J R Coll Edinb 2011; 41:366–71 Paper doi:10.4997/JRCPE.2011.417 © 2011 Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh

Karl Gebhardt (1897–1948): A lost man

JR Silver Retired Consultant in Spinal Injuries and Fellow of the Institute of Sports

ABSTRACT (1897–1948) had a distinguished career as professor of Correspondence to JR Silver before the Second World War. He developed sports for the 8 High Street, Wendover, disabled at a specialised orthopaedic clinic at Hohenlychen and was President of Buckinghamshire, the Red Cross in . During the war, Gebhardt also acted as Heinrich HP22 6EA, UK Himmler’s personal and was responsible for medical experimentation on tel. +44 (0)1296 623013 prisoners in the concentration camps at Auschwitz and Ravensbrück. In his capacity e-mail [email protected] as SS consultant surgeon, he treated (a high ranking Nazi official, also known as ‘the Hangman’1) after an attempt was made on his life. When Heydrich died, Gebhardt was accused of failing to treat him with sulphonamides. To prove his innocence he carried out a series of experiments on Ravensbrück concentration camp prisoners, breaking their legs and infecting them with various organisms in order to prove the worthlessness of the drugs in treating gas gangrene. He also attempted to transplant the limbs from camp victims to German soldiers wounded on the Russian front. He was tried after the war and executed for these crimes in 1948. This paper explores the paradox of a gifted doctor who was also the perpetrator of inhuman crimes. Keywords Gebhardt, Hohenlychen, sports medicine, Ravensbrück, concentration camp, war crimes, moral paradox Declaration of Interests No conflict of interests declared.

Karl Gebhardt, medical superintendent of the amputated upper limb. This no doubt stimulated (SS) and consultant surgeon of the Waffen Gebhardt’s interest in rehabilitation. While working SS was executed as a war criminal on 2 June 1948 for his with Sauerbruch, Gebhardt developed his interest in experiments on prisoners at the Ravensbrück women’s hand surgery and achieved his habilitation (a degree or concentration camp. It is easy to demonise these academic qualification more advanced than a PhD) in experiments as being a deviation by a low grade doctor this field. When Sauerbruch moved to , Gebhardt but it must be recognised that, prior to joining the SS, remained in and became Eric Lexer’s assistant. Gebhardt was a distinguished professor of orthopaedics Lexer was known for his work in plastic and cosmetic who made an outstanding contribution to the foundation surgery. Gebhardt developed his interest in rehabilitation of sports medicine and developed competitive sport for and founded a department for sports medicine there.2 the disabled as a means of therapy. This contradiction is so extraordinary that it is worthy of the effort to Having achieved his habilitation in the reconstructive understand how such a paradox came about. surgery of the hand at an early age, Gebhardt strove to facilitate the patient’s recovery after surgical intervention Karl Gebhardt’s medical career using two different methods: early physiotherapy and early mobilisation, instituting exercise immediately Gebhardt was born in 1897 in Haag, Oberbayern following surgery. He focused his work on returning the (). He was a school friend of disabled to an active working life, furthering this process in Landshut and he was in the same class as Himmler’s by setting up rehabilitation camps at Hohenaschau in brother, remaining friends with the family throughout Bavaria especially for young people, where they exercised his life. He served in the First World War but was in the fresh air and sunlight for a week at a time. captured and held as a prisoner of war in Scotland. In Gebhardt then followed his teacher Sauerbruch to Berlin 1919 he studied medicine at Munich University and where he continued his rehabilitation work. qualified with a PhD in 1923. While at Munich University he became an assistant to the world He became the first professor of sports medicine in renowned surgeon (possibly due Berlin and in 1933 was appointed to the Deutsche to the influence of his father who was a high ranking Hochschule für Leibesübungen (the Academy for Exercise civil servant responsible for medical affairs for the state and Physical Education). Sauerbruch headed the Academy history of Bavaria). Sauerbruch was the inventor of the from 1932, following the retirement of . Bier, Sauerbruch arm, an artificial replacement for an the father of spinal anaesthesia and intravenous regional

366 history 367 2

Karl Gebhart: a lost man a lost Gebhart: Karl and career Sport became important to the 5 gy the Nazi ideolo 6 and the Nazis , , He clearly espoused the Nazi doctrine of ‘life espoused the Nazi doctrine of He clearly 7 ancement Nazi regime as part of the programme of pre-military as part Nazi regime of the programme The national socialist as propaganda. education as well and proclaimed health system was based on prevention his health and it for German was responsible that every a healthy to provide healthy was his duty to remain to Sport was considered (body of people). Volkskörper withpopular therefore was and disease prevent actively the Nazi regime. adv Gebhardt their from of ways Doctors benefited in a number the highest were they association with the Nazi party; The professions. the all among members of percentage aside the old hierarchical Nazis attempted to sweep by regime a new system within the hospitals and create Gebhardt adopted the Nazi philosophy of rehabilitating of rehabilitating adopted the Nazi philosophy Gebhardt the state work; people to contribute to society through identifiedagain He individual. the not predominant, was with the Nazi ideology in his articles on rehabilitation. the disabled to a useful to restore While he strived what ideas regarding espoused Nazi he life, working should be done with those who could not be rehabilitated necessarywas it that agreed He to ‘inferior’. the – eliminate these people and although he did not write he used the common term mean, what this would exactly Ausschalten Minderwertigen des (elimination of the inferior). Gebhardt He support ideology. Nazi the early for showed Gebhardt Freikorps the and Epp Freikorps the of member a was illegal militaryset up units were Freikorps Oberland. the Nazi party of and mobilised at the the advent before He communism. to fight War World end of the First the failed Hitler with the Munich unit in 1923 in marched on the emphasis in health camps, work In his early putsch. exercise, outdoor and marching notably fitness, physical was sympathetic to the Nazi ideology of strengthening closein activities outdoor and exercises by body the the The Nazi ideology provided association with the soil. and Gebhardt sportsright climate for medicine to develop pre- achieve and career his opportunitythe had make to opposed to specialisation but The Nazis were eminence. such as exercise of natural means of treatment in favour body and they glorification of the human in the open air, anti-intellectual. were not fit for life’. not fit for 1938 and accompanied him on journeys such as the such as him on journeys accompanied 1938 and the to Chief surgeon Austria. and Bohemia of annexation soldiers battlefield-injured he rehabilitated SS in 1939–40, physician lead was In 1943 he hospital. Hohenlychen at sports a war invalid to the SS and instigated (given badge executive became Gebhardt ex-servicemen). disabled to in 1945. Cross Red the German of president 2 To To

3 and he disseminated 4 3 3 2011; 41:366–71 2011; …men hopping about on one leg, playing football football playing …men hopping about on one leg, to having the armless men with men with one arm, one- Two use their one arm and not their feet. one- saw We vigorously. boxing were men legged jumping man one jump, high the doing men legged had to be weights Heavy in height. 4 feet nearly as were saw we men the All about. tossed and lifted as a berry and and bursting with rude health brown activity. muscular The aim of Dr Gebhardt’s training is to make the make to is training Gebhardt’s Dr of aim The with his active and so amputated case so fit and strong and as active one leg and one arm that he gets to feel arms. two or legs two with man the as efficient as this end it is generally six months before the man six months before this end it is generally the time for This also gives his artificial limb. receives A and to assume its final form. stump to get hardened temporaryartificial meantime the in supplied is limb but the constant use of this is not encouraged. J R Coll Physicians Edinb Coll Physicians J R © 2011 RCPE his ideas in Germany and throughout the rest of Europe. of the rest throughout and in Germany his ideas the he became the war, leading up to In the years Hohenlychen Games. Olympic the of in charge physician became the sportsserved the Reich and for sanatorium the sportsmen as the central hospital for women and who participatedof 1936. Games in the Olympic Himmler in to physician personal became Gebhardt The clinic subsequently became a hospital for the SS and, the SS and, became a hospital for The clinic subsequently a militarythe wounded, hospital for the war, during direction. Gebhardt’s under of to the development contributed much Gebhardt a articles rehabilitation, on wrote He sportsmedicine. textbook on sports rehabilitation The Legion delegates were impressed by these methods. these methods. by impressed were The Legion delegates to tried They ideas’. new of full cram place rate ‘A first implement them in this country but British medical it. against opinion advised The Legion representatives saw: The Legion representatives The British Legion visited the clinic in 1936 in an effortvisited the clinic in 1936 in The British Legion of the friendships with German veterans to establish Their report noted War. First World that: anaesthesia had also established the science of sportsof science the established also had anaesthesia methods, on Bier’s expanded Gebhardt medicine. sports to and medicine approach academic an adopting was appointed Gebhardt In 1933 degrees. awarding which became the Hospital of Hohenlychen director first sports and was medicine clinicin Germany to He was able the government. funded by generously with renowned, the clinic became and ideas his develop a large team pool and a swimming theatre, an operating celebrities many visited and Hess Hitler and of doctors. there. treated were sprinter, the Owens, including Jesse JR Silver

placing Nazi doctors in important positions. Financially, the doctors benefited when the dismissal of Jewish doctors enabled them to take over their practices, their insurance work and their appointments in the hospitals. Fundamental research was carried out by the Nazis and although it is not credited, their work on cancer research for example was of outstanding scientific value, as later acknowledged by Doll.8

Doctors also made use of the facilities made available by the Nazis. Sigmund Ruff did aerodynamic high altitude experiments.9 Joseph Mengele and Otmar Verschuer carried out experiments on twins and hereditary diseases.6 Julius Hallervorden benefited from studying Figure 1 Karl Gebhardt and patients at Hohenlychen circa the brains obtained during the Nazi euthanasia 1936. Reproduced by kind permission of Historischer Verein programme.5 Gebhardt was not alone in profiting from für Niederbayern. the Nazi regime.10 closed down in 1933 under the Nazi racial laws. It Gebhardt maintained his friendships with Heinrich re-opened under the aegis of the SS and money was Himmler (the head of the SS) and Gerhard Wagner (a poured into it. Gebhardt was put in charge and he powerful figure in the medical community) from the instituted Nazi policies, benefiting fully from the facilities beginning of his career, ensuring both medical and and developing his own ideas, particularly rehabilitation political support. Wagner, a committed Nazi, had also by sport and exercise therapy. The objective was for been a member of the Freikorps. As Chief Physician of Gebhardt to build up the medical institute within the the Reich (Reichsärzteführer), Wagner gradually gathered academy and Hohenlychen provided him with the power within the medical profession, acting as a facilities to do practical research and rehabilitation plenipotentiary over the doctors. He controlled the training in sports medicine (Figure 1). administration of the insurance companies and decided who should be licensed and who should be paid. Wagner Hitler had initially been opposed to the Olympic Games dominated the medical faculties in schools and being held in Berlin in 1936, as he considered them to universities, through the Fachschaft, a political be Jewish and communist-run but , the indoctrination party. Through this organisation, he was propaganda minister, convinced him. The Berlin Olympics able to control the syllabus and therefore the medical became a showplace for Nazi ideas, a propaganda tool students. Wagner’s power was absolute within the extolling the virtues of the Nazi state, with the medical profession and his friendship ensured that all government funding the building of the sports stadia. In professional doors would be opened to Gebhardt. On 1936, Gebhardt became the chief physician to the the political side, Gebhardt maintained his friendship Olympic Games.2 with Himmler. He thus had both medical and political support to further his career. This influence can be seen The experiments in the several times throughout his career, most notably in concentration camps Berlin and Bavaria. There was a precedence for unethical experiments on The surgical clinic and the sports and exercise academy patients in Germany, evidenced by the work of Albert in Berlin had been under the control of August Bier Neisser who, in 1898, infected prostitutes with syphilis.11 (1861–1949) until his retirement in 1932. When the Prior to the Second World War, experimentation on Nazis came to power, Bier’s deputy, Carl Diem (1882– humans was thought to be a legitimate approach 1962), and Diem’s associates were dismissed because throughout the world (with the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, they were Jewish. Both the surgical department and the started in the USA in 1932 proving the most famous sports and exercise clinic were closed down in 1933. example).12 With the Second World War, Nazi ideology When they re-opened, Sauerbruch temporarily and a permissive approach to human experimentation succeeded to the post before Gebhardt was put in combined to justify the medical experiments inflicted on charge. Gebhardt’s career directly benefited from the the ‘inferior’ in Germany. This process was facilitated by Nazi ‘cleansing’ policy as the ‘cleansing’ of the institutes the secrecy and the lack of restrictions prevalent in the made the post of director available to him. concentration camps. history When Gebhardt went to Hohenlychen in 1933, it was a During the war, some doctors gave qualified approval to sanatorium for the treatment of tuberculosis. Again, the the concentration camps, while many passively physician in charge, Eugen Kisch, was Jewish and it was acquiesced. Some, like Gebhardt, used the facilities put at

368 J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2011; 41:366–71 © 2011 RCPE history 13 369 Karl Gebhart: a lost man a lost Gebhart: Karl permission of Stadtarchiv permission of Stadtarchiv Figure 3 A surviving victim of the war experiments done trials her injuries at the Nuremburg showing at Ravensbrück, kind permission of Stadtarchiv by Reproduced in 1946. Nürnberg. Karl Gebhardt pleading ‘not guilty’ in Nuremburg ‘not guilty’ in Nuremburg pleading Figure 2 Karl Gebhardt kind by Reproduced in 1946. Nürnberg. These exculpatory experiments were carried out by by out carried exculpatoryThese were experiments Fritz Fischer and Herta Oberheuser at Gebhardt, their legs had Patients camp. concentration Ravensbrück infected were the wounds and fractured deliberately given were Half the prisoners with virulent bacteria. left untreated. were and the remainder sulphonamides All the prisoners suffered overwhelming infection and infection overwhelming suffered prisoners All the but some executed The majority were excruciating pain. the at survivedtheir evidence of the basis on it was and to was condemned trials that Gebhardt 3). (Figure death Gebhardt’s at out carried Furtherwere experiments the on further to in order instigation his research direct to he endeavoured In one, of the limbs. rehabilitation from prisoner a of shoulder and scapula the transplant to a soldier at the concentration camp at Ravensbrück of a who had lost a shoulder as a result Hohenlychen Fischer, by out carried was operation The sarcoma. Alexander, Alexander, An agent stepped (Figure 2). 2). (Figure 9 2011; 41:366–71 2011; J R Coll Physicians Edinb Coll Physicians J R © 2011 RCPE an Austrian-born American psychiatrist, acted as an aide American psychiatrist, Austrian-born an the and wrote Crimes trials, War at the Nuremburg War. Code of Ethics after the Nuremburg in front of Heydrich’s vehicle but his Sten gun jammed. but his Sten gun jammed. vehicle of Heydrich’s in front stood up to shoot him and another assassin Heydrich It ripped through into the car. an anti-tank grenade threw and shrapnel embedding of the car, fender the right rear He was taken body. the seats into Heydrich’s from fibres operatedHollbaum Professor where Hospital Bulovka to the tip of a remove left lung, his collapsed to re-inflate the and remove the diaphragm suture rib, fractured but the next day well seemed to recover Heydrich spleen. Gebhardt, personal physician, the time Himmler’s by had Heydrich patient, the of charge full take to arrived later days in shock seven He collapsed a fever. developed care post-operative that appear would It died. and morphineof quantities large of administration the included but no sulphonamides and the patient was said to have of Himmler accused Gebhardt septicaemia. died from him with sulphonamides and not treating negligence for that he could prove way that the only told Gebhardt ‘fate determined’ and not due to death was Heydrich’s carrynegligence was to try out large scale experiments to gangrene gas of died people infected that prove and with sulphonamides or not. treated were whether they to Leo gave This is the statement that Gebhardt trials Alexander at the Nuremberg their disposal to further their careers and in Gebhardt’s Gebhardt’s in and furtherto their disposal careers their He experiments. initiate his medical able to was he case, opportunities the that arose, benefit from did not just regime. the of acceptance with qualified Sauerbruch, like at teams of doctors and organised the initiative He took large a had He furtherto research. his Ravensbrück him both at Hohenlychen for working of doctors number concentration was camp and and at Ravensbrück supervisionthe for and doctors the of responsible from prestige He derived camps. experiments in other power and Games Olympic the to doctor chief being involvement his and SS the to doctor chief being from Cross. with the Red out a series of organised and carried He supported, inmates involving experiments on concentration camp and the use of sulphonamides anaesthesia transplantation, At that time, in war wounds. of sepsis in the treatment While some controversial. was of sulphonamides the use useless, were they believed including Gebhardt, doctors, Ernst-Robert superior, others such as Gebhardt’s a to came matter The opinion. different a held Grawitz, Heydrich. Reinhard death of with the well-publicised head The Hangman servicessecurity Reich the of head was Heydrich and He of Czechoslovakia. deputy of the Reich protectorate to his home car from in an open-top Mercedes travelled for an easy target providing he worked, the castle where into flown who had been agents the British-trained Czech 1942. to assassinate him in May JR Silver

despite his protestations, because , Hohenlychen and the Berlin Clinic and as a result he who should have performed this operation, was required inherited a hospital and a department to further his by Gebhardt to assist him at Hohenlychen. Interestingly, treatment and research. That he made his career within these experiments were opposed by his SS subordinates the Nazi party was not just fortuitous. at Hohenlychen, who disagreed with both the theoretical basis of the work being carried out and the practical Gebhardt’s legacy implementation. Another prisoner had his legs amputated and carried away in a sack by Gebhardt who It is acknowledged that sports medicine developed in then attempted to attach them to a soldier whose lower Germany in 1928. When the British Medical Journal limbs had been amputated at Hohenlychen hospital. The wrote on the subject, they quoted Professor Bier as experiments were presented to a group of senior the pioneer in the field.16 The specialty was developed physicians (including Sauerbruch) in May 1943, and while by Gebhardt, initially in Munich and Hohenlychen the technical aspects were discussed, there was no where he showed how sports medicine could be opposition to the ethical implications. Gebhardt also applied for rehabilitation. With the advent of the war, carried out further experiments to see how the patients Germany was cut off from the rest of the world. The could survive painful operations.14 Gebhardt was widespread destruction of war and the impact of the recognised by his peers for his work in sports medicine Nazi influence meant that any German discoveries but despite the criticisms of his subordinates, who were not recognised or acknowledged. As a result of opposed him, not on ethical grounds but on technical the horrors perpetrated by the Nazis, scientists did not scientific grounds, he persisted with the transplantation go to Germany to study. After the war, sports medicine experiments. He argued that he carried out the infection began to develop in Holland at PhD level and in the experiments to prove himself innocent in his treatment United Kingdom there were a variety of private sports of Heydrich. Even if one accepts this slender excuse, it clinics. However despite the efforts of a devoted band does not absolve him. The transplantation experiments of doctors, there were no sports facilities within the were totally at his own initiative. National Health Service. Even today, the facilities are severely curtailed.17 At his Nuremburg trial, he showed no remorse and defended his actions saying that he took full responsibility Only when a German-Jewish refugee, Sir Ludwig and it was the best method of proving his work. Gebhardt Guttmann, came to Britain did the message about was executed in 1948 for his experiments in the sports medicine emerge from Germany and lead to the concentration camps. introduction of sports for the disabled. Guttmann is usually credited with starting the paralympic sports Experiments were carried out in many concentration movement from which the Paralympic Games arose. camps. They were not the isolated work of a single man; He would most likely have been influenced by Gebhardt was part of a group which included Karl Gebhardt’s early work in Germany and, however Brandt, Hitler’s personal physician and distasteful, his later work. Despite his subsequent Commissioner for Health and Sanitation. Himmler and atrocities, Gebhardt’s contribution to sports medicine Hitler were also fully aware of the experiments taking and sports for the disabled should be acknowledged. place in the camps. The work was coordinated from above, carried out without the consent of the victims and Conclusion – the paradox of Karl was totally different to the scientific research of the Gebhardt Allies. The Nazi research was thanatology, the science of killing people, as opposed to trying to cure them. Had Gebhardt not joined the Nazi party, he would not Moreover, Gebhardt was deeply immersed in the politics have been in a position to develop sports medicine. The and the machinations of the Nazi party at the highest moral dilemma is that Gebhardt achieved a position of level. Later in the war, he was accused of being involved power and authority through the Nazi party and as a in an attempt to medically kill , the only Nazi result, he was able to found and develop the speciality of to admit he was ashamed of what he did.12,15 sports medicine and develop competitive sport for the disabled as a means of therapy, a great benefit to Gebhardt’s achievements mankind. In his powerful role as a Nazi doctor and director of the Hohenlychen clinic, he was able to carry Gebhardt was an able man. He had achieved his out cruel, inhuman experiments in the concentration habilitation prior to joining the Nazi party, in contrast to camps and at the clinic. It is a dreadful paradox that some Joachim Mugrowski, Fischer, Mengele and Sigmund of these experiments were carried out by the same man Rascher (other SS doctors who carried out experiments in the same sports clinic and resulted in his execution. It history in the camps), who did not achieve their habilitation.5 shows what a fine line scientists can tread. The end can Gebhardt was regarded as an expert in his field. He never justify the means. profited from the dismissal of the Jewish doctors at

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10 References 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 J R Coll Physicians Edinb Coll Physicians J R © 2011 RCPE It might seem at times inhibiting to carry out research in at times inhibitingIt might seem to carry out research environment in an Yet supervision. climate of today’s unjustifiable inhumane, and safeguards, with no checks doctors by out carried readily be could experiments a As with the supportGebhardt as such state. the of up and drawn was code a trials, the Nuremberg of result consent humans without informed experimentation on was banned. capable people that enabled the Nazi party people capable to succeed an leader, a was He them. of one was Gebhardt and an innovator. and organiser is both general when a observed, reputedly Napoleon As that his is a danger there intelligent energetic, and energy his applies he as magnified become to mistakes into disasters. his mistakes drive