Karabakh Karabakh as independent khanate Aydin ASLANOV PhD in History (1747–1805)

continued from the previous issue

AFTER PANAH ALI-, HIS SON IBRAHIM KHALIL-KHAN (1763-1806) BECAME RULER. UNDER HIM, THE BECAME ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL IN (MIRZA JAMAL JAVANSHIR. THE HISTORY OF KARABAKH, 1959, P. 77).

he great Azerbaijani poet, Mol- la Panah Vagif, played a great Trole in the rise of the Karabakh khanate and in the strengthening of its power. From 1769, he was the main vizier of this state. At the turn of the 18th-19th centu- ries, the domestic and international situation of Azerbaijan was very complicated. The country’s split into small feudal entities, constant hos- tility between them and economic decline were very characteristic for Azerbaijan. The aggressive aspira- tions of the Iranian shah, Ottoman Empire and tsarist with regard to this country made the situation in the region even more complicated.

4 Ibrahim Khalil Khan’s Castle. (Rock walls). 18th century www.irs-az.com www.irs-az.com Ibrahim Khalil Khan’s Castle. (Rock walls). 18th century. Bird’s eye-view 5 Karabakh

6 www.irs-az.com At the end of the 18th century, Aga Muhammad-khan’s proposal, he The huge army was opposed by the , where Aga Muhammad-khan also refused to recognize him as ruler 15,000-strong Karabakh army. The Gajar came to power by the end of of Iran. defenders of did not intend 1794, posed a special danger to Azer- For this reason, Aga Muhammad- to surrender. baijan. The new ruler of Iran dreamt khan started preparing an attack on The siege lasted 33 days. The of restoring the erstwhile greatness Northern Azerbaijan, first of all, on Russian historian recorded in this of the Safavid Empire. The Gajar dan- the Karabakh khanate. Just before regard: “The heroic defense of Shusha ger forced Azerbaijani rulers to think the invasion, the ruler of Iran sent against the throngs of Aga Muham- about their security and start looking a firman to all khans, demanding mad-khan is undoubtedly one of the for allies against the looming threat. that they immediately recognize his best minutes of his (Ibrahim Khalil- At such a responsible and difficult power and release hostages. Most of khan’s) life” (The establishment of time, the ruler of Karabakh, Ibrahim them did not dare to oppose the for- Russian rule in the Caucasus, V. 1, Khalil-khan, initiated the establish- midable ruler of Iran. The well-known Tiflis, 1904, p. 241). ment of an anti-Gajar coalition (J. M. 19th century Russian military histo- All attempts to take the castle suf- Mustafayev. The northern khan- rian, V. A. Potto, recorded: “Only the fered a setback. Finding himself in ates of Azerbaijan and Russia ruler of Karabakh, khan Ibrahim, flatly a desperate situation, Aga Muham- (late 18th and early 19th centuries). refused to receive the envoys of the mad-khan was forced to start nego- , 1989, p. 73). He restored rela- shah, and fortifying his position in Shu- tiations with Ibrahim Khalil-khan. An tions with Georgian King Irakli II. To sha, prepared for desperate defense” Iranian representative was sent to this end, Tiflis was visited by Ibrahim (V. A. Potto. The Caucasus War, V. Shusha, and he tried to persuade the Khalil-khan’s vizier, Molla Panah Vagif. 1, Stavropol, 1994, p. 259). khan to stop resisting. However, the Mirza Jamal recorded: “The Tiflis vali, Aga Muhammad-khan sent an Karabakh khan told him to tell Aga high-ranking Irakli khan, the ruler of 8,000-strong army led by his best Muhammad-khan that he had no Erivan, Muhammad khan and the ruler military commanders against the intention of surrendering his capital: of Talish, Mir Mustafa khan, jointly with Karabakh khanate. In 1794, the Irani- “I’d rather die in action than surren- Ibrahim khan, swore not to obey Aga an troops crossed Khudafarin Bridge. der the city to a eunuch” (Jean Cure. Muhammad shah and to be allies and Georgian armed detachments un- The Crown-Bearing Eunuch. Teh- to help each other” (Mirza Jamal Ja- der the command of Irakli II’s son, ran, 1982 (in Persian), p. 270). vanshir. Op.sit., p. 79). Prince Aleksandr, came to help the The Iranian troops stayed in Azer- Along with preparations for de- Karabakhis. As a result of a battle, the baijan until February 1796. News of fense from Iranian attacks, many Iranian troops suffered a defeat and Russian troops’ advance and unrest in Azerbaijani khans established rela- were forced to retreat beyond the Iran forced Aga Muhammad-khan to tions with the Russian command in Aras River. hastily leave the country and restore the North Caucasus, asking Russia to Despite his failure, Aga Muham- law and order in his own state. help and protect them against the mad-khan was preparing for a de- Aga Muhammad-khan Gajar’s de- Gajar danger. cisive attack on Azerbaijan. In the sire to subjugate Azerbaijan caused The Iranian ruler, Aga Muham- summer of 1795, an 85,000-strong concern in Russia’s ruling circles. The mad-khan, was aware of the nego- Iranian army set off from Ardabil. Aga Russian government could not al- tiations between the Azerbaijani Muhammad-khan himself moved to- low Gajar to succeed because it ran khans and the Russian command in wards Karabakh, leading his choice counter to tsarist plans regarding the the North Caucasus. Therefore, he units. The Iranian soldiers were led Caucasus. In the spring of 1796, the tried to call on Northern Azerbaijani by French officers (P. G. Butkov. Ma- Russian army under the command of khans for obedience and submission terials for the new history of the General V. A. Zubov invaded Azerbai- through his personal representative Caucasus from 1722 to 1803. Part jan. As a result, they took major cit- (J. M. Mustafayev. Op.sit., p. 83). 2. Ch. P. SPB, 1869, p. 251). At the ies of the country – Derbend, Baku, However, the mission of the Iranian end of July 1795, the Iranian troops Guba, Shamakhi and Ganja. envoy was not successful. Ibrahim approached Shusha Castle. The occupation of Azerbaijani Khalil-khan of Karabakh, who was The capital of the Karabakh khan- lands by Russian troops forced Ibra- confident in his forces and the im- ate heroically defended itself. The de- him Khalil-khan to send one of his pregnability of his capital Shusha, re- fense was headed by Ibrahim Khalil- sons to the camp of the Russian fused to obey. Not only did he reject khan and his vizier Molla Panah Vagif. commander-in-chief with numerous www.irs-az.comYukhari (Upper) Govhar Aga Mosque. 18–19th century. Architect Karbalayi Safi Khan 7 Karabakh

the castle wall. This was supposed to cause serious damage to the wall, which would allow the Iranian troops to enter the city through gaps and breaches in the wall (Jean Cure. Op.sit., p. 367). Then, the Karabakh khan decided to make a foray in order to destroy the Iranian artillery. As a result of a brave operation, Ibrahim Khalil-khan succeeded in achieving his goal – the enemy’s artillery was suppressed. However, the enemy cut their way back into the castle. The Karabakh khan and his detachment hardly managed to break out of the encir- clement and head northwards to Jar and Tali. The Iranian troops did not dare to enter Shusha for two days. Aga Muhammad-shah sent a letter to its defenders, suggesting that they lay down their arms. In response to the fears of the city residents, the shah swore on the Koran that he would Molla Panah Vagif’s Tomb. 1982. A.V.Salamzade and E.I.Kanukov not touch anybody. Only after that, gifts. The Karabakh khan also wrote khan abdicate in favor of his son. did the gates of the castle open. The an appeal expressing his loyalty to Moreover, Ibrahim Khalil-khan was nobility and elders of the city came Catherine II (Mirza Adigozal-bey. supposed to leave his possessions to welcome the shah, hoping to pay Op.sit., p. 83). and travel to holy places in Mecca (J. him off with an indemnity. The Russian troops did not stay M. Mustafayev. Op.sit., p. 99). Thus, the troops of Aga Muham- very long in Azerbaijan. The unex- The situation in Azerbaijan ahead mad-shah seized Shusha. However, pected death of Catherine II and the of Gajar’s invasion was complicated. the Iranian shah “forgot” about his accession of Paul I to the throne sud- Famine and plague were rife and oath and ordered his soldiers to loot denly changed the political climate. rampant in the country. Most of the reviled city. A bloody massacre On orders from the emperor, the Rus- Karabakh residents were forced to against the intractable population sian military units left Azerbaijan. leave their homes and move to other began in Shusha. Thousands of peo- The departure of the Russian khanates in search of livelihood. In ple were executed or jailed. Among troops allowed Aga Muhammad- this situation, it was difficult for the the prisoners was Molla Panah Vagif. shah to try his luck again. Letters Karabakh khan to organize the de- However, Shusha was fated to be- were sent to Azerbaijani khanates fense of his capital and counter the come the site of the death of the cru- again, demanding obedience. The invasion by Aga Muhammad-shah el shah. He was killed while asleep at message to Ibrahim Khalil-khan was Gajar. night as a result of a plot by his court- especially menacing. “The formidable Jean Cure, an eyewitness to those iers. Having lost their commander, ruler of Persia could not forget an af- events, recorded the seizure of Shu- the Iranian soldiers left Karabakh and front to his dignity from the contempt- sha by Iranian troops in 1897 in the fled to Iran. ible khan of Shusha who dared not to following way: Aga Muhammad- Ibrahim Khalil-khan managed to recognize his power…” (V. A. Potto. shah, surrounding the capital of the return home only three months lat- Op.sit., p. 259). Karabakh khanate, ordered his ar- er, but his vizier was no longer alive. The shah demanded that the tillery to keep firing at one point in The Russian historian, V. Potto, re- corded that Vagif “was one of the few

8 www.irs-az.com people who refused to betray the old khan and was executed together with his son. People still point to their com- mon grave behind the gate of Shusha Castle on a high hill where popular festivities were held” (V. A. Potto. Op.sit., p. 270). Thus, all the attempts of Iran to conquer the northern khanates of Azerbaijan in the 1790s ended in a failure. After the death of Aga Mu- hammad-shah, power was taken over by his nephew Baba-khan who ascended the throne under the name of Fatali-shah. The new ruler of Iran, continuing his predecessor’s ag- gressive policy on Azerbaijan, first de- Panahali Khan’s Castle. 18th century cided to improve relations with Ibra- him Khalil-khan through so-called troops advancing deep into the heart citizenship. The tsarist authorities “marriage diplomacy”. Fatali-shah of Azerbaijan. In early April 1803, the attached special attention to the suggested that the Karabakh khan Jar-Balakan province was devastat- seizure of the Karabakh khanate be- should marry his daughter to him. ed, while Balakan was burnt down cause of its strategic position and nat- After the attacks by Aga Muham- (ACAC, T. P. Tiflis, 1868, doc. 1387, ural reserves. An official document of mad-shah, the economy of the Kara- p. 685). that period recorded: “The usefulness bakh khanate was too enfeebled. Having liquidated the danger be- of this acquisition for Russia is: 1) that Trying not to exacerbate relations hind its troops, Tsitsianov directed Karabakh can be regarded as a gate- with Iran and fearing an armed at- the blow to the Ganja khanate, which way to Azerbaijan due to its position, tack, Ibrahim Khalil-khan was forced was regarded as a key to Azerbaijan. and therefore, to Persia, which is why to agree with the shah’s proposal (A. Ibrahim Khalil-khan of Karabakh re- it will keep them in fear; 2) Karabakh Berzhe. Fatali-shah and his chil- alized that after the Russian troops brings closer to Baku, which dren.// Russian antiquity, 1886, v. seized Ganja, his khanate would be is planned to be taken this fall…” (op. 50, p. 553). the next victim. Therefore, he made sit. doc. 1436, p. 703). By the early 19th century, the for- peace with Javad-khan and sent two From the very beginning of his eign policy of the Russian state on cannons to help him (op.sit., doc presence in the Caucasus, Tsitsianov the Central Caucasus suddenly be- 1170, p. 588). However, Ganja Castle spoke to khans in a peremptory way came active. In 1801, a manifesto of was taken by storm at the dawn on 3 and sent them insulting letters. He Russian Emperor Alexander I on the January 1804, and its khan died a he- staked on intimidating them and ex- incorporation of the Kartli-Kakheti ro’s death (op.sit., doc 1182, p. 592). erting moral pressure. For example, Kingdom into Russia was announced. The tragic death of Javad-khan he wrote to Ibrahim Khalil-khan of Using eastern Georgia as a bridge- did not frighten the Karabakh khan. Karabakh: “I know that as I was near head, the tsarist government started He spirited away his two sons – Ganja, you trembled like a leaf on a implementing its plan on Azerbaijan. Ugurlu-aga and Ali-Guli-aga, whom tree and would not have replied in this The champion of the tsar’s colonial the tsarist authorities tried to arrest way; I know that before my arrival near policy in the Central Caucasus was and exile to internal provinces of Rus- Ganja, you, like a cowardly hare and Prince P. D. Tsitsianov who was ap- sia (op.sit., doc. 1185, 1186, p. 592; servile vixen…, did not dare to talk like pointed commander-in-chief of the doc 1189, p. 598). you do now because you thought I was Russian troops in Georgia in 1802. Soon after his return from the far away. But believe me – even the In conquering Azerbaijan, Tsit- failed military campaign in Iravan, Ganja army is enough to crush you: be- sianov attached great importance to General Tsitsianov started negotia- lieve me that the impregnability of your the seizure of Jar-Balakan communi- tions with Ibrahim Khalil-khan, try- castle will be effortless for the Russians: ties who stood in the way of Russian ing to persuade him to take Russian you will see it in due time – Javan-khan www.irs-az.com 9 Karabakh

arms of the . The khan and his sons were given high military ranks (op.sit. doc. 1456). In connection with the Treaty of Kurekchay, it must be noted that St. Petersburg was quite happy with the fact because at the beginning of the Russia-Iran war in 1904-1813, Russia acquired a reliable home front repre- sented by the Karabakh khan. The “peaceful” liquidation of the independent northern khanates of Azerbaijan began. The treaty helped Russia to subjugate their territories and rulers “with little blood”. Thus, the Treaty of Kurekchay furthered Russia’s successes in its wars with Iran and the Ottoman Empire in the first third of the 19th century. Characterizing the Karabakh peo- ple and Ibrahim Khalil-khan, the Rus- sian general P. D. Tsitsianov pointed out that the ruler of the khanate is “generally believed to be an especial- Panahali Khan’s (18th century) and Ibrahim Khalil Khan’s Tombs ly firm man and is loyal to his word…, (19th century). “Imaret” Cemetery and his people, especially cavalry, are known for their bravery”. (op.sit., said the same before he fell. I know how incorporation of Karabakh into Rus- doc. 1437). to keep my word. Nowhere in the world sia (op.sit, doc. 1436, p. 705). Under In the spring of 1806, the Irani- does a fly talk to an eagle; - the strong the treaty, the Karabakh Khanate had an army invaded Karabakh. During issue orders, while the weak are born to pay a tax of 8,000 tchervonets to these events, Ibrahim Khalil-khan to obey the strong… I call on you for the Russian treasury and host Russian and his family and entourage moved repentance, not for obedience – I don’t troops on its territory. to a place near the Shusha castle. need it and if you want to be alive and While concluding agreements Historian Mirza Jamal recorded that well, do what I am telling you to do in with the Azerbaijani khans, the Rus- some ill-intentioned people told the this letter” (op.sit). sian authorities promised not to commander of the Russian detach- The Iranian invasions of Kara- change the territorial integrity of ment lies about him, and he broke bakh and Tsitsianov’s demand for the newly-conquered lands. For ex- into the khan’s camp on the night of the adoption of Russian protection ample, Article 2 of the Treaty of Ku- 12 June 1806. had their effect. Ibrahim Khalil-khan, rekchay with the Karabakh khan said Ibrahim Khalil-khan, some mem- whose possessions had turned into that “Y.V. gives an imperial guarantee bers of his family and associates were a battlefield in the Russian-Iranian to preserve the integrity of His Majesty killed (Mirza Jamal Javanshir Kara- war of 1804-1813, was forced to and his successors’ possessions”. Article bagi, op.sit., p. 96). agree to meet with him. The meet- 10 emphasized that “the treaty is be- Thus, all the terms of the Treaty of ing took place on the bank of the ing concluded forever and shall never Kurekchay were made null and void. Kurekchay River. undergo any changes”. This brutal execution was not only On 14 May 1805, representa- The Karabakh khan maintained a violation of norms of international tives of the Russian command in the his independence in domestic ad- law, but also demonstrated the true Caucasus and Ibrahim Khalil-khan of ministration and was given a saber intentions of the Russian Empire in Karabakh signed the Treaty of Kurek- richly decorated with precious stones Azerbaijan. chay, which officially confirmed the and a special ensign with the coat of Many representatives of the Rus-

10 www.irs-az.com sian authorities considered the kill- self came out of his tent to meet the Russian officers’ actions, the official ing of the 86-year-old Karabakh khan detachment without firing a single authorities gave the son of the Kara- and his family as unnecessary brutal- shot; but the hunters started shoot- bakh khan, Mehdigulu-khan, the rank ity and an unjustified action. For ex- ing and stabbing him with bayonets, of major-general in order to appease ample, the new commander of the where Ibrahim-khan was killed and the population and presented him troops in the Caucasus, Count I. V. all his belongings were taken away with “royal credentials” for the Kara- Gudovich, condemned the actions by those who launched the attack”. bakh khanate. of the Russian officers who “launched (op.sit. doc. No 605). Ibrahim Khalil-khan ruled Kara- an attack on Ibrahim-khan of Shusha Illustration: Ibrahim Khalil-khan’s bakh for 43 years. During his rule, he without any reason, an act that does mausoleum successfully fought foreign invaders not befit the duty and rank of an of- The treacherous assassination of and did not bow down to anyone. ficial…” (ACAC, v. 3. Tiflis, 1869. doc. Ibrahim Khalil-khan made a nega- The well-known Russian historian, I. No 604). tive impression on other Azerbaijani Segal, recorded about the Karabakh Another surviving document khans. Soon, an uprising broke out khan: “Ibrahim-khan was an intelligent clearly shows that the Karabakh in Sheki, which was ruled by the son- man: he was famed for his bravery, khan, who “did not have troops ex- in-law of the Karabakh khan. Salim- approachability and honest way of cept for 35 male and female servants, khan, whose wife Tutu-bayim, the action” (I. Segal. Yelizavetpol Prov- one wife and three small children, daughter of the Karabakh khan, was ince. (Impressions and Memories). was on this side of the Shusha re- also assassinated, forced the Russian Kavkazskiy Vestnik, 1902, No 3). gion near the gardens on a mountain troops to leave the khanate. without any fortification, and him- Realizing the illegitimacy of the

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