators—for example, by turning them into ductivity over time. machine minders—many others have upskilled their The best estimate is probably that up to 20% of operations by asking their machine operators to write investments are true successes, genuinely meeting and edit computer programs and to solve complex their goals; around 40% are partial successes, meeting machine problems. Also, as previously implied, at some of their goals but by no means all; and around a more macro level, the onset of computerization 40% are complete failures. has led to the creation of many new highly skilled So, why are such investments often so disappoint- professions. ing, and what can be done about it? Many indus- The process is further complicated by the onset of trial/organizational psychologists have worked in this globalization. Computer-based information and com- domain, most notably perhaps under the general ban- munications technologies now make it possible to ner of sociotechnical thinking. Their central proposi- move work around the world. A topical example is tion is that work systems comprise both technical and provided by the widespread use of customer call cen- social systems and that companies cannot change one ters based in India. This may be to the benefit of the without affecting the other—it is the nature of systems Indian economy, but it may not be perceived that way that they are intrinsically interconnected. It follows by employees in the developed world who see their that technical change requires active consideration jobs as being exported to regions where labor costs are to changes in working practices and processes, job significantly lower. designs and work organization, employee skills and Three generalizations seem appropriate. First, such competencies, training and education, human– periods of change may be genuinely uncomfortable computer interfaces, and the management of change. and threatening for the individuals concerned. It may These are major issues, and the evidence is that many be no real consolation in losing one’s job to be told it organizations focus too much on the technology, pay is an inevitable long-term structural shift in the nature too little regard to the social, and fail to adopt an inte- of the global economy. Second, such changes are grated systems perspective. likely to be easier to manage and endure during peri- Several attempts have been made at formulating ods of economic growth rather than decline. A buoy- good practice guidelines, of which the following are ant labor market certainly helps. And third, this is one representative: of the reasons why most leading commentators in developed economies see their economic future in the • Senior managers should ensure that new technology development of highly skilled, high value-added, and investments meet the needs of the business. Senior highly innovative work, areas where education and managers should ask, “Why are we doing this? What skills are at a premium and where competition in a benefit do we gain? Does it further our strategy?” global economy is not solely dependent on the cost • Any technical change will require changes in busi- of labor. ness processes, working practices, job design, and A-Rogelberg-45020.qxd 7/15/2006 11:30 AM Page 44

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the like. Senior managers need to ensure that changes But there continues to be evidence that such standards in all these areas are an intrinsic part of the project— are ignored in practice. Perhaps the interesting ques- a systems view is needed. tion is, “Why is it that informational technology • Senior users in the business need to have some failures persist?” There is massive potential here for ownership of, and influence over, the nature of the industrial/organizational psychologists to make a sub- changes they require. Changes in systems that are stantial contribution, but it is likely that this will best pulled into a business are usually much more suc- be achieved by working with other disciplines (includ- cessful than changes that are pushed into a business. Beware projects that seem just to be about IT and ing technical and operational specialists) and with that are being pushed hard by the IT department. organizations facing some very practical problems. It • Any project team needs to include all the requisite is certainly true that we need to bridge the divides skills and expertise, including the human and organi- between disciplines and between academia and zational issues. practice. • The users (or recipients) of any change program need —Chris Clegg to be actively involved. This should be all the way from the design of the new way of working through to evaluation of the effectiveness of the changes. See also Computer Assessment; Human–Computer • There is a need to educate all those involved in what Interaction; Simulation, Computer Approach the changes mean, why they are being undertaken, what benefits accrue, and what actions are necessary to achieve success. At the same time, training is FURTHER READING needed on the operational and more detailed aspects Clegg, C. W. (2001). Sociotechncial principles for system of the changes. design. Applied Ergonomics, 31, 463–477. • Where such changes are undertaken, organizations Clegg, C. W., Wall, T. D., Pepper, K., Stride, C., Woods, D., need to learn as they go, to be pragmatic, and, where Morrison, D., et al. (2002). An international survey of possible, to undertake changes in manageable the use and effectiveness of modern manufacturing chunks. practices. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufac- • Evaluation against objectives using benchmark mea- turing, 12, 171–191. sures is a prerequisite for learning. Internal and Holman, D., Wall, T. D., Clegg, C. W., Sparrow, P., & external benchmarking can provide excellent oppor- Howard, A. (2003). The new workplace. Chichester, tunities for improvement. UK: Wiley. • All the above require the commitment of resources, Landauer, T. (1995). The trouble with computers. Cambridge: in particular time, effort, money, and expertise. They MIT Press. also require a different mind-set on the nature of change, one that adopts a systems orientation and views technology as a necessary but not sufficient predictor of success. AUTONOMY These guidelines may seem relatively unsurprising to students of industrial/organizational psychology. See EMPOWERMENT