Lietuvos Muzikologija 19.Indd

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Lithuanian Musicology 19

Vilnius 2018 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Redakcinė kolegija / Editorial Board

Vyriausioji redaktorė / Editor-in-chief Prof. habil. dr. Gražina Daunoravičienė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre)

Vyriausiosios redaktorės asistentė / Assistant editor-in-chief Dr. Rima Povilionienė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre)

Nariai / Members Prof. habil. dr. Eero Tarasti (Helsinkio universitetas / University of Helsinki) Prof. habil. dr. Mieczysław Tomaszewski (Krokuvos muzikos akademija / Academy of Music in Kraków) Prof. habil. dr. Helmut Loos (Leipcigo universitetas / University of Leipzig) Prof. habil. dr. Nina Aleksandrovna Gerasimova-Persidskaja (Ukrainos nacionalinė P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademija / Petro Tchaikovsky National Music Academy of Ukraine) Prof. dr. Mart Humal (Estijos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre) Prof. dr. Marina Frolova-Walker (Kembridžo universitetas / University of Cambridge) Prof. dr. Leon Stefanija (Liublianos universitetas / University of Ljubljana) Prof. dr. Mikhail Saponov (Maskvos valstybinė P. Čaikovskio konservatorija / Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservaroty) Prof. habil. dr. Daiva Vyčinienė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre) Prof. dr. Danutė Petrauskaitė (Klaipėdos universitetas / Klaipėda University) Prof. dr. Rūta Stanevičiūtė (Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija / Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre) Dr. Audronė Žukauskaitė (Lietuvos kultūros tyrimų institutas; Europos humanitarinis universitetas / Lithuanian Culture Research Institute; European Humanities University)

Sudarytoja / Compiler Gražina Daunoravičienė

Žurnalas „Lietuvos muzikologija“ referuojamas tarptautinėse duomenų bazėse: EBSCO Humanities International Index; EBSCO Humanities International Complete; British Humanities Index; MLA International Bibliography; RILM Abstracts of Music Literature

Viršelyje / Cover Juozo Gruodžio pedagoginės kompozitorių mokyklos medis (G. Daunoravičienės sudaryta schema) / A genealogical tree of Juozas Gruodis’ pedagogical school of composers (Daunoravičienė’s design)

Kalbos redaktoriai / Language Editors Rita Markulienė, John Felyp Tredinnick-Rowe, Jurgita Tūrienė

Redakcijos adresas / Address Gedimino pr. 42, Vilnius, LT-01110 Lietuva El. paštas / Email [email protected], [email protected] Interneto adresas / Website zurnalai.lmta.lt

Žurnalas „Lietuvos muzikologija“ rengiamas įgyvendinant projektą „Periodinių mokslo leidinių leidyba ir jos koordinavimas“. Projektas finansuojamas Europos socialinio fondo lėšomis pagal 2014–2020 metų Europos Sąjungos fondų investicijų veiksmų programos 9 prioriteto „Visuomenės švietimas ir žmogiškųjų išteklių potencialo didinimas“ priemonę „Mokslininkų ir kitų tyrėjų gebėjimų stiprinimas“ (www.esinvesticijos.lt).

© Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2018 Mokslo studijos © Gražina Daunoravičienė, 2018 Mokslo straipsniai © Giedrius Alkauskas, Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas, Patrick Becker, Levon Hakobian, Baiba Jaunslaviete, Jūlija Jonāne, Margarita Katunyan, Viktorija Kolarovska-Gmirja, Jānis Kudiņš, Melita Milin, Danutė ISSN 1392-9313 Petrauskaitė, Joanna Schiller-Rydzewska, Iryna Tukova, Aušra Žičkienė, Audronė Žiūraitytė, 2018 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Turinys / Contents Pratarmė ��4 Foreword ��8 Melita MILIN...... 12 Stronger Together: Composition Schools as a Means of Affirming Aesthetic Goals Drauge stipresni: kompozicinė mokykla kaip priemonė įtvirtinti estetinius tikslus Viktorija KOLAROVSKA-GMIRJA ...... 20 The Macedonian National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation and Development Makedonijos nacionalinė kompozicijos mokykla, jos įsteigimo ir plėtotės aspektai Patrick BECKER ...... 30 Darmstadt als Bauhütte: Historische und aktuelle Perspektiven auf die Internationalen Ferienkurse für Neue Musik Darmštatas kaip sambūris: tarptautinių naujosios muzikos vasaros kursų istorinė ir dabarties perspektyva Joanna SCHILLER-RYDZEWSKA ...... 36 The Roots of Composers’ Milieu in Postwar Gdańsk | Kompozitorių aplinkos ištakos pokario Gdanske Levon HAKOBIAN ...... 44 Cosmopolitan Nationalism under Moderate Totalitarianism: The Situation of Armenian Art Music in the 1970s and Early 1980s Kosmopolitiškas nacionalizmas saikingo totalitarizmo sąlygomis: XX a. 8–9-ojo dešimtmečio pradžios armėnų muzika Iryna TUKOVA ...... 52 The Development of Western European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017) Vakarų Europos kryptis Kijevo kompozicinės mokyklos raidoje (2010–2017) Margarita KATUNYAN ...... 62 Nikolay Sidelnikov’s School of Composition | Nikolajaus Sidelnikovo kompozicinė mokykla Jānis KUDIŅŠ ...... 70 Composition School, Tradition or a Remarkable Personality? Some Remarks on Jāzeps Vītols’ Creative and Pedagogical Work in the frame of 20th Century European Music Kompozicinė mokykla, tradicija ar ryški asmenybė? Jāzepo Vītolio kūrybos ir pedagogikos aspektai XX a. Europos muzikos kontekste Jūlija JONĀNE ...... 76 The Foundation of Sacred Music within the Framework of Jāzeps Vītols’ Musical Creativity Sakralinės muzikos įsitvirtinimas Jāzepo Vītolio muzikinės kūrybos kontekste Baiba JAUNSLAVIETE ...... 86 The Composition School of Maija Einfelde: Some Pedagogical and Stylistic Aspects Maijos Einfeldes kompozicinė mokykla: pedagoginiai ir stiliaus aspektai Danutė PETRAUSKAITĖ ...... 94 Lietuviškos kompozicinės mokyklos paieškos išeivijoje (JAV) Search for the Lithuanian Composition School in exile (the USA) Audronė ŽIŪRAITYTĖ ...... 105 The BalletAnt marių kranto in a Cultural- Ideological Context and in the Creative Work of Julius Juzeliūnas Baletas „Ant marių kranto“ kultūriniame ideologiniame ir Juliaus Juzeliūno kūrybos kontekste Algirdas Jonas AMBRAZAS ...... 114 Julius Juzeliūnas ir Eduardas Balsys: to paties kelio skirtingos atšakos Julius Juzeliūnas and Eduardas Balsys: Two Branches of the Same Path Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ ...... 121 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse Lietuvos kompozitorių klasės ir mokyklos: genealogijos diskursas Aušra ŽIČKIENĖ ...... 161 Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija Once more about Friedrich Getkant’s Entry in the 17th c. Friendship Album: Study of Contexts Priedas | Supplement Giedrius ALKAUSKAS ...... 175 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science (Works by Mathematicians), and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by Rima Povilionienė) Muzikos ir matematikos tarpusavio sąveika: mokslinis traktavimas (matematikų darbai) ir meninis traktavimas (Rimos Povilionienės „Musica mathematica“) Apie autorius �� 192 About the authors �� 195 Atmintinė autoriams �� 199 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Pratarmė

Naujausias „Lietuvos muzikologijos“ tomas gvildena kompozitorių mokyklos klausimą. Žurnalo puslapiuose diskutuojama, kas slypi po muzikų leksikone paplitusių žodžių dvinariu ir kokias reikšmes jis transliuoja tyrėjams, muzikams bei visam pasauliui. Akivaizdu, kad mokslinio termino statuso su visu reikšmių bagažu sąvoka „kompozitorių mokykla“ dar neišsikovojo solidžiuose žodynuose ar enciklopedijose. Nemažai žurnalo autorių liudija, kad ši daugelio vartojama sąvoka kupina prasmingo turinio, tačiau nevienodai suvokia jai priskiriamų reiškinių spektrą. Žurnale publikuojami tyrimai kelia ne vien sąvokos turinio įteisinimo ir vartosenos klausimus. Daug dėmesio skiriama praktikai – siekiama atskleisti, kaip fenomenas funkcionuoja konkrečiose muzikinėse kultūrose. Devynioliktame žurnalo tome susibūrę Latvijos, Rusijos, Armėnijos, Ukrainos, Serbijos, Makedonijos, Vokietijos, Rusijos, Lenkijos ir Lietuvos mokslininkai, reflektuodami bendrą diskurso situaciją, brėžia aktualių kompozitorių mokyklos reikšmių ratą. Pliuralistinė sąvokos būtis ir muzikologų iškeliami skirtingi kompozitorių mokyklų aspektai savaip testuoja ir įveiksmina lietuvių muzikologo, profesoriaus Algirdo Jono Ambrazo habilitacijos darbe „Juozas Gruodis ir lietuvių kompozitorių mokyklos formavimasis“ (1991) siūlytą hierarchinės trinarės kompozitorių mokyklos sampratos gyvybingumą. Džiugu, kad profesoriaus siūlytos sistemos pagrindas pasiteisina praktiškai. Centruojamos problematikos kryptingumu šiame „Lietuvos muzikologijos“ tome skelbiami tyrimai natūraliai susigrupuoja prie trijų „raktinių“ sąvokos „kompozitorių mokykla“ reikšmių, tokių kaip nacionalinė kompozitorių mokykla (kultūra), estetinė-stilistinė kryptis („laisvoji mokykla“) ir kompozitorių ugdymo (pedagogikos) institucija. Būtent tokia sąvokos reikšmių sistema buvo išskirta prof. Ambrazo tyrimuose. Juliaus Juzeliūno 100-mečiui skirtoje 45-ojoje Baltijos muzikologų konferencijoje, vykusioje Vilniuje 2016 m. spalio mėnesį, būtent kompozitorių mokyklos tematikos tyrimai formavo konferencijos probleminę šerdį. „Lietuvos muzikologijos“ XIX tomo skaitytojai žurnalo puslapiuose ras individualia refleksija nuspalvintus šios tematikos straipsnius. Gvildendama serbų kompozitorių mokyklos plėtotės XX a. atvejį, Melita Milin pripažįsta, kad pagrindinių ir perife- rinių Europos kompozitorių mokyklų analizė įneštų daugiau aiškumo į bendrą muzikos istorijos dinamiką. Straipsnyje „Drauge stipresni: kompozicinė mokykla kaip priemonė įtvirtinti estetinius tikslus“ autorė permąsto savo reikšmėmis artimų sąvokų „kompozicinė mokykla“, „kompozicijos klasė“ ir „kompozitorių grupė“ ribas ir aktualumą. Mokyklų de- aktualizavimo procesą Milin iliustruoja srovių kaita ir grupinio veikimo atvejų analize. Daugeliui kultūrų būdingi lūžius indikuojantys jaunosios kartos maištai vyko daugelyje šalių. Kad ir Lietuvoje, kai studentai nuvainikuoja mokytojus ir juos „nurašo“ kaip akademiškus, sustingusius konservatyvius pedagogus. Kaip tokių slinkčių pavyzdžius Milin aptaria Stanojlo Rajičićiaus atvejį, taip pat 9-ojo dešimtmečio viduryje prie Vladano Radovanovićiaus elektroninės muzikos susitelkusios į postmodernizmą orientuotos jaunų kompozitorių grupės „Nuostabusis septynetas“ veiklą. Armėnų muzikos XX a. 8–9-ojo dešimtmečio pradžios panoramą, griežtai jos neįvardindamas „mokykla“, eksponuoja Levonas Hakobianas. Straipsnyje „Kosmopolitiškas nacionalizmas saikingo totalitarizmo sąlygomis: XX a. 8–9-ojo dešimtmečio pradžios armėnų muzika“ jis aptaria armėnų akademinei muzikai reikšmingus pokyčius. Tai buvo laikas, kai atsiribojusios nuo A. Chačaturiano ir jo artimiausių sekėjų nacionalinės muzikos modelio muzikos scenoje pasirodė naujos jėgos. Avetas Terterianas, Tigranas Mansurianas ir kiti, taikydami moderniąsias kompozicines priemones, taip pat originaliai ir savitai panaudodami avangardines technikas, sėkmingai puoselėjo stiprų tautinės tapatybės pojūtį bei tautos archajines muzikines tradicijas. Viktorijos Kolarovskos-Gmirjos straipsnyje „Makedonijos nacionalinė kompozicijos mokykla, jos įsteigimo ir plėtotės aspektai“ apžvelgiami kitos posovietinės šalies muzikos kultūros plėtotės ypatumai. Analizuojant šį atvejį Makedonijos muzikoje patvirtinama, kad kristalizuojantis nacionalinėms kompozitorių mokykloms egzistuoja bendri veiksmai, siekiniai ir etapai. Autorė išskiria kelias kompleksines siekinių-kriterijų grupes: tai profesionalumo lygmens įvaldymas, pasiektas adaptuojant europinį kompozitorių veiklos modelį. Tai nacionalinės muzikos idėją skleisti siekę skirtingų kartų kompozitoriai, vienu metu egzistuojančios skirtingos stilistinės tendencijos ir kompozitorių ugdymo edukacinis komponentas. Tyrėja kartu pripažįsta, kad vienu svarbiausių nacionalinės kompozitorių mokyklos kūrimo tikslų yra žanrų sistemos, kuri apima operą ir simfoniją, susiformavimas. Kita vertus, ji pabrėžia ne menkiau svarbų profesionalaus lygmens muzikos logikos, plėtojimo, muzikinės dramaturgijos bei komponavimo technikų principų įvaldymą. Tam tikrais nacionalinės mokyklos brandos požymiais Gmirja laiko kompozitorių individualų pasirinkimą ir nacionalinės tapatybės, kaip vieno iš galimų kūrybinių orientacijų, siekį. Darmštato vasaros kursų esmę Melita Milin interpretavo kaip apraišką kompozitoriams būdingo stipraus noro tapatinti save su progresyvios krypties muzika bei prisidėti prie jos plėtros, siekiant įgyvendinti „modernizmo projektą“. Šio bendraminčių susitelkimo istorinė reikšmė gvildenama Patricko Beckerio tyrime „Darmštatas kaip sambūris: tarptautinių

4 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 naujosios muzikos vasaros kursų istorinė ir dabarties perspektyva“. Žvilgsnis iš Vokietijos rodo, kad romantiškas mokytojo ir mokinio bendradarbiavimo paveikslas tokių sambūrių fone tapęs atgyvena. Kompozitorių nesitapatinimo su „mokykla“ priežastimi XX a. II pusėje pasitarnavo ir suklestėjusi superindividualizmo būsena – kūrybos nepriklausomybės paskata, ir bendrų stilių išnykimas, ar jie būtų nacionaliniai, ar konkrečios mokyklos. Neatsitiktinai P. Beckeris svarsto, kokia misija nuo XX a. 5-ojo dešimtmečio pabaigos ugdant jaunus kompozitorius tenka tokioms institucijoms kaip Darmštato vasaros kursai ir kas jose yra „perduodama“. Dėl Hermanno Danuserio tyrimų XX a. pabaigoje smukus Darmštato avangardo bas- tiono prestižui, o pasaulį užpildžius daugybei panašių kursų, autorius kelia tikrosios Darmštato sambūrių vertės klausimą. Tarp fascinacijos ir mitų, tarp faktų ir tikrovės pasiklydę kursai šiandien virtę keisčiausių naujadarų eksponavimo arena, tiesiog laisvesnio neformalaus ir įvairialypio menininkų bendravimo scena. Tad iš baroko sonatos išplėšęs ir perfrazavęs, straipsnio pabaigoje Patrickas Beckeris mums sviedžia klausimą: Darmstadt, que me veux-tu? Straipsnyje „Kompozitorių aplinkos ištakos pokario Gdanske“ Joanna Schiller-Rydzeska aptaria sudėtingų politinių procesų aplinkoje pokariu besiplėtojančią Gdansko kompozitorių kūrybą. Ją veikė totalitarinių sistemų diktatūros atnešti pokyčiai: 1945–1946 m. pasikeitė net 96 proc. Gdansko gyventojų, naujieji į miestą atvyko iš įvairių SSRS atitekusių miestų – Vilniaus, Lvovo, Gardino ir kitų. Drastiški pokyčiai vertė kompozitorius iš pagrindų atkurti ar tiesiog sukurti savo meninę tapatybę. Muzikinį Gdansko gyvenimą pokariu formavo Władysławas Walentynowiczius, Henrykas Jabłońskis ir Konradas Pałubickis. Tiek jų kūryba, tiek pedagoginė veikla daug metų darė stiprią įtaką Gdansko regiono profesionalios muzikos terpei. Šių istorinių lūžių kontekste autorė kelia klausimą apie pokario Gdansko kompozitorių kilmę ir kultūrinę įvairovę. Svarsto, ar jie kūrė kaip identifikuojama kūrybinė grupė, ar kaip atskiri menininkai, atsidūrę naujai apgyvendintame mieste? Sudėtingą politinių XX a. perversmų, pasaulinių karų padarinių, kūrybos proceso ir „kompozitorių mokyklos“ formavimosi istoriją žurnalo puslapiuose papildo lietuvių kompozitorių emigracijos į JAV tyrimas. Danutės Petrauskaitės straipsnis skirtas lietuviškos kompozitorių mokyklos paieškoms išeivijoje (JAV). Be abejo, kompozitorių mokyklos susikū- rimas yra tam tikrą kultūros brandos laipsnį diagnozuojantis fenomenas. Kodėl XX a. lietuvių emigrantų muzikos kūrimo procesas JAV nerealizavo šio fenomeno, atskleidžia straipsnyje parodytos išeivių kūrybos sąlygos, jų darbų įvertinimas ir daugelis kitų aplinkybių, trukdžiusių kompozicinei mokyklai susiformuoti. Petrauskaitė pažymi, kad XX a. pirmoje pusėje išeivijoje gyvavo daina, nors būta pastangų komponuoti ir lietuvišką simfoninę muziką, bet ji nereprezentavo profesionalios muzikos lygmens. Kita vertus, dominuojant chorinei muzikai ir esant silpnam instrumentinės muzikos poreikiui, lietuviai JAV studijavo ne kompoziciją, bet fortepijoną, dainavimą ar muzikos pedagogiką. Į JAV emigravę profesionalūs prieškario Lietuvos kompozitoriai – Vytautas Bacevičius, Kazimieras Viktoras Banaitis, Julius Gaidelis, Vladas Jakubėnas, Jeronimas Kačinskas, baigę konservatorijas Čekijoje, Vokietijoje, Prancūzijoje, Lenkijoje, Latvijoje ir Lietuvoje, realiai negalėjo pakeisti padėties. Emigracija jiems neteikė galimybių tęsti europietiškų ar lietuviškų komponavimo tradicijų. Vienintelis J. Kačinskas dėstė kompoziciją Berklio muzikos koledže (Berklee College of Music) Bostone, bet kompozicijos mokyklos nesukūrė. Kaip pažymi Petrauskaitė, lietuviai kompozitoriai emigrantai JAV gyveno uždarose diasporose. Jie nesiekė kūrybos originalumo ir meistriškumo, svarbiausias jų tikslas buvo išsaugoti nacionalinę tapatybę. Kad nacionalinės tapatybės siekis gali būti pripažįstamas kaip vienas iš muzikinės kultūros brandos požymių, pritaria Algirdo Jono Ambrazo straipsnis „Julius Juzeliūnas ir Eduardas Balsys: to paties kelio skirtingos atšakos“. Šių lietuvių kompozitorių kūrybos pagrindu jis įžvelgia skirtingus nacionalinės muzikos idėjos sprendimo ir realizavimo būdus. Abu iškilūs lietuvių kompozitoriai, amžininkai buvo modernios nacionalinės muzikos kūrimo šalininkai, tačiau skirtingų pedagoginių kompozitorių klasių (E. Balsys – Antano Račiūno, J. Juzeliūnas – Juozo Gruodžio) auklėtiniai kitaip konceptualizavo pamatinę savo kūrybinio kelio viziją. Vis dėlto, autoriaus nuomone, nepaisant komponavimo metodų skirtumo, savo esme Juzeliūno ir Balsio kūryba liko artimai giminingos. Juos siejo muzikos emocinio įtaigumo ir racionalumo darna, formos monumentalumas ir išbaigtumas, o tautiniam savitumui išreikšti abu rėmėsi lietuvių liaudies muzika. Nors pri- pažino skirtingas modernios tautinės muzikos sampratas bei realizacijos būdus, Juzeliūnas ir Balsys kūryboje žengė viena kryptimi, skirtingomis to paties kelio atšakomis. Ankstyvąjį J. Juzeliūno kompozicijos kelio etapą žurnalo puslapiuose prisimena Audronė Žiūraitytė straipsnyje „Baletas „Ant marių kranto“ kultūriniame ideologiniame ir Juliaus Juzeliūno kūrybos kontekste“. Jame atskleidžiamas kompozitoriaus simfonisto, dramaturgo talentas, atsivėręs „nacionalinio savo forma ir tarybinio savo turiniu“ romantinio realizmo veikale. Muzikos dainingumo, liaudiškumo, nuoširdaus lyrizmo akistatoje iškilo ir kompozitoriaus simfonisto bei dramaturgo talentas. Straipsnyje primenamas emocinis, melodinis „romantinio“ kompozitoriaus periodo turtingumas, kuris sudaro ryškų kontrastą vėlesniam „modernistiniam“ – racionaliai konstruktyviam laikotarpiui. Ankstyvojo J. Juzeliūno kūrinio priminimas kompozitoriaus 100-mečio akistatoje pabrėžia plačią kompozitoriaus kūrybinio kelio evoliucijos amplitudę. Kita vertus, dera taip pat priminti, kad Juzeliūno baletas, kaip sovietinio meno etalonas, parodytas 1954 m. Maskvoje vykusioje Lietuvos TSR literatūros ir meno dekadoje, tuomet autoriui pelnė Lenino ordiną. Baletas

5 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 vėliau peržengė Lietuvos ribas, buvo pastatytas Rygos, Lvovo, Talino teatruose. Nors savo jaunystės opuso Juzeliūnas niekada neišsižadėjo, apdovanojimą nutylėdavo. Akivaizdu, kad reikšmingas baleto istorijos etapas tapo Lietuvos muzikinės kultūros praeitimi, o bandymas „prikelti“ naujam gyvenimui scenoje 1975 m. nepateisino lūkesčių. Žurnalo puslapiuose autoriai primena ne vien Juliaus Juzeliūno kūrybos reikšmę, bet atkreipia dėmesį ir į jo pedagoginio darbo vaisius. Profesorius buvo gausiausios lietuvių kompozitorių mokyklos „tėvas“ – mokytojas. Lietuvos pedagoginių kompozitorių mokyklų genealogijos tematika rūpi Gražinai Daunoravičienei. Jos studijoje „Lietuvos kompozitorių klasės ir mokyklos: genealogijos diskursas“ išdėstomi svarbiausi kompozitorių mokyklų radimosi faktai, istorijos, gilinamasi į pagrindinių mokytojų (J. Gruodžio, J. Juzeliūno, E. Balsio ir O. Balakausko) kūrybos filosofiją, komponavimo praktiką bei taikomus pedagogikos metodus. Specialus tyrimas skiriamas lietuviškų kompozicijos klasių ir mokyklų santykiui su J. Gruodžio suformuluota nacionalinio modernizmo idėja. Studijoje pagrindžiamas dviejų netapačių sąvokų – „kompozicijos klasė“ bei „kompozitorių mokykla“ skirtumas. Vis dėlto pagrindinį dėmesį autorė skiria Lietuvos pedagoginių kompozi- torių klasių / mokyklų mokytojų kūrybos pozicijų ir pedagogikos metodikų analizei. Apibendrinamas kompozitorių, kaip mokytojų, santykis su tautinio modernizmo idėja bei konkretus jo sprendimo būdas individualioje kūryboje. Išskiriami susikertantys mokytojų požiūriai į komponavimo principą bei darbo su studentais modelius. Genealogijos požiūriu, Lietu- vos muzikos kultūros istorijoje tyrimo autorė išskiria dvi „kamienines“ J. Gruodžio ir O. Balakausko įsteigtas pedagogines kompozitorių mokyklas ir jas pristato savo išbraižytuose „genealogijos medžiuose“. Maskvos P. Čaikovskio konservatorijoje vieno gerbtiniausių kompozicijos profesorių pedagogikos analizei skiriamas Margaritos Katunian straipsnis „Nikolajaus Sidelnikovo kompozicinė mokykla“. Iškilus kompozitorius mokytojas savo klasėje išugdė ryškius Maskvos kompozitorių mokyklos atstovus (Edvardą Artiomovą, Viačeslavą Artiomovą, Dmitrijų Smirnovą, Vladimirą Martynovą, Vladimirą Tarnopolskį, Božidarą Spasovą, Jamilią Jazylbekovą, Tatjaną Michejevą, Ivaną Sokolovą, kitus), atstovaujančius įvairioms stilistinėms kryptims ir išsaugojusiems ryškų individualumą. Visi jie tapo šiuolaikinės muzikos kalbos meistrais įvairiausiose muzikos srityse – elektroninės muzikos, elektroninio avangardo, artroko ir elektroninės pasaulio etninės muzikos (angl. world music). Kiti plėtoja skirtingas avangardinės muzikos kryptis – minimalizmą, konceptualųjį meną, multimedijų kūrybą. Treti kuria eksperimentinę etnotechno, dar kiti – post avangardizmo, konceptualizmo ir ambientinės, neoromantinės muzikos estetiką. Atsakydama į klausimą, kas jungia šias itin skirtingas asmenybes, autorė neabejoja – tai unikali N. Sidelnikovo pedagoginė metodika, kurios specifiką padeda išryškinti buvusių studentų prisiminimai. Mokytojo ir mokinio santykį sąvokos „kompozitorių mokykla“ konceptualizavimo procese žurnale toliau gvildena Baibos Jaunslavietės straipsnis „Maios Einfeldes kompozicinė mokykla: pedagoginiai ir stiliaus aspektai“. Latvių kompo- zitorės, kompozicijos profesorės kūrybos bei pedagogikos principai glaudžiai koreliuoja. Einfelde perduoda mokiniams savo muzikoje patikrintus komponavimo principus: tai koncentruota išraiška įveiksmintas tematinio branduolio plėtojimu grįsto muzikinio kūrinio vientisumas. Medžiagos branduolio virsmai jos kūryboje atsiskleidžia laisva, monologą prime- nančia forma, kurios tėkmės neaižo griežtas struktūrinis dalijimas. Kadangi Einfeldei kūryboje visuomet rūpėjo organiška opuso visuma, jos klasėje pabrėžiamas dėmesys kūrinio tematinio branduolio („pipiro“; bazinės struktūros, Grundgestalt, Modell) sukūrimo ir tolesnio plėtojimo technikai. Nemenką dėmesį savo pamokose Einfelde skyrė ir originalios harmonijos kūrimo klausimui. Panašiai kaip Boulanger arba Juzeliūnas, į kiekvieną jauną kompozitorių ji žvelgia kaip į nepakartojamą asmenybę ir ją ugdo taikydama individualius metodus. Išskirtinei figūrai, įkūrusiai Latvijos muzikos akademiją ir čia išugdžiusiai keletą kompozitorių kartų, Jāzepui Vītoliui (1863–1948) savo tyrimą skiria Jānis Kudiņis. Šis universalus kūrėjas latvių muzikos kultūrą pakėlė į aukštesnį meis- triškumo ir meniškumo lygmenį. Kai kurie J. Vītolio kūriniai, ypač susiję su dainų šventės tradicija, tapo nacionaliniais latvių kultūros simboliais. XIX a. II pusėje–XX a. pradžioje jo kūryba atstovavo akademinės muzikos srovei, derinančiai klasikines tradicijas ir romantinį stilių, arba Naujajai rusų mokyklai, kuriai 1844–1908 m. vadovavo Nikolajus Rimskis- Korsakovas. Kaip kompozicijos profesorius, J. Vītolis išugdė daug estų, latvių, lenkų, vokiečių ir kitų tautų kompozitorių bei muzikos teoretikų. Straipsnis siekia atskleisti, kokią įtaką ilgainiui turėjo J. Vītolis latvių kompozitorių kūrybai. Kartu autorius kelia klausimą, kaip paaiškinti paradoksą, kad daugelis kompozitorių, pas J. Vītolį įgiję klasikinės kompozicijos pagrindus, XX a. pasuko radikalaus arba saikingo modernizmo keliu? Jāzepo Vītolio kūrybos ir mokymo reikšmę sakralinės muzikos pagrindu žurnale gilina Jūlijos Jonānes tyrimas „Sakralinės muzikos įsitvirtinimas Jāzepo Vītolio muzikinės kūrybos kontekste“. Autorė apžvelgia daugelį J. Vītolio – kompozitoriaus, visuomenės veikėjo, talentingo pedagogo, kultūrininko – veiklos sričių. Žvalgos centre atsiduria ir gausi, įvairius religinės muzikos žanrus aprėpianti kūryba, kuri nebuvo išsamiai tyrinėta. Juolab svarbu pasakyti, kad Vītolio kūrybingumas išsiskleidė jo religinėje muzikoje, kuri užgožė kitas veiklas. Per visą gyvenimą sukurtą Vītolio religinę muziką autorė lygina su ilgu crescendo, kurio kulminacija pasižymi bažnytinės muzikos gausa ir žanrų įvairove. Šią kūrybą stiprino Latvijos universiteto Teologijos fakultete 1926–1936 m. profesoriaus skaitytos religinės muzikos istorijos paskaitos. Vītolis

6 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 pirmasis bandė kaupti to meto latvių muzikologijoje gyvavusius terminus bei sąvokas religinei muzikai apibūdinti, tikslino ir sistemino jos žanrus, suformulavo požiūrį į sudėtingą religinės muzikos istoriją. Kompozitorių ugdymo Ukrainoje, Kijevo P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademijoje klausimus straipsnyje „Vakarų Europos kryptis Kijevo kompozicinės mokyklos raidoje (2010–2017)“ gvildena Irina Tukova. Ji atkreipia dėmesį į XXI a. 2-ajame dešimtmetyje Kijevo kompozitorių mokykloje išsišakojusias ugdymo kryptis. Pirmoji tęsia dar XX a. III ketvirtyje su- siklosčiusią tradiciją, įtvirtintą akademijos studijų programose. Antroji orientuota į naują garsinę terpę, kurią išpažįsta ir aktyviai plėtoja XX a. pabaigos – XXI a. pradžios Vakarų Europos ir Amerikos kompozitoriai. Straipsnyje aptariama XXI a. pradžioje Kijeve pasikeitusi muzikos atlikimo ir sklaidos situacija, iškeliami sėkmingiausi šiuolaikinės akademinės muzikos edukaciniai projektai, vykdomi už nacionalinės P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademijos sienų. Iliustruodama naują požiūrį į kūrybingą šiuolaikinės ir tradicinės kompozicinės technikos derinį, Tukova nagrinėja į Europos profesionaliosios muzikos terpę sėkmingai integruotą Maksimo Šalygino (Ukraina, Olandija) kūrybą. Etnomuzikologinei tematikai žurnale atstovauja Aušros Žičkienės straipsnis „Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija“. Autorė įvairiais požiūriais tiria Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. Christiano Ottero atminimų albume. Albumas baigiantis Antrajam pasauliniam karui iš Karaliaučiaus pateko į Lietuvą ir saugomas LMA Vrublevskių bibliotekoje. Lietuviškai 1634 m. užrašytas B. Gedkanto įrašas papildytas melodija, kurią linkstama pripažinti pirmuoju rašytiniu lietuvių liaudies dainos fragmentu. Vis dėlto iki šiol tokia versija nėra patikimai patvirtinta. Žičkienės straipsnis analizuoja susijusius istorinius šaltinius bei kitą literatūrą ir dar kartą kelia klausimą, ar iš tiesų tai lietuvių liaudies dainos fragmentas. Kadangi apie Gedkanto įrašą stokojama naujų istorinių dokumentų, svarstomų klausimų rato plėtimas yra galimybė rasti teisingą atsakymą. Prieduose skelbiamas Giedriaus Alkausko straipsnis-recenzija „Muzikos ir matematikos tarpusavio sąveika: mokslinis traktavimas (matematikų darbai) ir meninis traktavimas (Rimos Povilionienės „Musica mathematica“)“ radosi iš autoriaus inspiracijos matematiko žvilgsniu apžvelgti anglų kalba išleistą Rimos Povilionienės monografiją. Kaip pažymi recenzijos autorius, rašydamas straipsnį jis siekęs dviejų tikslų. Pirma, norėjęs muzikams, neturintiems universitetinio matematinio pasiruošimo, aprašyti keletą muzikos pjūvių, kur esmingai pasireiškia matematika. Antrasis tikslas yra apibūdinti knygos „Musica mathematica“ vaidmenį susijusios literatūros kontekste: ji turėtų būti naudingiausia muzikams, kurie suvokia esminius muzikos ir matematikos panašumus, bet įsisąmonina ir fundamentalius jų skirtumus.

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7 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Foreword

The latest volume ofLithuanian Musicology is concerned with the question of composition school. It offers a forum for discussion of different aspects of the notion composition school, so widely spread with music professionals, as well as of the actual meanings that researchers, musicians and the general public attach to the notion. It is obvious that composition school has not yet been established as a scientific term entailing the explanation of its etymology and meanings in major dictionaries and encyclopedias. Many of the authors herein recognise that the notion is full of meaningful content, but admittedly, have different ideas about all the phenomena attributed to composition school. The validation of the notion content and its use are not the only issues addressed in the papers published in this volume. A particular attention is paid on practical matters to reveal how the phenomenon functions in specific musical cultures. The 19th volume of the journal brings together Latvian, Russian, Armenian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Macedonian, German, Polish and Lithuanian scholars to reflect on the overall situation of the discourse and outline the whole spectrum of relevant meanings of the composition school concept. The pluralistic existence of the notion and different aspects of composition school highlighted by the musicologists herein somewhat test and actualise the viability of the hierarchic trinary concept of the composition school proposed by the Lithuanian musicologist, Professor Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas in his habilitation dissertation entitled The Development of the Composition School of Juozas Gruodis and Other Lithuanian Composers (1991). It is clear that by the issues they target, studies published in this volume of Lithuanian Musicology naturally form three groups associated with one of the three key meanings of the notion composition school, that of the national composition school (culture), of the aesthetic and stylistic trend („free school“) and of an (educational) institution for composer training. It is this particular field of meanings of the concept was outlined in the research by Professor Ambrazas. As a matter of course, different aspects of composition school were at the core of the research presented at the 45th Baltic Musicology Conference dedicated to the centenary of composer Julius Juzeliūnas. The 19th volume of the journal presents a number of studies concerned with these issues and enriched with individual reflections. While looking into the development of the Serbian composition school in the 20th century, Melita Milin admits that research into composition schools in both core and peripheric European music could bring results that would shed more light on the dynamic of music history. In her article entitled Stronger Together: Composition Schools as a Means of Affirming Aesthetic Goals, the author rethinks and delineates similar and often overlapping meaning of notions such as „composition school“, „composition class“ and „group of composers“. Milin illustrates the deactualisation process of the schools by analysing changing trends and cases of group activities. Revolts of younger generations, which normally signal turning points, have occurred in many countries and are found in many cultures. Cases when students dethrone their teachers proclaiming them as too academic, stagnant and conservative are also known in Lithuania. To illustrate such shifts, Milin analyses the case of Stanojl Rajičić and the activities ofThe Magnificent Seven, a postmodernism-oriented group of young composers, who were active in the mid-1980‘s and focused on Vladan Radovanović‘s electronic music. Levon Hakobian gives an overview of the Armenian music of the 1970‘s and early 1980‘s without strictly defining it as a composition school. In his article, Cosmopolitan Nationalism under Moderate Totalitarianism: The Situation of Armenian Art Music in the 1970s and Early 1980s, he outlines significant developments in Armenian art music. It was a period when having consciously distanced themselves from the obsolete nationalist paradigm represented by Khachatu- rian and his immediate followers, new forces emerged in the Armenian music scene. Avet Terterian, Tigran Mansurian and others managed to combine a strong feeling of national identity and attachment to the native tradition (especially to its more archaic strata) with a full awareness of modern developments and sometimes with a really original, wholly individual approach to avant-garde techniques. In her article entitled The Macedonian National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation and Development, Viktorija Kolarovska-Gmirja tackles the specifics of the development of another Post-Soviet country’s music culture. The case of Macedonian music and its analysis corroborates the idea that the formation of a national composition school entails unifying actions, objectives and stages. The author singles out several groups of objectives–criteria of the national composition school: mastering of the professional level by adopting the European model of composing activity; achiev- ing the unity of style in the presence of coexisting different stylistic tendencies and positioning composers from different generations as promoters of the national idea; and the educational component related to composer training. The researcher also admits that one of the most essential tasks in the formation of the national composition school was the creation of genre system, including, first and foremost, opera and symphony. On the other hand, she attaches as much importance

8 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 to the mastering of the principles of musical logic, music development and dramaturgy and the techniques of composing. According to Gmirja, the accomplishment of composers’ individual choice and the national identity as one of possible creative aspirations in a certain way mark the maturity of the national school. Patrick Becker treats the Darmstadt Summer Course as the manifestation of composers’ urge to identify themselves with progressive tendencies in music and contribute to their development in the realisation of the Modern Project. The historical significance of this group of like-minded composers is analysed in Patrick Becker’s study,Darmstadt as a School: the International Summer Course for New Music from a Historic and Current Perspective. From the German researcher‘s point of view, the Romantic image of teacher and student‘s cooperation in the context of such schools is a thing of the past. The reasons for composers‘ reluctance to identify with a „school“ in the second half of the 20th century include the prevailing mood of ultimate individualism and the disappearance of common styles, whether associated with a national culture or with a specific school. It is no surprise that Becker raises questions what the mission of such institutions as Darmstadt Summer Course has been since 1960‘s in the education of young composers and what values have been instilled in them. Due to Hermann Danuser‘s research, the prestige of the Darmstadt avant-garde forepost diminished in the late 20th century and similar courses spread all over the world in countless numbers, so the author questions the real value of Darmstadt courses. Lost between fascination/ myths and facts/ reality, the course has become an arena for the display of weirdest inventions and simply a platform for a freer, informal communication of diverse artists. Thus rephrasing a quotation from the Baroque period on the sonata, Becker tosses a question at the end of his article: Darmstadt, que me veux-tu? In her article, The Roots of Composers Milieu in Postwar Gdańsk, Joanna Schiller-Rydzeska looks into the creative work of Gdansk composers who were active in the turbulant post-war milieu. It was marked by violent changes in the face of dictatorial actions of totalitarian systems. At the turn of 1945–46, up to 96% of Gdansk’s resident population changed with the arrival of newcomers from different areas of pre-war Poland, taken over by the Soviet Union, including Vilnius, Lviv, Grodno and others. The drastic changes made Gdansk composers rebuild their artistic identity from the scratch or shape a new one. The music scene of post-war Gdansk was mainly formed by Władysław Walentynowicz, Henryk Jabłoński and Konrad Pałubicki. Their activities within both composition and pedagogy, made their mark on the shape of the composers’ milieu associated with the Gdańsk region for many subsequent years. In this historical context, the author raises questions about the origins and cultural diversity of Gdansk composers in the post-war period. She wonders whether the composers acted more as a creative group or as individual artists, who had found themselves in a newly inhabited city. A study on emigration of Lithuanian composers to the United States complements the topic of the development of creative activities and composition schools in the context of the 20th-century political upheavals and effects of the two world wars. Danutė Petrauskaitė’s article is dedicated to the search of the Lithuanian composition school in diaspora in the USA. The formation of a composition school is obviously a phenomenon witnessing a certain level of cultural maturity. The article explains why the musical composition activities of 20th-century Lithuanian diaspora composers didn’t evolve into this phenomenon: it discusses conditions for expatriates’ creative activities, appraisal of their work and other factors which precluded the development of a composition school. Petrauskaitė points out that in the first part of the 20th century, songs prevailed among diaspora composers; even though there were some attempts to compose Lithuanian symphonic music, the works were not up to the level of professional music. On the other hand, with the prevalence of choral music and little need for instrumental music, Lithuanian musicians in the United States chose to study piano, singing or music pedagogy rather than composition. After emigrating to the USA, professional pre-war Lithuanian composers, graduates of Czech, German, French, Polish, Latvian and Lithuanian conservatories, could have no significant impact on the situation. In diaspora, they didn’t have many opportunities to continue European or Lithuanian composing traditions. Jeronimas Kačinskas alone taught composition at Berklee College of Music in Bos- ton; however, he didn’t found any composition school. Lithuanian composers in the USA lived in closed diasporas. In their creative work they didn’t aspire to originality and proficiency; their most important aim was to preserve national identity and help occupied Lithuania to gain freedom. The idea that attempts to build national identity can be recognised as an indicator of the maturity of music culture finds affirmation in Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas’ article entitledJulius Juzeliūnas and Eduardas Balsys: Two Branches of the Same Path. According to the author, the essence of the two composers‘ creative work lies in the different ways in which they approached and realised the idea of national music. These prominent Lithuanian composers, contemporaries, both advocated for modern national music, but came from different classes of composition (Balsys represented the composition class of Antanas Račiūnas and Juzeliūnas that of Juozas Gruodis); therefore, they conceptualised the vision of their creative path in different ways. The author thinks that notwithstanding differences in composition techniques, Juzeliūnas‘ and Balsys‘ music works share the same intrinsic qualities: a combination of emotional power and rationality, monumentality and completeness of form as well as the use of Lithuanian folk music influences to express national uniqueness. Despite

9 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 differences in the view of and approach to modern national music, both Juzeliūnas and Balsys followed the same direction in their creative work albeit in different ways. Juzeliūnas‘ early composition activities are covered in The BalletAnt marių kranto in a Cultural- Ideological Context and in the Creative Work of Julius Juzeliūnas by Audronė Žiūraitytė. The article reveals the composer‘s symphonic and dramatic talent, which manifests itself in a work of Romantic realism, „national in its form and Soviet by its content“. The symphonic and dramatic talent of the composer unfolds in unison with the melodious, folk-like quality of music and sincere lyricism. The article refers to the emotional and melodic richness of the composer‘s Romantic period, which stands in sharp contrast with the later Modernist period of rational constructivism. Recalling one of Julius Juzeliūnas‘ early works in the context of his 100th anniversary highlights the immense breadth of the composer‘s creative path. On the other hand, it is worth noting that Juzeliūnas‘ ballet, as the epitome of Soviet art, was presented at the Soviet Lithu- anian Literature and Art Decade event in Moscow in 1954 and brought the author the Order of Lenin. Subsequently, the ballet crossed the borders of Soviet republics and was staged in opera houses in Riga, Lviv and Tallinn. Even though he never disavowed his opus of early years, Juzeliūnas never mentioned the award. The significant stage in the history of the ballet has become a thing of the past and the attempt to bring the work to life on stage again in 1975 was not a success. Not only do authors in this volume remind us of the importance of Julius Juzeliūnas‘ creative work, but they also spot- light his merits in teaching. The professor fathers one of major Lithuanian composition schools. Geneological aspects of classes and schools of Lithuanian composers are tackled in Gražina Daunoravičienė‘s study entitled Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse. The article provides the most important facts and stories related to the formation of Lithuanian composition classes/schools and analyses the creative approach of the main composing teachers (Gruodis, Juzeliūnas, Balsys and Balakauskas) as well as their composing techniques and teaching methods. The paper presents a research carried out to assess the interconnection between Lithuanian composition classes/schools and the idea of national modernism proposed by Juozas Gruodis. The study also substantiates different meanings of the notions „composition class“ and „composition school“. Yet the main focus is put on the analysis of creative approaches and teaching methods associated with specific Lithuanian composition classes/schools. The relationship of composers/composition teachers with the idea of national modernism is assessed and its manifestation in the creative work of individual composers is overviewed. Contrasting attitudes of teachers toward composing principles and teaching models are outlined. From a geneological perspective, the author differentiates between two core schools for composition teaching in the history of Lithuanian music culture – the school of Juozas Gruodis and the school of Osvaldas Balakauskas; she presents her own visualisation of the genealogical trees of these schools. Teaching methods of one of the most distinguished professors at the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory are analysed in Margarita Katunyan’s article, Nikolay Sidelnikov’s School of Composition. Among the pupils of the eminent composer/teacher were a number of the most noteworthy Moscow composers (Eduard Artem‘yev, Vyacheslav Artëmov, Dmitriy Smirnov, Vladimir Martynov, Vladimir Tarnopolsky, Bozhidar Spasov, Jamilya Zhazylbekova, Tatyana Mikheyeva, Ivan Sokolova and others), who not only represent diverse stylistic trends, but have also preserved their own bright individuality. Masters of contemporary music language, they are active in a wide range of music fields including electronic music, electronic avant-garde, art rock and electronic world music. Some of them focus on different trends of avant-garde music such as minimalism, conceptual art and multimedia; others adhere to post-avant-garde, conceptualism, ambient and neoromantic aesthetics. The author concludes that it is Sidelnikov’s unique method of teaching that unites all these extremely different musical personalities and provides an overview of the characteristic features of the methodology based on the reminiscences of the professor’s students. The teacher–student relationship is further analysed as part of the conceptualisation process of the notion “composition school” in Baiba Jaunslaviete’s article, The Composition School of Maija Einfelde: Some Pedagogical and Stylistic Aspects. There is a strong correlation between the creative and teaching principles of the Latvian composer and composition professor, Maija Einfelde. She passes on to her students composition principles tested in her own music: a concentrated expression and unity of a musical work based on the development of a single thematic core. Transformations of the thematic core in her works take a monologue-like free expression, the flow of which is not interrupted by a strong structural division. Since Einfelde has always attached great importance to the organic unity of a musical work, in her composition class a focus is laid on the techniques of building and developing a thematic core (a „pepper grain“, or basic structure, Grundgestalt, Modell). As a teacher, Einfelde also pays close attention to the originality of harmony. Like Boulanger or Juzeliūnas, Maija Einfelde regards each student as a unique individual and applies personalised teaching methods in each case. An article by Jānis Kudiņš features the extraordinary personality, the founder of the Latvian Academy of Music and the intellectual father of several generations of composers, Jāzeps Vītols (1863–1948). This truly universal Latvian musician raised Latvian music culture to a higher professional and artistic level. Some of his musical works, especially those linked

10 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 with the national Song Festival tradition, have become Latvian national symbols. In the second half of the 19th century and in the early 20th century Vītols represented a trend in academic music, which combined classical traditions and a romantic style, or the so-called New Russian School under the leadership of Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov in 1844–1908. Vītols was a composition teacher for many Estonian, Lithuanian, Polish, German and foreign composers and music theorists. The article aims to reveal what long-term influence Vītols had on the creative work of Latvian composers. The author also aims at explaining why, rather paradoxically, many composers, who had acquired classical composing techniques with Jāzeps Vītols, became radical or moderate modernists in their creative activity later in the 20th century. The significance of Jāzeps Vītols‘ creative and pedagogical work in the framework of sacred music is unveiled in Jūlija Jonāne‘s paper, The Foundation of Sacred Music within the Framework of Jāzeps Vītols’ Musical Creativity. The author provides an overview of a wide range of Vītols‘ activities as a composer, talented teacher and an authority in social and cultural life. The article also sheds light on his extensive oeuvre in a variety of church music genres, which has never been investigated in detail, and reveals that Vītols‘ creativity in sacred music flourished and gradually overshadowed virtually all other fields. According to the author, Vītols‘ activity in the field of sacred music over his entire life can be compared to a long crescendo whose peak is marked by the extensity and diversity of church music oeuvres. The creative work in this field was reinforced by Church Music History lectures at the Faculty of Theology, University of Latvia, periodically given by the professor between 1926 and 1936. Vītols was the first music professional to attempt to differentiate between various terms and notions for sacred music as well as clarify and systemise church music genres; he also formed his own view on the winding history of church music. Issues related to composition teaching at the Ukrainian National Tchaikovsky Academy of Music, Kyiv, are addressed in the article The Development of Western European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017) by Iryna Tukova. The author outlines directions in which Kyiv composition school developed in the 2010‘s. The first one stems from the tradition, which was formed in the third quarter of the 20th century and has been established in the Academy‘s study programmes ever since. The second one is oriented toward the new sound medium, fostered and actively developed in the Western European and American composing practice of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The article discusses developments with regard to the performance and dissemination of music in Kyiv at the beginning of the 21st century as well as highlights the most successful educational projects on contemporary art music, which take place mainly outside the walls of the Ukrainian National Academy of Tchaikovsky Music. To illustrate a new creative approach to uniting contemporary and traditional composing techniques, Tukova analyses Maxim Shalygin‘s (Ukraine, Holland) creative work, which has been successfully integrated in modern European academic music practice. Ethnomusicological topics are discussed in Aušra Žičkienė‘s article entitled Once more about Friedrich Getkant’s Entry in the 17th c. Friendship Album: Study of Contexts. The author provides a multifaceted analysis of Friedrich Getkant’s entry in the 17th-century friendship album of Christian Otter. As the World War II was drawing to a close, the friendship album found its way to Lithuania from Königsberg and is now stored in the collections of the Wroblewskis Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. The entry made by Getkant in Lithuanian in 1634 is accompanies by a tune, which tends to be treated as the first recorded fragment of a Lithuanian folk song. Nevertheless, the hypothesis has not been sufficiently corroborated yet. In her article, Žickienė analyses related historical sources and other literature in the attempt to establish whether it is truly a fragment of a Lithuanian folk song as well as answer many other questions. As new records on Getkant’s entry are scanty, the answer is sought by expanding the range of questions in consideration. The Supplement of the 19th volume features Giedrius Alkauskas’ article-review entitled “Music–Mathematics” Intercon- nections: An Approach through Science (Works by Mathematicians), and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by Rima Povilionienė), which was inspired by the author’s wish to review from a mathematician’s point of view a study by Rima Povilionienė published in English. According to Alkauskas, he had two objectives in mind when writing the paper. Firstly, aiming at musicologists with no university-level mathematical training, he intends to describe several cross-sections of music where mathematics does intrinsically manifest. Secondly, he aims to explain the role of Musica Mathematica in the context of the entire related literature: the monograph should be useful for those who seek interconnections between music and mathematics, but are equally aware of their fundamental differences. Editorial Board

11 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Melita MILIN Stronger Together: Composition Schools as a Means of Affirming Aesthetic Goals Drauge stipresni: kompozicinė mokykla kaip priemonė įtvirtinti estetinius tikslus

Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Knez Mihailova 36/IV, Belgrade, Serbia Email [email protected]

Abstract Notions such as “composition school”, “composition class” and “group of composers” whose meanings are similar and often overlapping need to be rethought and delineated in order to understand and contextualise them better. An attempt has been made in this article to see how they exist and coexist in Serbian music since the beginning of the 20th century. Keywords: composition school, composition class, art movements, 20th-century Serbian music.

Anotacija Sąvokų „kompozicinė mokykla“, „kompozicijos klasė“ ir „kompozitorių grupė“ reikšmės panašios ir neretai persidengia, todėl siekiant geriau suprasti ir kontekstualizuoti reikėtų jas permąstyti ir iš naujo apibrėžti. Šiame straipsnyje siekiama apžvelgti, kaip šios prasmės atsiskleidžia ir sąveikauja nuo XX a. pradžios parašytoje serbų muzikoje. Reikšminiai žodžiai: kompozicinė mokykla, kompozicijos klasė, meno kryptys, Serbijos XX a. muzika.

Introduction Composition schools, classes, groups, movements

Being essentially individualists, composers, like all art- In the history of Serbian art music, all the main types ists, rarely form groups sharing the same or similar aesthetic of composition schools can be observed. credos. If they decide to do so, it is mainly because they 1. The national school of Serbian music, which achieved believe that their individuality will not suffer and their work its first high point with the oeuvre of Stevan Mokranjac will have more chance to be appreciated if they become part (1856–1914); while taking over his aesthetic ideal mod- of a small collective promoting certain specific stylistic or elled on that of the other national schools, his pupils technical features. The term “Composition School” is prob- were very much engaged in modernising their expression lematic in that it is often unclear whether it applies just to under the influence of Janáček’s and Bartók works; it is cases involving the pedagogical activity of an outstanding important to note that some composers who were not composer and a restricted number of his disciples (such as Mokranjac’s pupils are also considered as belonging to in the Second Viennese School). Or a grouping of com- the same national orientation; posers of similar aesthetic standpoints, usually with one 2. The so-called “Prague school”, the members of which or two leading personalities, but without a teacher-pupil were Serbian composers born in the first decade of relationship (Les Six), or where “composition school” the 20th century whose orientation was cosmopolitan, might overlap partly with the term “movement” (Darmstadt meaning that they were opposed to the older genera- School).The formation of groups is often provoked by a will tions who worked along the well-established national to fight against some earlier or contemporary dominant course. They turned in a quite opposite direction when, individual or group. This matter will be discussed further, during their studies in Prague, they became students and later in this article. followers of Alois Hába and some other contemporary My aim is to shed more light on the importance of com- Czech, Austrian and German composers; they shared position school in the art music of the last 150 years or so and similar avant-garde ideas, but never regarded themselves to do that by observing the phenomenon in Serbian music as a homogeneous group; they were in fact an alliance that is undeservedly almost unknown outside my country. of colleagues denominated as a group only afterwards, However, I will try to compensate for that state of affairs when the period of their synchronized activities was by focussing on the “little stories” that may prove to have already over; something important in common with the “stories” that took 3. After World War 2, Stanojlo Rajičić, an ex-member of place in well established music centres with longer traditions. the Prague school, became one of the leading authorities

12 Stronger Together: Composition Schools as a Means of Affirming Aesthetic Goals

as a professor at the Music Academy in Belgrade and his most important Serbian composers of the next decades, class produced several of the most distinguished Serbian especially in the inter-war period, also some others of more composers of the second half of the 20th century; they modest talents: Petar Krstić (who learned music privately were often colloquially called “Rajičić’s school”and were from Mokranjac), Miloje Milojević (studied 1904-07), Ste- assigned as adherents of that school “from outside“; van Hristić (1903-04), Kosta Manojlović (cca 1907-09) and 4. The members of “The New Generation” (later: “Opus Milorad Crvčanin (in the School of Theology, from circa 4”) were young people who studied composition in 1910-14). All of them later continued their studies abroad, Belgrade during the 1970s and rebelled against Rajičić, as Mokranjac’s School did not have a conservatoire level, but who still taught composition at that time (he was they all felt very much indebted to him as their first teacher. already regarded as conservative and academic by the Kosta Manojlović distinguished himself in the inter-war pe- 1960s); several of those students and graduate compos- riod as the most enthusiastic contributor to the canonisation ers founded a group, with the wish to better promote of Stevan Mokranjac as the founder of the Serbian National their ideas. At the same time, they attended courses in Music School – he wrote books about him and was engaged electronic music and conceptual art given by Vladan in performing and publishing his works. Taking into con- Radovanović, an outstanding avant-garde composer sideration his numerous activities as a composer of mostly who never taught at the Music Academy but was an choral music, sacred and folk-based, also as a melographer undoubted authority in those domains: thus, those and ethnomusicologist, and the editor of publications of courses could be considered to have been an informal Mokranjac’s works, then his pedagogical work and care composition school; for establishing important musical institutions, he seems 5. In the mid-1980s, several young composers founded a to have really dedicated his life to continuing Mokranjac’s group called “The Magnificent Seven”, oriented towards work in all the domains that he had been involved in. The post-modernism; they managed to attract a great deal other students of Mokranjac felt it their duty to contribute of attention in the media and musical public, but their to the national musical culture by turning to instrumental activities didn’t last long, mainly due to the outbreak of music and composing symphonies, operas, chamber music. the war in 1991. Some of them – primarily Milojević and Hristić, together with Manojlović but also Petar Konjović, who belonged to The activities of all these “schools” stretched throughout the same generation, but had never been Mokranjac’s pupil – the 20th century, marking the main lines of the development were ambivalent towards the legacy of their teacher. On the of Serbian music, and revealing the aesthetical and ideologi- one hand, they admired his vocal suites based on folk tunes, cal bases on which they were founded – a concrete reaction especially because of their masterful formal qualities and to a certain trend dominant at the time. refined harmony bearing some modal features. However, on the other hand, they criticised them because, firstly, they seemed to them dangerously close to simple arrangements / 1. The national school of Serbian music harmonisations of folk tunes, and secondly, because of their limitation to a vocal / choral genre. They tried to come to Stevan Mokranjac is considered the “father of Serbian terms with the notion of originality in connection with music”, meaning that both his national ideology and his Mokranjac’s works, being aware of the fact that, although achievements can be regarded as worthy of standing at masterfully composed, there were aesthetic difficulties for the forefront of Serbian art music. Of course, everybody Rukoveti to be regarded as belonging to high art music. is aware that art music in Serbia existed several decades Milojević’s writings on Mokranjac particularly provide before, since around the 1850s, but those were more or many examples of contradictions he could not solve. Thus, less composers whose contributions mainly prepared the in some essays he would express his view that Mokranjac ground for Mokranjac. His most significant works were was a “Serbian Palestrina” (Milojević 1936: 505), and in the 15 choral suites (Rukoveti) based on folk melodies and others, he claimed that Mokranjac “mainly just harmonised church music (Liturgy, Requiem). Due to unfavourable folk tunes”, and that he “didn’t care to develop and elaborate political and social circumstances, although he was well those melodies” (Milojević 1926: 99). educated at important European conservatoires (Munich, As has been already said, Mokranjac’s pupils were Rome, Leipzig), he composed almost exclusively for choir dedicated to continuing the national orientation in their a cappella, as orchestras and opera were still quite rare and music by using more complex and modern techniques. modest in the quality of their performance. Mokranjac was They were mostly inspired by Czech (Vítězslav Novák, among the founders of the Serbian Music School in Bel- Leoš Janáček) and Russian composers (Pyotr Tchaikovsky, grade, where he taught composition, among other subjects. Modest Mussorgsky), with Béla Bartók and Igor Stravin- His pupils included some of those who would become the sky being too advanced for them to be taken as models.

13 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Melita MILIN

They wished to put Serbian music on the musical map of he could offer his pupils was a discovery that valuable art Europe by learning lessons from some earlier generations music based on Serbian folklore was possible. At the same of composers in different countries. Milojević wrote about time, his achievements conveyed to them an awareness that this in the clearest way: modernisation was an urgent task for their generation of composers. However, the passage from musical national- Aesthetic principles are general and the ways they can be ism to musical neo-nationalism (introduced by Taruskin applied to become nationally recognisable have been shown as “fashioning ‘authentic’ modernity out of folk tradition”; to us by the Russians, Norwegians, Finns and Czechs, let me mention Rimsky-Korsakov, Grieg, Sibelius and Smetana. We Taruskin 2010: 161), that is from the romantic nationalism have only to follow their path. (Milojević 1913: 395) of Mokranjac to a modernist nationalism similar to that of Stravinsky, Janáček or Bartók, did not happen – prob- Indeed, all of them followed the paths towards national ably because more time (and also more composers!) were music guided by the examples of foreign composers who had needed for such a decisive leap (“more composers” refers successfully built their national schools. By doing so, they to a critical mass of composers needed for a dynamic and raised the aesthetic and technical level of Serbian music, fruitful musical life in a specific urban or wider environ- with Mokranjac standing as a vital instigator of their earli- ment. This is not the occasion to elaborate on that but, in est creative efforts. my opinion, it is really of vital importance that the number It could be debated whether Mokranjac and his pupils of active composers is relatively high, which supposes good formed a national school. As has already been said, Mokran- opportunities for their work, of course). Konjović, Hristić, jac was the highest authority of his time (from the end of Milojević, Krstić and some others were gifted musicians, but the 19th century until WW1), and the greatest Serbian their methods of musical thinking were still late romantic, composer up until then. His teaching was at an elementary although they appreciated the modernity of composers such level because there were no conservatoires at the time in as Stravinsky or Prokofiev. Konjović was, maybe, the closest Serbia, so his pupils had to continue their studies abroad. to modernist thinking of them all, more precisely to that of Therefore, those composers cannot be called members of the Janáčekian type. “Mokranjac’s composition school”, but maybe “Mokranjac’s followers” in a wider sense, since they accepted the national ideology of their first teacher, including some of his techni- 2. The so-called “Prague school” cal procedures, and developed them much further. Those composers were in their late twenties when he died, after I now turn to the second type of composers’ schools or which came the war and the new post-war tendencies in groupings that could be observed in Serbian music between music. The pupils had different musical personalities of the two world wars. The group of young Serbian composers course, but shared a belief in the importance of creating a studying in Prague at the end of the 1920s and through the Serbian national school. It is doubtful whether the criteria next decade, in the Conservatoire classes of Josef Suk, Alois for a “national school” were reached. In Serbian musico- Hába and other prominent composers and teachers was logical literature, such a term is not in use. Indeed, if that rather loosely connected. However, it was so characteristic notion – a Serbian national music school – would involve all that they all studied in that Czech city with such a great Serbian composers of a certain period whose musical ideol- musical tradition, and in the same period, that they are ogy was national / nationalistic and who thematised stories almost always regarded as a group. The inner circle consisted and myths from local history and culture, then that would of the youngest ones, born around 1910 (Vojislav Vučković, suffice for them to be called thus. However, if a specific ap- Ljubica Marić, Dragutin Čolić, Milan Ristić), who were the proach to composition was required, clearly recognisable most radical in their attempts to create along the lines laid and different from the others in that sphere, then one would by Paul Hindemith and Arnold Schoenberg. Composing have to admit that the approaches of Serbian composers athematically and atonally, with the others, who were, for were mostly derivative, indebted to different sources flow- the most part, several years older and inclined towards ing from other countries, and that they did not succeed in compromises with regard to formal design and harmony producing innovative contributions that would respond (Stanojlo Rajičić, Mihovil Logar, Predrag Milošević). The to criteria of both national referentiality (allegiance) and radical ones were very much attracted to Alois Hába’s ideas, musical/aesthetic value. Part of the problem was probably which he expressed during his courses on microtonal music in the later (indeed a little belated) appearance of Serbian at the Prague Conservatoire, and they enjoyed his warm and composers on the international art music scene. Stevan enthusiastic nature and his constant willingness to help their Mokranjac reached his maturity around 1890, and his works professional development. Suk and Hába were on very good could be compared to similar works of Czech or Hungarian terms and the older and more conservative Suk didn’t mind composers created two or three decades earlier. So what his students turning to Haba’s class for additional learning.

14 Stronger Together: Composition Schools as a Means of Affirming Aesthetic Goals

Ljubica Marić, the young female student of composition in was one of the first to question the existence of Hába’s school Suk’s class, was quickly recognised by Hába as very talented, of composition. He was followed by Lubomír Spurný, who and he consequently helped her get a work of hers (Wind holds the opinion that: Quintet) performed at the ISCM festival in Amsterdam Hába’s school seems heterogeneous, internally as well as (1933). When she returned to Serbia/ then Yugoslavia after externally, which may be a reason for doubts about its true her studies, they stayed in contact as they wished her to existence. The term “Hába composition school”, therefore, secure an opportunity to teach microtonal music in Zagreb seems to be a result of historical and aesthetic interpretation. (an attempt in which they ultimately failed). In an article, The term “Hába composition class”, which testifies to the Hába published in the Serbian / Yugoslav music journal institutional foundation of the group, sounds much more Zvuk, in 1933 (Hába 1933: 81–85), he first expressed his neutral, and perhaps more appropriate. (Spurny 2010: 141) satisfaction that his ideas regarding microtonal music had had a very good reception. Not only among the youngest In Serbian musicological literature, Serbian students composers from Yugoslavia, but also among mid-career who studied composition in Hába’s class, but also in those of composers such as Josip Slavenski and Miloje Milojević, Josef Suk, Rudolf Karel, Karel Bohuslav Jirák and others, are and went on to stress the importance of the “joint efforts” named either the “Prague group”, the “Prague school” or the of Czech and Yugoslav (Serbian and Slovenian) younger “Prague generation”: there is no generally accepted naming generations on that issue. because they all have particular deficiencies. For instance, Be it said in passing, he also mentioned Jeronimos the problem with “Prague school” is that there was no one Kačinskas, a Lithuanian composer who graduated quarter- “Prague school”, as the Czech teachers of those young Serbs tone composition in his class in 1930 and then began to were very different as composers. However, that naming is teach both half-tone and quarter-tone composition in still in use because it designates all the modern ideas and Klaipeda. techniques brought by those young people from their years In the same article Hába, who was constantly trying to of study in Prague. In the several years that followed, prior to persuade audiences and readers about the importance of his the outbreak of WW2, the members of that group/school/ own strivings as a composer, made some interesting remarks generation had to confront a rather cold reception of their relevant to the theme of this paper, namely the composi- modernist works when they returned to Belgrade, which tion schools. After having remarked that there was lots of was still not ready for such novelties. Some of them almost criticism regarding his “quarter-tone music and free style stopped composing (Lj. Marić, D. Čolić), others took a step without thematic recapitulations and variations seeming back to tradition. Being politically left-wing, more precisely as if it didn’t solve a significant problem in the develop- a member of the (illegal) Communist Party, Vučković even ment of modern music, and as if it was not able to impress began to apply the prescriptions coming from the USSR either performers or audiences” (Ibid. 83). Hába made a of “democratic art” accessible to “ordinary people”. So he strategic move towards positioning his school in a wider simplified his musical technique introducing also elements historical context by drawing attention to the importance of folkore, thus renouncing his earlier avant-garde ideals. It of composition schools of the past and their leaders. He should be added that these young composers never really then mentioned the English polyphonic school of the 15th thought of themselves as making a group with common century that produced composers of the Netherland school, goals – that was the name they were given a posteriori by and went on to underline the teacher-pupil relationships musicologists. between Dunstable, Du Fay, Okeghem, Josquin des Pres, Willaert and so on. Hába’s view on 20th century music was that in the first quarter of the century: 3. “Rajičić’s school”

... the most decisive influences were generated by the compo- The third type of composition schools that could be sition schools of Novák (Prague), Schoenberg and Schreker found in Serbia (still within Yugoslavia at the time) has (Vienna, Berlin), Busoni (Berlin), Roussel (Paris) and Bartók been associated with the personality and output of Stanojlo (Budapest). [On the other hand] Karol Szymanowski (War- Rajičić. In the post-war decades, Rajičić, who had been a saw) and Igor Stravinsky didn’t have an opportunity to create member of the “Prague school” before the war, became an a “school”, although they gave much incitement to the young generation for further work. (Ibid. 83–84) outstanding professor of composition at the Belgrade Music Academy. In the meantime, he abandoned athematicism and The rest of the article is devoted to the promotion of his atonality and forged a style that could best be categorised own “school” as being radically different from all the earlier as “moderate modernism”. He worked hard to improve his ones and providing a basis for the further development of technical skills, being aware of his weaknesses in that do- musical art. Among the Czech musicologists Jiří Vysloužil main. His reputation as a professor whose pupils received

15 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Melita MILIN superior technical knowledge was such that even young men 4. An informal composition school from other republics of the country came to learn composition in his class (Petar Bergamo, for instance). However, The 1970s were a period full of turmoil in Serbian he soon began to be observed as too conservative, so that university music-life and on a broader level. Stanojlo students who were more modernist-oriented preferring to Rajičić was still teaching composition at that time and apply for the class of another composer, Milenko Živković, was an undisputed authority, although some of his stu- who was reputed to be more liberal. It should be stressed dents who also taught at the Music Academy/ Faculty of that Rajičić, although not being a member of the Party, was Music in Belgrade were becoming even more respected an influential figure in Belgrade/Serbian musical life, which and admired than him due to their more adventurous and was, in a large measure, a result of him being a member of imaginative musical achievements, comparable with those the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, elected when he in the leading European music centres. Rajičić was already was relatively young, only 40. He was always ready to help in fact regarded as too conservative and academic in the the careers of his best pupils and entertain good relations 1960s. When a group of students of composition, all from with them and among them, so that over the course of time the class of Vasilije Mokranjac, one of Rajičić’s favourite a group / circle of composers of different generations was ex-students, began to rebel against the conservativism of created1 that was linked with bonds of loyalty and friend- the study programme for composition at the Academy, ship and, as usually happens, they supported each other in insisting that it should include contemporary avant-garde building their careers. That was not necessarily something and experimental music, a scandal broke out that lasted for that was to be criticised, because those composers were some time. The students were critical and defiant in ways indeed among the most gifted composers active in Serbia never before seen in the country. They were spoken about at the time. However, there were also other talented com- in the media and relatively large audiences attended their posers who had studied in other composition classes at the concerts organised in the Students’ Cultural Centre, which Academy, but were sometimes marginalised in local musi- had been an important venue for promoting avant-garde cal life2 and who never became professors at the Belgrade and experimental art since the time it was founded several Music Academy. At the beginning (1950s, early 1960s) the years earlier, in 1971. It was that particular institution that dividing line was between conservativism / academicism opened up new horizons to these young composers because, (Rajičić’s school) and modernism (Živković’s school), but since its founding, the Centre had begun to organise events this began to change in the early sixties, when contact with and festivals of avant-garde art, including performance international avant-garde music was heightened and the art and multimedia, bringing to Belgrade internationally strive to join these tendencies was spreading quite quickly. renowned artists in those fields. One member of the young The effects of this development were that almost all but the group, Miroslav Savić, became a music producer of the oldest generations, including Rajičić, embarked on a voyage Centre even before he had finished his studies (1975) and to the avant-garde, which they carried out in different, more retained this post for a considerable time (until 1995). It is or less successful ways. This development brought a gradual interesting that in 1982 a comedy film was even made whose loosening of the ties between Rajičić and the majority of plot made reference to the events (a talented young student his former students, then mature composers with respect- of composition becomes disappointed with the professors able careers. One of his most beloved students (Vlastimir at the Academy who are rigorously conservative and au- Peričić) had stopped composing in the early 1960s as he thoritarian and quits his studies, but his father obliges him was offended by remarks coming from the modernist group to fight back).3 The then senior professor Stanojlo Rajičić of composers that his works were hopelessly conservative. was so offended by the attacks from the group of students Two among the others died prematurely (Petar Ozgijan and and by the lack of support from his fellow professors, that Vasilije Mokranjac); one left Belgrade for private reasons, he retired earlier than he had planned (1977). never to return (Petar Bergamo); another one went to live Out of some 7–8 members of the group that called abroad (Ivan Jevtić). themselves “The New Generation”, active since 1975, their All these events weakened Rajičić’s composition class number was reduced to 4 when, in 1980, they founded as a kind of creative unit. During the 1970s the group had the group “Opus 4” that lasted less than 4 years4. There is to face an important challenge when a group of students of probably some truth in the words of a member of the group composition, most of whom were from the class of Vasilije (Miodrag Lazarov) that the weakening of the “revolution- Mokranjac, himself Rajičić’s former student, rebelled ary” orientation of the Students’ Cultural Centre as an against their professors. Here we will turn our attention to institution was partly to blame for the disintegration of those events and discuss the 4th type of composition school the group. But, maybe they didn’t want to admit that their mentioned at the beginning of this article. belief in the potentials of performance art and multimedia for which they had most affinity, proved to be not so well

16 Stronger Together: Composition Schools as a Means of Affirming Aesthetic Goals grounded. There were many comments on the radical important for him, he was influenced by Messiaen’s music projects they performed, such as two by Savić: 24 hours/ and tried to find alternatives to the avant-garde. He was chord and Heated Circulating Sound of the Piano. A 24-hour very open to the interest of his students in popular music repetition of one chord in a given tempo in the first one and and approved of them introducing it into their works. The in the second “playing” the piano while lying on the piano “Magnificent 7” were very ambitious and impatient to gain lid, with one’s head and arms above the keyboard, with a recognition for their works, but on the whole they were well tendency toward a maximally spread position of the arms, received by the Serbian critics and audiences. The beginning at a temperature of 54 degrees Celsius! Savić had the op- of the Yugoslav wars in 1991 put an end to their common portunity to attend a course of conducting in Darmstadt artistic aims. Four of the members emigrated to different in 1976 and afterwards, in the period of 1977-79, together western countries (Ognjen Bogdanović, Igor Gostuški, Ana with the other members of the group, he attended the Mihajlović, Nataša Bogojević), two of those who stayed courses of electroacoustic music and conceptual art, given turned almost completely away from composition and dedi- by Vladan Radovanović. An original and very committed cated themselves to the orthodox chant tradition (Vladimir avant-garde composer and multimedia artist, who was Jovanović and Srdjan Jaćimović), whereas one member, the head of the Electronic Studio at Radio Belgrade 3, and, most successful one, gradually forged an international career consequently, for some time they managed to significantly (Isidora Žebeljan). broaden the knowledge of composition they got at the In the title of this article I have used the words “stronger Music Academy. Radovanović’s informal school gave them together” because it seems to me that however different enough food for thought and creation for the next several among themselves, all the members of the composition years and more. However, as has been already mentioned, schools presented here wished, more or less consciously, they stopped the activities of the avant-garde group “Opus to draw attention to their own individual outputs. But 4” after only 4 years and continued their work separately tactically first putting forward their common goals and and with much less enthusiasm. One among them (Vladimir shared ideologies: either it was musical nationalism or cos- Tošić) was the only one to make an academic career at the mopolitanism, stronger links with tradition or modernist same Music Academy in Belgrade, his works since his youth strivings. Contemplating Serbian music of the 20th century, having remained grounded in minimalism. Miroslav Savić one could observe that in a given period there was always and Milimir Drašković continued to work though rather at least one dominant school or group on the scene and discontinuously in multimedia, whereas Lazarov, who left that a tension existed between them and other groups or the country for Canada, where he has been living since 1991, individuals. Members of schools / groups were certainly turned his attention towards “new simplicity”. aware of how talents were distributed among themselves, The “Opus 4” group was a kind of composition school so there always existed a more or less hidden hierarchy, characteristic of the 1960s and 1970s in the world. The and in some cases a leader. The latter certainly applied to group didn’t have a single leading idea, a single model or Stevan Mokranjac’s (1) and Stanojlo Rajičić’s school (3), teacher, and what they certainly shared was their revolt and it is easy to understand why that was so: Mokranjac against conservativism, academism, moderate modernisms, was about 30 years older than his pupils, who were also his and the like. It is a pity that, at the time, it was not so easy to followers so that it was normal that he would be regarded leave the country and try to make a career abroad, because as their indisputable teacher, at least during their youth. those young men certainly needed a dynamic exchange with In the case of Rajičić, the links between the teacher and colleagues sharing similar ideas. his pupils was closer with the first generations, gradually weakening with the next, younger generations who wanted more independence. The members of other groups were 5. “The Magnificent Seven” more or less of the same age, and without leaders, at least as seen from the outside. For instance, among the members of The success of postmodernism was probably one of the the “Prague school” (2) Vojislav Vučković was an authority reasons why the group ceased to exist and it is quite symbolic on aesthetics and Marxist ideology, but Ljubica Marić was that after only 3-4 years, a new generation of young com- generally thought to be a more gifted composer. At any rate, posers, almost all born during the 1960s, gathered together that group/school ceased to exist as such after those young and founded a group called, somewhat ironically (and composers returned to Belgrade with their diplomas and provocatively), “The Magnificent 7”.5 They were all students realised that opportunities for the continuation of their or former students of the class of Vlastimir Trajković, who modernist projects were very limited. The members of the had been in Vasilije Mokranjac’s class. Trajković was still group “Opus 4” (4) didn’t have a leader either. They prob- rather young then, around 40, and took a quite different ably split up as a result of different views on their common path when compared to the avant-gardists. Tonality was still aesthetics, more precisely there must have been a conflict

17 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Melita MILIN over a certain differentia specifica that would characterise Conclusions their works, because those four young men displayed really wide – maybe too wide – aesthetic goals, their basis being According to Renato Poggioli, the notion of an artistic Cagean. The “Magnificent 7” (5) was a group of young school presupposes a teacher and a method, criteria of tra- people who shared a belief in postmodernism as a way out of dition and a principle of authority (Pođoli 1975: 59). For the crisis of modernism and were especially drawn to mixing Poggioli, who refers primarily to literature and the visual high and low genres. The group organised just one concert arts, a school is mainly classical and static and he opposes of works of all their members (27 May 1988 in Students’ the notion of “movement” which is almost always linked to Cultural Centre) giving it an ironic title: “History will begin modernist art, which is essentially dynamic and romantic here!” It seems that all of the members did not accept the (Ibid.). As for “schools”, Poggioli states that they don’t aim idea of common actions. Individual composers from the to discuss things as their only goal is teaching, and that group had their works performed on different occasions, schools only produce new variants of traditional poetics and when it was always mentioned that they were members of rhetoric (Ibid. 63). In musicology, at least four schools don’t that group. As has already been stated, the political situation fit the description – let’s just think of the Second Viennese in Serbia/Yugoslavia at the end of the 1980s and beginning School, Hába’s school, the Darmstadt school and the Pol- of the 1990s was such that some members of the group left ish school! Maybe one could also add here the American the country, whereas some others radically changed their school of Minimalist Music. In musicology, we also tend attitudes towards composition, resulting in the group put- to equate schools and groups of composers with having ting an end to its existence. specific characteristics and goals, which I myself have done I have already suggested that not all of the five menin this article when speaking of Serbian music. Among the tioned groups of composers could be regarded as “composi- five schools/groups I have written about, two (Nos 2 and tion schools”. Strictly speaking, none of them would com- 4) could be considered to possess some of the features that pletely fulfil all requirements if we propose the following Poggioli singled out as being characteristic of avant-garde three: 1) that those schools be groups of composers who movements: activism, antagonism, nihilism and agonism follow the same style, 2) share the same teachers, and 3) have (Ibid. 64–78, 95–110). Having mentioned that, I wish the same aims. Regarding the first requirement, it would to emphasise that I don’t claim that the Serbian schools/ indeed be possible to accept that the styles that characterise groups belonged to the international avant-garde, because those schools were largely the same (late-romantic in the due to unfavourable socio-political circumstances, the first one, modernist/pre-WW2 avant-garde in the second, international avant-garde was always a step ahead of them. moderate-modernist in the third, Cagean avant-garde in One could, however, call them followers of avant-garde the fourth and postmodernist in the fifth). As to the second movements, and some of them were really very successful requirement, only in the case of the “Prague” and Rajičić’s in composing along those lines. school, could we speak of the teachers as leaders or models, I would conclude this article by proposing that in musi- and only then with a certain degree of hesitancy. Stevan cological writings a clearer distinction be made between the Mokranjac was the teacher of the majority of the group, but terms “composition school” and “composition movement”; only at an elementary level because all the pupils later went also to think about the term “group of composers”, which on to study elsewhere. So, one could say that Mokranjac was could refer to a small movement within some wider one. The more a composer admired, but also criticised by his pupils, musical 20th century was indeed rich with all those catego- who were in fact more his followers – those who wished to ries and subcategories, many of which are not well enough continue and modernise something he had started – than known outside the countries where they were active, and I they were his pupils in the usual sense. As for Stanojlo see this paper as a suitable place to learn more about each Rajičić, he was a true teacher indeed, but not enough of a other’s research in that domain. model, as his pupils didn’t stay long under his compositional shadow and began to explore novel techniques. Compos- ers of the “Prague school” had several teachers, although References Hába’s influence was the greatest. The members of “Opus 4” and “The Magnificent Seven” came from the composition 1 Vasilije Mokranjac, Vlastimir Peričić, Petar Bergamo, Petar classes of two composers (Mokranjac and Trajković) but Ozgijan, Berislav Popović, Zoran Hristić, Srđan Hofman, Ivan Jevtić, Zoran Erić. their main teachers were John Cage, Philip Glass and con- 2 Dušan Radić, Vladan Radovanović ceptual/multimedia artists (“Opus 4”) and different foreign 3 Miloš Radivojević, director of the film Živeti kao sav norma- postmodernist authors (“The Magnificent 7”). Regarding lan svet, 1982. It should be added that another, though very the third requirement (the same aim), it could be said that different, scandal that marked those same late 1970s (the it was essentially fulfilled in all the presented schools. Azanjac affair) also possibly inspired the authors of the film.

18 Stronger Together: Composition Schools as a Means of Affirming Aesthetic Goals

4 Their names are: Miodrag Lazarov (b. 1949), Vladimir Tošić grupių pasivadino „mokyklomis“ (pavyzdžiui, Naujoji vokie- (b. 1949), Milimir Drašković (1952–2014), Miroslav Savić čių mokykla, Vienos naujoji mokykla, Darmštato mokykla, (b. 1954). įvairios nacionalinės mokyklos), kitos – intriguojančiais 5 The members of the group were: Vladimir Jovanović (1956– 2016), Srđan Jaćimović (1960–2006), Ognjen Bogdanović (b. pavadinimais, tokiais kaip „Galingasis sambūris“, „Šešetas“ ar 1965), Nataša Bogojević (b. 1966), Igor Gostuški (b. 1966), „Jaunoji Prancūzija“. Tam tikra prasme tokios kompozitorių Isidora Žebeljan (b. 1967), and Ana Mihajlović (b. 1968). grupės buvo panašios į kompozicijos klases, kurias sudarė kokio nors žymaus kompozitoriaus ir (arba) pedagogo (Aloiso Literature Hábos, Nadios Boulanger, Olivier Messiaeno) studentai, nors pastarosios būdavo stilistiškai margesnės. Milojević Miloje, Umetnički pregled. Naš muzičko umetnički Siekiant daugiau aiškumo, į XX a. serbų muziką buvo program [Our musico-artistic program], in: Srpski književni pažvelgta iš skirtingų mokyklų ar kompozitorių grupių glasnik [Serbian Literary Messenger], Vol. XXXI/5 1913, p. perspektyvos. Išskirtos kelios grupės, kurių narius sieja 391–95. Milojević Miloje, Umetnička ličnost Stevana St. Mokranjca [The skirtingi ryšiai. artistic personality of Stevan St. Mokranjac], in: Muzičke 1. Nacionalinė serbų mokykla, pasiekusi aukščiausią lygį studije i članci [Musical Studies and Articles], I, Belgrade: Stevano Mokranjaco (1856–1914) kūryboje. Izdavačka knjižarnica Gece Kona, 1926, p. 82–118. 2. XX a. pirmajame dešimtmetyje gimę serbų kompozi- Hába Alois, Mladi jugoslovenski kompozitori i četvrttonska mu- toriai, pasukę visiškai priešinga kryptimi, kai studijų Prahoje zika [Young Yugoslav composers and quarter-tone music], in: metais tapo Aloiso Hábos bei keleto kitų šiuolaikinių čekų Zvuk [Sound], No. 3, January 1933, p. 81–85. Milojević Miloje, O srpskoj umetničkoj muzici [On Serbian art kompozitorių studentais ir sekėjais. music], in: Srpski književni glasnik [Serbian Literary Messen- 3. Vienas iš didžiausių autoritetų, Belgrado muzikos aka- ger], Vol. XLVII/7, 1936, p. 497–510. demijos profesorius, anksčiau Prahos mokyklai priklausęs Pođoli Renato, Teorija avangardne umetnosti [The Theory of Stanojlo Rajičićius, išugdęs keletą žymiausių XX a. II pusės Avantgarde Art], Beograd: Nolit, 1975. Italian original: serbų kompozitorių. Renato Poggioli, Teoria dell’arte d’avanguardia, Bologna: Il Mulino, 1962. 4. Jauniausios kartos serbų kompozitoriai, studijavę Taruskin Richard, Music in the Early Twentieth Century. The 8-ajame dešimtmetyje ir sukilę prieš tuo metu dar dėsčiusio Oxford History of Western Music, Vol. 4, Oxford–New York: Rajičićiaus autoritetą (7-ajame dešimtmetyje šio kūryba jau Oxford University Press, 2010. buvo laikoma konservatyvia ir akademiška). Puikus avangar- Spurny Lubomir, Hába School – Reality or Myth?, in: Dejan do kompozitorius, niekada nedėstęs Muzikos akademijoje, Despić and Melita Milin (eds.), Prostori modernizma: opus bet vadovavęs Belgrado radijo Elektroninės muzikos studijai Ljubice Marić u kontekstu muzike njenog vremena [Spaces of Modernism”: Ljubica Marić in Context], Belgrade: Institute (1971) Vladanas Radovanovićius savo elektroninės muzikos of Musicology and Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, ir kitais darbais pritraukė dar keletą bendraminčių, todėl tai 2010, p. 135–142. galima laikyti neformalia kompozicine mokykla. 5. 9-ojo dešimtmečio viduryje keletas labai jaunų kompozitorių įkūrė į postmodernizmą orientuotą grupę Santrauka „Nuostabusis septynetas“. Reikėtų paminėti, kad tai nėra išsamus visų pagrindinių, XIX ir dar labiau XX a. kompozitoriams būdingas svarstomu laikotarpiu aktyviai kūrusių serbų kompozitorių stiprus noras tapatinti save su progresyviosios krypties sąrašas, nes keleto pačių ryškiausių (tokių kaip Petaras Kon- muzika bei prisidėti prie jos plėtros, siekiant įgyvendinti jovićius ir Stevanas Hristićius) negalima priskirti nė vienai „modernizmo projektą“. Todėl dauguma jautė poreikį burtis iš šių grupių. Bet kokiu atveju, išstudijavus tiek pagrindines, į tas pačias estetines pažiūras turinčių muzikų grupes, kad tiek periferines Europos kompozicines mokyklas ir kom- galėtų veiksmingiau ir vieningiau siekti platesnio savo tikslų pozicijos klases, būtų įnešta daugiau aiškumo į muzikos ir kūrybinės veiklos rezultatų pripažinimo. Kai kurios iš šių istorijos dinamiką.

19 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Viktorija KOLAROVSKA-GMIRJA The Macedonian National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation and Development Makedonijos nacionalinė kompozicijos mokykla, jos įsteigimo ir plėtotės aspektai

Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Faculty of Music, Pitu Guli 1, 1000 Skopje, Republic of Macedonia Email [email protected]

Abstract The article discusses the distinctive features of the Macedonian national school of composition. The school was founded in the cultural context of the 20th century and covered the following components: a) professional component: a unifying idea of adopting the European model of composing activity; b) stylistic / aesthetic component: the simultaneous existence of different stylistic tendencies, positioning numerous composers from different generations as promoters of the national idea; c) educational component: non-institutional and institutional forms of education, the influence of the cultural and educational centres from other areas on the expansion of the stylistic and aesthetic directions and modernizing the composing education. Keywords: Macedonian national school of composition, professional component, stylistic / aesthetic component, educational component, 20th century.

Anotacija Straipsnyje aptariami būdingi Makedonijos nacionalinės kompozicijos mokyklos bruožai. Ši mokykla buvo įsteigta XX a. kultūriniame kontekste ir apėmė šiuos aspektus: a) profesinis aspektas: bendrinė idėja priimti europietiškąjį kompozicijos modelį; b) stilistinis / estetinis aspektas: skirtingų stilistinių tendencijų egzistavimas vienu metu, pozicionuojant kelis skirtingų kartų kompozitorius kaip nacionalinės idėjos skleidėjus; c) edukacinis aspektas: neinstitucinės ir institucinės edukacijos formos, kitų regionų kultūros ir edukacijos centrų įtaka stilistinių ir edukacinių krypčių plėtrai bei kompozicijos edukacijos modernizavimui. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Makedonijos nacionalinė kompozicijos mokykla, profesinis aspektas, stilistinis / estetinis aspektas, edukacinis aspektas, XX amžius.

Introduction frames, which implies a special inner dialectics of this phenomenon. In that sense, the national composition school The term “national composition school” belongs to becomes one of the markers of national identity. Usually, those whose usage is not very strict, while the scope of this term is used for national schools of the Romanticism meaning is very large. Speaking of composition school, (19th century), when the mature pan-European professional the following components are usually understood: the music tradition had already been formed, and the younger professional, having in mind the professionalism of Eu- cultures (Slavic, Scandinavian) were striving towards that ropean type; the creative-aesthetic, i.e., the unity of style tradition. However, in certain areas and cultures this process and aesthetic positions; the pedagogical – the presence of continued in the 20th century (Southeast Europe, Caucasus, organized educational process in relevant institutions or at Asian countries). Each of them walked their own path and a prominent creative person – pedagogue (for the variety had specific features in the mentioned stages of formation, of usages of the term “composition school” and “national its own “role deployment” among the composers whose composition school” see Kolarovski 1999: 34–35). In cer- number at certain period of time was also different – from tain periods, the ideological component is also important, a numbers of genius composers to only one composer who often related to emphasizing the national characteristic as a established the national school in the music art, leaning kind of uniqueness and originality. Therefore, in the musico- upon his own creational forces and intuition. logical literature, the term “national composition school” is Generally, the following stages in formation of a national also used. Depending on the character of the research, one composition school can be distinguished: can touch upon all these components or point out some of •• preparatory, related to the work of talented composers – them. The national composition school is formed at certain professionals and dilettantes, in whose opus there are stage of development in a nation's musical and linked, on accumulated the elements belonging to the European one hand, to the aspiration towards Europeanization,1 professional music (as a rule, the form, genres, tech- and, on the other hand – towards the originality within its niques) and belonging to their own culture (musical

20 The Macedonian National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation and Development

patterns, subjects, primary genres characteristic for the old spiritual music, and the everyday music) and non-music given culture); sources (speech). In this process not only the genre system •• turning, related to the appearance of a prominent crea- (influenced by the traditional genres, above all – folklore) is tive individual who manages to make qualitative turning enriched, but also the principles of the music development point in the synthesis of elements from different cultures conditioned by the character of the material. and to create stylistic and genre system analogue to The process of formation of the national composition the one in the culture’s “models”, but at the same time school is directly linked with the formation of listeners’ adjusted to the needs of their own culture, tradition audience. The two processes are connected with “reversible and mentality;2 link”: the composer has in mind the “image of the audi- •• development, related to the emergence of followers, ence”, while the listeners are “learning” the music language, students who create in the same genres or establish characters and the idea of the piece, catch the semantics, new ones; strengthening their own traditions; deepen- form associative links. We can say that the decisive role here ing, very often – complicating and intermediating the belongs to the vocal genres, above all – solo song and choir national idea; creation of “school” in a very narrow sense music, because of their receptiveness and mass character as educational institution; further professionalization of conditioned by the presence of words, and due to their close the composing work; connection with their own tradition (lingual and musical). •• mature – period of individual choice, when the “school” Their role is particularly important in the early, preparatory seems to be “transfiguring” into individualities, the stage of the formation of the national school. As a rule, the tendencies towards universalism are strengthening, the representation of these genres is particularly large in the national becomes one of the possible but not the only work of composers of the “preparatory stage”, and always creative determination (depending on the type of the in the work of national classics.3 The functions of vocal creative individual, the worldview, ideas etc). genres are extraordinarily diverse – here are some of them: •• intermediation between the composers’ music and These phases are presented schematically, as in the real folklore or essential national tradition (frequent arran- artistic process there are no strong borders between them. gement of folk songs); However, we believe that, like any scheme, the suggested can •• creation of close links between the national literature help to understand the logic and structure of the process. (poetry) and music; th In the 20 century the idea of “national school” in sev- •• establishment of principles of vocalization of the mother eral cultures lost the actuality, leaving space to cosmopolitan tongue (through characteristic rhythmic and intonation tendencies, closeness, quick adoption and universality of models); styles, techniques, aesthetic positions. However, national •• creation of “collective portrait“ of the nation in indivi- composition school represents a very important stage of dual (solo song) and group (choir music) aspects; development of national culture, its professionalization •• “adoption“ of elements of other cultures and traditions and maturity. through a music genre (for example, barcarolle, mazur- ka, bolero) and through translated texts; •• creation of associative-semantic links between the music Part 1. The roads of the national composition and the text as one of the ways of forming the “natio- school establishment: the genre system, the nal” music language and realization of communication musical language, the listener auditorium between the composer and the audience; •• more direct expression of the non-music ideas, concept Among the most essential tasks for the formation of the of the work, author’s position (thanks to the connection national composition school is the creation of genre system with the text, poetry). which includes the “crown” genres of European music (first and foremost, opera and symphony) and mastering the cor- It is notable that in the majority of countries the creation responding principles of musical logic, music development, of opera is a kind of a priority of the national composition dramaturgy, and also the techniques of composing. The two school. The genre which fuses the characteristic plots of above-mentioned genres are complementing each other. the national history (or, on the contrary, the contemporary Opera is a genre closely connected to non-musical factors everyday life) interpreted as epos, drama, lyric, comedy, (text, plot), whilst the symphony is purely a musical genre tragedy; mother tongue of the libretto and, of course, the linked with musical logic itself and the modes of develop- national music language, as a rule, relied on folklore and ment. Apart from creation of the genres’ system, no less other recognizable national musical sources. In the prepa- significant is the creation of the music language, the choice ration of the creation of opera, a big role is played by solo of patterns connected to the characteristic music (folklore, songs and choir pieces, appearing as a “creative laboratory“

21 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Viktorija KOLAROVSKA-GMIRJA of the authors in which they try various aspects of mutual education and publishing field, collecting and studying acting of the music and text: content (associative links, the Macedonian folklore, proving the originality of the genre, theme) and structural (form, metrical and rhythmical Macedonian nation. On the other hand, this is a period construction). However, the role of the “creative labora- of Europeanization of the Macedonian culture, including tory“ is not primary for these genres – they occur, first and music, the occurrence of its new forms. Right in this period foremost, as special and extraordinarily important parts of the first professional musician Atanas Badev (1860–1908) the complete genre system in the composition school, i.e. begins his work. Badev acquired his European professional in the work of a given author. education in Saint Petersburg and then he acted in vari- The instrumental music also plays its own role in the ous towns among the Macedonian population. His most process of formation of the composition school. The pur- important work “Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom” written chase of musical instruments – especially of the piano – for in the style of the European multipart singing was printed domestic music playing causes the need of a repertoire which in Leipzig in 1898. However, the national composition is comprised of already existing works of foreign composers school in Macedonia started to be formed in the 1930–40s. as well as of works created by domestic musicians. Among This factor conditioned its specificity – a certain “delay” of whom are the performers themselves, who in this case be- its formation that coincided with the already mentioned come amateur composers. In these works, also, in their own period of radical stylistic upheaval in western European particular way, occur the functions which were stated earlier music in the 20th century, when the category of national in reference to vocal music, and the instrumental music itself lost its actuality. In the shortest period (practically, for in a greater part is related to the vocal one. A considerable half a century), the Macedonian composition school has number of the local composers’ pieces comprise different gone through different stages of this path, which in other ways of interpretation of traditional songs for instruments conditions could “drag on” for centuries – from “national or instrumental ensemble: instrumental miniatures, varia- Romanticism” to the adoption of modern techniques of tions, potpourris and fantasies. Through these works the composing, stylistic phenomena and others. The process of thematic material and the principles of its development are establishing and developing the Macedonian compositional created, which paves the way to top instrumental genres of school is non-linear and specific, as, at the same time there Western music – symphony, sonata, concert, quartet. These are signs of different stages, different degree of “balancing” genres require professionalism, maturity and mastery of the between the national and the universal-European. techniques of thematic development as well as building of The “delay” and the “acceleration” are two statements form, especially for the sonata form. that inevitably arise when studying the development of Almost all the national composition schools, which were the Macedonian compositional school and, more broadly, formed throughout the 19th century, have had similar de- the Macedonian music culture in the 20th century. It is im- velopment and this in great measure influenced the overall portant to emphasize that this applies not only to musical image of musical Romanticism, becoming in a way a “trade culture and to musical creation. Thus, in her thorough remark” of the Romanticism era. In that sense, the national search on the developmental path of Macedonian literature, schools formed later – in the 20th century, which is marked Russian scholar Alla Sheshken notes the same specificity with radical style, aesthetic turns – are of particular inter- of this process. Concluding the “lateness”, she points out est, and one of the moving forces of these turns is exactly that “the reasons for the relatively late development of the the controversy and denial of Romanticism. One of such Macedonians in the literature of the national language are composition schools is the Macedonian school. outside the sphere of aesthetic” (Шешкен 2007: 3), taking into account the specific historical conditions of the long absence of statehood and great measure of the associated Part 2. The conditions and specifics of the late codification of the literary Macedonian language. For Macedonian national composition school “acceleration”, she says: establishment: “Westernization” and “accelerated development” The history of the formation and first decades of the development of Macedonian literature set out a number of theoretical issues, among which, one of them is the imbalance of its evolu- The formation of the national composition school in tion. It is about the internal pace of the movement of Macedo- Macedonia is linked to the later period. The conditions nian literature. This is especially noticeable on the background for this process were created gradually, starting from the of the phenomena of the 20th century presented in the literature second half of the 19th century – the period of national of other Slavic people. After the exceptionally slow progress revival in Macedonia in the absence of statehood. This of the cultural processes in the first decades of the twentieth period marked the growth of the national conscience, the century that laid the foundations of national literature, start- emergence of a pleiad of individuals who worked in the ing in 1945 we are observing changes with the speed of light.

22 The Macedonian National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation and Development

Relying on its own folklore and cultural tradition, literature •• 80–90s: pluralism of styles and techniques within the quickly adopts the “alien” experience, actually including in the framework of individual creative work and within the same line with the more developed literature of Yugoslavia. It musical work,5 as well as aspiration towards synthesis - is primarily matter of its readiness to “keep pace” in terms of typical for the arts at the end of the 20th century. adopting modern aesthetic concepts and their realization in the artistic practice. Macedonian literature made a “leap” forward, This periodization relates to the aforementioned stages thus passing most stages through which the literature of other of formation of national composition school: Slavic people and European nations has passed. (Ibid: 70) preparatory, turning, period of development and mature period. We allowed a longer quotation because of its suitability for the processes in Macedonian composition music: “late start”, on the one hand, and the rapid adoption of previous Part 3. The beginnings of the formation of experiences through the prism of modernity, on the other the Macedonian national composition school hand. Sheshken believes that the acceleration appears as a (30-40s): composers-choirmasters feature of the literary process of the epoch (it also names the corresponding sub-chapter) and in fact, relying on the ideas In 30-40s, the process of creating the Macedonian of Gachev for the acceleration as a feature of the development composition school went in parallel and in close connection of certain literatures in the 20th century, which due to some with the development of mass choir music. The active work reason were on the “periphery” of the world cultural process of amateur school and town choirs in that period played a (Ibid: 73–80). We believe that this approach can be applied key role in spreading musical culture and music literacy. The to the musical process, i.e. the formation of the national repertoire of choirs was actively filled with the arrangements composition schools in the 20th century and certainly, the of folk songs. Their authors (who, as a rule, were also the formation of the Macedonian national composition school. heads of choirs) were musicians who did not acquire the The significance of the national idea in Macedonian composer’s education, but nevertheless, managed to create music is explained by various factors and is largely “out artistic arrangements, which later became a model for their of the sphere of aesthetic”. The most important factor is – own works. The first Macedonian composers were organ- the non-recognition of the sovereignty of the nation and izers and managers of the school and town choir collectives, language by certain neighbouring states, which still takes and at the same time – authors who filled their repertoire place and in this line, the actuality of the idea of national with works in the national spirit. Music historian Dragoslav self-determination. More specific, connected with purely Ortakov once said that it was not incidental: musical phenomena is the still active functioning of the Being a creator of music in Macedonia in the 30–40th of our Macedonian folklore, non-European in its own basis century [20th century, a.n.] meant composing vocal music for (its main characteristics – irregular meter, untempered the needs of city and school choirs, which were at that time melismatics, and bourdon multipart singing). The role of main drivers of the musical life. (Ortakov 1982: 65) the specificold church singing based on the monodian Byzantine tradition is also important.4 Folklore and old Among them are Stefan Gajdov (1905–1992), Zhivko spiritual music are the main sources of professional com- Firfov (1906–1984), Todor Skalovski (1909–2004), position music in Macedonia. Trajko Prokopiev (1909–1979), Petre Bogdanov-Kochko The process of mutual interaction of national tradi- (1913–1988).6 It is natural that the first examples of such tion and European influences can be presented in the music are arrangements of folk songs, very often – simple following manner: harmonization. However, these very simple harmonisations became a ground on which grew the professional composing •• 30–40s: choral adaptation of traditional songs, above all – the aforementioned so-called “old urban” tradition work in Macedonia (for example, the beautiful arrangements which is greatly influenced by the western European by Stefan Gajdov, which up to now are actively performed by tonal system; both professional and amateur choirs in Macedonia7). The choir arrangements of the folk songs for the composers from •• 50s: the occurrence of the first works in the key genres of western European music (opera, ballet, symphony, the preparatory stage became a sort of “model for imitation” symphonic poem), the influence of the neoclassic and – according to which model they created their own works in neo-folklore tendencies; which the author’s is interlacing with the folk’s. In this sense, very notable are the choir works with joint title 8 •• 60–70s: the influence of aleatoricism, sonoristics and Kumanovki the occurrence of the first models of electronic music. by the famous Macedonian composer and conductor Trajko The particularity – close mutual interaction and cor- Prokopiev. The first of them is written in 1935, and the last, respondence of “avant-garde” techniques and manners the fifth one – in 1952. Kumanovki are a kind of rhapsodies with folklore models; comprised of two parts – slow and fast, in which the basis

23 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Viktorija KOLAROVSKA-GMIRJA is the original folk song. However, this is not an easy ar- abroad. This stage of formation of the Macedonian com- rangement, but a real work of composition (motif, variant, position school is connected to the activity of authors who polyphone, structure). It is interesting that some of these have gained composition education in different European folk songs in the mind of the next generations listeners are music centres: Blagoja Ivanovski (1921–1994, Belgrade, strongly linked right with these Kumanovki and their author.9 not finished), Kiril Makedonski (1925–1984, Ljubljana), A prominent example of Macedonian choir music created Vlastimir Nikolovski (1925–2001, Leningrad-Belgrade), in this stage is Makedonsko oro composed in 1943 by Todor Dragoslav Ortakov (1928–2007, Belgrade, not finished), Skalovski (1909-2004). This work is characterized with a Toma Proshev (1931–1996, Ljubljana-Paris), Tomislav deep plunging into the element of the folk music. Just in it, for Zografski (1934–2000, Belgrade), Sotir Golabovski the first time on such a high level, one of the key genres in the (1937–2014, Ljubljana).12 Macedonian folklore is re-created: the male dance Teshkoto, The activity of this generation of composers happened which is performed before going to work abroad, very often in very favourable period in terms of contacts and opportu- for years and years, even decades. This dance starts in slow nities to encounter the newest processes and achievements tempo with tapan10 beats; it is gradually speeding and at the in the music culture in the world, thanks to the specificity end, becomes “flying” by breaking up at the culmination point of the state policy (including the cultural policy) formed and reaching enormous power of expression. These genre since the end of the 40s. In this period, Yugoslavia started characteristics are successfully woven into the texture of the positioning itself as out-of-block “two-way” country, which piece through motives – “calls”, “hails” of the choir groups, cooperated with the Eastern as well as with the Western sound imitations, increases and decreases of loudness, which politico-economic block. This had defined the openness influence the form, and the dramaturgy of the piece. of its multinational culture, the constant relations to All of these composers were without completed com- philosophy, art, and science of Eastern (“communist”) position education. They acquired their music education in Europe as well as “liberal” West. Such openness allowed various educational institutions of the Kingdom of Yugosla- encounters with the newest tendencies of music life and via, mainly in Belgrade where they had the opportunity to composers’ work. In this period, the works of the clas- get their first experiences in the work with the choirs (the sics of 20th century music played an important role in the arrangements of folk songs by Serbian composers took place formation of the style of Macedonian professional music: in their repertoire, including prominent Stevan Mokranjac, Béla Bartók (his special role has been emphasized by many in whose Rukoveti, among other things, the musical themes leading composers of Macedonia) and also Igor Stravinsky, of Macedonian folk songs were used). Nevertheless, they Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich, Aram Khachaturian, managed to create works with high artistic value. Here a later – the composers of the Polish school etc. To become considerably smaller representation of solo songs genre in familiar with the newest tendencies in music of this period, the authors’ composing in this stage is noticed. One of the including the most radical experiments, which have caused reasons for this might be the specifics of the Macedonian fierce controversy in the composer milieu, was made possible poetry in that period characterized by the absence of the at the Zagreb Music Biennale – one of the most renowned canons of literary language, formed at the end of the Second festivals of new music in Europe and in the world, which World War. However, it seems that the prevalence of the was established in 1961. In this sense, the musical environ- collective over the individual played its role in the creative ment of Yugoslavia was saturated and diverse, expressing aspirations and the authors’, performers’ and audience’ the pluralism of the contemporary music culture, which psychology for whom the idea of strengthening the nation, was becoming its inalienable quality. In this situation the i.e. collective, common spirit was the most important thing young composition school, especially the representatives at that time. of its “national stream”, were faced with a very complex task – to find the way of embodying the national principal in the context of 20th century music, lacking professional Part 4. The development of the Macedonian music tradition, which in other cultures is related to the national composition school after the Second period of Romanticism. In this sense, Bartók's experience World War: the “thickness” of the events of working with folklore, Stravinsky of the “Russian period”, Khachaturian – representative of the culture where the The real “explosion” of creative energy happens in the un-European (oriental) component is strong – as well as period after the Second World War, when Macedonia gains Mussorgsky (“avant-garde of 19th century”) and composers statehood within SFRY.11 At shortest possible periods, the from other Balkan countries (above all Josip Slavenski) have music institutions are created (the opera, the philharmonic, become of great importance for Macedonian composers. Institute of Folklore, etc.), professionals are brought from Vlastimir Nikolovski, Toma Proshev and Tomislav Zo- other regions of Yugoslavia, and young people are educated grafski have formed the traditions of teaching composition

24 The Macedonian National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation and Development at the Faculty of Music Art (FMA) founded in 1966 within the Ottoman Empire in 1903, while the opera Tsar Samuil the Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in the capital city is based on a historical plot from the 11th century. In this of Macedonia, Skopje. It is interesting that particularly opera Makedonski creates more complex musical drama- these composers in their works in a certain manner have turgy, similar to the Russian “tsarist” operas Boris Godunov “ascertained” the roles in promoting the stylistic means and Prince Igor (from the first – the psychology of the main of music of the 20th century – the neofolklorism, neoclas- character Tsar Samuil tortured with the murder of his own sicism, experimental tendencies of avant-garde in music. brother in the name of state interests, from the latter – the Vlastimir Nikolovski throughout his overall creative path opposition of the enemy groups and the use of musical has most strikingly demonstrated the link with Macedonian material in the folklore sense for the Slavs and the oriental folklore. To his greatest credit is the symphonization of the chromatized sound for the Byzantines). Furthermore, Toma specific folklore genres Teshkoto (which has already been Proshev works in the opera genre creating different examples mentioned) and Tazhalka (crying song). The recreation of according to their dramaturgy, including a children’s opera the genre specificities of Teshkoto – its particular form, the The Little Prince. The same author as well as Vlastimir principal of crescendo development with the “breaking” of Nikolovski and Tomislav Zografski create important can- the culmination, the great role of the rhythm – is of special tatas and oratorios based on plots from the national poem value. The composer has created several works with this (Serdarot by Vlastimir Nikolovski) and from the spiritual life title for different performing ensembles, but the influence (the oratorios Klimentu and Kirilu by Vlastimir Nikolovski, of dramaturgy and the principals of development of the Pohvala za Kiril i Metodij by Tomislav Zografski etc.). Teshkoto occur in his other works. Nikolovski was among As it often happens in the formative process of the na- the first ones to introduce traditional instruments in the tional composition schools, the first big instrumental works symphonic orchestra and in other performing ensembles. are closely connected with the musical-scenic ones. Thus, Toma Proshev, a very productive author, whose creative among the first works on the repertoire which is performed work is incredibly voluptuous and diverse, encompassing up to now at symphonic concerts, are the fragments of almost all possible genres, had become one of the consistent the ballets: the dance Teshkoto from the first Macedonian supporters of the tendencies of the avant-garde in music. ballet Macedonian Story (1952) by Gligor Smokvarski He also formed the first ensemble of contemporary music (1914–1974) and the suite from the ballet Labin and Do- in Macedonia, St. Sofia, with variable members, which suc- jrana (1958) on a plot from traditional legends by Trajko cessfully performed the works of Macedonian and foreign Prokopiev. Yet at the same time, the first symphonic and composers. In this sense, its activities stimulated the creation chamber works in different genres began to occur. After the of new works. Tomislav Zografski is the first Macedonian first symphonic poemDancer (1951) by Kiril Makedonski, composer who had turned to manners typical for the neo- Blagoja Ivanovski further developed this genre, creating classicism, creating a range of works in which the method more works, in which out-of-music associations were of composing “according to a model” is used. Of course, mainly taken from the Macedonian history and cultural in the works of these composers different stylistic tenden- heritage. The symphonic genre was formed and developed cies can be noticed. Thus, both Proshev and Zografski in by Kiril Makedonski, Vlastimir Nikolovski, and Toma their particular manner use the folklore. In the works of Proshev: in their creative work, we can see different models Nikolovski, one can notice that the folklore often becomes of symphonies including experimental symphonies (5th a generator of timbre experiments and practicing of “instru- Symphony written by Makedonski with graphic notation). mental theatre”, close to the avant-garde. The same role of Also in the works of these and other authors in the 50s and the folklore in the process of modernization of the musical 60s, other instrumental genres occur: sonatas for different language is significant for the national schools of Romanti- instruments, string quartets, instrumental concerts in which cism in the 19th century (Dahlhaus 1989: 97) as well as for the individual stylistic features of the authors are reflected. the 20th century composers’ music – Bartók, Stravinsky etc. It should be noted that the basis of the Macedonian In the creative work of composers whose activity starts popular and jazz music by the founder Dragan Gjakonovski- in the 50s, a complete genre system of European music is Shpato (1931–1987) is created during this period. Certain formed. In the works of Kiril Makedonski, and later those composers begin working in the direction of sympho-jazz of Toma Proshev and Trajko Prokopiev, the operas with according to Gershwin’s model: Aleksandar Djambazov plots from different periods of Macedonian history as well (b. 1937), Aleksandar Lekovski (1933–2013), Ljubomir as from the traditional everyday life occur. Kiril Makedonski Brangjolica (b. 1932) – an author who pays special atten- stands out with his operas. His first Macedonian opera Goce tion to ballet using rhythmic and melodic structures from (1954), in which the main character is the national hero popular and jazz music. Goce Delchev, and the opera Ilinden, composed later, are In the works of most composers of this generation based on a plot from the national liberation struggle against who were present on the composers’ scene for decades, the

25 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Viktorija KOLAROVSKA-GMIRJA complexity of their individual path and development, as great differences in their creative approach, style, aesthet- well as the occurrence of different stylistic tendencies can ics, including the approach to national topics. Dimitrije be seen. Sometimes – consciously or not – they practice Buzharovski promotes a style which he himself calls “multi- what they deny in their theoretical or discussion writings. stylistics” (the term is similar to Schnittke’s “polystylistics”) Thus, Nikolovski was famous for his critical stand towards which in a way grows from the neoclassicism, by its principle experiments in music, but he carried them out himself to compose “according to model” and in this case joining based on folklore material; Proshev knew to declare himself and the mutual interaction of several models. In that sense, as “non-folklorist”, yet the use of folklore, even its direct the folklore material is often treated as just one of the sources quoting became a sign of his later creative period. These for the play of stylistic characteristics. An important part and similar examples show, as previously said, the complex of the works of Zhivoin Glishikj is in the area of popular and not directly lined path of the individuals as well as of and jazz music and the use of traditional sources in these the composition school as a whole. cases represents a stylistic mix. Toma Manchev and Goce We deliberately have devoted a larger space for the com- Kolarovski, both Vlastimir Nikolovski’s students, have posers of these groups (conditionally called the “founders” inherited the national line from their teacher, neverthe- and “classics”) because just their works, stylistic and aesthet- less, conditioned also by their own affinities and creative ics attempts, the establishment of different genres in Mac- approach. The music of Toma Manchev is characterized by edonian professional composer music have played a crucial expressivity, impressive orchestra colours, and its stylistics role in establishing the basis (but also development) of the is in greater part close to Bartók’s. Goce Kolarovski in his Macedonian composition school. The further pedagogical creative work (unfortunately ended at its obvious upheaval) activity of some of them as heads of the composer classes at uses traditional sources (folklore and spiritual music), as FMA-Skopje has become the last essential component for well as completely different ones (bells, timbral-textural the activity of the composition school and its reproduction. thematic, specific modes). The citation method plays a The generations offounders and classics in the 60s and great role in his works, creating large “semantic fields” in 70s are joined by the following generation of composers his music. The pedagogical activity at FMA was of par- who have gained their education at the Faculty of Music Art ticular importance for Goce Kolarovski – as a composition in Belgrade – one of the leading cultural and intellectual professor he managed to attract a great number of young centres of SFRY, with its free spirit and openness: Stojan people to study composition, creating perhaps the most Stojkov (b. 1941), Risto Avramovski (1943–2007), Dimche numerous classes in the history of the faculty. Besides this, Nikoleski (1943–1998), Stojche Toshevski (1944–2008). Kolarovski was one of the initiators and organizers of several Among them, with the range and diversity of works, Risto composition schools where the composition students had Avramovski stands out as author of works in different gen- the opportunity to cooperate with prominent composers res, among which there are symphonies, operas, cantatas and from different countries, as well as with performers during oratorios, examples of electronic music. His works of the the preparation of their works. Under his leadership, several early period come closer in style and technique to contem- competitions for young composers titled Place on the Disc porary trends of European music (for example through the were realized. These forms of education and promotion of special role of sonoristics), but in the later period his music young authors have brought the Macedonian composition becomes more traditional and closer to the national musi- school even closer to contemporary trends in the overall cal sources. It is important to note that in the work of this process of education and affirmation of the composer’s composer, the opera again appears: Sick Dojchin according profession and works. to the national epic, and Lydia from Macedonia according The next graduated composers from FMA-Skopje – to the Bible Sage (otherwise, the opera is most rarely rep- Miroslav Spasov (b. 1964), Jana Andreevska (b. 1967), resented in Macedonian music, because of its complexity Vanja Nikolovski (b. 1968), Nikola Kodjabashija (b. 1970), and due to low performance possibilities). Stojan Stojkov Pande Shahov (b. 1973), Evdokija Danajlovska (b. 1973) follows the national line very adherently. In his works the etc. – begin their activity in conditions of the disintegration vocal genres have a leading place, and his last big works are of SFRY and proclamation of independence of Republic of the ballet Tashula, the Ohrid Slave (the plot from the tra- Macedonia. Due to the unfavourable political-economic ditional drama) and the opera The Dragon Bride (the plot conditions especially prominent in the 1990s, some of them from the national folklore). leave to study abroad and remain there forming in a certain In the 70s and 80s, a creative activity of the graduated manner a diaspora of Macedonian composers abroad (Vanja composers from the Faculty of Musical Art in Skopje be- Nikolovski in USA, Miroslav Spasov, Nikola Kodjabashija, gins. Among them are Toma Manchev (b. 1950), Dimitrije Pande Shahov, Mihajlo Trandafilovski – in Great Britain, Buzharovski (b. 1952), Zhivoin Glishikj (b. 1954), Goce Evdokija Danajlovska – in France). With their works, they Kolarovski (1959–2006) and others. These authors have successfully integrate in the environments where they reside.

26 The Macedonian National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation and Development

Valentina Velkovska-Trajanovska (b. 1976), Soni Petrovski value of the very particular and in its basis “non European” (b. 1977), Goce Gavrilovski (b. 1978), Aleksandar Pejovski Macedonian folklore.13 Therefore, it seems that for Macedo- (b. 1979), Darija Andovska (b. 1979) and other younger nia the category of national characteristic will not lose its composers actively work in Macedonia. In addition, com- importance for a long time to come, which will be reflected posers from the Albanian ethnicity emerge in Macedonia, on the development of the composition school. with which the overall image of the composers’ work is In this period the Macedonian composition school furthermore enriched. The composers of these generations has tradition spanning over many decades of preparation have at their disposal all the means of contemporary mu- of composers at the Faculty of Music Art in Skopje, con- sic, composition and performance techniques, as well as tinuous growth of creative works comprised of works in aesthetics stands, which imply the possibilities for various almost all genres and existing active contacts (internships, combinations and mixes – above all stylistic and genre. master classes, festivals, membership in international author Parts of them actively conquer multimedia, electronic mu- organizations) with colleagues from countries of Eastern sic, certain authors work on the frontier of genres (mix of and Western Europe and other regions. The coexistence contemporary artistic music, rock, ethno, etc). and joint activity of various styles and techniques in the The Days of Macedonian Music Festival, which takes works of the authors from different generations confirm the place annually since 1973, organized by the Composers’ maturity of the national culture and the formation within Association of Macedonia, plays a great role in the develop- its framework of the new branch of tradition – the tradition ment and promotion of Macedonian music. Its main task of professional music creation. was the performance of new works by Macedonian composers, but in the course of time, works by composers of previous generations were included in order to create a full image References of the Macedonian music works. Since the 1990s the festival 1 has been displaying an international character – performers Thus, the problem of “Authenticity” and Europeanization is set to be crucial in the research of the musical culture in the from other countries are invited with a programme, which Balkans (Marković 2009). contains works of Macedonian composers and composers 2 In his paper Macedonian Composition School – yes or no? from the performers’ country of origin. In 2014, within the Goce Kolarovski calls this turn “the end of prehistory and the Days of Macedonian Music Festival, the festival of electronic beginning of the history of the national composing practice” music took place for the first time, and (Kolarovski 1999: 39). Sound Immersion 3 raised great interest of musicians and the public. Macedonian music culture researcher Dragoslav Ortakov notes: The main preoccupation of the first generation of composers after the liberation [WWII – a.n.] remained the choir, or more Conclusion broadly set – the vocal creation. (Ortakov 2004: 14) Thus he emphasizes its role in the Macedonian national In the development of Macedonian music in the 20th composition school establishment. 4 At the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, century one can feel, to a certain extent, the temporal this tradition is experiencing a real renaissance. In the re- “discomfort”, the simultaneous existence and joint work search and reconstruction of the old manuscripts, a special of tendencies typical for different, including temporally role belongs to scientists and composers Dragoslav Ortakov divided stages of music culture. For a very short period, (1928–2007) and Sotir Golabovski (1937–2014) – the crea- Macedonian music has achieved a solid level of maturity, tor of church singing ensemble St. John Kukuzel. 5 having several generations of composers and significant The indicated periods partially coincide with those proposed in Grigoryeva’s book The Stylistic Problems of Russian Soviet creative works with a diverse genre system. Although in Music in the 2nd Half of the 20th Century, which points to the the works of the numerous representatives of the middle wide “geography” of stylistic influences and the universal char- and young generation there were and there are cosmopolite acter of many important processes in art. Similarly, Sheshken tendencies, the national line, as before, is still important says about the literature: and remains as the leading one for many authors. Also In the living literary process, the struggle and interweaving of various tendencies were constantly observed, sometimes the important is the idea for national self-confirmation, in most unexpected synthesis of the “inconsistent” seems to be greater part because the recognition of the Macedonian inconclusive. (Sheshken 2007: 85) nation and country from certain neighbouring countries is 6 Musicologist Marko Kolovski calls them “the Opening genera- still an open process, which does not follow a straight line tion” (Kolovski 2001: 88–89). 7 and is sometimes painful. On the other hand, as a reaction Among other things, one of the first editions of the Mac- to universalism and globalization, the value of the peculiar edonian folk songs by Stefan Gajdov was printed as Pesme iz Južne Srbije (Songs from South Serbia) by the author “Stefan and typical rises more and more. Macedonian composers Gajdovich”; at that time Macedonia, which was part of Serbia are completely aware of it, recognizing, among all else, the in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was called by that name, and

27 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Viktorija KOLAROVSKA-GMIRJA

the surnames of the Macedonians received an ending “-ich”, на културата на почвата на Македонија, книга 12, Скопје: characteristic of Serbian surnames. МАНУ, 2004, р. 9–19. 8 “Kumanovki” (pl.) – girls from Kumanovo (town in Mace- Oртаков Драгослав, Mузичката уметност во Македонија, donia), in this context – songs from Kumanovo. Скопje: Македонска ревија, 1982. 9 Thus, at the same time, the theme of the songDimitrije Vino Шешкен Алла, Македонская литература ХХ века. Генезис. Pije (Dimitrije’s Drinking Wine) appeared in the string quartet Этапы развития. Национальное своеобразие, Москва: by Mihailo Nikolovski dedicated to the memory of Prokopiev Издательство Московского университета, 2007. and the Concerto for Orchestra by Goce Kolarovski (1992). Both composers for the source of the inspiration pointed out by Trajko Prokopiev based on this song. Kumanovka 3 Santrauka 10 Tapan – Macedonian folk instrument like grand cassa. 11 Macedonian statehood was proclaimed on the 2nd of August, 1944. After the WWII Macedonia was one of the republics of Kalbant apie bet kurią kompozicijos mokyklą, paprastai the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia; since 1991 the aptariami šie komponentai: profesiniai (europietiškojo tipo Republic of Macedonia has been an independent state. profesionalumas), stilistiniai / estetiniai (polinkis į nacio- 12 Beside composition, Ortakov and Golabovski gained musi- nalinį specifiškumą, bendras stilistines ir estetines pozicijas) cological education and, working in the field of music history of Macedonia, laid the foundations for the Macedonian ir edukaciniai (organizuoto proceso veikimas atitinkamos musicology. As we already said, their research in the field of institucijos viduje ar aplink ją). Steigiant nacionalinę kom- music medievalism, i.e. the Byzantine tradition of spiritual pozicijos mokyklą paprastai įgyvendinami keli etapai: music in Macedonia, is especially distinguished. The member •• Paruošiamasis etapas (individų, kurių kūryboje reiškiasi of the same generation Blagoj Canev (b. 1937) acquired the tiek Europos, tiek jų pačių muzikinės tradicijos bruožai, composition education later, at the Faculty of Music Arts in Skopje founded in 1966. veikla); 13 In this sense it is indicative the attitude of the composer from •• Lūžio taškas (pripažinto kūrėjo iškilimas: šis kūrėjas geba the younger generation Damjan Temkov (b. 1981), stating kokybiškai revoliucionizuoti įvairių tradicijų elementų that due to relatively short period of the existence of the sintezę); Macedonian composition music: ... the last 100 years are too •• Augimo laikotarpis (sekėjų iškilimas, profesionalios short a period for our abundant folk tradition to be exhausted muzikos kūrybos tradicijos vystymas, „mokyklos“ siau- as inspiration. I think that there is a chance not only for today but also for the future generations to use the folklore as their rąja edukacinės institucijos prasme įkūrimas ir tolesnis own inspiration. (Јолевски 2013) komponavimo profesionalumo lygio kėlimas); •• Brandusis laikotarpis (individualių pasirinkimų laikotarpis, kai nacionalinė kryptis egzistuoja kaip viena iš Bibliography galimų kūrybos gairių). Šie skirtingo pobūdžio ir intensyvumo procesai būdingi Dahlhaus Carl, Nationalism and Music, in: Between Romanticism įvairioms nacionalinėms kultūroms. Itin ryškūs jų charakte- and Modernism, Berkeley: University of California, 1989, ringi bruožai nacionalinėse kompozicijos mokyklose, tarp jų p. 79–102. Kolarovski Goce, Macedonian Composition School: Yes or ir Makedonijos, kuri buvo suformuota XX a. kultūriniame No?, in: Macedonian Music, No. 1, Special edition, Skopje: kontekste. SOKOM, 1999, p. 33–42. Viena iš esminių užduočių formuojant nacionalinę Kolovski Marko, Macedonian Music, in: Sokol Shupo (ed.), Art kompozicijos mokyklą yra sukurti žanrų sistemą, į kurią įeitų Music in the Balkans, Tirana: ASMUS, 2001, p. 75–105. „karališkieji“ Europos muzikos žanrai (pirmiausiai – opera Marković Tatjana, Balkan Studies and Music Historiography: (Self) ir simfonija), taip pat įvaldyti bendrus muzikinės logikos, Representation Between “Authenticity” and Europeanization, 2009-08-25, Kakanien Revisited Platform, http://www. vystymo ir dramaturgijos principus ir pažinti komponavimo kakanien.ac.at/beitr/balkans/TMarkovic1.pdf [last checked technikas. Nacionalinės kompozicijos mokyklos formavimo 2018 11 11]. procesas tiesiogiai susijęs su klausytojų auditorijos formavi- mu. Šie du procesai susiję „atgaliniu ryšiu“: kompozitorius Григорьева Галина, Стилевые проблемы русской советской turi omenyje „klausytojų vaizdinį“, o klausytojai „mokosi“ музыки второй половины ХХ века, Москва: Советский композитор, 1989. naujos muzikinės kalbos, studijuoja veikėjus ir kūrinio Јолевски Љупчо, Дамјан Темков – традиционалист по mintį, semantiką, suformuoja asociacijas. сопствен избор, in: Радио Слободна Европа, 2013, Nacionalinės idėjos reikšmę Makedonijos muzikoje https://www.slobodnaevropa.mk/a/24891441.html?fbclid=Iw paaiškina keli aspektai. Svarbiausias aspektas – kai kurių AR3iCUok6WJhS7VKBjFJ_DNjL6qdhvD9kk7GrsVC_ kaimyninių valstybių iki šiol vykdomas tautos ir kalbos su- o3T0RmYr8uwU9tLSGc [last checked 2018 10 11]. verenumo nepripažinimas, taip pat nacionalinio apsispren- Ортаков Драгослав, Современа македонска музика, in: Георги Старделов, Драгослав Ортаков, Димитрије Бужаровски dimo aktualumas. Prie išskirtinai muzikinio fenomeno taip (ed.), Музиката на почвата на Македонија од Атанас pat šliejasi ir vis dar aktyviai funkcionuojantis Makedonijos Бадев до денес: прилози за истражувањето на историјата folkloras, kurio pagrindas yra neeuropietiškas (svarbiausios

28 The Macedonian National School of Composition: The Specifics of Foundation and Development charakteristikos – netaisyklingas metras, netemperuota •• 1980–1990 m.: stilių ir technikų pliuralizmas, funkcio- melizmatika ir burdoninis dainavimas). Specifinis senasis nuojantis pagal individualią kūrybinę veiklą ir muzikinį bažnytinis dainavimas yra grįstas monodine bizantiškąja darbą, tuo pat metu siekiant sintetinio principo – tai tradicija, kuri XX a. pab.–XXI a. pr. išgyvena tikrą rene- tipiškas XX a. meno bruožas. sansą. Folkloras ir senoji dvasinė muzika yra svarbiausi Šis skirstymas siejasi su anksčiau minėtais nacionalinės sąmoningi šaltiniai, grindžiantys profesionalių Makedonijos mokyklos formavimo etapais (paruošiamasis, lūžio, augimo kompozitorių muziką. ir brandusis). Nacionalinės tradicijos ir europietiškos įtakos sąveikų Vienas iš Makedonijos nacionalinės kompozicijos procesas gali būti pristatytas šitaip: mokyklos formavimo bruožų yra jos „pagreitintas vysty- •• 1930–1940 m.: tradicinių dainų chorinės adaptacijos, mas“ – procesas, kuris pastebimas ir kituose menuose (pvz., ypač vadinamojoje „senojoje miestietiškoje“ tradicijoje, literatūroje). Įvairūs stiliai ir technikos iškyla sinchroniškai, kuriai didelę įtaką darė Vakarų Europos tonalumas; jų bruožai vienu metu matomi skirtingų kartų autorių •• 1950-ieji: pasirodo pirmieji kūriniai, parašyti svarbiau- kūryboje ar to paties autoriaus darbuose. sių Europos žanrų pagrindu (opera, baletas, simfonija, Makedonijos kompozitorių kūryboje besireiškiantis simfoninė poema, koncertas), ryškios neoklasikos ir įvairių stilių bei technikų egzistavimas ir sąveikavimas tame neofolkloro tendencijos; pačiame laiko taške patvirtina nacionalinės muzikinės kul- •• 1960–1970 m.: aleatorikos, sonoristikos įtaka ir pirmųjų tūros brandą ir besiformuojančią naują tradicijos atšaką – elektroninės muzikos modelių atsiradimas. Išskirtinis profesionalios muzikos kūrybą. bruožas – ryški „avangardinių“ technikų ir folkloro modelių sąveika;

29 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Patrick BECKER Darmstadt als Bauhütte: Historische und aktuelle Perspektiven auf die Internationalen Ferienkurse für Neue Musik Darmštatas kaip sambūris: tarptautinių naujosios muzikos vasaros kursų istorinė ir dabarties perspektyva

Humboldt University, Unter den Linden 6, Berlin, Germany Email [email protected]

Zusammenfassung Die Vorstellung von Kompositionsschulen, wie sie immer noch durch Begriffe des 19. Jahrhunderts verstanden wird – als enge Zusammenar- beit einer LehrerIn mit wissbegierigen SchülerInnen –, scheint in der zweiten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhundert ihre Anziehungskraft verloren zu haben. Obwohl MusikwissenschaftlerInnen Kompositionsschulen wie die Scherchen-Schule oder die Kölner Schule festzumachen versucht haben, widerstrebte es in späteren Jahren den meisten der ihnen zugerechneten SchülerInnen dieser „Schulen“, sich ihnen als zugehörig zu beschreiben (wie György Ligeti beispielsweise). Nichtsdestoweniger wäre die Frage nach Kompositionsschulen der neuen Musik keinesfalls durch die Verwendung des Begriffs im Sinne des 19. Jahrhunderts, noch durch den Verweis auf später gemachte Aussagen ihrer angeblichen Mitglieder gelöst. Vielmehr scheint der Verlust einheitlicher Stile – seien sie national, seien sie Teil einer „Schule“ – der Grund zu sein, dass Komponistinnen auf ihre künstlerische Unabhängigkeit pochen. In diesem Beitrag untersuche ich Kompositionsschulen im Umkreis der „Darmstädter Ferienkurse“: Da sich die Thematik nicht nur in der Zeit der scheinbaren Existenz jener Schulen bewegt, sondern auch eine zweite Zeitschicht – die Momente der späteren Distanzierung – bedient, eröffnet sich die Möglichkeit der Einbeziehung von Dokumenten aus Darmstadt, Briefen, Vorträgen, theoretischen Auseinander- setzungen, Dokumenten der späteren Distanzierungen und, von eminenter Bedeutung, die Einbeziehung der musikalischen Werke selbst, in denen sich neben festgehaltenen Äußerungen die Weitergabe allemal festmachen ließe. Zu klären ist einserseits die Frage, ob der Begriff der Kompositionsschule auf die Lehrer-Schüler-Verhältnisse der neuen Musik seit Ende der 1940er Jahre anwendbar ist und, wenn dies nicht der Fall ist, bliebe zu klären, welche Aufgaben Institutionen wie die Darmstädter Fer- ienkurse dann bei der Ausbildung junger Komponistinnen haben und welcher Art das „Weitergegebene“ ist. Stichwörter: Darmstadt, Avantgarde, Neue Musik, Komponistenschulen, Musikjournalismus.

Anotacija Kompozicijos mokyklų įsivaizdavimas, kaip jos vis dar suvokiamos XIX a. sampratomis, – glaudus mokytojo (-os) ir žinių trokštančių mo- kinių bendradarbiavimas, – antroje XX a. pusėje, regis, nebėra toks patrauklus. Nors muzikologai ir mėgino įtvirtinti tokias kompozicijos mokyklas kaip Schercheno ar Kelno, vėlesniais metais dauguma toms „mokykloms“ priskirtų mokinių (pavyzdžiui, György Ligeti) nenorėjo tokiais vadintis. Kad ir kaip ten būtų, į klausimą apie naujosios muzikos kompozicijos mokyklas jokiu būdu neatsakytų nei pasitelkta XIX a. samprata, nei vėlesni tariamų jų narių teiginiai. Kur kas svarbesnė priežastis, dėl ko kompozitoriams tokia svarbi tapo nepriklausomybė, buvo bendrų stilių išnykimas – ar jie būtų nacionaliniai, ar vienos kurios „mokyklos“. Šiame straipsnyje – remdamasi gausiais šaltiniais – aptariu Darmštato vasaros kursų aplinkos kompozicijos mokyklas. Kadangi ši tematika aprėpia ne vien tariamo tų mokyklų egzistavimo laiką, bet ir antrąjį laiko sluoksnį – vėlesnį atitolimą, atsiveria galimybė įtraukti dokumentus iš Darmštato, laiškus, paskaitas, teorinius nagrinėjimus, vėlesnio atitolimo dokumentus ir, o tai itin svarbu, įtraukti pačius kūrinius, kuriuose greta užfiksuotų teiginių tikrai galima matyti perdavimus. Viena vertus, reikia išsiaiškinti, ar kompozicijos mokyklos sąvoka taikytina mokytojo ir mokinio santykiams naujojoje muzikoje nuo 5-ojo dešimtmečio pabaigos, o jei taip nėra, kokia misija rengiant jaunus kompozitorius tuomet tenka institucijoms, tokioms kaip Darmštato vasaros kursai, ir kas yra „perduodama“. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Darmštatas, avangardas, naujoji / šiuolaikinė muzika, kompozitorių mokykla, muzikos žurnalistika.

Einleitung austauschen möchte, der wohlklingender ist, jedoch das- selbe bedeutet. Denn wenigstens von musikwissenschaft- Zunächst einmal scheint der Versuch, sich den Inter- licher Seite her ist das Konzept einer Darmstädter Schule nationalen Ferienkursen für Neue Musik in Darmstadt als spätestens seit Beginn der 1990er-Jahre relativiert und Bauhütte anzunähern, fruchtbar zu sein, solange man hier kritisiert worden – in einer Art und Weise, dass er als nicht den einen Terminus verschämt mit einem anderen musikhistoriographische Kategorie nicht mehr verfügbar

30 Darmstadt als Bauhütte: Historische und aktuelle Perspektiven auf die Internationalen Ferienkurse für Neue Musik ist. Dies geschah an prominenter Stelle in zwei Beiträgen von geringen Einfluss eben auch immer vertreten waren. Hermann Danusers: Erstens in der gemeinsam mit Gi- Des Weiteren die relative Signifikanz der Darmstädter anmario Berio herausgegebenen vierbändigen Arbeit Im Ferienkurse, die zwar eine der wichtigsten Veranstaltungen Zenit der Moderne. Die Internationalen Ferienkurse für der Neuen Musik waren und sind, deren Bedeutung jedoch Neue Musik Darmstadt 1946–1966, die 1997 erschienen nicht in die Höhen emporgehoben werden sollte, in die ist (Vgl. Danuser & Borio 1997). Des Weiteren in seinem sie so mancher Enthusiast zu entrücken pflegt. Darmstadt Vortrag Gibt es eine Darmstädter Schule?, den er 1990 ist eine Institution, aber das sind auch Donaueschingen, auf dem Symposium Musikkultur in der Bundesrepublik Musica viva in München, der WDR in Köln etc. Es wäre Deutschland in Leningrad hielt (Vgl. Danuser 1994). Hier also verfehlt, zu denken, dass lediglich die Ferienkurse für wie dort erklärt Danuser, dass Darmstadt eine scheinbar die künstlerische Entwicklung der Komponistinnen und herrschaftsfreie Lehr- und Lerngemeinschaft ist; Beispiel Komponisten bestimmend war. Außerdem die zuneh- eines Habermas’schen Kommunikationsmodells avant la mende „Personalisierung der Avantgarde“, wie Danuser lettre, welches freilich ein Ideal darstellte, das in der Realität den Prozess der Verabschiedung vom konventionellen meist eher gegenteilige Kommunikationsformen begleitete Kompositionsunterricht nennt (Danuser 2014 a: 133), der (Danuser 2014 a: 136). seit den 1960er-Jahren in Darmstadt bemerkbar ist und die Danuser gelang 1990 noch zu dem Schluss, dass, wenn bereits erwähnte Realität eines durchaus autoritär gepräg- alle Kategorien in ihrer schulbildenden Relevanz mithin ten Personenkults, der sich um die großen Namen bildete, immer erst post festum stilbildend geworden sind, die als auch die Verhärtung kompositorischer Stile, aus denen kompositionsgeschichtlichen Konturen einer Darmstädter herauszubrechen fast nur der Skandal ermöglichte.So wird Schule bei näherem Hinsehen hinfällig werden, es sei denn das Phänomen Darmstadt – und mit ihm das Konzept der man setzte sie statt mit der historischen Wirklichkeit mit Kompositionsschule – in Danusers Augen zum Mythos als dem Mythos der Avantgarde-Idee und ihrer seriellen Aus- Glaube an eine Zukunft, die die tiefsten Neigungen einer prägung in eins (Danuser 1994: 152). bestimmten sozialen Gruppe verkörpert, wie er Alistair Diesem Verdikt gegen die Verwendung des Komposi- McIntyres Artikel „Myth“ in der Encyclopedia of Philosophy tionsschulenbegriffs in Bezug auf die Darmstädter Ferien- zitiert (Vgl. MacIntyre 1967). kurse ist in der vierbändigen Darmstadtdokumentation Im Zenit der Moderne eine umfangreiche Auseinandersetzung entgegengesetzt, die nicht nur die Anwendbarkeit des Darmstadt als Bauhütte? Begriffs, sondern auch dessen Ursprünge, Nuancen und Facettenreichtum beinhaltet und ganz im Geiste von Da- Was hat die Auffassung der Internationalen Ferienkurse nusers Artikel zur „Neuen Musik“ in der zweiten Auflage für Neue Musik in Darmstadt als Bauhütte Danusers Darle- der Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart das Problem stets gungen entgegenzusetzen oder hinzuzufügen? Was vermag von zwei Seiten her beleuchtet (Vgl. Danuser 2014 b). die Vorstellung einer Bauhütte leisten, was das Konzept der Danuser beschreibt Extremata, tritt zurück von der Idee, Kompositionsschule nicht leisten kann? Ist der Betrachtung die Geschichte Darmstadts zu erzählen, sondern will statt- der Ferienkurse durch die Brille des Bauhüttenwesens die dessen eine Geschichte schreiben, wie er selbst ausführt. Möglichkeit gegeben, die gerade skizzierten Vorgänge in Diese – freilich verhaltene – Form dialektischen Denkens, einer Art und Weise zu beschreiben, die einen Vorzug gegen- das aus der Furcht vor dem falschen Urteil, auf Grund der über dem problematischen Schulenbegriff darstellt? Es wäre zeitlichen Nähe zum Beschriebenen These und Antithese zunächst einmal zu klären, was eine Bauhütte eigentlich ist beschreibt, aber darauf verzichtet sie gegeneinander auszu- oder ehemals war, um so die Unterschiede aufzuzeigen. Ein spielen und so zur Synthese zu gelangen, umfasst einerseits Blick in die einschlägigen Darstellungen der Geschichtswis- Faktizität und Mythos, Schulen und Schule, Rationalität senschaft offenbart das Bild einer vielfältigen Institution, und Historizität, arché und Zentrum sowie agon und eines Zusammenschlusses verschiedenster Professionen Skandal. Danuser entscheidet sich andererseits dafür, diese und eine Ausbildungsstätte mit höchsten Ansprüchen. In Strenge unter den Kategorien der Dialogizität, ihrer dicho- den Bauhütten des Mittelalters kamen Baumeister, Gesellen tomischen Bewertung und schließlich eines dynamischen unterschiedlichster Handwerksberufe, Kleriker, aber auch Schulbegriffs einzuklammern, um so den ästhetischen, den Köche und Dienerschaft zusammen – sei es als wandernde ideologischen, den soziologischen und nicht zuletzt den Bauhütten oder fest mit einem Kirchenbau verbundene. musikhistoriographischen Ansprüchen Genüge zu tun. Die komplexe Ausbildungsstruktur kann hier nur kurz Doch, was genau verstellt den Zugriff auf den Terminus der angerissen werden: Sie begann üblicherweise im Alter von Kompositionsschule in Danusers Argumentation? ungefähr 14 Jahren mit der Tätigkeit als Lehrjunge, führte Das sind zunächst einmal die vielfältigen Strömungen, über den Gesellenstand, die verpflichtende Wanderschaft die in Darmstadt oft nur latent oder wirkungsgeschichtlich zwischen verschiedenen Hütten, über die Anstellung als

31 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Patrick BECKER

Palier – der heutige Vorsteher – bis hin zum Meister (Vgl. Mythos dekonstruiert, indem sie auf die Faktizität rekurriert. Binding 1977–1980). So ist die Bauhütte also wesentlich Bedeutet das eine Abkehr von Darmstadt? Vielleicht. So lässt durch folgende Merkmale bestimmt: Sie steht nicht allein sich die Kategorie des Mythos Darmstadt, wie Danuser es Im dar, sondern ist Teil einer umfassenderen Organisation – so Zenit der Moderne tat, vergleichen mit der Mythenbildung locker oder eng diese auch im Mittelalter verflochten war –, im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland. Die Unterschiede sie ist eine Ausbildungsstätte und beinahe schon autarker liegen freilich auf der Hand. Danuser schreibt: Betrieb, in dem sich die ebenfalls ganz eigene Rituale und Die Verachtung der nationalsozialistischen und allgemein der Praktiken des Zusammenlebens ausbildeten. Die Gesellen- populistischen Kulturideale trug entscheidend zur Legitima- schaft der Bauhütte – und hier klingt im Deutschen der tion einer Haltung, die ein Sendungsbewusstsein implizierte, Begriff der Gesellschaft schon an – musste sich diese kom- bei. (Danuser 2014 a: 140) plexen Rituale und Praktiken aneignen, die Weitergabe der Bauhüttengeheimnisse an Außenstehende war strengstens Den Massenkulten der Nationalsozialisten wird in verboten und ihre verpflichtende Wanderschaft garantierte Darmstadt die Idee einer hermetischen, elitären Avantgarde den Erwerb von Fähigkeiten, die weit über das Wissen nur entgegengestellt, eine vernünftige an Maß und Zahl orien- eines Meisters hinausgingen. tierte Bewegung – auch hier wieder deutliche Parallelen So manche Parallele zum Betrieb in Darmstadt kann zum Bauhüttenwesen –, die aller Irrationalität eine Absage festgestellt werden. Darmstadt als Bauhütte relativiert die erteilt. Doch Danuser irrt, wenn er schreibt: Stellung Darmstadts für die Neue Musik als eine Veranstal- [Z]ielte schließlich der NS-Mythos auf eine ewige Kunst, auf tung unter vielen weiteren Veranstaltungen, lässt Darmstadt Gebilde, die der Zeit enthoben seien sollten, so betrieb die im Licht einer lockeren, vielfältigen Zusammenkunft Darmstädter Schule ganz im Gegenteil ihre eigene Historisie- erscheinen, die ihre Gesellen prägt, aber nicht bestimmt rung, indem sie einen ständig und prinzipiell sich erneuernden und beleuchtet kritisch die Ritualhandlungen der Neuen Kunstbegriff proklamierte und durch das Schaffen einzulösen Musik, welche sich offensichtlich auch in Darmstadt her- sich bemühte. (Danuser 2014 a: 141) ausbildeten. An dieser Stelle könnte – würde man sich dem Selbstlob Denn so unterschiedlich die Ästhetiken der Lehrer und hingeben wollen – dieser Text beendet werden. Darmstadt Schüler in Darmstadt nun sind, sie waren stets normativ, als Bauhütte: Das ist anders, das ist neu, das ist frisch, aber exklusiv und wurden nur durch die Kunst des Skandals nicht zu sehr. Darmstadt als Bauhütte: Das ist ein Konzept, überwunden. Man denke etwa nur an Karlheinz Stockhau- mit dem sich arbeiten lässt. Doch, wieso bleibt ein bitterer sen, über den Hans Werner Henze sagte: Beigeschmack, wenn der Versuch unternommen wird, das Also, Karlheinz muss schon als kleiner Junge ein gewisser- Modell der Bauhütte auf Darmstadt anzuwenden? maßen pausenloses Sendungsbewusstsein in sich getragen Hier greifen die Extremata Hermann Danusers: Was haben, jedenfalls brachte er in seinem Auftreten dauernd so sich auf den ersten Blick als verschämte Flucht vor der etwas zum Ausdruck. Er war selten frei von Pathos, er war zeitgeschichtlichen Unmittelbarkeit gestaltet, entpuppt sich immerzu auf Wolke neun. beim genaueren Hinsehen als zutreffende Beschreibung des Darmstadt als Bauhütte, diese Gesellenschaft ist eben Phänomens Darmstadt. Die Extremata von Faktizität und wortwörtlich, was Gesellschaft bezeichnet: eine Gemein- Mythos werfen jede noch so fein herausgearbeitete histo- schaft der Unmündigen, der Gesellen, nicht der Meister, riographische Kategorie über Bord, denn die wirklichen deren Herstellungsmechanismen ideal auf die Ausbildung Zustände in den Ferienkursen von Anbeginn bis heute des selbstbestimmten Menschen ausgerichtet sind, in der trotzen zwar nicht jeder Beschreibung, aber immerhin Realität jedoch nicht über die Erschaffung eines abhängi- jedem Versuch der Begutachtung durch ein einheitliches gen hinauskommen. Freilich steht für Henze der Schuldige Modell. Was bedeutet das? oder – anders gesagt: das Schuldige – fest; er sagt: Es bedeutet weniger, dass Darmstadts Vielfältigkeit gerühmt werden soll und vom Versuch abgerückt wird, So ein Komponist in der spätkapitalistischen Welt ist mehr die – oder wenigstens eine – Geschichte zu schreiben, denn oder weniger ein kleiner Industrieller, ein Unternehmer, ein Selbstständiger, dessen Produkt nicht in Vergessenheit geraten noch ist die Erinnerung an die geisteswissenschaftliche darf. Kunst wurde zur Machtfrage, eine Frage der Macht, der Methode lebendig, deren Abdankung über Nacht Carl Einflüsse, der Beziehungen, des politischen und moralischen Dahlhaus in seiner Schrift zum musikalischen Realismus Konformismus. beklagte (Dahlhaus 2002: 129). Vielmehr bedeutet es, die wirklichen Zustände in Darmstadt herauszuarbeiten, aus Die Referenzen an das Konzept Darmstadt als Bau- dem Wissen um die Unzulänglichkeit der Kategorien für die hütte sind implizit. Im Hinblick auf die Geschichte der Beschreibung dieses Phänomens die Kritik zu ihrem Recht Darmstädter Ferienkurse in Bezug auf den Kalten Krieg, kommen zu lassen und eine Geschichte zu erzählen, die den den Ost-West-Konflikt, lassen sich trotz aller Versuche

32 Darmstadt als Bauhütte: Historische und aktuelle Perspektiven auf die Internationalen Ferienkurse für Neue Musik der Beteiligten die Politik aus ihrer Kunst herauszuhalten Eva Reiter mit ihren Crossover-Performances, die die alte, ganz ähnliche Verhaltensmuster finden. Die Autorität der die Neue und die Pop-Musik einbeziehen und das LAB, das Darmstädter Bauhütte – oder Schule – verlangte geradezu immer auch ein paar szenefremde Studenten mit Sinn fürs nach dem Skandal, der die prominenteste Möglichkeit war, Außergewöhnliche anzieht: Das passt zusammen. Experi- sich aus dem Kreis der Schüler zu lösen und selbst Lehrer zu mente ohne Risiko, Pop ohne Unterschicht. Das Ensemble ist stufenartig um die singende Eva Reiter gruppiert, die im werden. Die begeisterte Übernahme neuer Ausdrucksmittel Dämmerlicht der Coolness über allen thront. Die Musik zielt in Darmstadt unterscheidet sich vordergründig kaum von auf die Geste, ist immer eindeutig und trifft die Effekte, die derjenigen osteuropäischer und sowjetischer Komponisten sie ansteuert. (Kallenberg 2016) in den 1950er- und 1960er-Jahren. Die Versuche der Lehrer ihren Schülern die Entwicklung über ihren eigenen Stil Kallenbergs Kritik mündet im Verriss: hinaus zu untersagen, lässt sich aus dutzenden Invektiven Mit Neuer Musik hat das natürlich nichts zu tun. Eva Rei- im Osten wie im Westen herauslesen. Hermann Danuser ter gibt dem Publikum das, was es will. Ihr Maßstab ist die zeigt die Notwendigkeit dieser Abkehr auf: Realität, so wie sie ist. Neue Musik aber will das Gegenteil: Nur derjenige, der in einem Akt der Rebellion den gegebe- Sie muss der Realität zum Maßstab werden. Verstehen wir nenfalls latenten Schulzusammenhang sprengt, hat Aussicht doch Neue Musik in genau diesem Sinne, können wir es uns zu den wirklichen Künstlern gerechnet zu werden. Darum dennoch nicht leisten, uns selbst sicher über Stücke wie den gehören Akte der Loslösung und der brüsken Negation von Lichtenberg Figures zu erheben. So obszön und geschmacklos Lehrinhalten zu den Ursprungsdokumenten der modernen auch ihre eindeutige Direktheit ist. Eva Reiter kommt an. Musik. Je heftiger ein solches sich Aufbäumen ausfällt, umso Wir nicht. (Ebd.) klarer – so scheint es – zeichnen sich die Konturen einer neuen Der pluralis majestatis steht hier stellvertretend für Künstlerphysiognomie ab. (Danuser 2014 a: 123) eine junge und eine jüngere Generation, deren Auffassung Die Ähnlichkeiten zu Darmstadt sind frappant. Je- von Neuer Musik und ihrer Funktion in Kallenbergs Text doch – und hier sieht man, dass die geisteswissenschaftliche deutlich wird. Diese Generation – und stellvertretend ihr Methode noch ihr Jota dazuzugeben hat – lassen sich diese Autor – will Neue Musik, die als Maßstab der Realität Mechanismen bis zum heutigen Tag aufzeigen. Denn selbst gelten kann, die sich der Realität nicht anbiedert, sondern in diesem Jahr, dem 70. Jahr des Bestehens der Internatio- die die scheinbare Natürlichkeit der Realität vom Sockel nalen Ferienkurse für Neue Musik partizipiert Darmstadt stürzt. In Kallenbergs Kritik manifestiert sich der Wunsch bei aller Verflechtung trotz des scheinbaren Verlusts des der jungen Generation, gehört zu werden, anzukommen. Skandals noch an diesen Mechanismen, wie die diesjährige Doch an dieser Stelle greifen die Mechanismen Darmstadts Auseinandersetzungen um die Darmstädter Schreibwerk- ein, es entlädt sich eine Diskussion, die schnell den Rahmen statt zeigen. Was ist geschehen? Die Internationalen Feri- des gepflegten Gesprächs verlässt und ins Beleidigende, ins enkurse hatten dieses Jahr eine Schreibwerkstatt für junge Respektlose, in eine Machtdemonstration übergeht, denn Studierende angeboten: Die Idee war, den jungen Autoren eigentlich war die Kommentarfunktion für die Blogbeiträge eine Möglichkeit zu geben, die Darmstädter Ferienkurse für die Dauer der Ferienkurse deaktiviert. Man könnte fast journalistisch zu begleiten und eine Plattform zu erhalten, sagen auf mysteriöse Art und Weise – oder, wie sich später um eigene Texte und Beiträge zu veröffentlichen. Doch aus herausstellen sollte, auf Order der Ferienkursleitung – diesem Vermittlungsprojekt entwickelte sich schnell ein prasselten plötzlich Kommentare verschiedenster Leser Skandal, als einige der Autoren den Mythos Darmstadt unter diesen Blog. Zunächst noch ganz verhalten der ame- wörtlich nahmen und den kritischen Impuls der Ferienkurse rikanische Komponist Harry Eiler, der der Ansicht war, es aufgriffen. Der junge Frankfurter Musikwissenschaftler Jim bedürfe für Performances wie Eva Reiters The Lichtenberg Igor Kallenberg rezensierte ein Konzert des belgischen Ictus- Figures einfach neuer Begriffe, da sie die Kunstgrenzen Ensembles und der Performer-Komponistin Eva Reiter im überschreiten würden und nicht – wie Kallenberg es getan sogenannten lab – einem Konzertort in Frankfurt am Main habe – nach den Maßstäben klassischer Konzertauffüh- – und betitelte seinen Beitrag, der im Blog der Darmstädter rungen bewertet werden sollten. Daraufhin wirft eine Ferienkurse wurde, mit „In Frankfurt erklärt Darmstadt den Violinistin Kallenberg unter dem Deckmäntelchen der musikalischen Bankrott“. Dieser Blog, der seit 2013 online Meinungsfreiheit vor, dass er: ist und bei über 40 Beiträgen von Autorinnen und Autoren … being let not by openness to the experience or some deeper ungefähr so populär ist wie der Verzehr von Hundefleisch – research, but more opinions made by the chase for social media bis dato gab es nur fünf Kommentare, die Breitenwirkung acceptance and popularity contest of sorts with the attempt ist gering –, wurde auf einmal Schauplatz einer Auseinan- of getting in with the cool kids, celebrating, explaining and dersetzung, die die Mechanismen Darmstadts offenlegt. In justifying certain works based solely on the popularity and seinem kurzen Beitrag schreibt Kallenberg: social media presence of their creators. (Ebd.)

33 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Patrick BECKER

Ihrem Absolutheitsanspruch schließt sich eine ganze Um zum Schluss zu kommen: Bei aller Kritik an Reihe von Kommentatoren an und schnell wird deutlich, Darmstadt üben die Internationalen Ferienkurse für Neue dass hier zwei Denkfiguren aufeinandertreffen, die unter- Musik eine ungebrochene Faszination aus. Sie waren und schiedlicher nicht sein könnten: Das ist einerseits Jim Igor sind in ihrer Zeit nicht nur der Ort intensiver ästhetischer Kallenbergs – man mag sagen – realistische Musikauf- Auseinandersetzungen und Aufführung bahnbrechender fassung, der Gedanke, dass eine neue Musik durch die Werke, sondern auch wirkungsgeschichtlich eine der wich- Negation des Bestehenden, Dieses beeinflussen kann, und tigsten Institutionen der Neuen Musik. Die Mechanismen andererseits die Auswüchse der musikalischen Postmoder- von Autorität und Mythos nachzuzeichnen, so wie es hier ne, deren Vertreterinnen und Vertreter mittlerweile selbst exemplarisch versucht wurde, offenbart doch nur eine in die Jahre gekommen sind und nur noch nachbeten, was Verlängerung von Mechanismen, die sich in der Gesamt- einst Aufklärung war und und nun verkrustete Ideologie gesellschaft finden lassen. Der Musikgeschichtsschreibung ist. So auch ein weiterer Kommentator: stehen eine ganze Reihe von Möglichkeiten offen, sich mit dem Phänomen Darmstadt auseinanderzusetzen: Die von und mit Eva Reiter und der belgischen Lichtenberg Figures Geschichte, eine Geschichte der Konstruktion des Mythos, Gruppe Ictus als Bankrotterklärung der Darmstädter Ferien- Deskription oder eben die von Hermann Danuser skizzierte kurse? Markige Behauptung, aber leider genau daneben. Nichts gegen unterschiedliche Wahrnehmungen und Beurteilungen und in Grundzügen vorbereitete dialektische Auseinan- von Musik, das bleibt der freien Entscheidung des Betrachters dersetzung mit Faktizität und Mythos. Denn Darmstadt oder Hörers oder – wie in diesem Fall – dem Journalisten über- macht anscheinend sprachlos, führt zum Scheideweg des lassen. Aber muss man gleich vom Untergang der Neuen Musik kritischen Nihilismus und der affirmativen Naivität. Die sprechen, wo nicht einmal klar ist, was sie überhaupt heute zu schiere Komplexität des Phänomens der Internationalen bedeuten hat? Allein schon die Wortbildung ist bedenklich und Ferienkurse für Neue Musik wirft die Frage auf: Darmstadt, zumindest sehr missverständlich. Soll sie am Ende die Politik que me veux-tu? ersetzen oder gar Ausgangspunkt einer wie immer gearteten Revolution sein? Mehr Hybris geht wohl kaum. (Ebd.)

Augenscheinlich kein Schwergewicht des Diskurses, Literaturnachweis muss dieser Kommentar noch beendet werden mit dem Binding Günther, Art. Bauhütte, in: Lexikon des Mittelalters, Bd. 1, Hinweis, man möge seinen – wie er wohl denkt bahnbre- München und Zürich: Artemis, 1977–1980, p. 1629–1630. chenden – Artikel auf seinem eigenen Blog lesen. Gegen Dahlhaus Carl, Musikalischer Realismus, in: ders., Gesammelte diese – man mag sagen – verbale Inkontinenz der Altvor- Schriften, hrsg. von Hermann Danuser, Bd. 4, Laaber: Laaber, deren stellt sich nur Jonas Reichert, der selbst Teilnehmer 2002, p. 129–234. Danuser Hermann, Borio Gianmario (Hgg.), der Schreibwerkstatt war. Er führt aus, dass er Zeuge einer Im Zenit der Moder- ne. Die Internationalen Ferienkurse für Neue Musik Darmstadt perfiden Machtdemonstration gewesen sei und die unvor- 1946–1966, 4 Bde., Freiburg im Breisgau: Rombach, 1997. hergesehene Aktivierung der Kommentarfunktion doch Danuser Hermann, Gibt es eine Darmstädter Schule, in: Musikkul- beim besten Willen kein Zufall gewesen sein kann. Seine tur in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Symposion Leningrad Kritik an der Auseinandersetzung klingt wie das Echo 1990, hrsg. von Rudolf Stephan und Vsevolod Saderackij, vergangener Zeiten, die Wiederholung der Mechanismen Regensburg: Bosse, 1994, p. 149–166. Danuser Hermann, Die „Darmstädter Schule“ – Faktizität und von Schülern, die sich von ihren Lehrern emanzipieren, Mythos, in: ders., Gesammelte Vorträge und Aufsätze, hrsg. von und Denkmustern, die der Neuen Musik je zu eigen waren: Hans-Joachim Hinrichsen, Christian Schaper und Laure Spaltenstein, Bd. 3, Schliengen: Argus, 2014 a, p. 119–154. Wie muss es um die geistige Landschaft der Neuen Musik ste- Danuser Hermann, Neue Musik, in: ders., Gesammelte Vorträge hen, dass ein einzelner Kommentar eines noch unbekannten, und Aufsätze, hrsg. von Hans-Joachim Hinrichsen, Christian jungen Journalisten auf einem relativ unbekannten Blog einen Schaper und Laure Spaltenstein, Bd. 3, Schliengen: Argus, ganzen Machtapparat in Gang setzt? Wie verflacht muss die 2014 b, p. 170–218. Szene sein, dass der utopische Eifer in Kallenbergs Text als Kallenberg Jim Igor, In Frankfurt erklärt Darmstadt den musi- Respektlosigkeit diffarmiert wird? Ich möchte an die Utopie kalischen Bankrott, in: Writing Workshop of the Darmstadt glauben, von der Kallenberg spricht, an die Möglichkeit, dass Summer Course, directed by Anne Hilde Neset, Peter Mean- Musik uns mehr geben kann, als dass, was die absurde Welt well and Stefan Fricke, 2016 08 11, http://archive.is/PK3g uns zu bieten hat. Die Neue Musik und ihre Repräsentanten o#selection-1123.253-1123.635 [last checked 2018 09 18]. MacIntyre Alasdair, Art. Myth, in: , zeigen aber wie absurd ordinär diese Neue Musik ist. Diesen The Encyclopedia of Philosophy ed. Paul Edwards, Vol. 5, New York und London: Macmillan, status quo wollen sie beibehalten und dadurch die Neue Musik 1967, p. 434–437. retten, indem sie sie in den perfiden Machenschaften unserer Welt zerren, tun sie genau das Gegenteil. Von der Perfidität muss die Neue Musik gelöst werden und dazu braucht es Schreiber wie Kallenberg. (Ebd.)

34 Darmstadt als Bauhütte: Historische und aktuelle Perspektiven auf die Internationalen Ferienkurse für Neue Musik

Santrauka supratimas prieštarauja ar kaip papildo H. Danuserio vaizdavimą? Viduramžiais tokiuose dideliam bendram Iš pradžių mėginimas pažvelgti į Tarptautinius naujosios (statybiniam) tikslui pasiekti susidariusiuose sambūriuose muzikos vasaros kursus Darmštate, kaip į sambūrį, atrodo susitikdavo architektai, įvairiausių amatų meistrai ir pameis- vaisingas, kol nebandoma susigėdus vieną terminą keisti kitu, triai, dvasininkai, taip pat virėjai ar patarnautojai. Čia galima gražiau skambančiu, tačiau reiškiančiu tą patį. Mat bent jau įžvelgti šiokių tokių paralelių su tuo, kas vyksta Darmštate. muzikologiniu aspektu Darmštato mokyklos koncepcija Laikant Darmštatą sambūriu, šių kursų pozicijos praranda vėliausiai nuo 10-ojo dešimtmečio pradžios nebevertinta svarbą naujojoje muzikoje, nes yra vienas renginys tarp taip aukštai ir kritikuojama – taip, kad ji tapo nebetinkama daugelio kitų, Darmštatas atsiveria laisvesnio, įvairialypio kaip istoriografinė muzikos kategorija. Labiausiai pagarsėjo bendravimo šviesoje, kuri veikia savo pameistrius, bet nėra šią problematiką nagrinėjęs Hermannas Danuseris, rezulta- lemiama, ji kritiškai nušviečia ritualinius naujosios muzikos tas – menkesnė vasaros kursams teikiama reikšmė. veiksmus, kokie aiškiai susiformavo ir Darmštate. Būtų klaidinga manyti, kad tik vasaros kursai buvo Suprantant skandalo svarbą šioms institucijoms, pa- svarbūs meninei kompozitorių raidai. Kuo Tarptautinių skutinėje straipsnio dalyje pažvelgiama į nesutarimus per naujosios muzikos vasaros kursų Darmštate, kaip sambūrio, 2016 m. vasaros kursus rašymo dirbtuvių aplinkoje.

35 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Joanna SCHILLER-RYDZEWSKA The Roots of Composers’ Milieu in Postwar Gdańsk Kompozitorių aplinkos ištakos pokario Gdanske

University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Michała Oczapowskiego 2, Olsztyn, Poland Email [email protected]

Abstract Reflection on the works of post-war composers of the Gdansk milieu must consider historical, sociological and cultural aspects. The turbulent fate of the city was bounded directly by post-war policy dividing Europe for two antagonistic camps. Communities of the city on the Motława River were particularly marked by violent changes dictated by dictatorial actions of totalitarian systems. Let us remember that Gdańsk as an open and cosmopolitan city, wealthy port town, and important merchant centre through the ages, was the place where many newcomers arrived from all over Europe. The end of this multicultural community resulted from the despotism of Nazi Germany, which before the war and during the war persecuted the Polish community also under the auspices of the Free City of Danzig. Nevertheless the wildly and cruelly carried out fate of the city during post-war period, when already at the dawn of the new Polish statehood at the turn of 1945–46 replaced up to 96% of Gdańsk’s resident population. Newly arrived residents came from different areas of pre-war Poland, which took over the Soviet Union – from Vilnius, Lvov, Grodno etc. This drastic population exchange carried obvious consequences for the cultural identity of the city, which in fact shaped the town again. After war, the developing composers’ milieu had to rebuild their artistic identity from the beginning. In the context of these historical phenomena, the question emerges, how in the case of Gdańsk’s musical milieu can we talk about its origins and cultural diversity? How did the identity arise in the face of a new political order and the ongoing political transition? Could we still talk about Gdańsk’s composers as a group or are these only the creators in this newly settled city. Keywords: Gdańsk artistic milieu, composers in post-war Gdańsk, Henryk Hubertus Jabłoński, Władysław Walentynowicz, Konrad Pałubicki.

Anotacija Vertinant pokario Gdansko kompozitorių kūrybą, būtina atsižvelgti į istorinius, sociologinius ir kultūrinius aspektus. Pokario politika, padalijusi Europą į dvi priešiškas stovyklas, nulėmė sudėtingą miesto likimą. Ant Motlavos upės kranto įsikūrusio miesto bendruomenes ypač paveikė drastiški totalitarinių sistemų diktatūros atnešti pokyčiai. Reikėtų prisiminti, kad Gdanskas ištisus šimtmečius buvo laisvas, kosmopolitiškas, turtingas uostamiestis, svarbus prekybos centras, traukęs naujakurius iš visos Europos. Despotiška Vokietijos nacių valdžia, prieš karą ir per jį engusi Laisvojo Dancigo miesto lenkų bendruomenę, numarino daugiakultūrę miesto aplinką. Naujojo lenkų valstybingumo priešaušryje, 1945–1946 m., miestas išgyveno negailestingus, dramatiškus pokyčius – pasikeitė net 96 proc. Gdansko gyventojų. Naujieji gyventojai į miestą atvyko iš įvairių Sovietų Sąjungai atitekusių Lenkijos dalių – Vilniaus, Lvovo, Gardino ir kitų. Šie drastiški gyventojų pokyčiai neabejotinai paveikė kultūrinę Gdansko tapatybę ir, galima sakyti, iš naujo formavo miestą. Po karo naujai besikuriančioje miesto aplinkoje kompozitoriai turėjo iš pagrindų atkurti savo meninę tapatybę. Šių istorinių reiškinių kontekste galime kelti klausimus apie Gdansko muzikinės aplinkos kilmę ir kultūrinę įvairovę. Kaip naujos politinės santvarkos ir vykstančių permainų fone formavosi miesto kultūrinis veidas? Ar galime kalbėti apie Gdansko kompozitorius, kaip grupę, ar tiesiog apie atskirus menininkus, kuriančius naujai apgyvendintame mieste? Reikšminiai žodžiai: Gdansko meninė aplinka, pokario Gdansko kompozitoriai, Henrykas Hubertas Jabłońskis, Władysławas Walentyno- wiczius, Konradas Pałubickis.

Introduction the first post-war artists active in Gdańsk, talk of Gdańsk composers, or only artists associated with the city, whose While observing the post-war milieu of artists active in artistic path only intersected with Gdańsk Pomerania? Gdańsk Pomerania, it is not difficult to notice its internal A research field outlined in such a manner requires differentiation. It can be seen on many significant levels looking at Gdańsk’s music milieu from a historical, social, as that are clearly expressed in artistic achievements. Such well as biographical perspective, incorporated into the wider a variety of attitudes, most often directly resulting from post-war context. First, we need to investigate the origins that personal background, necessitates posing a question about predestine the dramatic fate of the city and its inhabitants in the context and identity of the milieu that the Gdańsk the first half of the 20th century. Next, we need to focus on the identity incorporated in its artistic development. Thus, social structure that underwent such tremendous transfor- the fundamental research problem set out in this paper is mations in Gdańsk, as a result of the political deliberations of the attempt to answer the question of whether the Gdańsk major powers. Finally, we need to inscribe the fate of artists identity was a deep internal aspect of artistic belonging, or into this general historical perspective. The biographical layer merely a declarative creative postulate? Can we, in terms of is complemented by an aspect of art that brings significant

36 The Roots of Composers’ Milieu in Postwar Gdańsk intimations in terms of regional identity traits. It is gener- of the entire Free City, as well as the adjacent Gdynia, took ally accepted to talk of Cracow, Silesian, Warsaw and other place at the beginning of the war. It was then that masses composing schools in a regional context. So, did the milieu of Polish activists in Gdańsk were arrested and sentenced of composers active in Gdańsk Pomerania also constitute a to prison, forced labour and imprisonment in concentra- separate music world, for which the paradigm of Gdańsk’s tion camps. Deportations also affected large numbers of identity was the core of artistic expression? Observing all Polish families, which were relocated to remote places in these issues shall allow for the construction of the ultimate the General Government, created within the borders of the answer to the question of the identity of the composers’ Polish State. Thus, years of German occupation brought milieu, for whom Gdańsk and its region were the place of with them spectacular acts of German terror inflicted on artistic activities in the post-war period. the Pomeranian community, which did not ease up when the scales in the war shifted towards the Soviets. While conquering Gdańsk, Soviet troops treated both Historical and social perspective the urban area and its citizens as captured trophies. As a result of combat, as well as intentional arson after military Before I proceed to present detailed observations clashes, 90% of the historic part of the city was destroyed. concerning the milieu of composers, an initial issue is the The evacuation of the civilians, approved at the last moment observation of the wide historical perspective and social by the representatives of the National Socialist German phenomena that took place in Gdańsk in the 1940s. The Worker’s Party (NSDAP), proceeded in a chaotic and 1940s, though, represents a fundamental caesura in the ineffective manner. This led to many Germans – mainly history of the city. That dividing point changed the charac- women, small children and elderly people – remaining in teristics of the city on the Motława River in the entirety of the city (Cf. Historia Gdańska 4 1999). This community its social structure. The pre-war situation of the city already was particularly cruelly treated by Soviet soldiers. It must be foretold war, since Gdańsk was one of many borderland emphasised that not only Germans but also pre-war Polish towns that became a place of a brutal and determined po- Gdańsk inhabitants fell prey to their saviours (Cf. Zwarra litical game. This game continued from the end of World 2013; Danielewicz 1996; Golon 2001; Bykowska 2012; War I and headed towards a strong, nationalist polarisation Historia Gdańska 4 1999). of Gdańsk’s community. The activities conducted by the In the post-war period, the social structure of the region authorities of the Free City of Danzig (Gdańsk), including underwent a fundamental transformation. The Gdańsk the Gdańsk Senate, were ultimately aimed at a total unifica- province, in particular the city of Gdańsk, was characterised tion of the national structure so that Gdańsk citizens could by a considerable diversification of social groups that lived unambiguously identify themselves with the Weimar Re- there, and among whom there existed no bonds but rather public formed in 1919, and later with the Third Reich. The quite strong antagonisms. These social groups included: tool for such an agreed objective was primarily a historical ... the native Polish community of new districts [under Ger- policy executed by the city in the press and in wider social man jurisdiction before September 1939] that frequently circles, highlighting at every step the German domination constituted the basic core of local communities, the native in Gdańsk, and the German origin of the city (Loew 2012). Polish community of the old districts [Polish territory before Beside such characteristic indoctrination, there appeared September 1939]: two regional groups of Kashubians and a number of activities that in a simple and direct manner Kociewiaks, also being an internally integrated category of in- complicated the daily lives of Poles living in Gdańsk. habitants, as well as territorial groups of migrant populations. It can be stated beyond doubt that social life, and thus The last group included: settlers, mainly from the Bydgoszcz, its cultural and sporting aspects, in pre-war Gdańsk had Warsaw and Poznań regions, repatriates from beyond the two directions, and the indicator of this division was the Bug River, the “W” [Vistula] campaign settlers, as well as national context. The Polish minority, oscillating between re-emigrants. (Bykowska 2012: 223) 9 and 13%, was the subject of various forms of harassment Each of these groups brought its specific cultural, or and numerous attempts of Germanization, to which many even civilizational, background. Each had developed in the of its representatives gave in. context of different political and economic conditions. The Such consciously fuelled hostility reached its spectacular biggest division was most noticeable, for obvious reasons, finale in 1939. Even before the outbreak of the war many between the native community of the old and new counties nationalistic incidents had occurred in Gdańsk. These were and the migrant population. This was fuelled all the more generally provocations by Hitler-Jugend members, to which by empowered Communist authorities, creating mutual the Polish youth responded in self-defence.1 hostility between these communities (Cf Bykowska 2012). However, the most important dramatic act in the his- It should be emphasised that within the migrant po- tory of the Polish community in Gdańsk and the territory pulation, the researchers of the post-war social structure of

37 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Joanna SCHILLER-RYDZEWSKA

Gdańsk identify two categories: pioneers and looters. The Therefore, it can be said that the generally occurring social first group operated with the sense of a mission to recreate processes in the case of the artistic milieu constitute a speci- the regions’ economic, social and political life from scratch. fic micro-scale for the overall image, a veritable microcosm. The second, though, living only temporarily in the region, While observing the figures of the region’s leading artists was chiefly preoccupied with stealing post-German riches. at the time that musical life was being shaped in post-war In the eyes of the native population, both groups bred a Gdańsk, their pre-war artistic experience appears to be far-reaching reluctance. This is confirmed by, among others, fundamental. This experience is characterised not only the words of Zygmunt Moczyński, a pre-war activist of the by composing achievements, but most notably by the fact Polish society in Gdańsk who, in an article issued by the of being rooted in a local specificity, different from that Baltic Journal, recounted: of Gdańsk. In the context of these observations, music education is the crucial aspect that is connected with the ... the autochthonous community does not consent to being entire cultural heritage taken over by the artists of post- the inferior factor in the country. On the contrary, in a given war Gdańsk from their teachers. It is also important to area it considers itself as ‘an old guard’ ‘that became worn-out, was decimated, and which is now joined by reinvigorating appreciate the environment in which they grew up, both forces. (Moczyński 1947: 2) in civilizational and artistic terms. The circle of leading composers shaping the post-war Such a deep conflict, also fuelled by the “new” authori- musical life includes three artists: Władysław Walentyno- ties, casts a dark shadow on the post-war life of the city and wicz, Henryk Jabłoński and Konrad Pałubicki. Their acti- the entire region. The groups of so-called pioneers, preferred vities within both composition and pedagogy, made their by the Communist system, which introduced a new politi- mark on the shape of the composers’ milieu associated with cal, social and cultural (including musical) order, were also the Gdańsk region for many subsequent years. privileged in material terms, as they could avail themselves of the goods that were treated as post-war trophies. These circumstances made the process of social integra- Henryk Hubertus Jabłoński – a composer rooted tion in the Gdańsk region last at least two decades in the in Gdańsk post-war period, and in some aspects of the region’s life the social divisions are experienced even today. A significant re- I shall begin my detailed observations of artistic acti- ason for the occurring divisions was the fact that, although: vities in the post-war history of the city with the figure ... the level of inter-group conflicts in the late forties decrea- of Henryk Hubertus Jabłoński, a composer with native sed, the model of integration of new populations, as created Gdańsk roots. Here, biographical motifs and artistic accom- by local and approved by central authorities in Western and plishments are of considerable importance as they remain Northern areas, made the autochthonous community under- in a close mutual relationship. privileged as compared to the settler population. (Bykowska Jabłoński came from a middle-class German-speaking 2012: 232) Gdańsk family. His father was a shipbuilder. It could seem that his family home was not particularly significant for the musical development of the composer; however, such Composers in the post-war Gdańsk appearances are deceptive. The cultural life in pre-war Gdańsk, especially in terms of musical activity, was at a very Such a historical and social outline is immensely crucial high level, regardless of the social status of the citizens. This when considering the aspects of a new composers’ milieu observation is confirmed by Marek Andrzejewski: created in Gdańsk. As it turns out, all of the observed social processes clearly translate into the development of the mu- The musical culture of the residents of Gdańsk can be con- sical life. While analysing this musical life in terms of artists sidered as relatively high. Apart from symphony concerts, and their post-war achievements, it is easy to observe the chamber music also had its followers […]. It was quite common among Gdańsk citizens to make music at home. Not only were cause-and-effect relationships that had a dramatic impact amateur instrumental ensembles quite active, but it was also on the shape of the post-war composers’ milieu in Gdańsk. possible to observe a lively singing movement. (Andrzejewski It should be emphasised that all the communities living 1999: 294) in Gdańsk, both native and settler, had their notable representatives in this environment. It is also of interest that Thus, one could hear instruments in the composer’s the organisation of these populations in the sense of their family – both his parents played the violin. They also orga- contribution to the development of the post-war city on nised musical evenings with their relatives and neighbours. the Motława River certainly seems to correspond with such Jabłoński’s musical talent was spotted quite quickly, and was a relatively small community of composers in this region. later developed by subsequent teachers of piano and violin.

38 The Roots of Composers’ Milieu in Postwar Gdańsk

In terms of composition, Jabłoński took lessons from two time and place, a connection between tradition and culture. A renowned figures of pre-war Gdańsk – Werner Schramm characteristic feature is a deep rooting in the realms of Gdańsk and Alfred Paetsch. Both of them received a thorough and Kashubia, both in the music and literary aspect. […] The musical education in Gdańsk and Berlin schools. Their life and works of Henryk Hubertus Jabłoński is a major sign compositions, especially the orchestra, chamber and opera of a specific symbiosis of these cultural bonds, stemming from the traditions of this land and times of transformation: works were awarded by institutions like the Senate of the Gdańsk, German and Polish traditions, the universality of Free City of Gdańsk. In consideration of our studies, it is the traditional music culture and the vibe of modern times – crucial to note that Jabłoński’s teachers were composers who musical life here and now. He was and is a composer here, in belonged to the German cultural circle. In terms of tech- Gdańsk. (Krassowski 2009: 40) nical means, their music traditions, derived from Brahms, Bruckner and Wagner, had characteristic traditional forms, dense structure, dominating power of sound, and a richness Władysław Walentynowicz – the composer who of harmonic means that oscillated within an extended came from far away major-minor tonality. All this means that Jabłoński’s influence from his tea- As has been stated, social life in post-war Gdańsk was chers clearly manifest themselves in his music, constructed not homogeneous. Władysław Walentynowicz was one of in a precise and professional manner. The composing the settlers who arrived here after the war, i.e. in the spring technique features a perfect awareness of the musical wor- of 1945.4 This composer and pianist was associated with kshop and an in-depth understanding of artistic means. The the interwar Warsaw milieu and came with the mission individual idiomatic features, however, are the composer’s to create a musical education system on the Baltic Coast. melodic invention and well thought-out instrumental me- As an organiser delegated to the new function by the state ans. It is also of significance that even while experimenting authorities, Walentynowicz carried out his mission in a with innovative composing techniques, Jabłoński remained meticulous and systematic manner, which soon produced true to himself, and the traits of his musical expression are visible results. However, what is more essential for this work constant in all his works. are the cultural experiences he brought to Gdańsk Pome- An important research perspective in the context of rania and, consequently, what kind of composer he was. these studies is the composer’s attitude towards the Gdańsk Walentynowicz’s biography is a remarkable research identity that manifests itself by the presence of Gdańsk area. The composer was born in 1902 to a noble family living themes and the approach to the music heritage of the rein the Vilnius region, and at the same time became one of gion. Observations made within this scope prove that the many subordinates to the Russian tsar. The objective of the paradigm of the Gdańsk identity is an essential category internal policy of the Russian authorities was to lead to the in the creative expression of Jabłoński’s compositions. All impoverishment and marginalisation of the social layer of his achievements are characterised by Gdańsk and regional the Polish gentry. Therefore, the composer’s grandfather themes that are present both in the titles and lyrics to vocal- decided that apart from noble origins one should also have a instrumental works2. They are also clearly expressed in the solid education. Thus, the composer’s father was a graduate composer’s entertainment activity.3 of chemical engineering at the Institute of Technology in The works in which the composer derives inspiration St. Petersburg. Looking for employment, he received an from regional – Gdańsk and Kashubian – melodies, as well interesting proposal to work as a constructor of a spirits as the Kashubian language, being a special medium of the monopoly plant in eastern Russia. This meant that the regional culture, are particularly significant. These include family had to move to Siberia, and it was there that from choral and instrumental songs (numbering approx. 200), his earliest years Władysław was brought up in the circle in which the Kashubian language is used. A particular of Russian culture, though combined with the Polish ele- example of the composer’s combining artistic music with ment5. It is known that the composer’s mother sang and contemporary Kashubian poetry is the Gromicznik song played the piano, including Polish patriotic songs. Young cycle set to the lyrics of a famous Kashubian activist and Walentynowicz himself expressed his musical sensitivity poet, Alojzy Nagel. and eagerly listened to Orthodox chants; he also reacted Janusz Krassowski describes the Gdańsk roots of highly emotionally to the sounds of a military orchestra. Jabłoński’s works in terms of technique and artistic motifs The family’s prosperous and peaceful life in Yelabuga, Sibe- in the following words: ria was disturbed by the outbreak of World War I and the ... as I imagine, Henryk Jabłoński’s music output is here an subsequent Russian Revolution. In 1917, the composer’s unambiguously described phenomenon. Its outstanding family was forced to leave by the shut-down of the factory feature is his talent – versatility and oscillation between where Walentynowicz’s father worked. From that moment, individuality and universality. It’s crucial trait is the trace of they started to wander across Russia, which was suffering

39 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Joanna SCHILLER-RYDZEWSKA from economic and political crisis. The composer’s family first glance. It may be said that once shaped, the artistic stayed in many smaller and large towns in Siberia (Vyatka, workshop remained constant in his compositions. Tradi- Shandrinsk, Tomsk, Omsk, and Barnaul) and in Moscow. tional forms and genres oscillate between a neo-classical Studying music in such conditions was obviously much conciseness of structures and Romantically-shaped me- more difficult. At first, Walentynowicz’s mother gave him lodies. A classic transparency applies in terms of textural a basic piano education, but later he attended lessons with means. The major-minor harmonics rarely exceed the circle Russian pedagogues in the towns and cities he was living of tonal references. The preferred instrumental sounds are in at the time. The composer managed to graduate from expressed in a group of woodwind instruments – bassoon, the Technical Secondary School of Music in Barnaul, oboe and clarinet –but the composer’s works do not lack and in Moscow, he studied composition with Alexander piano works or songs. Both chamber and orchestral compo- Gretchaninov. sitions are concise, full of lightness and humour, and at times At this point, it can be stated that Walentynowicz grew grotesque. The openwork structure makes Walentynowicz’s up in the arena of Russian culture until 1923. That culture – music emanate noble elegance and distance. Thus, it can music, poetry and theatre – influenced his development to be said that Walentynowicz’s musical style clearly derives a great extent. It appears that even in the dark years of the from his pre-war musical experiences. On the one hand, it civil war raging across the whole of Russia, the cultural life is influenced by the Romantic Russian School, present in was very rich. the richness of melodic phrases and genre traditions. On the other, we hear echoes of the French school that was brought In Barnaul, there was a lot of gentry that arrived in Siberia, to Poland by disciples of Nadia Boulanger, including Kazi- fleeing from the civil war. Therefore, in the city, whenever mierz Sikorski6 (Sikorski stayed in Paris as the composer’s the power station “gave” them electricity, there was a theatre house and an operetta. Regardless of the station’s efficiency, student in 1925 and 1930). people held meetings in houses, frequently at a potato lamp, However, with respect to the composer’s attitude read or recited poems by Majakowski, Jesienin and Blok, and towards his relationship with the region, in which he hap- made music. (Szarapka 2009: 45) pened to live from 1945 on, it should be noted that Wa- lentynowicz’s achievements were initially characterised by a Without a doubt, the composer’s musical fascinations clear fascination with Kashubian and Polish Coast stylistics. were greatly influenced by his first teacher of composition – This period primarily lasted from 1947 to 19547, though he Alexander Gretchaninov, who composed in the Romantic also wrote individual works of a regional character in later style. The works that Walentynowicz learned as a pianist years8. Nonetheless, in the short perspective it can be stated were also Romantic. As he reminisced himself, he most that Pieśni kaszubskie (Kashubian Songs), written in 1947- willingly played works by Chopin and Rachmaninov. The 48, are only arrangements of original folk melodies with musical heritage that surrounded young Walentynowicz an expanded piano accompaniment, while the composer made a mark on his entire artistic path. quite rarely cited regional melodies in other works. In this A spontaneous decision to return to Poland in 1923 tur- sense, the rich structure of the composition is not a carrier ned out to be not quite as easy in reality. After crossing the of his relationships with the region, and the titles present Polish border, the composer was at first treated as a Russian in the composer’s output have loose associations with the spy, especially because Walentynowicz spoke poor Polish at Pomerania region. that time. Having experienced such initial hardships, the All these observations, resulting both from the compo- composer found his father’s family in Modlin and started ser’s rich biography and from his artistic accomplishments, a new life. He earned money by playing the piano, mainly clearly indicate that for Walentynowicz, the Gdańsk providing dance accompaniment in garrison clubs and cafes. element is only a short-term artistic fascination. Such a He quickly decided to supplement his musical education at fascination does not contain an in-depth reflection; it is the Warsaw Conservatory. He generally studied the piano, merely something external and becomes incorporated into but he also took a course in theory and composition with the general circle of artistic stylistics based on a neo-classi- Kazimierz Sikorski. cal form, Romantic melodics and patriotic motifs. In this Walentynowicz brought those musical experiences sense it is also worth noting that in the early post-war years, to the Polish Coast in 1945. His privileged position, as reaching for titles connected with the Polish Coast and a pioneer who organised musical life on the authorities’ regional melodies did express a strongly patriotic character, order, allowed him to live quite comfortably in an assigned since it was mainly associated with emphasising Gdańsk 5-room apartment in Sopot, where his family settled down being part of the homeland for good. Therefore, Walentynowicz remains a composer-newco- From the preserved works by Walentynowicz (approx. mer, who not only became strongly linked with the Polish 100), it is their stylistic homogeneity that is so striking at Coast throughout his long life, but also conducted lively

40 The Roots of Composers’ Milieu in Postwar Gdańsk activity for the entire musical milieu. In that context, his From that perspective, Pałubicki’s musical world was a merits are unquestionable. However, in his creative art, he particularly important issue since he had such a powerful paid tribute to roots that are a conglomerate of Russian influence on the artistic environment. As a learned musi- Romanticism, French neo-classicism and the Polish national cologist, associated with Łucjan Kamieński’s ethno-mu- tradition. sicologist school, Pałubicki was equipped not only with knowledge and analytical tools, but he was also a man of profound technique, that of a scientist. That scientific Konrad Pałubicki – a universal composer thinking also had a significant impact on the character of his works. Although some obvious echoes of tradition resound Konrad Pałubicki belongs to the circle of artists whose in Pałubicki’s music, expressed in his commitment to classi- post-war activity was directly associated with the region of cal forms and classical treatment of instruments, within his Gdańsk Pomerania. His musical education journey was long compositional means, it remains a thoroughly innovative, and diversified. It can be said that Pałubicki was accidentally intellectual phenomenon. Therefore, the composer was par- born in 1910 in the Wielkopolska Region, near Ujście (Piła ticularly keen on penetrating a twelve-sound music matter district), since his parents were on their way to Germany and, what follows, apart from several early works, avoiding in search of better earnings (Cf Pietrzykowska 2009). Per- connections with traditional tonality. haps such circumstances made them finally settle down in A characteristic feature of Pałubicki’s accomplishments Pomerania, with his mother’s family. After World War I, is also his search for a common space between music, the family moved to Bydgoszcz, a city incorporated into the literature and the fine arts. That phenomenon is probably new Polish State, which quickly underwent re-Polonisation connected with adopting means typical of the French school and became an important centre of Polish cultural life. In that the composer also owed to his master – Sikorski. In this city, Pałubicki finished middle school, developing his Pałubicki’s work, we can observe a range of compositions musical skills in private piano lessons. that draw on the relationship with classical literature, Polish However, Pałubicki started his proper musical education poetry and the fine arts. These titles are usually of a universal with musicological studies in Poznań, where he studied character.10 With regard to his association with the regional under Łucjan Kamieński in 1932-37. At the same time, he specificity, only a few can be found.11 As Andrzej Zawilski took his first private lessons in composition with Stefan emphasises: Poradowski. Still before the war, he started his pedagogical [Pałubicki] never wrote music bound with a region or based on work as a musicologist. During the war, he stayed in Krakow, folklore in terms of the programme. He composed according from where he commuted to Warsaw to take composition to universal rules, wanted to avoid an artistic provincialism. lessons with Kazimierz Sikorski. He did not complete his That was one of his creative principles. (Zawilski 1987:161) composition education until 1952, when he obtained a diploma at the State Higher Music School in Łódź, under These observations prove that for Pałubicki, a peda- the supervision of his master – Sikorski. gogue of colossal importance for the development of the However, despite his composer’s education, Pałubicki composers’ milieu on the Polish Coast, a local perspective started his active organisational and pedagogic work as a and folklore were not a significant field in his creative -ex musicologist in Bydgoszcz shortly after the war. Holding ploration. From the perspective of the research conducted, such a function – of a musicologist and a theoretician – in this fact is quite puzzling, since it was Pałubicki who was 1949, he arrived to Gdańsk thanks to the protection of educated as an ethnomusicologist, and therefore he seemed Kazimierz Sikorski, who recommended his student as a to be best suited for such activities. However, in his artis- music theory teacher at the State Higher Music School, at tic pursuit, this sphere was beyond the area of his artistic that time operating in Sopot. Pałubicki did not settle down interests. on the Coast, though. He commuted from Bydgoszcz to The main space explored by this artist was the use of deliver his lectures. It was only in 1968 that he decided to innovative composition means, to which he dedicated, stay in Gdańsk permanently. among other things, his script for the study of composi- It should be noted that from 1952, when Pałubicki tion. Profound knowledge and its creative use, which obtained his master’s diploma in composition, he was the are expressed themselves in the total commitment to only artist formally educated after the war who remained achievements of novel techniques, thus constitute a major within the orbit of the Gdańsk region. Thus, he educated domain in Pałubicki’s output. The objectivity of his music, at least one generation of Gdańsk composers, and his pe- its intellectual image, as well as the search for common dagogy had a fundamental significance for the character of ground between the arts are the most significant areas of the musical milieu.9 Pałubicki’s interests.

41 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Joanna SCHILLER-RYDZEWSKA

Conclusions 4 The composer came to Gdańsk on 8 June 1945. 5 A similar situation to that of the composer’s family hit the Based on the observations outlined above, it can be said majority of the Polish intelligentsia. Thus, Siberia became a settlement area of learned Poles, who became a dominating that composers who formed the core of the Gdańsk Branch group in Siberia’s social organisation. of the Association of Polish Composers in 1963 – Henryk 6 Nadia Boulanger earned undoubted merit for an entire genera- Jabłoński, Władysław Walentynowicz and Konrad Pałubicki tion of Polish artists who were her students in Paris, mainly – had completely different attitudes towards the region in in the pre-war period, but also after the war. 7 which their artistic paths intersected. Konrad Pałubicki Suita gdańska (Gdańsk Suite) for orchestra (1949); Pieśni for orchestra (1950); preserved the greatest distance from that sphere, but it was morza (Songs of the Sea) Suita Z naszego Wybrzeża (Suite From Our Coast, 1952); Szkice pomorskie he who became the main educator of the next generation of (Pomeranian Sketches, 1954); Pieśnikaszubskie (Kashubian artists. In turn, Henryk Jabłoński was the most rooted in the Songs), 5 songs for high voice and orchestra or piano (1947- Gdańsk identity thanks to his artistic style developed from 48); Kantata gdyńska (Gdynia Cantata) for baritone, choir the pre-war traditions of the Free City of Gdańsk. Władysław and orchestra (1950); Szeper for clarinet (1953); Impresje Walentynowicz was a representative of an indirect approach, morskie (Sea’s Impressions), 4 songs (1948); Je bélica, (1951); Hafciarka z Żukowa (Embroiderer from Żukowo, 1952); becoming associated with this region in an organisational Taniec kaszubski (Kashubian Dance) for two pianos (1954). sense. However, in his artistic dimension he remained a com- 8 Poliptyk starogdański (Starogard Polyptych) for string orchestra poser who regarded the Polish Coast from the perspective (1975); Miniatury gdańskie (Gdańsk Miniatures), 3 songs for of an outsider who, though fascinated by new phenomena, voice and string orchestra or piano (1980). 9 did not analyse them in a thorough manner. Among the graduates of Pałubicki’s composition classwere: Marek Podhajski (1966), Henryk Czyżewski (1970), Ed- These three approaches of the composers active in the win Rymarz (1970), Eugeniusz Głowski (1971), Zbigniew post-war Gdańsk Coast Region ideally illustrate the general Pniewski (1971), Kazimierz Guzowski (1972), Janusz Hajdun social relationships in the Polish Gdańsk after World War (1976), Mieszko Górski (1978). II. They also prove that we can speak of Gdańsk composers 10 Akwarele (Watercolours) for piano (1938); Chimery (Chi- only in a limited sense. Besides Jabłoński, other composers, meras), a cycle of 4 miniatures for piano (1950); Legendy though, associating their musical activities with the Polish (Legends), a cycle of 3 miniatures for piano (1952); Erotyki (Erotics) for soprano and piano (1953); Bachanalie (Baccha- Coast, are connected with the region only to a certain extent. nalia), a cycle of 4 miniatures for piano (1953); Cóżem winien Still, their artistic origins and creative accomplishments echo (What Am I to Blame for), 5 songs for baritone and piano to the musical experiences that they brought to Gdańsk. the lyrics of K.I. Gałczyński (1959); Witraże (Stained Glass), a symphony triptych (1960); Strofy (Stanzas) for violin and piano (1963); Chimery (Chimeras), a choreographic impression (1963); a cycle of 11 songs to the References Anafory (Anaphoras), texts of Polish poets (1966); Fenotypy (Phenotypes) for violin and piano (1975); Skamandryty (Skamanders), songs for 1 Such activities are well preserved in documents and accounts solo baritone and instrumental ensemble (1975); Abakany I of former Gdańsk citizens, as well as in the political newspaper (Tapestries I) for strings and percussion (1982); Abakany II Danziger Vorposten (Cf Loew 2012; Zwarra 2013; Daniele- (Tapestries II) for instrumental ensemble (1982); Abakany III wicz 1996; Historia Gdańska 4 1999). (Tapestries III) for strings and instrumental ensemble (1983); 2 Gdańsk theme: Gdańsk Overture for orchestra (1951); Sym- Galeria’85 (Gallery’85) for piano (1987). phony No. 2 Gdańska (1955); Gdańska noc (Gdańsk Night), 11 Ballada Gdańska (Gdańsk Ballad) for solo baritone, reciter, a ballet performance for solo voices, reciter, 2 mixed choirs choir and instrumental ensemble (1969); Piano Concerto and orchestra (1969-70); Nec temere nec timide for bass solo, No. 4 Gdański (1976); Hymn do morza (Hymn to the Sea) for mixed choir and orchestra (1972). soprano, organs or piano to the lyrics of E. Małaczewski (1977). Regional themes: Z Wybrzeża (From the Coast), cantata for baritone, reciter, mixed choir and orchestra 1951); Symphony No. 1 Kashubian for orchestra (1952); Wyzwolenie Wybrzeża Literature (The Coast’s Liberation), a symphony poem (1952); Pomorski szumi wiatr (The Whistle of the Pomeranian Wind)for mixed Andrzejewski Marek, Kultura, oświata (1920–1945) [Culture, choir a cappella (1961); Gromicznik, 4 songs for soprano and education (1920-1945)], in: Edmund Cieślak and others bass to the piano accompaniment and lyrics of Alojzy Nagel (eds.), Historia Gdańska 4, Sopot: Wydawnictwo Lex, 1999, (1972); a collection of approx. 200 Kashubian songs in choral p. 267–308. and vocal-instrumental arrangements. Bykowska Sylwia, Rehabilitacja i weryfikacja narodowościowa 3 Selected titles of popular songs: Rozstanie z morzem (Parting ludności polskiej w województwie gdańskim po II wojnie with the Sea), Piosenka o morzu (Song about the Sea), Dzikie światowej [Rehabilitation and Nationality Verification of the łabędzie (Wild Swans), Zachodni wiatr (The West Wind), Polish Population in the Gdańsk Province after the Second Upominek z bursztynu (Amber Gift), Bursztynowy dzban (Am- World War], Gdańsk:Instytut Kaszubski, 2012. ber Ewer), Uliczką Starego Gdańska (Old Street of Gdańsk), Danielewicz Gabriela, W kręgu Polonii Gdańskiej [In the Circle Kochany Gdańsk (Belowed Gdańsk), Gdańska szynkareczka of Polish Society in Gdańsk], Gdańsk: WydawnictwoMar- (Gdańsk Barmaid), Gród Nadbałtycki (Baltic Sea Town). press, 1996.

42 The Roots of Composers’ Milieu in Postwar Gdańsk

Golon Mirosław, Polityka radzieckich władz wojskowych i Henrykas Jabłońskis ir Konradas Pałubickis. Tiek jų kūryba, policyjnych na Pomorzu Nadwiślańskim w latach 1945-1947 tiek pedagoginė veikla daugelį metų darė įtaką su Gdansko [Politics of the Soviet Military and Police Authorities in the regionu susijusiai kompozitorių aplinkai. Vistula Pomerania in the years 1945–1947], Toruń: Nicolaus Copernicus University, 2001. Išsamią mieste pokariu vykusios meninės veiklos Historia Gdańska 4, Edmund Cieślak and others (eds.), Sopot: apžvalgą pradėsiu nuo Gdanske gimusio kompozitoriaus Wydawnictwo Lex, 1999. Henryko Hubertuso Jabłońskio. Svarbu paminėti, kad Krassowski Janusz, Posłowie, in: Henryk Hubertus Jabłoński, Jabłońskio pedagogai buvo vokiečių kultūros ratui pri- kompozytor gdański [Henryk Hubertus Jabłoński – Composer klausę kompozitoriai. Kompozicinės technikos požiūriu, of Gdańsk], Janusz Krassowski (ed.), Gdańsk: Academy of jie puoselėjo iš J. Brahmso, A. Brucknerio ir R. Wagne- Music, 2009, p. 40. Moczyński Zygmunt, Autochtoni. Na marginesie akcji weryfika- rio perimtas muzikines tradicijas, jų kūrybai būdingos cyjnej [Aborigines. On the Margin of the Verification Action], tradicinės formos, tiršta faktūra, stipriai dominuojantis in: Dziennik Bałtycki, No. 78, 1947, p. 2. skambesio vaidmuo, turtinga, išplėsta mažoro ir minoro Pietrzykowska Marlena, Konrad Pałubicki, człowiek i twórca [Kon- dermine sistema pagrįsta harmonija. Kašubų ir pamarėnų rad Pałubicki – Man and Creator], Bydgoszcz: Kazimierz etniniai elementai – taip pat išskirtinis Jabłońskio muzi- Wielki University, 2009. kinės kūrybos bruožas. Szarapka Anna, Władysław Walentynowicz twórca, pedagog i organizator życia muzycznego [Władysław Walentynowicz Antroji svarbi figūra Gdansko muzikiniame gyveni- - Creator, Pedagogue and Promoter of Musical Life], Ph.D. me – Władysławas Walentynowiczius. Šis kompozitorius thesis, Warszawa: The Fryderyk Chopin University of Music, ir pianistas, siejamas su tarpukario Varšuvos muzikine 2009. aplinka, atvyko į Gdanską su misija – sukurti Lenkijos Zawilski Andrzej, Twórczość kompozytorska Konrada Baltijos pakrantėje muzikinio ugdymo sistemą. Iki 1923- Pałubickiego [Compositional Work of Konrad Pałubicki], in: Gdański Rocznik Kulturalny, No. 10, 1987, p. 157–167. iųjų W. Walentynowicziaus meninė pasaulėjauta formavosi Zwarra Brunon, Wspomnienia gdańskiego bówki [Memories of the iš esmės veikiama Rusijos kultūros – muzikos, poezijos Gdansk Lad], t. 1, Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Marpress, 2013. ir teatro. Išsaugotas W. Walentynowicziaus kūrybinis palikimas (apie 100 kūrinių) pirmiausia stebina stilistiniu vienalytiškumu. Galima sakyti, kad vos susiformavusi Santrauka kompozitoriaus meninė išraiška išliko pastovi visoje jo kūryboje. Tradicinių formų ir žanrų kūriniams būdinga Vertinant pokario Gdansko kompozitorių kūrybą, kompaktiška neoklasikinė struktūra ir romantizmo įkvėpta būtina atsižvelgti į istorinius, sociologinius ir kultūrinius melodika. Faktūra pasižymi klasikiniu skaidrumu, o ma- aspektus. Pokario politika, padalijusi Europą į dvi priešiškas žoru ir minoru grįsta harmonija retai peržengia tonalinės stovyklas, nulėmė sudėtingą miesto likimą. Naujojo lenkų sistemos ribas. valstybingumo priešaušryje, 1945–1946 m., miestas išgy- Dar vienas kompozitorius, tiesiogiai siejamas su poka- veno negailestingus, dramatiškus pokyčius – pasikeitė net rio Gdansko ir Pamario krašto muzikiniu gyvenimu, – tai 96 proc. Gdansko gyventojų. Naujieji gyventojai į miestą Konradas Pałubickis. Profesionalus muzikologas, K. Pału- atvyko iš įvairių Sovietų Sąjungai atitekusių Lenkijos dalių – bickis ne tik turėjo reikalingų žinių bei analitinių įgūdžių, Vilniaus, Lvovo, Gardino ir kitų. Šie drastiški gyventojų bet ir pasižymėjo nepriekaištingu, mokslininkui būdingu pokyčiai neabejotinai paveikė kultūrinę Gdansko tapatybę technikos išmanymu. Šiam kompozitoriui rūpėjo įsiskverbti ir, galima sakyti, iš naujo formavo miestą. Po karo naujai į dvylikatonės muzikos esmę; išskyrus keletą ankstyvųjų besikuriančioje miesto aplinkoje kompozitoriai turėjo iš darbų, jis peržengė tradicinio tonalumo ribas vengdamas pagrindų atkurti savo meninę tapatybę. šio krašto kultūros įtakų. Šios istorinės ir socialinės aplinkybės yra ypač svarbios Galima teigti, kad Henryko Jabłońskio, Władysławo vertinant Gdanske susikūrusią naują kompozitorių aplin- Walentynowicziaus ir Konrado Pałubickio požiūris į kraštą, ką. Visi įvardyti socialiniai procesai aiškiai atsispindėjo kuriame susikirto jų kūrybiniai keliai, visiškai skyrėsi. Ma- ir muzikinio gyvenimo pokyčiuose. Apžvelgus Gdansko žiausiai su šiuo kraštu tapatinosi K. Pałubickis, o H. Jabłońs- menininkų kūrybinius pasiekimus pokario metais, miesto kis jautė stipriausią ryšį su Gdansku, nes jo kūrybos stilių muzikiniame gyvenime galima lengvai įžvelgti priežasties suformavo prieškariu Laisvajame Dancigo mieste gyvavusios ir pasekmės ryšį, nulėmusį pokario Gdanske besikuriančią tradicijos. W. Walentynowiczius su Gdansku buvo susijęs kompozitorių aplinką. netiesiogiai, daugiausiai per organizacinius ryšius, tačiau Muzikinį Gdansko gyvenimą pokariu formavo trys pa- menine prasme šis kompozitorius Lenkijos pajūrio krašte grindiniai kompozitoriai: Władysławas Walentynowiczius, laikė save svetimšaliu.

43 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Levon HAKOBIAN Cosmopolitan Nationalism under Moderate Totalitarianism: The Situation of Armenian Art Music in the 1970s and Early 1980s Kosmopolitiškas nacionalizmas saikingo totalitarizmo sąlygomis: XX a. 8–9-ojo dešimtmečio pradžios armėnų muzika

State Institute for Art Studies, 5, Kozitsky pereulok, 125009 Moscow, Russia Email [email protected]

Abstract The implications of Brezhnevian ‘stagnation’ for cultural development, particularly in Soviet Armenia, were mixed. For different reasons the period of the 1970s and early 1980s in Armenia turned out quite propitious for the development of refined art music. Its major adherents, having consciously distanced themselves from the obsolete nationalist paradigm represented by Khachaturian and his immediate followers, managed to combine strong feelings of national identity and attachment to the native tradition (especially to its more archaic strata) with full awareness of modern developments and sometimes with a really original, wholly individual approach to avant-garde techniques. Some of them, first of all Avet Terterian (1929–1994) and Tigran Mansurian (b. 1939), gained a certain international recognition and are considered national classics. For both, as well as for their lesser known colleagues, such as Martun Israelian (b. 1938), Ashot Zohrabian (b. 1945) and Yervand Yerkanian (b. 1951), the period in question was, perhaps, particularly happy and productive. Importantly, their works, though often sounding rather unconventional and showing no concessions to the dogmas of the ruling ideology, were never banned from performance or publication. Now, from the perspective of several decades later, the best of the Armenian art music of that short, but eventful epoch is perceived as a major and meaningful cultural achievement – indeed, as a voice of a highly cultivated community, though remote from main international centres, but by no means ‘provincial’ as regards to the professionalism of its representatives and the artistic importance of their oeuvre. Keywords: Armenian music, nationalism, tradition, modernism, non-conformism, Avet Terterian, Tigran Mansurian, Aram Khachaturian, Ghazaros Sarian, Edvard Mirzoian , Yervand Yerkanian, Ashot Zohrabian.

Anotacija Brežnevinės stagnacijos pasekmės kultūros raidai, ypač Sovietų Armėnijoje, buvo nevienareikšmės. Dėl skirtingų priežasčių XX a. 8-asis de- šimtmetis ir 9-ojo pradžia armėnų rimtajai akademinei muzikai buvo gana palankūs. Pagrindiniai šios muzikos kūrėjai, sąmoningai atsiriboję nuo atgyvenusios muzikinio nacionalizmo paradigmos, atstovaujamos A. Chačaturiano ir jo artimiausių sekėjų, ne tik sėkmingai puoselėjo stiprų tautinės tapatybės pojūtį bei tautos muzikines tradicijas (ypač archajiškesnes), bet ir perėmė moderniąsias muzikos meno tendencijas, retkarčiais išties originaliai ir savitai panaudodami avangardinę techniką. Kai kurie iš šių kompozitorių – visų pirma, Avetas Terterianas (1929–1994) ir Tigranas Mansurianas (g. 1939) – pelnė tarptautinį pripažinimą ir yra laikomi nacionalinės muzikos klasikais. Abiem jiems, kaip ir jų mažiau žinomiems kolegoms Martunui Israelianui (g. 1938), Ašotui Zohrabianui (g. 1945) ir Jervandui Jerkanianui (g. 1951), aptariamas laikotarpis buvo ypač sėkmingas ir produktyvus. Svarbu, kad nors šių kompozitorių muzika buvo dažnai neįprasto skambesio ir nesitaikstė su valdančiųjų ideologijos dogmomis, jos atlikimas ir leidyba niekada nebuvo uždrausti. Žvelgiant iš kelių dešimtmečių perspektyvos, geriausi armėnų akademinės muzikos kūriniai, parašyti tuo trumpu, bet kūrybingu laikotarpiu, gali būti laikomi dideliu ir reikšmingu muzikinės kultūros pasiekimu – tai lyg balsas ypač kultūringos visuomenės, nutolusios nuo pagrindinių pasaulio kultūros centrų, tačiau dėl jos kūrėjų profesionalumo ir jų darbų meninės vertės – jokiu būdu ne provincialios. Reikšminiai žodžiai: armėnų muzika, nacionalizmas, tradicija, modernizmas, nonkonformizmas, Avetas Terterianas, Tigranas Mansurianas, Aramas Chačaturianas, Ghazaros (Lazaras) Sarjanas, Edvardas Mirzojanas, Jervandas Jerkanianas, Ašotas Zohrabianas.

The extrovert, lush, somewhat ‘kitschy’ idiom of Aram whom they were in close contact during their student years Khachaturian (1903–1978) has long served as the musical in Moscow. All three started their professional careers in visit card of Armenia. Khachaturian’s lead was followed the late 1940s, around the fateful year 1948. Their most by the next generation of Soviet Armenian composers successful early works – Mirzoian’s String Quartet (1947), represented, in particular, by Aleksandr Harutyunian1 Harutyunian’s Cantata about the Motherland (1948) and (1920–2012), Edvard Mirzoian (1921–2012) and Arno Ba- Trumpet Concerto (1950), Babajanian’s Heroic Ballad for bajanian (1921–1983) – all three pupils of the outstanding piano and orchestra (1950) and Piano Trio (1952) – are Muscovite composition teacher Genrikh Litinsky (1901– among the few relatively fresh and viable pieces of music 1985) and faithful spiritual disciples of Khachaturian, with created in the Soviet Union in the sombre final years of

44 Cosmopolitan Nationalism under Moderate Totalitarianism: The Situation of Armenian Art Music in the 1970s and Early 1980s

Stalin’s reign, when the opportunities for expressing one’s guitar (eleven performers in all). Since then, the symphony originality in art was compulsorily reduced and some sty- became his preferred genre. In two decades, Terterian wrote listic diversity could be reached chiefly through the use of eight scores bearing this title. The Second appeared in 1972, elements of a certain local tradition. the Third, Fourth, Fifth and Sixth followed in relatively Subsequently Harutyunian and Mirzoian, as well as quick succession (1975, 1976, 1978 and 1981), and the Shostakovich’s pupil Ghazaros (Lazar) Sarian (1920–1998), last two were completed in 1989. The composer himself whose first important works date from later years, became confessed that all his symphonies from the three-movement leading figures of Soviet Armenia’s musical scene not only Second onwards came to his mind in a finished form, as if as composers but also as teachers and administrators2. Being in a dream (Terterian 1989: 181). in charge of the republic’s musical politics, they continued Only one among Terterian’s symphonies, the Third, is to exploit and promote the frankly nationalist manner, constructed according to the customary three-movement unavoidably influenced by Khachaturian and enriched with ‘fast–slow–fast’ scheme, thus, at least externally, resembling additional disciplining impulses coming especially from a traditional symphonic cycle. All the symphonies begin- Shostakovich and Bartók (as, for instance, in Mirzoian’s ning with the Fourth (with offstage harpsichord ad libitum) Symphony for string orchestra and timpani of 1956–62, are one-movement. Almost every symphony makes an remarkable for its Bartók-like polyphonic development impression of a slowly creeping and, from time to time, pain- and dramatization of folk-like material). All the mentioned fully burning stream of lava. Some of Terterian’s idiosyncra- composers, as well as a number of others with similar sies – such as his love of prolonged tones or tone clusters, backgrounds (such as Litinsky’s pupil Adam Khudoian, often treated according to the Schoenbergian principle 1921–2000, and Khachaturian’s pupil Edgar Hovhannisian3, of Klangfarbenmelodie (a ‘melody’ of changing timbres) 1930–1998), however original and imaginative, worked (Savenko 1996: 329) – are conditioned by the primordially largely within the conventional system of musical forms and monophonic nature of Armenian music: a chord or a tone genres rooted in the 19th and early 20th century. cluster usually appears as a ‘thickened’ version of the initial Meanwhile, new tendencies emerging in Soviet music monophony. The non-European (oriental) essence of Ter- during the so-called ‘thaw’ and ‘stagnation’ periods, when terian’s symphonies, especially beginning with the Fourth, the Iron Curtain was lifted a bit to let in the achievements is emphasized by their contemplative, static character; the of the Western avant-garde, stimulated some composers music unfolds in slow waves, with powerful ‘apocalyptic’ to look for novel modes of musical utterance. One of climaxes on their crests. The symphonies are rich in spa- such composers was Avet Terterian (1929–1994). Born tial effects, in some cases requiring the use of previously in Baku, he moved to Armenia in 1951 and in 1952–57 recorded material (as, for instance, in the Sixth Symphony, studied composition at the Yerevan Conservatoire under with a choir reciting the letters of the Armenian alphabet, Mirzoian. Terterian began his career as a loyal follower of or in the Fifth, with a recorded sound of church bells). The his teacher’s tradition. During the 1950s and early 1960s, archaic colour is often reinforced due to the inclusion into he composed patriotic cantatas and chamber music in a the orchestra of some unusual or exotic timbres. The most reasonably traditional style. The operaThe Flaming Ring, notable examples are the wordless modal psalmody of an staged in Yerevan in 1967 on the occasion of the 50th an- uncultivated male voice in the middle movement of the niversary of the October Revolution, represents the summit Second Symphony, the mournful solo of duduk (Caucasian of early Terterian. Its libretto is based on Boris Lavrenëv’s reed instrument) against a pedal tone held by another duduk narrative The 41st, one of the paragons of Soviet literature in the second, dirge-like movement of the Third, the excla- of the 1920s; the narrator comments upon the action re- mations of two zurnas (shrill oboe-like instruments) in the citing the October-inspired verses by the great Armenian same work’s finale. In the Fifth Symphony, the Armenian poet Yeghishe Charentz. As to the music, it testifies to the Church censer burvar is used as a percussion instrument, composer’s growing interest in novel techniques (experi- while in the Seventh an important role is played by the mentation with tone colours, twelve-tone rows), as well as oriental tambourine dap. The Eighth Symphony features in the peculiar version of ‘minimalism’ – involving long, two female voices sounding wordless in the background. prevalently slow rhythmic ostinatos, sustained notes, chords Especially remarkable is the intensely vibrating solo of and tone clusters, reiterations of concise narrow-range the bow string instrument kemancha in the Fifth Symphony. motifs – that will become a hallmark of Terterian’s stern, The whole work, lasting between forty and fifty minutes, unadorned mature style, fuelled by his ambition to revive is based on the tone a flat. At the beginning it is played by the deepest, the most archaic layers of his genetic memory. kemancha, with microtonal inflections characteristic of The beginning of the ‘true’ Terterian dates from 1969 – this instrument. Then the pedal tone passes to other instru- the year of his four-movement First Symphony scored for an ments and, as usual with Terterian, changes its colouration unusual ensemble of brass, percussion, piano, organ and bass and intensity, ‘thickens’ becoming a tone cluster and then

45 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Levon HAKOBIAN

Figure 1. Avet Terterian’s Fifth Symphony (1978), kemancha part returns to unison, is suppressed by other sounds and short Thus, in the middle of the symphony, the mystery of the motifs and then reappears from the depths of the orchestral birth of music from a single sound is enacted. If Claude Lévi- texture. In short, the note a flat functions as an axis around Strauss is right and the main subject matter of archaic myths which the entire work is formed. The key moment occurs is the conversion of nature into culture (in Lévi-Strauss’s around the point of the golden section, when the kemancha, terms – of the ‘raw’ into the ‘cooked’), then the central idea returning after a long inactivity, intones against the a flat of the symphony, where the process of slow, almost painful pedal a very simple melody, at first in an uncertain mode, crystallization of a relatively ‘cooked’ melodic line from a then gradually approaching the Aeolian mode, which is ‘raw’ sound is presented in such a graphic way, must be ac- especially widespread in traditional Armenian music – see knowledged as deeply mythological and even cosmogonic. Figure 1 (NB: the half-tone and whole-tone shifts in the Terterian’s symphonies, alluding to the most profound part of kemancha, taking into account the peculiarities of essentials of the native tradition and at the same time utterly the instrument’s technique, must be read as glissandi accom- untraditional as regards their thematic substance, design panied by intense vibrations rather than as discrete moves and sound, perhaps have something in common with no by tempered intervals). To preserve the air of elusiveness, less mythological and cosmogonic conceptions of Giacinto the composer notates the motif chromatically (b1–b flat1– Scelsi (1905–1988), of whose works Terterian in the 1970s a flat1) rather than diatonically (b1–a sharp1–g sharp1 or was, of course, unaware.4 His model of symphony was too c flat1–b flat1–a flat1). And yet the ear that is accustomed individual to be emulated by other composers, at least in to Armenian music will easily discern here a familiar ar- Armenia. Though as People’s Artist, conservatoire profes- chetype; the line of the solo instrument is approaching its sor and secretary of the Composers’ Union Terterian was a more ‘ordered’ version, whose scheme is shown in Figure 2. high-ranking member of the official Soviet hierarchy, and all of his symphonies were premiered without any delay almost immediately after their completion,5 he had no direct disciples, continuators of his creative principles. Figure 2. The scheme of kemancha melodic line, A more versatile, flexible and, in the final account, influ- Avet Terterian’s Fifth Symphony(1978) ential artist is another major Armenian composer of roughly

46 Cosmopolitan Nationalism under Moderate Totalitarianism: The Situation of Armenian Art Music in the 1970s and Early 1980s the same generation, Tigran Mansurian (b. 1939), who from Mansurian’s major works of his most productive period, the late 1960s gravitated towards the non-conformist group which fell between the 1970s and the early 1980s, include within the community of Soviet composers, represented in orchestral Preludes (1975) and Night Music (1980), con- particular by Andrey Volkonsky, Edison Denisov, Alfred certos for cello (1978), violin and cello (1978) and violin Schnittke, Valentin Silvestrov and Arvo Pärt. (1981) with string orchestra, and To ve m for 15 instrumen- Mansurian was born in Beyrouth – an important centre talists (1979). In the Preludes, the colours are for the most of the Armenian diaspora – and in his childhood had time part bright and delicate, the passages between sections are to study at a French school there and to taste the city’s lively smooth, the rhythm is supple, strong accents are avoided. cosmopolitan atmosphere. In 1947, his family, together The 15–20-minute long work consists of seven loosely con- with thousands of ethnic Armenians from the Middle East nected episodes of increasing length and, for the most part, attracted by Soviet propaganda, moved to Soviet Armenia. of increasingly dense texture. Each of the episodes is built In 1965, he graduated from Sarian’s composition class at as a ‘prelude’ to the next one; the final ‘prelude’, by far the the Yerevan Conservatoire. The four-movement orchestral longest and initially the most tightly structured of all, dis- Partita, presented by him at the finals, betrays the young integrates at the end into discrete patches, returning to the composer’s dependence not so much on Khachaturian, insecure aura of earlier sections. The whole work – a capital Mirzoian and other ‘sanctioned’ native authorities, as on example of what could be referred to as ‘open form’, that is a Debussy, Bartók and Stravinsky. Arguably, Mansurian was form ending, figuratively speaking, with suspension points the first not only in Armenia, but in the whole Caucasus rather than with a full stop – can be easily characterized in to study scores by Schoenberg, Webern, Boulez, Berio and the same terms as its distant antecedent, Debussy’s Jeux: the Stockhausen. His elegant essays in serial technique and piece, whose ‘appealing features’ include: pointillism – Piano Sonata (1967), two cycles of Arabesques [t]he often fragmentary nature of the material, the frequent for chamber ensemble (1969–70), Three Pieces for piano changes of tempo, the non-developmental form […] [and] the (1970) and for string quartet (1972) – testify to Intérieur discontinuities’, ‘works as a nonlinear progression’, its sections his sympathy with the transparent and refined lyricism of being ‘not self-contained, because they point towards goals Webern and Boulez. The first page of Mansurian’s Piano <…> not within their boundaries; that these goals […] may Sonata, shown in Figure 3, may serve as an illustration of not appear at all in the piece, renders [its] temporal world […] his early manner. In some important works written later, complex and fascinating. (Cramer 1978: 189) the elements of serial thinking and pointillism remain as peculiar ‘tints’ in the extremely subtle, richly differentiated A certain influence of Jeux can be seen also in the neo-impressionistic palette. Against the background of Kha- external appearance of the score, with its bunches of hete- chaturian’s lush, extroverted manner serving as the principal rophony and juxtapositions of layers differentiated in terms model for Armenian composers, Mansurian’s restrained and of tempo-rhythm, timbre and register. prevalently quiet music appeared as a stimulating new word. The ensemble pieceTo ve m (roughly: ‘Incantation’), may be regarded as a counterpart to another work by Debussy, the Prélude à l’Après-midi d’un faune. Its form is rather ‘closed’, its mood somewhat ritualistic, with a climax in the area of the golden section; the elaborate contours of melodic lines, played for the most part by woodwinds, bring up associations with the arabesque-like ornamental patterns of Armenian medieval visual arts. The four-movementNight Music and all the three concertos contain lengthy meditative sections, are rich in dramatic peripeteia and moments of emotional outbursts; their themes are outlined more sharply than in the Preludes and To ve m, the rhythms are basically clear-cut, though not without refreshing irregularities. Most of Mansurian’s major scores end on a quiet serene note, one of a few exceptions being the three-movement Concerto for cello and strings, crowned with an energetic grotesque finale. In his most important vocal compositions of roughly the same period – Four Hayrens of Nahapet Kuchak6 for voice and piano (1967), The Gift of the Rose and The Moon Playing a Pipe for soprano, piano, flute and cello to words Figure 3. Tigran Mansurian’s Piano Sonata (1967)

47 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Levon HAKOBIAN by 20th century Armenian poets Hovhannes Zarifian and his tuneful, appealing music to films and theatre perfor- Razmik Davoian (1974–76) – Mansurian appears as a de- mances. Since the mid-1980s, his manner has become more voted champion of age-old national heritage and follower traditional, somewhat ‘neo-classical’, showing a pronounced of Komitas.7 His best settings are free of any pathos and tendency to highlight the national element and the nostal- sentimentality; the declamation is strict and clear. Like Ko- gic mood – as in the two string quartets (1983, 1984), the mitas, Mansurian is able to express the genuinely Armenian vocal cycles Sunset Songs and The Nairi Land8 to words by spirit in an extremely laconic manner, using a minimum of Hamo Saghian and Vahan Terian (1984–85), the cycle of faultlessly chosen characteristic intonations. five Bagatelles for piano trio (1985), to say nothing about By the mid-1980s, Mansurian’s social status had changed his more recent works, often of religious inspiration, written considerably. The time when he was seen as an opponent already in post-Soviet Armenia. Though Mansurian’s name to the musical establishment, as the most independent and, became known outside Armenia relatively early – the first perhaps, the most European of all Armenian composers, had performers of his scores of the 1960–80s include such great remained in the past. Now he was one of the central figures champions of Soviet non-conformist music as the pianist of Armenia’s musical life and an unquestionable authority Aleksey Lyubimov, the cellists Karine Georgian and Nata- for many of his younger colleagues, whose work was marked liya Gutman, the violinist Oleg Kagan and the conductors by his strong influence. He won a nationwide fame due to David Khanjian and Gennadiy Rozhdestvensky – his rise to

Figure 4. Ashot Zohrabian's Games of Boomerang I (1973)

48 Cosmopolitan Nationalism under Moderate Totalitarianism: The Situation of Armenian Art Music in the 1970s and Early 1980s world fame occurred in the 1990s, when he started regularly inclined to large-scale extrovert statements (noteworthy composing on commissions from Europe and America. As are his Cello Sonata of 1976, the Symphony of 1981 and a result, the works of his ‘non-conformist’ period, represen- the cantata The Song of Bread, 1984). Zohrabian’s element ting arguably the most distinctive part of his oeuvre, have is chamber music, prevalently slow and quiet, rich in orien- remained in the shadow of the more conventional output of tal-sounding ornamentations and microtonal inflections his later years. For instance, the Preludes, though published (as in Concerto elegiaco for string orchestra, 1979, Offering in full score as early as 19789, still remain unrecorded, while to Metzarentz10 for string quartet and chamber orchestra, the only recording of the Night Music is technically deficient 1981, and Serenade for chamber orchestra, 1983), though and has never been available on CD. earlier he had tried his hand at serialism and pointillism Though while in his prime Mansurian did not occupy (sophisticated Games of Boomerangs I and II for chamber any significant post, the immediate appeal of his music ensemble, 1973–74). Yerkanian is a versatile author working and his personal charisma made him a real, though infor- in all genres and showing a great ability for stylistic mimi- mal, leader of the ‘progressive’ wing of Armenian musical cry; he is at his best in works with religious, mythological community. Those who are close to him in their aesthetic and philosophical content (chamber cantata Song of Songs, attitudes include Martun Israyelian (b. 1938), Ashot Zoh- 1973; Canticle for 6 voices, 6 flutes and percussion to words rabian (b. 1945) and Yervand Yerkanian (b. 1951) – all by St Nerses Shnorhali, 1975; symphony Hayk and Bel for three pupils of Grigor Yeghiazarian (1908–1988), himself narrator, choir and orchestra to text from Movses Khore- a pupil of Glière, Myaskovsky and Shebalin at the Moscow natzi’s History, 1978; Entelecheia for chamber ensemble, Conservatoire and one of the leading composition teachers 1985; several ballets and an opera). Significantly, many of at the Yerevan Conservatoire. They took an active part the works of these composers, however ‘non-conformist’ in creating the peculiar ‘sound’ of new Armenian music, their substance and style as regards the Soviet conventions opposing their refined intellectual art to provincial atti- of that time, were easily allowed for performance and tudes cultivated by their predecessors. Israyelian is more publication. The fact that musical censorship in Armenia

Figure 5. Yervand Yerkanian’s Song of Songs (printed in the 1970s)

49 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Levon HAKOBIAN was not especially severe, can be confirmed by the pages References from Zohrabian’s Games of Boomerangs and Yerkanian’s 1 Song of Songs, shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively: both His name also appears transcribed as: Arutyunian, Arutiunian, Harutiunian, etc. works appeared in print in the 1970s despite their blatantly 2 Babajanian chose a different path: since the second half of the avant-garde writing and the Biblical text (sung in Classical 1950s he made a spectacular all-Union career as a composer Armenian) used in the latter one. It goes without saying that of popular songs and variety music, returning to academic these and other composers, who ventured to deviate from musical genres but intermittently. 3 the safe path of traditional nationalist self-expression, were Alias Oganesian (in a Russified spelling). 4 competent members of the Armenian Composers’ Union; In Scelsi’s opinion, Bach and Mozart were rather insignificant composers, for their music could not ‘destroy the walls of its long-term leader Mirzoian (he was the Union’s head from Jericho’ (Scelsi 2006: 133). It seems that if he knew the music 1956 to 1992) proved to be liberal enough to give free rein of Terterian, he would not say the same about it. to such ‘deviations’, while in some other Soviet provinces 5 In Armenia they were actively promoted by the talented the musical policy could be considerably more restrictive. music director of the Yerevan Philharmonic Orchestra David At a certain moment, the company of Armenian ‘moder- Khanjian, while on the all-Union scale – especially by the star conductor Gennadiy Rozhdestvensky; during Terterian’s nists’ was joined by the veteran Ghazaros Sarian. Son of the lifetime some of his symphonies were more than once heard great Armenian painter Martiros Sarian (1880–1972) and, abroad, especially at the international festivals of contempo- as was mentioned above, disciple of Shostakovich, he taught rary music in Warsaw and Zagreb. composition at the Yerevan Conservatoire from 1950 until 6 ‘Hayren’ is a form of medieval Armenian love poetry; Nahapet th the end of his days and in 1960–86 was its rector. One of Kuchak was a poet of the 16 century. 7 the most enlightened, erudite and free-thinking Armenian The great Armenian musician Soghomon Soghomonian, archimandrite Komitas (1869–1935), is known, in particular, musicians of his generation, he was not an especially pro- for his arrangements of peasant songs and church chants, in lific composer. His best known work, the four-movement which he appears not as a faithful ‘harmonizer’, but as a real ‘symphonic panel’ Armenia (1966), based on the cycle of his creator capable of finding out the most fitting harmonic ‘clot- father’s landscape paintings, is still of a ‘folkish’ inspiration, hes’ for every single tune proceeding from its modal structure. 8 though orchestrated with an almost impressionistic finesse. ‘Nairi’ is one of Armenia’s historical names. 9 By the publishing house Sovetskiy kompozitor, Moscow. In the Violin Concerto of 1973 he still remains faithful to 10 Misak Metzarentz (1886–1908), Armenian poet. the nationalist tradition, but his one-movement Symphony of 1980 is radically different from anything in his earlier output: an intensely dramatic piece of music, written in Literature an unexpectedly advanced idiom having no parallels in the Armenian music of that time (Edgard Varèse or Roberto Kramer Jonathan D., Moment Form in Twentieth-Century Music, Gerhard seem to be the closest analogies – the more so in: The Musical Quarterly, 64, 2, 1978, pp. 177–194. Savenko Svetlana, Avet Terteryan: put’ k glubinam zvuka [Путь к as in Sarian’s symphony, not unlike some major works by глубинам звука], in: Muzyka iz byvshego SSSR. Sbornik statey. these two composers, a paramount role is played by the Vypusk 2 [Музыка из бывшего СССР. Сборник статей. percussion group). Выпуск 2], Moscow: Kompozitor, 1996, pp. 320–333. To the list of conspicuous Armenian composers with Scelsi Giacinto, Les anges sont ailleurs… Textes et inédits recueillis ‘modernist’ leanings, whose most productive period fell et commentés par Sharon Kanach, Arles: Actes Sud, 2006. Terterian Ruben, on the 1970s and 1980s, one might add Sarian’s pupil Ru- Avet Terteryan. Besedy, issledovaniya, vyskazy- vaniya [Авет Тертерян. Беседы, исследования, высказыва- ben Sargsian (1945–2013), Yeghiazarian’s pupils Vahram ния], Yerevan: Khorurdain grokh, 1989. Babaian (b. 1948) and Eduard Hayrapetian (b. 1949), perhaps also some other names. Now, from the perspective of several decades later, the best of the Armenian art music Santrauka of that short, but eventful epoch is perceived as a major and meaningful cultural achievement – indeed, as a voice of a Ekstravertiškos, žaižaruojančios, šiek tiek „kičinės“ highly cultivated community, though remote from main Aramo Chačaturiano (1903–1978) muzikos įvaizdis ilgą international centres, but by no means ‘provincial’ as regards laiką buvo tarsi armėnų muzikinės kultūros vizitinė kortelė. the professionalism of its representatives and the artistic A. Chačaturiano pėdomis pasekė ir jaunesnioji Sovietų Ar- importance of their oeuvre. On the other hand, most of mėnijos kompozitorių karta, kurios pagrindiniai atstovai – the musical output of that time is all but forgotten even in Aleksandras Arutiunianas (1920–2012), Edvardas Mirzo- Armenia, largely because of the considerable transformation janas (1921–2012) ir Arno Babajanianas (1921–1983). of public tastes that has occurred since the country gained Sėkmingiausi jų ankstyvojo laikotarpio kūriniai sudaro independence in 1991. dalį negausios ganėtinai gaiviai skambančios ir vertingos

50 Cosmopolitan Nationalism under Moderate Totalitarianism: The Situation of Armenian Art Music in the 1970s and Early 1980s muzikinės kūrybos, sukurtos gūdžiais paskutiniais Stalino A. Terteriano simfonijos (iš viso aštuonios, parašytos 1969– valdymo metais. Vėliau A. Arutiunianas ir E. Mirzojanas, 1989), siekiančios giliausius tautinės tradicijos klodus, yra taip pat D. Šostakovičiaus mokinys Ghazaros (Lazaras) Sar- visiškai netradicinės tematinės medžiagos, kompozicijos ir janas (1920–1998), kurio pirmieji reikšmingi darbai buvo skambesio požiūriu. Jo simfonijų sandara tokia savita, kad sukurti vėlesniais metais, tapo pagrindinėmis Sovietų Ar- jos nepavyko atkartoti jokiam kitam kompozitoriui, bent mėnijos muzikinio gyvenimo figūromis, ne tik kaip kompo- jau Armėnijoje. Įvairiapusiškesnis, lankstesnis ir įtakingesnis zitoriai, bet ir kaip pedagogai bei administratoriai. Būdami menininkas – T. Mansurianas – 7-ojo dešimtmečio pabai- atsakingi už respublikos muzikinės politikos formavimą, šie goje linko prie sovietinių kompozitorių nonkonformistų muzikai, negalėdami išvengti A. Chačaturiano įtakos, savo grupės, kurios pagrindiniai atstovai buvo Andrejus Volkons- kūryboje ir toliau puoselėjo bei propagavo atvirą muzikinį kis, Edisonas Denisovas, Alfredas Schnittke, Valentinas Sil- nacionalizmą, tiesa, šiek tiek praturtintą struktūruojančio vestrovas ir Arvo Pärtas. Brandžiausiu kūrybos laikotarpiu D. Šostakovičiaus ir B. Bartóko darbų poveikio. Kad ir T. Mansurianas neužėmė jokių įtakingų pareigų, tačiau dėl kokie originalūs ir išradingi, visi minėtieji bei daugelis kitų savo muzikos patrauklumo ir asmeninės charizmos tapo kompozitorių pirmenybę teikė tradicinėms, XIX a.–XX a. tikruoju, nors ir neformaliu, „progresyviojo“ Armėnijos pradžioje įsitvirtinusioms muzikinėms formoms ir žanrams. muzikų bendruomenės sparno lyderiu. Tarp tuo laikotarpiu O vadinamuoju „atšilimo“ ir „stagnacijos“ laikotarpiu, sukurtų armėnų muzikos šedevrų minėtina A. Terteriano šiek tiek pakilus geležinei uždangai, atsirado galimybė su- Penktoji simfonija (1978) bei T. Mansuriano „Preliudai“ sipažinti su avangardinės muzikos pasiekimais Vakaruose. (1975), „Užkalbėjimas“ („Tovem“, 1979) ir „Nakties mu- Tai paskatino kai kuriuos kompozitorius ieškoti naujų muzika“ (1980). zikinės raiškos būdų. Sovietinės muzikos erdvėje pasirodė A. Terterianui ir T. Mansurianui, kaip ir jų mažiau ži- naujos tendencijos. Dėl skirtingų priežasčių XX a. 8-asis ir nomiems kolegoms Martunui Israelianui (g. 1938), Ašotui pirmoji 9-ojo dešimtmečio pusė armėnų rimtajai akademi- Zohrabianui (g. 1945) ir Jervandui Jerkanianui (g. 1951), nei muzikai buvo gana palankūs. Pagrindiniai šios muzikos aptariamas laikotarpis buvo ypač sėkmingas ir produktyvus. kūrėjai, sąmoningai atsiriboję nuo atgyvenusios muzikinio Svarbu tai, kad nors šių kompozitorių muzika buvo dažnai nacionalizmo paradigmos, atstovaujamos A. Chačaturiano neįprasto skambesio ir nesitaikstė su valdančiųjų ideolo- ir jo artimiausių sekėjų, ne tik sėkmingai puoselėjo stiprų gijos dogmomis, jos atlikimas ir leidyba niekada nebuvo tautinės tapatybės pojūtį bei tautos muzikines tradicijas uždrausti. Žvelgiant iš kelių dešimtmečių perspektyvos, (ypač archajiškesnes), bet ir perėmė moderniąsias muzikos geriausi armėnų akademinės muzikos kūriniai, parašyti tuo meno tendencijas, retkarčiais išties originaliai ir savitai trumpu, bet kūrybingu laikotarpiu, gali būti laikomi dideliu panaudodami avangardinę techniką. Kai kurie iš šių kom- ir reikšmingu muzikinės kultūros pasiekimu – tai lyg balsas pozitorių – visų pirma Avetas Terterianas (1929–1994) ypač kultūringos visuomenės, nutolusios nuo pagrindinių ir Tigranas Mansurianas (g. 1939) – pelnė tarptautinį pasaulio kultūros centrų, tačiau dėl jos kūrėjų profesionalu- pripažinimą ir yra laikomi nacionalinės muzikos klasikais. mo ir jų darbų meninės vertės jokiu būdu ne provincialios.

51 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Iryna TUKOVA The Development of Western European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017) Vakarų Europos kryptis Kijevo kompozicinės mokyklos raidoje (2010–2017)

Ukrainian National Tchaikovsky Academy of Music, Arkhitektora Horodetskoho St, 1-3/11, Kyiv, Ukraine Email [email protected]

Abstract In the article, changes that took place in the development of Kyiv’s composition school in the 2010’s are considered. Two ways of educating young composers are determined. The first one is connected with traditional education, which was formed in the third quarter of the 20th century. It was developed in the Ukrainian National Tchaikovsky Academy of Music’s academic education programs. The second way is based upon forming a new sound environment, which has been actively developing in Western European and American composers’ practice from the 20th–early 21st century. Attention in this article is paid to the second way. The activity of ensembles of contemporary music (Ensemble Nostri Temporis, Sed Contra Ensemble, Ukho Ensemble Kyiv), a concert agency (concert agency Ukho) and an education concert project (Kyiv Contemporary Music Days) is highlighted. Their conception and programs are analyzed. As an example of a new approach to creativity, Symphony for the violin solo Letters to Anna by Maxim Shalygin (Ukraine‑Holland), which combines contemporary and traditional features of composition techniques is studied. Keywords: Kyiv composition school, contemporary music, Ensemble Nostri Temporis, Sed Contra Ensemble, Kyiv Contemporary Music Days, concert agency “Ukho”, Maxim Shalygin.

Anotacija Straipsnyje nagrinėjami nuo 2010-ųjų Kijevo kompozicinės mokyklos raidoje stebimi pokyčiai. Išskiriamos dvi jaunų kompozitorių ugdymo kryptys. Pirmoji susijusi su XX a. trečiajame ketvirtyje susiklosčiusia tradicija, plėtojama Ukrainos nacionalinės P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademijos studijų programose. Antroji orientuota į naują garsinę aplinką, kurią aktyviai plėtoja XX a.–XXI a. pradžios Vakarų Europos ir Amerikos kompozitoriai. Šiame straipsnyje analizuojama antroji kryptis, pagrindinį dėmesį skiriant šiuolaikinės muzikos ansamblių („Nos- tri Temporis“, „Sed Contra“, Kijevo ansamblis „Ukho“), koncertų agentūros „Ukho“ ir edukacinio koncertų projekto „Šiuolaikinės Kijevo muzikos dienos“ veiklai, jų koncepcijų ir programų analizei. Siekiant atskleisti naują požiūrį į kūrybingumą, kuriam būdingas šiuolaikinės ir tradicinės kompozicinės technikos derinimas, nagrinėjama Maksimo Šalygino (Ukraina, Olandija) Simfonija smuikui solo „Laiškai Anai“. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Kijevo kompozicinė mokykla, šiuolaikinė muzika, ansamblis „Nostri Temporis“, ansamblis „Sed Contra“, festivalis „Kijevo šiuolaikinės muzikos dienos“, koncertų įstaiga „Ukho“, Maksimas Šalyginas.

Introduction will see that the creative search is directed rather towards The study of particular qualities of composition schools mixing of techniques, linguistic practices, and ways of crea- with integrative tendencies in the development of European tion of sound matter, etc. More typical is the education of culture in the 21st century is challenging. The problem in- future composers in educational institutions in different volves, in my view, two factors. Firstly, there is no unified countries, development of professional skills under the guid- theory of composition school.1 At the same time, with all ance of several masters, synthesizing as many traditions as the diversity of views, researchers agree that each school has possible. Such approaches to studying contributes more to its individuality, and its characteristic features. Ambrazas the formation of the composer’s personality than a specific called intrinsic unity its major component (Ambrazas school if its fundamental property is considered, according 1991: 10). Druch notes that “A school is designed to give to the Dedusenko tradition (Dedusenko 2002: 7). In do- the artist a sense of belonging to a certain community, in ing so, once again I want to stress that we are talking about the first place, a professional one” (Druch 2010: 64). The tendencies that are generated in the 21st century. indicated approach to this phenomenon sketches the second In Ukrainian music, more precisely in the contemporary problematic factor. It seems the concept of composition Ukrainian composition school, at the moment, an ambigu- school, as such, is losing its importance in the academic ous situation connected with professional education, has music of our century. I am fully aware that this thesis can been formed. inspire debates; however, if we consider only Europe, not On the one hand, there is a system of educational insti- taking into consideration general globalizing processes, we tutions,2 where the skills of young composers are formed.

52 The Development of Western European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017)

However, the techniques of composition actually studied ensembles, specializing in music from the 20th–21st centu- there, are most commonly based on the characteristic musi- ries is appearing. Therefore, not only is the audience’s aural cal language of the second third of the 20th century. This experience expanding, but young composers are given an situation is especially observable for the musicians who alternative, in the form of academic educational practice, come to Ukraine. For example, the Italian conductor and sources of information, and the possibility to master modern cembalist Luigi Gaggero said: professional skills. The theses, which have been described, led me to the con- The Ukrainian composition school is isolated. And this even clusion that before talking about the specifics of the compo- has its own advantage, because it is not so strongly affected by st globalization. Of course, there are great composers in Western sitional schools in Ukraine in the 21 century, it is necessary Europe. But if we take the composers of the average level, we to create a concept of the situation within contemporary art will hear the generalized features of Boulez, Shtockhausen, music. In the article, emphasis is placed on the past seven Lachenmann and other’s style: these styles students are taught years, when Kyiv became the geographic centre. Kyiv com- in Conservatoires. But we will not be able to distinguish position school is chosen for analysis in this article because from which country or region are these or those composers. it is the strongest and of the largest-scale in Ukraine. Kyiv as The Ukrainian composers that I have listened to, have some the capital of the country attracts composers from all regions. naivety in positive meaning. In Western Europe most often As a result, in the Kyiv composition school, different regional you notice a fantastic technique, but do not understand the traditions are synthesized. In addition, it can be considered as general vector of a composer: why does he write. There I a significant example of processes, which take place in other often miss this naïveté, or rather honesty, to be more precise. Ukrainian compositional schools (Lviv, Odesa). (Rostovceva 2015) Certainly, the Ukrainian composition school is widely Zygmunt Krauze expressed his opinion more sharply. known not only in Europe but all over the world. Com- He was the Chairman of the State exam on composer spe- posers of both older generations (Sylvestrov, Stankovych, ciality in 2012, to the question “What is the impression Skoryk) and middle-aged ones (Zagaykevych, Shchetynsky, left by the works of young Kyiv authors? Is there a feeling Poleva, Yurina etc.) demonstrate high professional skills. Ac- of national tradition?” the Polish author responded: cordingly, young Ukrainian composers are not pioneers in their desire to “conquer the world”. However, in this article It was interesting to listen to those several works that are I want to highlight the problems of academic education tightly connected with the tradition, however, first of all, and alternative possibilities, which in our time influence the Russian one: I mean Shostakovich, Prokofiev. And it is just these works that are very well written technically. There the formation of young Kyiv composers. were also opuses where composers tried to move away from Proposed observations and conclusions are based pri- tradition, tried to write as it is done in the West. But here is a marily on my own experience as a listener of various concerts problem: you could feel that these authors have little experi- and master-classes and as a teacher, communicating directly ence of knowledge and listening to Western music. That is with young composers at the Ukrainian National Tchai- why the music, where there is a tradition sounded good, and kovsky Academy of Music. Preparing this article, I spoke music where the composers wanted to go outside its limits, with our composers who either are still studying at the Kyiv showed that there are difficulties in the implementation of Academy, or have graduated recently and are continuing those ideas. In general, the school you asked me about is first their education in European Academies, or live and work of all a traditional school that derives from the old masters, and in Western Europe according to their profession. it’s very expressive aesthetics. But, proceeding from what I’ve It goes without saying that I represent only the first heard, there is no further step forward. That is, it exists, but it observations, which cannot create a complete picture. is not completely implemented. It is, of course, the problem of the lack of contacts with Western culture. (Naydyuk 2012: 55) However, it seems to me to be very important to fix the changes occurring in the field of art music, to me as a Thus, both musicians emphasize the belonging of contemporary of these processes. That is why the article Ukrainian music of the 21st century according to its tech- emphasizes the historic perspective, over the theoretical nique of composition, ideas, and methods of their imple- problems of composition schools, which remained on the mentation rather to the previous century than to the current periphery of my attention. one. I want to underline straight away that in this article, Thus, on the basis of everything said above, this text I do not set myself the objective of assessing the ongoing focuses on the following issues: processes. It is only possibly to portray the task objectively 1. A description of the changes in the situation with the in its current state. performance and dissemination of music in the 20th–early On the other hand, in the last decade the interest in 21st century in Kyiv. contemporary art music has increased sharply in Ukraine. 2. Characteristics of the most exemplary educational A large number of non-state festivals, educational projects, projects in contemporary art music, which take place in Kyiv

53 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Iryna TUKOVA but mainly outside the walls of the professional composer Janna Marchinska, Zoltan Almashi, pianists Vitaliy Kyiany- education center, the Ukrainian National Tchaikovsky tsia,3 Oleksii Shmurak. The list is not exhaustive, but fairly Academy of Music. complete. Many of these performers are also composers: 3. Analysis of the Symphony for the violin solo Letters to Vilka, Kolomiiets, Almashi, Kyianytsia, Shmurak. In such Anna (2008–2011) by Maxim Shalygin (Ukraine‑Holland) a way, composers themselves create possibilities to perform as an example illustrating the integration of creativity of a both others and their own music. On the other hand, they Ukrainian composer in modern European academic musi- become acquainted with new music and at the same time, cal practice. they improve their own compositional technique. I will mention three newly created ensembles from recent years that strongly influenced the spread of contem- Sound surroundings porary art music. The first one is Ensemble Nostri Temporis:

Ukrainian ensemble specializing in performance of contem- Traditional festivals of contemporary music have been porary classical music. ENT was founded in Kyiv in 2007 by taking place for several decades in Ukraine. Among the composer and oboist Maksym Kolomiiets, and composer and major ones, we should mention Kyiv Music Fest (Kyiv, pianist Oleksii Shmurak. After having begun their concert founded in 1990), Premieres of the Season (Kyiv, founded activity with anthological programs of musical avant-garde in 1989), Two Days and Two Nights of New Music (Odessa, and modernism, as well as programs dedicated to Giacinto founded in 1994), Contrasts (Lviv, founded in 1994). Music Scelsi and Bernd Alois Zimmermann, the Ensemble subse- of Ukrainian composers of different generations is played in quently concentrated on the popularization of works of the them, but also compositions of European and Asian authors. most prominent contemporary composers. From 2010 the From the projects with a long history, I can also select the Ensemble is headed by composer and musical manager Boh- EM-VISIA (Kyiv, founded in 2005). Its curator, the famous dan Sehin. Since then ENT has been a frequent participant composer Alla Zagaykevych, remarks: of all the main contemporary music festivals in Ukraine, regularly produces its own creative projects, as well as performs … the creative credo of the project is to introduce into the internationally. (Ensemble Nostri Temporis) Ukrainian environment of modern music genres of current importance like electro-acoustic world music, the most radical It should be noted that the ensemble’s most active period high-technological projects of media art, and to introduce was from 2010–2014. Ukrainian listeners to the limitless world of electro-acoustic The second is Sed Contra Ensemble: art. (Zagaykevych 2015) Sed Contra Ensemble was founded in 2013 by a group of There is no doubt that contemporary music sounds not young composers (Sergiy Vilka, Vitaliy Kyianytsia, Andriy only at the festivals, but it is also performed at concerts by Merkhel) from Kyiv, Ukraine. Musicians of the ensemble are such ensembles of new music as Cluster (created in 1996), postgraduate students from the National Tchaikovsky Musical Ricochet (created in 1999), ensemble of soloists Kyiv Academy of Ukraine. The priority objective of the Ensemble is performing chamber music from the beginning of 20th cen- Camerata (created in 1977) and others. Therefore, one tury until nowadays, music of young composers, projects of cannot say that Ukraine is isolated from European trends electro-acoustic and improvisational music, interdisciplinary in the development of classical music. However, in the past projects. (Sed Contra Ensemble) seven years the situation has fundamentally changed. The sound of academic music of the 20th–early 21st century has The third one is Ukho Ensemble Kyiv for contemporary become more of a mass phenomenon. It collects not only music, which was founded by the concert agency “Ukho” in in the chamber, but also in large concert halls. In June 2016, 2015 (the activities of this agency I will characterize below). concerts took place even at various stadiums of Kyiv. The ensemble includes young musicians from all over What are the reasons for such an increase in its develop- Ukraine. For two years now, the group is directed by Luigi ment? The main one, in my opinion, is that by the 2010’s Gaggero, cymbalist, percussionist, conductor of the vocal of the 21st century a generation of performers who special- ensemble La Dolce Maniera (Strasbourg), and professor ized in professional work in the field of contemporary art for the cimbalom at the Conservatoire de Strasbourg. This music had been formed in Ukraine. It must be recognized very ambitious team during its existence has presented a that there are not many of such musicians in Kyiv, often large number of programs of the music of predominantly you can see the same faces in different ensembles. Among European, American and Japanese composers, such as the leading performers of contemporary art music in Kyiv Kurtag, Takemitsu, Grisey, Hosokawa, Gervasoni, An- at the moment it can be mentioned the flutist Sergiy Vilka, dreyev, Romitelli, Schöllhorn and many-many others. It oboist Maksym Kolomiiets, clarinetist Dmytro Pashinskiy, should be noted that music of these authors are almost all violinists Andriy Pavlov, Marianna Skrypa, violoncellists not performed in Ukraine (so performing of Partiels by

54 The Development of Western European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017)

Grisey was the premiere in Kyiv), many names and works 2015: New music: Ukraine, where the creativity of Ukrain- were discovered not only by the general public, but also by ian composers blended with the global context. The pro- professionals. gramme of each concert consisted of two parts: a Ukrainian The youngest and the most original in its concept of composer and a European composer. For example, Alla such kind of projects became Kyiv Contemporary Music Zagaykevych – Šarūnas Nakas, Maxim Shalygin – Louis Days (KCMD). Kroiser Ensemble became its organizer, it Andriessen, Maksym Kolomiiets – Johannes Schöllhorn, includes musicians from different countries: Junya Makino Ludmila Yurina – Giacinto Scelsi.4 (violin, Japan-Germany-Switzerland), Francisco Morais Among a large number of actions, organized by the Franco (guitar, Portugal), Darko Horvatic (clarinet, Serbia- Agency (for example, in the 2015/16 season 32 concerts Austria), Albert Saprykin (composer, pianist, Ukraine). The were organized) the project “Architecture of the Voice” composer Albert Saprykin also became the curator of the (2014–2016) can be mentioned. Its concerts were held in project in Ukraine. Presentation of the project took place various locations in Kyiv (a pool, Paleontology Museum, in December 2015. It combines a concert and educational churches, cinemas, stadiums). Memorable also was the new programs. 16 concerts and lectures were held in Kyiv and music festival “Visionaries & Illuminati” (November, 2015), Lviv in December. On its Web site KCMD describes the that offered perhaps the whole diversity of academic music beginning of their activity in the following way: of the 20th–early 21st centuries (from terminvoks to extreme vocal, from Scelsi to Meredith Monk). The opening of the Festival took place at the Mystetskiy Arse- Attention was paid only to the most important, from nal, with the participation of soloists from Ensemble Kroiser, my point of view, projects. It is possible to enumerate festi- who flew to us from Switzerland, Portugal and Austria – the concert with orchestra, to which 450 people came to listen vals, concert halls, and individual concerts for a long time. to Murail, Scelsi, Dalbavie and Takemitsu, after it we had 16 I would like to stress once again the most important fact concerts and lectures in Kyiv and Lviv during a 10 days term that in the past seven years, a lot of high-level professional (we do not understand ourselves how it happened) with the performers of contemporary art music have appeared, op- participation of musicians and composers from 10 countries portunities to obtain auditory experiences have expanded, around the world. (Kyiv Contemporary Music Days) conditions for the professional realization of young composers are being created gradually in Ukraine. There were master-classes and concerts in September and October of 2016. Especially the organizers prepared the Ukrainian premiere concert of Ligeti for the violin Education with the orchestra (soloist Junya Makino). From December 2016 to June 2017 a series of concerts and lectures took Probably because it is composers themselves who are place. Among performers were Kontra-trio (Switzerland), the organizers of the above mentioned ensembles of con- Nina Janssen-Deinzer (Germany), soloists of Interna- temporary music, much emphasis in their work is given to tional Ensemble Modern Akademie (Yuri Matzuzaki, Ju- education. In March 2012 the first master-classes for com- nya Makino, Miłosz Drogowski), musicians from Ukraine posers took place in Kyiv and was titled Kyiv International (Nazariy Stez, Viktor Rekalo, Vitaliy Kyianytsia), etc. In Master-Classes For New Music: Course. Ensemble Nostri these concerts the works by Stockhausen, Saariaho, Scelsi, Temporis became their organizer. The traditional structure Andre, Ferneyhough, Holiger, Zimmermann and many was used: selection of participants by given scores, weekly other were performed. In September 2017 the next series classes with teachers and musicians of the ensemble, lectures of composition master-classes (master-classes for electro- given by the teachers of the courses, and a final concert. The acoustic composition), concerts and lectures took place. professors invited in 2012 were: Gerhard Stabler, Tadeusz At the present time KCMD is an educational and concert Wielecki, Sergey Newski. Similar ENT Master-classes had platform for contemporary art music. been organized up to 2015. During this time Johannes And the last thing I would like to highlight from the Schöllhorn, Jerzy Kornowicz, Caspar Johannes Walter, events of the past years is the activity of the concert agency Clemens Gadenstatter, Martin Smolka and many others “Ukho”. Its organizers are two contemporary music-lovers worked with students. Participants of the master-classes who are not professional musicians: Sasha Andrusyk and were Ukrainian and also European and Russian composers. Eugene Shimalsky. The Agency has been working actively In 2015 this educational initiative was picked up by and creating original projects since 2013. Thanks to their Kyiv Contemporary Music Days. It should be noted that activities such famous ensembles as Kronos Quartet, Ars the majority of the concerts, held in December 2015, were Nova Copenhagen, L’Homme Armé, Apartment House concert-lectures, where performers not only played, but also and other ones came with the concert tour to Kyiv. It is talked about composers, their understanding of the main especially worth mentioning the series that took place in ideas of performed works, explained new ways of playing

55 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Iryna TUKOVA the instruments. Among the lecturers who demonstrated example, Shalygin after graduating from Magistracy stayed and analyzed their works were Sergey Newski (Russia- in The Hague (Netherlands) and now has successful com- Germany), Agustin Castilla-Avila (Spain-Austria), Jaime positional activities. Reis (Portugal), Tomasz Skweres (Austria-Poland), Michael His works have been performed at many music festivals Quell (Germany), Mauro Saleri (Italy). In September 2016, worldwide, including Gaudeamus Muziekweek (NL), Musical KCMD organized fully-fledged Master-classes, where the Contrasts of the 20th Century (RU), Musical Youth Trib- invited professor was Jaime Reis, and participants gathered une and GOGOLFEST (UA), GAIDA Festival (LT), and from Ukraine, the United States, Great Britain, Greece, and CIME/ICEM (US). Leading contemporary music ensembles Sweden. In KCMD concerts members of the ensemble Sed who have performed his works include Asko Schönberg, Contra took an active part as performers. Amsterdam Sinfonietta, Doelen Kwartet, Insomnio, Nieuw In September, 2017, the second composer master-classes Ensemble, Slagwerk Den Haag and Keuris Quartet. (Shalygin) organized by KCMD took place. This time they focused on electro-acoustic composition. The organization ran by the In general, we can say that Ukrainian composers of model scenario that includes both an educational programme a younger generation are oriented toward the European and a final concert. The invited lecturers of this season be- context and try to correspond to it. For example, on the came Åke Parmerud (Sweden), Alla Zagaykevych (Ukraine), question whether there is a fundamental difference between Mehmet Can Özer (Turkey), and Jaime Reis (Portugal). the European and Ukrainian composers scores, flutist and In April, 2017 composer master-classes were organized composer Sergey Vilka replied: by the concert agency “Ukho”. The following structure was There is no super principal difference between our and foreign chosen: six months before the event applications from po- scores… Sometimes (but not always) I have the feeling that our tential participants were given, among whom 10 composers people are eager to stuff everything they know and can into were selected; they were given the task to write a 10-minute one piece. And it produces “effects for the sake of effects”. […] concert for solo instrument with an ensemble, performed Our composers love to become enthusiastic about something under the Skype leadership of Gervasoni and Andreyev; (especially modern techniques of playing instruments), and at the final stage the participants came to Kyiv, where for a begin to write everything they learned in one work. And then week they worked with teachers and Ukho Ensemble; for a problem arises that things working in the theory don’t sound the final concert the best 5 from the point of view of the in reality. (Vilka 2016) jury were selected. However, the composer’s education problems still exist. So far in this essay, I have focused on three innovative All people interviewed by me both today or former students principles and important undertakings. It is possible to who were participants of Master-classes, or those who are add, for example, lectures of invited composers, given at studying at European Academies now mention the lack of the Ukrainian National Tchaikovsky Academy of Music. auditory experience, of the knowledge of the most modern Most often their initiator and organizer is Alla Zagaykevych. trends in the development of European classical music. Among the guests who visited the Academy only in 2015 The fact of constant communication with the newest include Lidia Zelinska, Sarunas Nakas, Leonid Hrabovsky, musical material at European Academies, unlike the situ- Johannes Schöllhorn and others can be named. ation at Ukrainian educational institutions, is indicated Thus, judging by the number and specificity of the by all of my interlocutors. Anna Arkushyna describes her described events, it can be concluded that the younger acquaintance with European composer’s techniques during generation of Ukrainian composers have had many more her education in Kyiv in the following way: opportunities to get acquainted with modern European music, and learn their craft at lectures and master-classes. I always looked through a lot of the post-war period’s music, In doing so, I stress that, most educational projects are free in particular, Lachenmann, Boulez and Stockhausen, myself. of charge. The key point in this context becomes the desire In our Academy composers learn these names officially at and willingness of musicians to learn and develop. the third or fourth year… As for me personally, this “looking through music” without any available analytical literature Another aspect of the integration of young Ukrain- on these specific works was the first source, where from you ian composers in the European environment is training can take all kinds of techniques, comprehend them, what abroad. Most often this is either a scholarship programme technique can be used in this or that particular situation as a (one of the most attractive for Ukrainians is Gaude Polo- rule, and what is behind it, etc. (Arkushyna 2016) nia, Poland) or advanced training in Magistracy. Among those, who in the past seven years studied in Magistracies Thus, a certain ambiguous situation has arisen in Kyiv at of various countries or currently are continuing studying the moment. On the one hand, there is a traditional com- Maxim Shalygin, Alexey Retinsky, Anna Arkushyna, Illia poser school that is developing traditions concerning genres, Razumejko, Maksym Kolomiiets can be mentioned. For forms, and specific features of musical language, created in

56 The Development of Western European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017) the early and mid-20th century. In Kyiv its leading representa- assumes a direct premiere communication of a composer tives at the moment are Yevhen Stankovych, Yuriy Ischenko, with musicologists and listeners. This information, I think, Myroslav Skoryk, Levko Kolodub, Olexandr Kostin, etc. The gives objective evidence of Shalygin’s vigorous professional most known composers of the middle-aged generation (for activity and dissemination of his music (for example, in example, Shchetynsky, Poleva, Zagaykevych, Yurina) either March 2017 the symphonic composition Lullaby was do not have active teaching practice or they do not have performed in Australia). many students in comparison with composers belonging to Symphony for the violin solo Letters to Anna (2008– the older generation. On the other hand, certain alternative 2011) was created by Shalygin when he was graduating from centres are formed at contemporary art music ensembles that the Ukrainian National Tchaikovsky Academy of Music and organize Master-classes, lectures, educational concerts, etc. It studying at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. From looks like in the past seven years the situation has changed; my perspective, this is one of the best works of a Ukrainian the developmental trends of European classical music are composer, written after 2010. The Symphony was awarded becoming more and more familiar to Ukrainians. Ideas and honourable mention at the 2012 Gaudeamus competition. technique of composition in their works are becoming more It is difficult to say whether it would be possible to original and sophisticated. And at concerts of modern music include this work in any particular school of composition. it is often impossible to identify by ear whether the opus The symphony is extreme by two indicators: the emotional belongs to a Ukrainian or European author. intensity and requirements to performance craftsmanship. It captures the attention from the first second of playing time and keeps it until the last sound (with the total length Creativity of the work about 30’).7 At the same time, I will write from the position of a listener, the complexity of the Symphony, Returning to Maxim Shalygin’s (b. 1985). His creativity particularities of composer’s technique, even its duration in this context, is primarily due to the fact that he is one is perceived only after repeated (and recurring) listening. of the very few Ukrainian composers, who lives and works The first impression is the immediate emotion, infinite (and is not on a grant, or scholarships, etc.) in Western Eu- passion, despair and suffering that are increasing all the rope. After graduating from Magistracy Royal Conservatory time from part to part of the composition and become in The Hague in 2011, he stayed in The Hague (Holland). appeased, dissolving together with the sound, at the end. If we consider the compositional school as “a system Beyst in September, 2012, after listening to the Symphony of certain knowledge, skills, beliefs, and also principles in Utrecht, wrote: and methods of their implementation, i.e. the well-known And, that scale of playing techniques is not so much a formal program” (Ambrazas 1991: 10), then Shalygin is a typical device, as rather an array of expressive techniques, devised representative of the modern school, synthesizing various for the expression of an equally broad array of expressions: teaching methods and approaches. He began studying from languorous singing to biting sarcasm or melancholy composition under the direction of Ivashenko, for a year his resignation. Here also, the composer seems to dispose of a teacher was the renowned Russian composer Tishchenko whole gamut of moods, tapped from the depths of a fathom- (at the Rimsky-Korsakov St Petersburg State Conservatory), less soul. (Beyst 2012) in 2010 he graduated from the Ukrainian National Tchai- kovsky Academy of Music (class of Prof. Shcherbakov), in If we start from the above-mentioned two extreme 2011 – got a second Master’s degree at the Royal Conserva- points: expression, the way it has been presented and tory of The Hague (studied with professors de Bondt and performing possibilities, then, at their intersection, one Wagenaar).5 Mixtures of different techniques, methods, can probably see the influence of two schools: Ukrainian world views, inherent to his teachers,6 multiplied by the and Western ones. Ukrainian music in general is character- talent and personal qualities of Shalygin himself formed ized by emotionalism, direct emotional participation of 8 his compositional individuality. composer in the process. But the search for new sound A number of the opening nights of Shalygin’s works that possibilities of the instrument, means that techniques of took place only in the summer and autumn of 2017 evidence performance have led to an exponential move towards trend present in Western Europe. In Shalygin’s Symphony, his creative activity: in June, in Kyiv (Ukraine) The Marian it seems to be evident the conceptual idea of by Antiphons for 12 voices was performed, in August in The Sequences Berio, seeking to preserve the nature of the instrument and Hague (the Netherlands) – the ballet The Case Carmen (choreography by Lonneke van Leth), in September at the to develop its capabilities. Beyst noted: Gaudeamus Muziekweek (Utrecht, Netherlands) – Lacri- Thus Shalygin extends the traditional array of playing tech- mosa or 13 Magic Songs for 7 violins. At the same festival niques, not so much by resorting to ‘extended techniques’ Shalygin was presented as a composer on stage. This form like Lachenmann in his string quartets, or Sciarrino in his Sei

57 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Iryna TUKOVA

Figure 1. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo Letters to Anna, mm. 1–4

Capricci per Violine, who tend to transform the sound of the conventional production of the sound, pizzicato, flautando violin into something totally unexpected. Rather, Shalygin is with pitch octave jumps (see Figures 7–9). Sharp dynamic out to unfold the sound of the violin in all its congenial sonor- shifts, sudden crescendo and diminuendo, maximum low ity. No academic formulas hence, nor avant-garde radicalisms, and high sounds (for example, 4th octave, mm. 212–218), but rather a self-conceived scale of playing techniques in its etc., are also used. Examples of these techniques are given own right that, otherwise than Lachenmann's ‘manuals’, never below in a series of figures. severs the ties with sonority, and thus allows for maintaining a thoroughly tonal language. (Ibid.)

The Symphony is preceded by an epigraph from the diary of Edward Munch: I felt as if there were invisible threads between us, Figure 2. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo I felt as if invisible threads from her hair still twisted themselves Letters to Anna, m. 40, trill by double notes around me. And when she completely disappeared there over the ocean, then I felt still heart hurt where my heart bled, because the threads could not be broken.

And this invisible threads tension between Him and Her ever present in his work due to the active development of Figure 3. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo those techniques of violin playing, which in the romantic- Letters to Anna, mm. 56–57, quarter tone trills in two voices in music tradition of classic played a secondary role: trills and conditions of micro-chromatic glissando. The Symphony is these techniques apotheosis. It should be noted that it is the tendency of highlighting methods and techniques of the sounding and producing the sound that were rather subsidiary, decorating, demonstrating redundancy in the music of preceding centuries, are characteristic to the practice of the 20th–21st centuries. Figure 4. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo The initial thematic complex which is developed Letters to Anna, mm. 71–72, glissando in conditions of micro- throughout the works, is brought out, it seems exactly from chromatic (pitch material develops the same idea of a trill) a trill (see Figure 1). Singing rotation around the sound d represents a trill in a particular slowed-down motion. Taking into consideration the glissando, uniting sounds, very high register (the third octave) and dynamic contrasts, it becomes clear that a very high degree of expression, and tension is inserted by Shalygin from the very beginning of the work. Hereinafter, trills and glissando appear in various versions: trill by double Figure 5. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo notes, quarter tone trills in two voices in conditions of mi- Letters to Anna, m. 140, glissando in two voices in conditions of cro-chromatic, glissando in conditions of micro-chromatic micro-chromatic (pitch material develops the same idea of a trill), glissando in two voices in conditions of micro-chromatic, and combination of a trill with tremolo (see Figures 2–6). To these examples we must add the use of all kinds of bow technique (sul tasto, sul ponticello, flautando, detache), their Figure 6. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo combination and frequent shift, playing by double notes Letters to Anna, m. 111, combination of a trill with tremolo with jumps in different octaves at a fast pace, connection of

58 The Development of Western European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017)

The second one is the method of repetition and variation (it is generally very characteristic for the creativity of the composer). For example, the initial thematic complex (“the slowed-down trill”, see Figure 1) consists of three “lines”, the second and third of which vary the material of Figure 7. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo the first one. Further on this complex is repeated thrice Letters to Anna, m. 164, use of all kinds of bow technique (sul with changes in the octave location (the third, second, first), tasto, sul ponticello, flautando, detache), their combination and dynamics (f–ppp), the way of making sound (vibrato – senza frequent shift vibrato), octave sound of individual sounds (for example, the conclusion of the first line: small Octave – Third -Oc tave). The same technique is observed in the code where the same thematic complex is repeated six times with a gradual slowing of the speed of the movement, variation of the octave position of sounds, methods of sound-making, Figure 8. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo dynamics, etc. In general the whole Symphony consists of Letters to Anna, m. 208, playing by double notes with jumps in precise or variation repetition of individual segments, and different octaves at a fast pace of combining them in culminations. It must be emphasized, however, that by their pitch they all are derived from the primary thematic complex. Thanks to this rather simple method the unity of the whole composition is achieved; the use of extreme registers, dynamic jumps, various methods of sound-making, micro-chromatic add to the strengthening of the material expression. The third one is the observance of the classical laws Figure 9. Maxim Shalygin’s Symphony for the violin solo Letters to Anna, mm. 240–242, connection of conventional production of narrative: from the simple to the complex, the shift of of the sound, pizzicato, flautando with pitch octave jumps culmination in the final part, the presence of recapitulative conclusion. The structure of both sections of the Symphony However, all these very complicated implementation is similar: stating of the thematic complex, its variation, rep- techniques are not used by themselves, for their own sake. etition, development by picking out and pitch displacement Shalygin builds an unbroken line of enhancing expression, of a small fragment, the appearance of a new contrasting and its emotional relaxation takes places only in the final texture material, variation development by turns of two section (mm. 219–260). And the partition of the Symphony different ideas brought to the extreme technical complexity itself is possible only in large-scale parts, because every new and sounding in a very high register, stopping of motion. It episode (the appearance of a texture complex) is derived is just this building, tested for centuries, makes it possible from the preceding one, varying the material of the exposi- to embody the crescendo increase of expression. tion section. In general, in this work the two large sections Thus, in the SymphonyLetters to Anna Shalygin com- are marked out (mm. 1–70 and 71–218 respectively) in ad- bines the innovative broadening of technical possibilities dition to a much smaller final one, which can be interpreted of the instrument with traditional methods of presentation as code. The limits of the sections, firstly, are marked in the and development of material that, in our opinion, allows text by the composer with indication of the movement the author to achieve ideally direct emotional impression on speed (a crotchet is equal to 40 in the first part, 120 – in the listeners. Certainly, there is a great desire to find historical second one, in the code there is the deceleration from 100 and technical parallels to the Symphony from, naturally to 95). Secondly, each of them ends with the culmination Chaconne from Partita in D minor by Bach to the experi- that unites texture techniques used in them. ments of Berio, Xenakis, Sciarrino and many others. But At the same time, the continuous strengthening of emo- in this case I wanted to present the composition in its self- tional tension, building of a coherent structure is achieved sufficiency and uniqueness. by Shalygin through traditional methods, and standard models of European musical thinking. One of them is the acceleration of the movement. Final remarks Starting from the crochet equal to 40 according to the metronome and the predominance of half-note and crochet Therefore, this article was an attempt to synthesize those durations, he finishes the second section with the indicator new processes that are taking place in the Kyiv composer of a 120 and sixteenth and thirty-second notes. school in 2010’s. I think this period is marked by qualitative

59 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Iryna TUKOVA changes in the perception and comprehension of both lis- Dorofeeva Veronika [Дорофєєва Вероніка], Сучасна teners’ audience and professionals in academic music of the українська композиторська школа: нова музика, in: Вісник 20th–21st centuries. The enlargement of borders is connected Маріупольського державного університету, Mariupol’, 2015, No. 9, p. 59–65. not only with the greatest possibility for young composers Druch Iryna [Драч Ірина], Художня індивідуальність to develop their technical skills in European countries and композитора: аспекти вияву, Kharkiv: Tymchenko, 2010. spreading of their music outside Ukraine if we compare it Ensemble Nostri Temporis: official page, http://entmusic.org/ with the possibility of preceding generations. In addition, in ensemble [last checked 2018 09 18]. the ability to listen to the live performances of compositions Kyiv Contemporary Music Days: official page, http://kcmd.eu/ [last checked 2018 09 18]. that have already become classic or have only been just been Kyyanovska Lyubov [Кияновська Любов], Українська музична created, to participate in the Master-classes and lectures культура, Ternopil’: Aston, 2000. proposed by leading specialists in Kyiv. In these conditions Luigi Gaggero: personal site, http://www.cimbalom.eu/ [last the main features of the national composer school, in which checked 2018 09 18]. emotionality, typical for the Ukrainian mentality, and logic Naydyuk Olesya [Найдюк Олеся], Зигмунт Краузе: Писав для of narrative is united with the exquisite European technique фортепіано, а вийшов майже концерт для цимбалів, in: Музика [Music], 2012, No. 4, p. 54–55. of composing, are saved and demonstrate themselves in new Rostovceva Kateryna [Ростовцева Катерина], Італійський ideas and their technical realization. цимбаліст Луїджі Гаджеро: Українська композиторська школа ізольована. І в цьому є своя перевага, in: ZN.ua, 6 November 2015, https://dt.ua/CULTURE/italiyskiy- References cimbalist-luyidzhi-gadzhero-ukrayinska-kompozitorska- shkola-izolovana-i-v-comu-ye-svoya-perevaga-_.html [last 1 A variety of approaches can be seen, for example, in the works checked 2018 09 18]. of Ambrazas (Ambrazas 1991), Druch (Druch 2010), Dedu- Sed Contra Ensemble: official page, https://www.facebook.com/ senko (Dedusenko 2002), Kyyanovska (Kyyanovska 2000) sedcontraensemble/about/?entry_point=page_nav_about_ and others. This list does not purport to be exhaustive, but item&tab=page_info [last checked 2018 09 18]. aims only to demonstrate the multiplicity of concepts. Shalygin Maxim: personal site, http://maximshalygin.com [last 2 The main ones are located in Kyiv, Lviv, Odesa, Kharkiv. Before checked 2018 09 18]. the invasion of Russia on the territory of Eastern Ukraine in Vilka Sergey, e-mail message to author, 21 September 2016. 2014 the Academy of music had existed also in Donetsk. Zagaykevych Alla [Загайкевич Алла], 10 років EM-VI- 3 The pianist of International Ensemble Modern Akademie for SIA – проекту електроакустичної музики та медіа- 2017/18 season in Frankfurt. арту, 31 May 2015, https://www.facebook.com/ 4 This project was described in the article by Dorofeeva (2015). events/781115085319091/ [last checked 2018 09 18]. 5 This information is situated on the personal site of the composer (see: Shalygin). 6 It is not only in the class of their speciality. A great influence Santrauka on the formation of Shalygin had been the famous Ukrainian composer Lunyov. Šiuo metu ukrainiečių muzika, o tiksliau – šiuolaikinė 7 It is not by chance that at the moment it is performed only ukrainiečių kompozicinė mokykla, dėl tam tikrų profesinio by unique Dutch violinist Emmy Storms. In different records Storms plays it 27’ and 29’. It is possible to listen to the Symp- ugdymo aspektų yra patekusi į dviprasmišką padėtį. Viena hony in the Internet resource youtube: https://www.youtube. vertus, šalyje sukurta jaunųjų kompozitorių ugdymui skirtų com/watch?v=AWMapadMp2s mokymo įstaigų sistema. Tačiau ten studijuojama kom- 8 It is true, you can put the question differently: is not this ponavimo technika dažniausiai paremta XX a. antrajam feature indicative of Eastern European mentality? But this trečdaliui būdinga muzikine kalba. Kita vertus, pastarąjį thesis will remain outside the limits of this text. dešimtmetį Ukrainoje ypač išaugo dėmesys šiuolaikinei akademinei muzikai. Rengiama daug XX–XXI a. muzikai skirtų festivalių, edukacinių projektų, buriasi šią muziką Literature atliekantys ansambliai. Ambrazas Algirdas Jonas [Амбразас Альгирдас Йонас], Юозас Šio straipsnio tikslai: Груодис и формирование литовской композиторской школы, 1. Apžvelgti pasikeitusią XX–XXI a. pradžios muzikos автореф. дис. доктора искусствоведения, Moscow, 1991. atlikimo ir sklaidos situaciją Kijeve. Arkushyna Anna, e-mail message to author, 24 September 2016. 2. Aprašyti sėkmingiausius šiuolaikinės akademinės muzi- Beyst Stefan, Review of ‘Letters to Anna’. Symphony for violin solo kos edukacinius projektus, daugiausiai vykdomus už Ukrainos (2009–2010) by Maxim Shalygin, 2012, http://d-sites.net/ english/shalygin.htm [last checked 2018 09 18]. nacionalinės P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademijos ribų. Dedusenko Janna [Дедусенко Жанна], Виконавська піаністична 3. Išanalizuoti Maksimo Šalygino (Ukraina, Olandija) школа як рід культурної традиції, автореф. дис. кандидата Simfoniją smuikui solo „Laiškai Anai“ (2008–2011), paro- мистецтвознавства, Kyiv, 2002. dant, kaip ukrainiečių kompozitoriaus kūryba gali puikiai

60 The Development of Western European Trends in the Kyiv Composition School (2010–2017) integruotis į šiuolaikinės Europos akademinę muzikinę ansambliai, Kijevo šiuolaikinės muzikos dienos ir koncertų praktiką. agentūra „Ukho“. Straipsnyje apžvelgiamos meistriškumo Tradiciniai šiuolaikinės muzikos festivaliai Ukrainoje kursų koncepcijos, dalyvių ir kviečiamų profesorių sąrašai. vyksta jau kelis dešimtmečius. Šiuolaikiniai kūriniai, be Kalbant apie Maksimo Šalygino (g. 1985) kūrybą šiame abejonės, skamba ne tik festivaliuose, bet ir koncertuose. kontekste, būtina paminėti, kad jis yra vienas iš nedaugelio Negalima būtų teigti, kad Ukraina buvo visiškai izoliuota Ukrainos kompozitorių, gyvenančių ir dirbančių (bet ne nuo Europos klasikinės muzikos tendencijų. Vis dėlto per su stipendija ar pan.) Vakarų Europoje. M. Šalyginas atsto- pastaruosius septynerius metus situacija iš esmės pasikeitė. vauja šiuolaikinei mokyklai, sujungiančiai įvairias mokymo XX–XXI a. pradžios akademinės muzikos skambėjimas sampratas ir metodikas. Jis pradėjo studijas pas I. Ivašenko, tapo masiškesnis. Ši muzika pritraukia pilnas ne tik kame- metus mokėsi pas įžymų rusų kompozitorių B. Tiščenko rines, bet ir dideles koncertų sales. (Valstybinėje N. Rimskio-Korsakovo konservatorijoje Kokios priežastys lėmė išaugusį susidomėjimą šia mu- Sankt Peterburge), 2010 m. baigė Ukrainos nacionalinę zika? Pagrindinė, mano manymu, yra ta, jog per pirmąjį P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademiją, prof. I. Ščerbakovo klasę, XXI a. dešimtmetį Ukrainoje susiformavo nauja profesi- o 2011 m. įgijo antrą magistro laipsnį Karališkojoje Hagos onalių šiuolaikinės muzikos atlikėjų karta. Daugelis iš šių konservatorijoje (mokėsi pas profesorius C. de Bondtą ir atlikėjų taip pat rašo muziką. Taip kompozitoriai patys D. Wagenaarą). sukuria galimybes atlikti tiek savo, tiek kitų kūrėjų muziką, Simfoniją „Laiškai Anai“ M. Šalyginas parašė baigdamas ne tik susipažįsta su nauja muzika, bet kartu tobulina savo Ukrainos nacionalinę P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademiją pačių kompozicinę techniką. Šiuolaikinę muziką atlieka ir studijuodamas Karališkojoje Hagos konservatorijoje. tokie ansambliai kaip „Nostri Temporis“, „Sed Contra“, 2012 m. simfonija buvo garbingai paminėta „Gaudeamus“ Kijevo ansamblis „Ukho“. Kitas šiuolaikinės muzikos konkurse. Simfonijoje galima įžvelgti dviejų – Ukrainos ir sklaidos kelias – edukaciniai koncertų projektai ir koncertų Vakarų – mokyklų įtaką. Ukrainiečių muzikai būdingas agentūros, tarp kurių populiariausi yra Kijevo šiuolaikinės emocionalumas, tiesioginis emocingas kompozitoriaus muzikos dienos ir koncertų agentūra „Ukho“. įsitraukimas, o naujų instrumento skambėjimo būdų, išraiš- Nuo 2010-ųjų padaugėjo kompozitorių meistriškumo kos priemonių ir atlikimo technikų paieška labiau primena kursų, kuriuos daugiausia organizuoja šiuolaikinės muzikos Vakarų Europos kompozitorių kūrybą.

61 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Margarita KATUNYAN Nikolay Sidelnikov’s School of Composition Nikolajaus Sidelnikovo kompozicinė mokykla

Tchaikovsky Moscow State Conservatory, 13/6 Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street, Moscow, Russia Email [email protected] Abstract Nikolay Sidelnikov (1930–1992) was one of the leading composition teachers at the Moscow Conservatoire; his pupils include a number of the most noteworthy Moscow composers representing various stylistic directions. The phenomenon of Sidelnikov’s school has not been explored yet. His pedagogical method has been called unique. The present article makes an attempt at analyzing wherein lies Sidelnikov’s unique methodology of teaching the theory and practice of composition. Keywords: Nikolay Sidelnikov, composition school, composition technique, individuality, Vladimir Martynov, Vladimir Tarnopolsky, Kirill Umansky, Ivan Sokolov. Anotacija Nikolajus Sidelnikovas (1930–1992) buvo vienas pagrindinių kompozicijos pedagogų Maskvos valstybinėje kionservtorijoje. Tarp jo mo- kinių – bene ryškiausi Maskvos kompozitoriai, atstovaujantys įvairioms stilistinėms kryptims. Iki šiol Sidelnikovo kompozicinės mokyklos reiškinys nėra plačiai ištirtas. Savo pamokose jis taikė unikalius pedagoginius metodus. Šiame straipsnyje siekiama išanalizuoti Sidelnikovo dėstymo originalumo aspektus, mokant muzikos komponavimo teorijos ir praktikos. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Nikolajus Sidelnikovas, kompozicinė mokykla, komponavimo technika, individualybė, Vladimiras Martynovas, Vla- dimiras Tarnopolskis, Kirilas Umanskis, Ivanas Sokolovas.

The concept of composition school is often related to Naturally enough, a question arises: is there anything some ‘canon’ or a group, generation of composers. It usually that unites so dissimilar and unordinary musical person- embraces particular types of composing technique, genre alities? preferences, and spiritual and aesthetic principles. In this Sidelnikov’s method of teaching is regarded as unique. sense, the phenomenon of Nikolay Sidelnikov’s school of In order to grasp its essence, it was necessary to address composition is paradoxical. On one hand, Sidelnikov’s his pupils, the presently working composers, to read their composition class was one of the strongest in the Moscow published reminiscences of their teacher, and to meet with Conservatoire, in a centre of culture, and highly influential them. As was to be expected, live communication format re- because of that. A number of the most noteworthy Moscow vealed new information, new details and new issues for dis- composers were his pupils. On the other hand, Sidelnikov’s cussion. I am grateful for that to Kirill Umansky, Vladimir pupils realized themselves as bright and absolutely different Martynov, Vladimir Tarnopolsky and Ivan Sokolov. individuals. Masters of contemporary musical language, The reminiscences of my interlocutors are so vivid that they evolved in different, at times opposite, directions in they bring into high relief the individuality of each of them, conformity with the vectors of their interests, as follows: and this is valuable on its own account. At the same time, the recollections are closely allied in key points, which al- Eduard Artem’yev: the founder of electronic music low their systematization. The following key points were in the USSR and Russia; electronic avant-garde, later selected: the teacher’s personality; his relationships with electronic art rock and electronic World Music. students; lesson structure; the circle of composers being Vyacheslav Artëmov, Dmitriy Smirnov (Great Brit- studied; technical aspects of music composition; individual ain), Vladimir Tarnopolsky, Kirill Umansky, Anton outcomes. Rovner, Bozhidar Spasov (Bulgaria, Germany), Jamilya Zhazylbekova (Germany): various avant-garde idioms. Vladimir Martynov: post-avant-garde, minimalism, The teacher’s personality conceptual art, multimedia. Tatyana Mikheyeva: experimental ethno-techno music, Sidelnikov studied at the Moscow Conservatory from World Music. 1950 to 1957 under Anatoly Alexandrov and Yevgeniy Iraida Yusupova: post-avant-garde, conceptualism, Messner, at the graduate school - under Yuriy Shaporin. ambient. From 1958 to 1992, he taught at the Composition Depart- Ivan Sokolov: happening, neoromanticism. ment. Yevgeniy Messner, his composition teacher, produced

62 Nikolay Sidelnikov’s School of Composition a beneficial influence on Sidelnikov’s personal development: lessons he started to take at the age of 13. Lessons began he provided him with a solid professional base and laid the with an analysis of Beethoven’s sonatas. Then Sidelnikov foundation of his erudition. went over to the pupil’s compositions. His style is individual1. On the background of the Those were analyses made by a composer, lessons of com- academic school, he was distinguished by his openness to munication between him and the author. It was shock and modern language, genres, spheres (jazz), from Stravinsky – revelation; I couldn’t believe anything like this was possible.5 neo-folklore, from Debussy – colour, sound recording techniques and spontaneous, figurative-figurative sonorics He had his own system, different from many others. In addi- ... Tonality, including free chromatic series, the second function to a discussion of purely professional matters, we talked tional system, with its fundamental constructive elements, on various subjects having to do with culture. Guided by with its monograms, leith-heights, gestalt-constructs etc. – Nikolay Nikolayevich, I discovered for myself the names of in essence, a new tonality and tonal forms that correspond such artists and poets as Klee, Miró, Khlebnikov, and other th to it – reprise, high-altitude ones. Style allusions to Scriabin, great 20 century masters. (Мартынов 2001: 111) Medtner, Jazz, Blues, Brahms, Mahler, Stravinsky – the pro- Judging by these recollections, Sidelnikov moulded gram plan, they are conceptual and therefore combine into a professionals in his pupils: he taught them to learn from single, multi-layered author’s style. His favourite composers masters, to perceive music as a composer does and to see how were Wagner, Stravinsky, Brahms, Schubert, Musorgsky, a composition has been made. The same as young painters Debussy, Ravel, Berg, Bartók, Monteverdi, Mozart, Pärt. He view a master’s piece: they come close to the canvas to ex- liked jazz. He felt the influence of Stravinsky most strongly. amine the painting technique in detail. Besides, Sidelnikov As Tarnopolsky commented: ‘Sidelnikov was among the expanded the students’ knowledge of arts, philosophy and 2 first who revived Stravinsky in Russia’. culture, thus developing their personalities. He educated A powerful influence of Sidelnikov was formed by his pupils in many areas previously unknown to them. He Vladimir Martynov’s artistic consciousness. Especially in the was raising artists who were to become mature personalities. period of intensive studies, at the age of 14–16, Martynov When Sidelnikov saw that Ivan Sokolov was an excel- experienced the magical impact of his teacher’s personal- lent pianist, he found a special approach to him: he asked ity (‘unique’, ‘of a grandiose human level’) and the scope Ivan to play at sight Debussy’s preludes, the Adagio from of his knowledge, as well as, in some way, of Sidelnikov’s Beethoven’s Hammerklavier Sonata, Schubert’s sonatas, social network. Which included such great men as pianist Scarlatti’s sonatas, Mozart’s variations, and more. Heinrich Neuhaus, philosopher Valentin Asmus, poet Boris Pasternak, and composer Andrey Volkonsky. We examined the music. It was important to him that the composer should investigate a piece by fingers – play it rather Sidelnikov was my guru […] I had a real teacher. Many do not than listen to a recording. The communication with the com- know what it means […]. If I have any achievements, they are poser should do without an interpreter, without a mediator.6 due to my getting into unique surroundings and obtaining a possibility to enjoy true Schooling.3 Ivan Sokolov expressed a surprising idea: Sidelnikov’s Each lesson promised most interesting discoveries. method consisted in that he had a separate method for At times I left Sidelnikov in a state of intellectual shock. each student. Meantime, all his students were present in (Мартынов 2001: 111) the classroom.

Tarnopolsky says: Our timetable provided two hours a week, but he wanted us to sit from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. We skipped lessons on other subjects; A lot of stories were told about his remarkable erudition. he managed to arrange it with the dean’s office.7 He often quoted Spengler and Nietzsche; he knew Russian philosophy, the Bible, the Talmud, and the Koran perfectly One more subtle idea: well. To say nothing of his brilliant knowledge of the history of music – from Dutch polyphonists to jazz stars’. The main thing is that he was concerned about the student (Тарнопольский 2001: 112)4 rather than about music. Students were more important for him than the music they wrote. He “got the feel” of each student. For him, there was no bad music as such. There was The method music that did not reveal student’s individuality. That is why all musicians he taught found themselves. He sometimes My interlocutors found it difficult to define Sidelnikov’s said to me quoting Stanislavsky: “I don’t believe you”. That method. However, recalling their lessons they actually is, my music appeared insincere to him although I wrote it answered my question about it. ‘There was no method at experiencing genuine feelings. He found it to be not mine. 8 all’, said Martynov, but in fact he described it, recalling the He saw me differently.

63 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Margarita KATUNYAN

Quoting Sidelnikov’s statement that the ultimate goal Lessons of his teaching is to draw individuality from each student, Iraida Yusupova notes: All students gathered at the lessons, but the Professor He never taught us to write music in the direct, didactiс mean- worked with each of them separately. Severe critical remarks ing of the word, but he did inspire us immensely. (Юсупова were pronounced openly in the presence of the whole class, 2001: 116) which caused discomfort and constraint. Umansky gives an eloquent explanation of the educational function of Sokolov adds and explains what ‘he inspired us’ means: such a lesson: He said: “Listen to yourself. Come to appreciate the unique- Student’s individuality was alienated and regarded as some- ness of your personality. You all are absolutely unique crea- thing in a state of formation. […] In this way he, first, eradi- tures, and you must create your own individual, inimitable cated the sense of narcissism in us and, second, let us develop styles”. That was his primary idea. [...] Sidelnikov fired us up independently, that is, feel ourselves to be self-sufficient’. with his intonation, enthusiasm, attitude to work, and his (Уманский 2001: 116) love for music. He stimulated intuition and encouraged us by a glance, gesture, or intonation: “Ah, what a nice use of The lesson took the form of a spirited monologue. There strings!”, “What a chord!”, “What a climax!”9 was a flow of associations, quotations, switching from music to literature, philosophy, fine arts, and vice versa. Umansky The results were achieved not only through such effects. again comments eloquently on the expediency of such The individual tone of conversation with each student cre- intellectual attacks: ated an atmosphere of confidentiality and informal creative communication. This allowed him to ease diffidence, stiff- Sidelnikov strove ‘to blow out of us all that was trifle and casual ness or constraint if it inhibited creative freedom. by his philosophical-literary hailstorm. Every time I left the classroom I experienced the same shock that I underwent after Umansky: my first meeting with Sidelnikov. (Ibid.: 117) He had an ability to activate human energy and let it out. He could act as a doctor: he noticed the features that seemed to A great part of the lessons was devoted to listening him negative and hampering creative work. He said to me: to music with scores. The students listened to Wagner’s “You appear as a youthful buttoned-up old man. But you are operas, to the symphonies by Brahms and Mahler, to Berg, really young and it’s a pleasure to look at you”. He called on Debussy, Stravinsky, Schoenberg, Webern and Bartók, to natural manifestations of one’s self, urged to express oneself Monteverdi, Beethoven’s quarters, Mozart’s string quintets, spontaneously, “on the level of the first signalling system”, as he Ligeti, Stockhausen, Nono, and Berio. Listening with score said, and used to repeat: “We should learn from animals. Look was accompanied by technical, philosophical and cultural- 10 how logical and beautiful is everything in their movements”. historical comments. Sidelnikov scrutinized each score. His All his pupils are unanimous in that Sidelnikov was not analyses contained an element of mysterious communica- striving to train a student in a particular composition tech- tion between composers, when one makes an analytical nique; he would not provide technological instructions con- study of the other’s work. Sidelnikov’s analysis touched cerning some writing style. He was concerned with individual- upon the form, thematic construction, instrumentation, ity. The ways of finding one’s ownself are inscrutable. Freedom and other music elements. However, there was one more is a no easy thing to get. One has to gain the knowledge of thing mentioned by Ivan Sokolov: freedom. And the teacher led his students in this direction If he liked something, he emphasized it: “What trombones!”, unbendingly but tactfully and carefully at the same time. ‘He “What a chromatic progression in Non morir from [Mon- threw a human being into some kind of solitude, watched teverdi’s] L’incoronazione di Poppea!” He highlighted all that him dangling there and just suggested: “This can be here, and impressed him: the orchestra, part-writing, expression, the that can be there”’.11 A Spartan method of education, indeed. beauty and harmony of form; he was enthralled with creative 13 Solitude for a student meant freedom to Sidelnikov. energy and creative fervour. He never tired of watching his students floundering about. Creative energy and creative fervour deserve special He would not interfere much but waited patiently to see mention as, in all probability, it was only in Sidelnikov’s where his pupil would emerge, to be more exact, what composition class that such indefinable features of a musi- fairway he would choose to swim freely in the vast space cal work as composer’s creative energy and creative fervour of opportunities. were taken into consideration and held up as an example. Umansky: Listening to music as a composer meant not only making an He said: “You should make abstract categories to become analysis of elements of the musical substance, but also seeing yours.” I felt I began thinking in abstract categories as if they the composition in the process of its creation, as it were, that were mine. And I saw as if a glade, a gleam of light.12 is, both in its integrity and in the course of creative thought

64 Nikolay Sidelnikov’s School of Composition boiling at the moment of creation. This is how Sidelnikov Technical details did it! He often repeated his famous expressions: ‘to strike against a masterpiece’, ‘to strike against a genius’. Sidelnikov required natural material from his pupils – There were also his ecstatic remarks concerning superior something that cannot be learnt. When such material was mastery with provocative absurd associations, for instance: produced, he urged them to find ways of developing it that What a modulation! Look, Schubert passed from A minor stemmed from its nature. He then helped unobtrusively. The to A flat minor in one touch, like Maradona.14 material must be unique; the teacher barred self-repetition. He required new material as well as new quality of working with it. Sokolov: The tasks Copying devices is the same as hiding behind somebody Group lessons, with each student attended to person- else’s style – he struggled against it like a tiger. If the music ally, included a separate assignment for each student. That was rough or somewhat strange, he accepted it. But if it was is, he ‘drew’ (as he used to say) something individual from smooth, glossed over and sounding nicely, next to being readily the student precisely by giving him or her full freedom. published, he would most likely reject it.18 Then he would offer his comments to help remove the This might be rather offensive for such vulnerable per- shortcomings. Umansky: sons as composers but, as we see, his pupils drew proper For me, it was to become less “hermetic”. It was different conclusions. with Yusupova; in her case, there was distortion of another Summarizing the above, we can distinguish three points sort – too much intuition and emotions – and he led her of his work with the students. 15 away from it. 1. The choice of material is an individual path (avoiding Sokolov: clichés and stamps). 2. Development of the material. If a student immersed himself in some single trend, he came- under a severe critique. For instance, if a person started writing 3. Feeling of form. dodecaphony. Not for any other reason but just because it The choice of material was a strictly individual course is easy to hide oneself behind dodecaphony. Or if a person of action. This is the stage for the search for free material. started writing à la Sviridov. He said: “It’s not your face. You At this stage, the teacher took the position of an observer. hide behind Sviridov. It’s a mask. It’s easy to hide behind a This Spartan method of education forced the student to mask and forget your individuality. Try to find yourself ”. “flounder”, at all costs to swim and survive; or to find the And the man wrote wonderful music. I remember that all was strength to fly off with a free fall, having managed to bal- licked clean. But he [Sidelnikov] rejected it.16 ance the earth’s gravity with repulsive forces, and soar - soar, Students were to bring to the classroom their own music. depending on its own wings. Sidelnikov would turn down a borrowed style. That is why Samples were offered without limits by any ideology: he did not teach techniques in the habitual sense of the Beethoven, Wagner, Monteverdi, Debussy, Schoenberg, sedi- word. To teach techniques means to form the pupil’s style tious in those years Stockhausen, Boulez, Nono, and others. from the outside. That is, the teacher shapes the pupil’s style. Material development. At this stage, the main thing is Sidelnikov held that “to teach techniques means to cover up always a new quality of work with the material. Sidelnikov the lack of talent”,17 to hide behind technique or style means did not allow repeating and replicating the reception as to harm one’s individuality. In his view, technology excludes such. He taught his students to feel the material from the fervour of a creative personality, which reveals the lat- within, its individual properties, to find an organic devel- ter’s natural uniqueness. Sidelnikov nurtured personality. opment for him. Technique is something rudimentary; it comes before It is perfectly understandable why Sidelnikov did not authorship. Harmony and polyphony techniques were deal with writing systems, technicians; he instilled a taste for studied with Yury Kholopov. His course covered histori- searching for individual ways. Therefore, he avoided inertia, cal techniques from the Middle Ages to the present day. proceeding from the predetermination of the system and the Assimilating those techniques, the future composer could threatening loss of the individuality of the material in the try various paths, find his bearings and choose a path con- course of its development. At this stage, Sidelnikov already formable to his nature using his own musical language and connected the students to the process and showed possible technical arsenal. Young Martynov treated dodecaphony options for working with the material. His own skill in cut- with much ingenuity proceeding from the idea of a piece ting sparks from the resistance of the material, the ability and finally brought it nearly to minimalism. The language to get vital energy from the victory over the material clearly of his twelve-tone String Sonata was so individual that showed the students how to make development tense and Sidelnikov accepted it unconditionally. lively, natural, rather than entropic and faceless.

65 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Margarita KATUNYAN

The form. The form could not be prescribed in advance, Bitkin wrote a cantata with a Hebrew text (in the 1970!). from outside. He brought up a sense of form from the But something like this was clearly inappropriate for exams. student - he demanded each time to find a unique form, Something ‘placid’ was needed for a student to be promoted. organically derived from the properties of this material. On the one hand, he reared some moral principles in The passage of all these steps could be successful under his pupils, while on the other he would encourage them to the general condition of freedom and breadth of humani- betray these very principles for the sake of smooth progress tarian knowledge. towards the graduation. Dmitriy Smirnov called this ‘double standards’. A deep conflict about it occurred between Sidelnikov Teacher’s personality continued and his favourite pupil Martynov. How come discussing Klee, Miró, Khlebnikov, Guillaume de Machaut, playing the Psychologist. Individual attitude to a pupil, his Goldberg-Variationen the one hand, and writing a diploma on emotional state and spiritual constitution was of primary a Lenin-related topic, on the other?23 Martynov judged such importance for Sidelnikov. Remember Umansky’s words tactics harshly as a kind of Soviet conformism.24 However, his that he, like a doctor, was able ‘to activate human energy teacher’s forced tactics was a protective one: in the 1960s and and let it out’. 1970s, a retreat from academic composition, to say nothing Severe critic. A merciless critic, one may say. To Uman- of allusions to political subjects, could entail administrative sky: ‘Never do it again’; to Martynov: ‘You distressed me consequences. Sidelnikov safeguarded the destinies of the greatly’, etc. Umansky: young against such consequences to the best of his ability.

That was a ‘ devaluation of what seemed valuable to healing Tutor. As concerns high ethics, Sidelnikov would not you.19 teach his pupils to become their own image-makers. That Sokolov: was not his nature (he never promoted himself either); image making was outside the sphere of his moral values. He was utterly tough. When I fell for Denisov’s style in the This is evident from the performance history of his works. third year, I wrote the first movement of a Violin Concerto, His pupils note that Sidelnikov as a truly grand composer and I got a grandiose reprimand. In very sharp words. I played deserves more attention. my piece to him and he said to me: “You know, Vanechka [pet Tarnopolsky: name of Ivan], you have very good music paper”. I was hurt. I had had a recondite, a purely cerebral idea. I proceeded not Sidelnikov was one of the most talented composers of his from sound but from the number, from the series. Boulez-like generation – by his artistry, his melodic gift, the inimita- structuralism, as it were. Sidelnikov rejected it sharply, and he ble plasticity of his intonation, and his true musicianship. was right. Later I wrote ten pieces in Denisov’s style. These he (Тарнопольский 2001: 112) liked. There was live music in them.20 Martynov: Father. Liberal creative contacts were maintained both in the classroom and in everyday life without any particular It’s disappointing that the place given today to Sidelnikov bounds between the two spheres. Sokolov: in Russian music does not correspond to the real nature of his talent – an utmost important vertebra has been removed Sidelnikov showed us his new compositions and played from our history, and so much the worse for us… (Мартынов excerpts from them. 21 2001: 111) Tarnopolsky: Personal outcomes Students visited him at his country house, where they were treated generously and listened to Stockhausen, Berio, Xenakis […], whom they could not listen to at the Conservatoire. 22 The essence of Sidelnikov’s composition school, in fact, consists in the combination of all the below mentioned aspects. Sidelnikov did not train his students for exams; his main Umansky: task was to raise free artists. Yet, they had to pass tests and I would have been different not only in music composition write something for exams. Nurturing a free creative personal- but in life too.25 ity, he was at the same time fully aware of the problems the students might encounter at tests and exams. He cared for Martynov: his pupils and their study progress and advised them to write different things for lessons and exams. It was a dual situa- I was taught art in the highest sense of the word, not only 26 tion. There was full freedom in Sidelnikov’s class. Vladimir that of composition.

66 Nikolay Sidelnikov’s School of Composition

He had a great influence on me. First, his 1968 composi- freedom’, ‘mask of irony and bravado concealing a tragic face’, tion Russian Fairy Tales gave me a most powerful spur to ‘a guru arousing admiration and veneration’, ‘tremendous minimalism. Second, […] Sidelnikov found an absolutely efficiency’, ‘sparkling humour’, ‘inward sense of freedom and new conceptual approach to the problem of finale – with utmost sincerity’, ‘a man of the future’… 5 Interview with Martynov, 10 August 2016. the help of sudden modulation to a different style. […] The 6 From author’s interview with Sokolov, 15 September 2016. transition to extramusical categories was effected in this way. 7 Ibid. (Мартынов 2001: 111) 8 Ibid. 9 Interview with Sokolov, ibid. Tarnopolsky: 10 From author’s interview with Kirill Umansky, July 2016. 11 Ibid. Paradoxically, my communication with Sidelnikov led me to 12 Ibid. a few absolutely contrasting thoughts: 13 Interview with Sokolov, ibid. 1. Not to be a distilled purist irrespective of whether it is 14 Ibid. serial purism or the dogmatic socialist realism. 15 Interview with Umansky, ibid. 2. Not to become eclectic at that! 16 Interview with Sokolov, ibid. 17 3. To master composition techniques thoroughly. Interview with Umansky, ibid. 18 4. Not to write profusely. Write only what definitely has Interview with Sokolov, ibid. 19 Interview with Umansky, ibid. to be written. Not to engage in hackwork in the cinema, 20 Interview with Sokolov, ibid. which, in my view, exerted a negative influence on nearly 21 Ibid. all composers of Sidelnikov’s generation. 22 Interview with Tarnopolsky, ibid. 5. Not to be a slave of some ‘musical ideology’.27 23 Martynov and Kondorf graduated from the Conservatoire in 1970, the year of Lenin’s 100th birthday anniversary. The Sokolov: rector’s office and the composition department demanded that all graduates of the composition department present He opened up freedom to us. The sense of freedom, the sense cantatas devoted to Lenin at the exams. that we live in some terrible fettered state where this is allowed 24 Interview with Martynov, ibis. and that is prohibited. This sense had been weeded out of us 25 Interview with Umansky, ibid. during five years of studies. I remember I felt myself comfort- 26 Interview with Martynov, ibid. 27 able in my creative work.28 Interview with Tarnopolsky, ibid. 28 Interview with Sokolov, ibid.

References Literature 1 Sidelnikov wrote three operas: The Scarlet Flower by Sergei Aksakov (1974), Chertogon, the opera diologia for Nikolai Мартынов Владимир, Учитель жизни [Teacher of Life], in: Leskov’s Zagul, The Hangover (1978–1981), and Running for Музыкальная Академия, 2001, No. 1, p. 111–112. Mikhail Bulgakov (1987); ballet Stepan Razin, 6 symphonies, Тарнопольский Владимир, Русский футурист [A Russian Futur- 3 oratorios, a lot of choral, chamber and instrumental music. ist], in: Музыкальная Академия, 2001, No. 1, p. 112–113. The first international success in 1971 on the rostrum of Уманский Кирилл, Искусство создают личности [The Art is UNESCO composers in Paris brought him his Russian Fairy Created by Individuals], in: Музыкальная Академия, 2001, Tales, a concert for 12 musicians. The concert was listed among No. 1, p. 116–119. the ten best works of the world concert season 1970/71. His Юсупова Ираида, Он писал до последнего вздоха [He Kept works were triumphantly performed in Prague and Bratislava, Writing until His Last Breath], in: Музыкальная Академия, Zagreb and Berlin, Milan, Amsterdam, Paris and Beijing. I 2001, No. 1, p. 115–116. would like to especially note the performances of his music in Concert Merkin Hall, New York: Chamber Symphony DUELI for cello, double bass, 2 pianos and percussion, writ- Santrauka ten by the request of Rostropovich was performed at the on 11 March 1990; Symphony for Lermontov’s Rebel World of the Poet for the baritone and chamber orchestra, with a great Nikolajaus Sidelnikovo kompozicijos klasė buvo viena success was held on February 7 1991; and the premiere of his stipriausių Maskvos konservatorijoje. Čia studijavo keletas spiritual concert at the Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary žymiausių šiuolaikinių Maskvos kompozitorių – labai under Andrew Goodman. skirtingi, išsaugoję ryškų individualumą, visiškai nepanašūs 2 From author’s interview with Tarnopolsky, 10 September 2016. 3 From author’s interview with Vladimir Martynov, April 1996. vienas į kitą. 4 To add to this: Sidelnikov was keen on history, studied Visi jie – šiuolaikinės muzikos kalbos meistrai, pasukę chronicles and was a connoisseur in fine art and poetry. His skirtingais kūrybinių ieškojimų keliais. Edvardas Artem- personality is described by his pupils in such terms as ‘unique’, jevas – elektroninės muzikos, elektroninio avangardo, vė- ‘of grandiose human level’, ‘strict’, ‘tough’, ‘careful hands of a liau – elektroninio artroko ir elektroninės pasaulio etninės tutor’, ‘unshakable spiritual creative attitude’, ‘a Russian futur- ist’, ‘impetuous’, ‘explosive’, ‘almost physical protest against any muzikos (angl. world music) buvusioje Sovietų Sąjungoje form of coercion, against everything that impedes creative ir Rusijoje pradininkas. Viačeslavas Artiomovas, Dmitrijus

67 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Margarita KATUNYAN

Smirnovas, Vladimiras Tarnopolskis, Božidaras Spasovas, Competition of Young Composers named after P. I. Jurgenson Jamilia Jazylbekova atstovauja skirtingoms avangardinės (since 2001). muzikos kryptims. Vladimiras Martynovas – postavangar- Professor of the composition class at the Moscow Con- distas, minimalistas, konceptualiojo meno kūrėjas, multime- servatory (since 1992), where he founded and headed the Con- dijų menininkas. Tatjana Michejeva kuria eksperimentinę temporary Music Department (2003). Among his students are etnotechno, taip pat pasaulinę etninę muziką. Iraidos Jusu- laureates of international and All-Russian competitions. Tar- povos muzikai būdingi postavangardizmo, konceptualizmo nopolsky’s compositions have been awarded with the Dmitry ir ambientinės muzikos bruožai. Ivanui Sokolovui artimi Shostakovich Prize and the Paul Hindemith Prize (in 1991). hepeningai, neoromantizmas. Kas jungia šias itin skirtingas Kirill Umansky (b. 1962, Moscow) is a composer and or- asmenybes? Klausimas natūraliai kyla apie metodiką. N. Si- ganist. In 1986, he graduated from the Moscow Conservatoire delnikovo pedagoginė metodika laikoma unikalia. Norint in composition class with Sidelnikov, organ with Roizman and ją perprasti, reikėjo surinkti ir palyginti keleto kompozito- Bodyl. He has been an member of the Moscow Association riaus studentų – Kirilo Umanskio, Vladimiro Marynovo, of Contemporary Music (since 1997). Laureate of the BBC Vladimiro Tarnopolskio ir Ivano Sokolovo – prisiminimus. Radio contest in 2000, 3rd prize at the Orpheus Radio compe- Nepaprastai gyvi mano pašnekovų pasakojimai atskleidžia tition and International Competition “KlingendeKirche” (in kiekvieno jų asmenybės savitumą, o tai jau savaime vertinga. 2002). Since 1991, Umansky has acted as an organist, mainly Visgi jie turi ir daug ką bendro. Šias sąsajas būtų galima su- as a performer of contemporary works for the organ. Since sisteminti atsižvelgiant į šiuos aspektus: pedagogo asmenybė, 1995, he teaches at the Department of Instrumentation of the jo santykiai su studentais, pamokos struktūra, studijoms Moscow Conservatory. pasirinkti kompozitoriai, techniniai muzikinės kompozicijos Umanskiy is an author of musical compositions of various aspektai, pedagogo asmenybė ir asmeniniai rezultatai. genres, mainly instrumental for chamber original compositions, as well as chamber-vocal and choral ones. His works are performed in Russia, the Netherlands, Austria, Great Appendix Britain, Sweden, Norway, USA, and South Korea. His music performers include – Pekarsky, Spencer (USA), Association of In the Appendix, I present the information on four stu- Contemporary Music (under the direction of Kasparov), New dents of Nikolai Sidelnikov, participants in the interview for Music Studio, Da capo (USA), Pekarsky Percussion Ensemble, this article. These are Vladimir Tarnopolsky, Cyril Umansky, Percussion Ensemble State Academic Bolshoi Theater, Spiritual Vladimir Martynov and Ivan Sokolov. Four unique composers Revival Choir, cooperation with conductors Ponkin, Krimets, and four different ways in which they are realized in music. Korobov, Kondrashev, Annamamedov, Skripka, Dronov, Nevertheless, they came from one “nest” – the school of com- Vinogradov, Kontorovich. position of Nikolai Sidelnikov. Umansky is a regular participant of the following festivals Moscow Autumn, Moscow Forum, Alternative, Friends’ Music, Vladimir Tarnopolskiy (b. 1955, Dnipropetrovsk, Russian Music Academy. One of his works was dedicated to Ukraine) since 1973 studied in Moscow Conservatory, in- his teacher, Fantasy of the memory of Nikolai Sidelnikov for a cluding composition with Sidelnikov, instrumentation with solo organ (composed in 1992, published in 1997, Moscow: Edison Denisov and theoretical subjects with Yuri Kholopov. Composer). Symphonic and chamber works by Tarnopolsky have been performed at international festivals of contemporary music Composer, philosopher, artist, and poet Vladimir in Europe and the United States, the premieres of his scenic Martynov (b. 1946, Moscow) graduated from the Moscow works took place in Russia, France, Germany, Holland, Nor- Conservatory in the composition class of Nikolai Sidelnikov way. Among the performers of his works are – Rozhdestvensky, in 1970 and piano class of Mikhail Mezhlumov in 1971. In Rostropovich, Gutman, Bashmet, Lazarev, Sinai, Jurowski, the 1973–1980, he attended the Moscow Experimental Studio Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, Ensemble Modern, En- of Electronic Music. The author of over 10 books and many semble InterContemporain, Schönberg Ensemble, Ensemble articles on culturology, philosophy of music, and the history Recherche, Musikfabrik, Ensemble of soloists of the Bolshoi of spiritual singing. He has collected and explored Russian Theater, etc. and Oriental folklore, published collections of works by Tarnopolsky – one of the founders of the Association for Machaut, Gabrieli, Dunstable and Dufay. In 1977–1978, Contemporary Music (1989), Ensemble “Studio for New he organized and directed the rock band Forpost (composer, Music” and the Centre for Contemporary Music at Moscow keyboard player). In the 70s-80s, he took part in avant-garde Conservatory (1993). Since 1994, he has organized the festivals in Riga, Tallinn, St. Petersburg and Novosibirsk. He annual international festival of avant-garde music Moscow taught at the Theological Academy of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra Forum, which has received widespread recognition in Russia (1979–1997). Since 2005, he has been lecturing on Musical and abroad. He is one of the initiators of the International Anthropology at the Faculty of Philosophy of the Moscow

68 Nikolay Sidelnikov’s School of Composition

State University named after Lomonosov. Laureate of the at the age of 13 he achieved the 1st rank in chess. He teaches State Prize (2003). at the Moscow Conservatory. Since 1995 he lived in Cologne, Martynov is one of the founders of the festival Alternative since 2003 – in Bornheim (near Bonn), remaining a Russian (1988), the initiator of creative projects New Sacred Space, Opus subject. Sokolov is one of the founders of the Moscow music posth (also of the eponymous instrumental ensemble directed festival Alternative. As a composer he writes in various genres, by Tatyana Grindenko), Searches for a new situation. He has giving preference to chamber music. Many of his chamber- taken part in various international actions, festivals, multime- vocal works were based on the verses of Pushkin, Baratynsky, dia exhibitions-installations. Since 2000, the annual festival of Tyutchev, Blok, Bunin, Khlebnikov, Platonov, Zabolotsky, Aigi works by Vladimir Martynov has been held in Moscow. and other poets. Sokolov wrote two operas Cryptophonika (in The components of his style are conceptualism, ritual- collaboration with Yusupova and Nevraev, 1995) and Miracle ity, culturology and related actualization of historical language likes to warm his heels (on the verses of Vvedensky, 2000). paradigms, he works at the junction of music composer and In composing and piano performance, Sokolov embodies “traditional streams”. His creative method combines the princi- his understanding of artistic creativity as a spontaneous game. ples of avant-garde and postmodernism, neo-traditionalism and Sokolov is interested in developing the directions indicated by contemporary art. His style was formed under the influence of Cage and Kagel. He declares absolute freedom in the choice multiple interests and developments in the field of folklore, music of material: from the primary elements of music, such as a of the West-European Middle Ages and Renaissance, oriental cul- note-point, chord, passage or even some finished work (in tures, Christian singing traditions of the West and the East, rock performing). Often his works combine performance of the culture, electronic music, conceptual poetry, contemporary art. piano and verbal communication with the public. In the early 1970’s, Martynov was a representative of the Sokolov calls himself a speaking pianist – this is his in- radical avant-garde. Dodecaphonic and sonorous composi- vented method of artistic behaviour on stage: he not only tions demonstrating conceptual programming, interaction of plays the piano, not only prefigures the performance with a musical and non-musical principles, and culturological accent. foreword, but also includes in the fabric of his works a program In 1974–1978 in his aesthetics, there was a turn to the new or improvised verbal text, as well as movement.. simplicity, the concept of minimalism and rituality. The works Beginning with the second half of the 1990s (1994–1996), of the 1980s–2000s combine post-minimalism, bricolage Sokolov’s compositions, in spite of the external impression of (allusions, quasi-citations), intertextuality, borderline style turning to traditional forms (to opera, chamber-vocal lyricism, and genre situations, synthesis with visual arts, theatre, new to melody, tonality, verse rhythm), in essence, keep in touch performing strategies, multimedia, art media objects. with game aesthetics, giving a new result. Conceptualism or Operas, choral and chamber works of Martynov are per- features of absurd aesthetics are intricately and in different formed at numerous international music and theatre festivals proportions combined with the elements of new sincerity and stages in Germany, France, Italy, England, Holland, Esto- and new simplicity as part of a pluralistic language or, as the nia, Latvia, Japan and the USA. Martynov collaborated with composer defined it, “a stratification of style into several styles”. theatre directors Vasilyev, Lyubimov, Epelbaum, Isahakyan, In the concert repertoire of Sokolov, the music of the 18th- film directors Khrzhanovsky, Gerasimov, Abdrashitov, Lungin, 19th centuries – Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and poets – Moscow conceptualists Prigov and Rubinstein. Brahms, Mussorgsky – occupies a permanent place. However, Among the performers of his works are such ensembles as the most of the music belongs to the 20th century. Sokolov often Mariinsky Theater Orchestra, the State Russian Orchestra, includes in his programs world premieres of the works of the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the Hortusmusicus en- Pelecis, Gubaidulina, Martynov, Grabovsky, Raskatov, Tar- sembles Andres Mustonen, the Kronos Quartet, Opus posth, napolski, Karaev, Ekimovski, Smirnov, Firsova, Yusupova, and the Academy of Early Music, the Mark Pekarsky Percussion others. As a pianist, he performs a lot in the cities of Russia, Ensemble, the Victor Popov Chorus, the Dmitry folklore the whole of Europe and the USA, performing solo or with ensemble Pokrovsky; conductors – Rozhdestvensky, Gergiev, orchestras. As well, he is a regular participant of the festivals Yurovsky; musicians – Bashmet, Kremer, David James, Mark of contemporary music (Alternative and Moscow Forum in Tucker, Lyubimov, Grindenko etc. Moscow, Icebreaker in Seattle, and others). As an author and performer, he participates in the Russian-German Quartet Pianist and composer Ivan Sokolov (b. 1960, Moscow) of Composers, composed of Alexey Aigi, Dietmar Bonnen, graduated from the Moscow Conservatory in 1983 and post- Manfred Niehaus and himself. Moreover, Sokolov participates graduate studies in 1986 in Sidelnikov’s class on composition in art exhibitions and in the projects of the contemporary art and Naumov on piano. In addition he was a chess player and of sculptor and artist Vadim Zakharov.

69 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Jānis KUDIŅŠ Composition School, Tradition or a Remarkable Personality? Some Remarks on Jāzeps Vītols’ Creative and Pedagogical Work in the frame of 20th Century European Music Kompozicinė mokykla, tradicija ar ryški asmenybė? Jāzepo Vītolio kūrybos ir pedagogikos aspektai XX a. Europos muzikos kontekste

Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music, Krišjāņa Barona iela 1, Riga, Latvia Email [email protected]

Abstract According to Latvian music historiography, the Latvian composer Jāzeps Vītols (1863–1948) was one of the first truly universal masters of Latvian origin whose creative work raised almost all of the main genres to a level of classic perfection and faultless artistry. He is the intellectual father of several generations of composers and the founder of the Latvian Academy of Music. Vītols’ had a significant role in the development of Latvian professional music culture. Additionally, not only in St. Petersburg but also in Riga, he was a professor of composition and music theory not only for Latvian, but also other European composers. He was a teacher for many Estonian, Lithuanian, Polish, German and foreign composers and music theorists. What kind of long-term influence did Vītols have in the past, on the creative work of Latvian composers? This issue will be the focus of this article. It is hoped that this analysis will provoke a fruitful exchange of views about the topic of the compositional school in different aspects. Keywords: Jāzeps Vītols, compositional school, personality, tradition.

Anotacija Remiantis Latvijos muzikos istoriografija, kompozitorius Jāzepas Vītolis (1863–1948) – pirmasis tikrai universalus latvių muzikas profesionalas, kurio darbai visus latvių muzikos žanrus pakėlė į aukštesnį klasikinio meistriškumo ir neabejotino meniškumo lygmenį. Jis išugdė keletą kompozitorių kartų, įkūrė Latvijos muzikos akademiją. J. Vītolis atliko svarbų vaidmenį puoselėjant profesionaliąją Latvijos muzikinę kultūrą. Be to, jis dėstė kompoziciją ir muzikos teoriją ne tik Rygoje, bet ir Sankt Peterburge, ne tik latvių, bet ir kitų Rytų Europos šalių muzikos studentams, išugdė daugybę estų, latvių, lenkų, vokiečių ir kitų tautų kompozitorių bei muzikos teoretikų. Šio straipsnio pagrindinis tikslas yra atskleisti, kokią įtaką ilgainiui turėjo J. Vītolis latvių kompozitorių kūrybai. Tikimasi, kad ši analizė paskatins pasidalinti nuomonėmis apie skirtingus šios kompozicinės mokyklos aspektus. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Jāzepas Vītolis, kompozicinė mokykla, asmenybė, tradicija.

This article focuses on a significant personality Festival tradition.2 How might it be possible to define in Latvian and European 20th century music history, the creative contribution of Vītols the composer to the Latvian composer Jāzeps Vītols (1863–1948). His leading aesthetic opinions and characteristic stylistic role and impact on music culture was not just in the contexts that were dominant in Europe during his context of one country’s music history. Essentially, lifetime? What kind academic music trend did Vītols it covers a range of issues in European music history represent as a composer and, especially, a composition overall. According to Latvian music historiography, teacher with notable international renown? What kind Vītols was one of the first truly universal masters of of long-term influence did Vītols on have the crea- Latvian origin whose creative work raised almost all tive works of composers of varied countries? While of the main genres to a level of classic perfection and searching for an answer to this question, the author faultless artistry. He is the intellectual father of several first identifies three aspects. generations of composers and founder of the Latvian Firstly, a view of Jāzeps Vītols’ aesthetic opinions Academy of Music.1 In turn, in the last century, some and stylistic orientation in music. In addition to Vītols, of his musical works have become Latvian national one of the trends of 19th century romanticism stands symbols, especially with regards to the national Song out – in Latvian music history, it can conclusively be

70 Composition School, Tradition or a Remarkable Personality? Some Remarks on Jāzeps Vītols’ Creative and Pedagogical Work

beginning of the 20th century. Despite Vītols’ cautious views on varied new trends in the stylistic panorama in music at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, the composer reflects the aesthetics and 21 musical language elements of expressionism and impressionism in an individualized manner in his creative work. This allows us to conclude that Vītols should be considered not only as a creator of music that is academically formally correct and, in the stylistic sense, as someone who is frozen in time – he was a refined interpreter of the new trends that were characteristic of his era. Thirdly, when attempting to define the place and role of the individual style of Vītols’ music in Euro- pean music history at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. It might be observed that the manner of classic artistic expression, that Vītols represents is nowadays, often considered a background element of his era. These conditions answer the question why Vītols’ music, when evaluating it in the broader context of the historical experience of European music, is not immediately recognizable. The style and aesthetics represented by Vītols in music Jāzeps Vītols in the 1920s. From Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy are not able to objectively overcome or influence the of Music Library Electronic Catalogue (Database of Pictures, inertia of the perception and the canons, which exist Cipher No LF8) in numerous research papers and in various languages, and are mainly centred on the analysis of diverse described as a classic academicism in the frames of the aspects of modernism. In the context of his time, aesthetics of romanticism. Vītols is not considered to Vītols’ music was not as innovative or as provocative truly be one of the pure 19th century romanticists – to listeners as, for example, new works by Antonín this is confirmed by the expressive elasticity of musical Dvořak, Edvard Grieg, Jean Sibelius or Carl Nielsen. form and a balanced dramaturgy. In contrast with a Herein lays the answer to the question why Vītols’ romantic worldview, which is often characterised by a music, when evaluating it in the context of a broader black and white view and an emotional tension reach- European musical history experience, is not present ing an emotionally raging and fatal incandescence, in texts (books, articles etc.). Still, there is a reason to Vītols chose a reserved emotionality. The basis for predict that active research into Vītols’ creative work this conclusion can be found in critiques of Vītols’ and aesthetic ideas will produce new conclusions re- music during his time in St. Petersburg, 1880–1918. garding Vītols as a distinguished European classicist.3 These critiques are notable for Vītols’ affinity with, for Summarizing the above, in the second half of the example, the music of Johannes Brahms and Alexan- 19th century and early 20th century, Vītols represented der Glazunov. On the other hand, he was always very one tendency in academic music, which cultivated reserved or critical towards the music of Alexander classical traditions in a the romantic style framework. Scriabin, Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss. The This tendency reflected the so-called New Russian similarities of the Latvian composer’s views with the School or St. Petersburg composers’ group under the expressed viewpoints in the well-known publication leadership of Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, aesthetic Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (The Beautiful in Music), ideas and it is a very interesting phenomenon in Euro- outlined by the well-known 19th century music critic pean music history. In a number of his musical works, and publicist Eduard Hanslick (Hanslick 1854). Vītols represents this stylistic tendency very vividly. Secondly, it is interesting to note, the Latvian Additionally, he was not only a professor of composi- composer’s relationship with his personally familiar tion and composition theory in St. Petersburg but 19th century romanticism style tendencies and the also in Riga - not only for Latvians, but also for other quickly developing aesthetics of modernism at the European composers.

71 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Jānis KUDIŅŠ

He was a teacher not just for those of Latvian The Lithuanian composer Jakubėnas sent a greeting descent or born in Latvia, but also for many Esto- letter to Riga with the following words: nian, Lithuanian, Polish, Finnish, German and other composers and music theorists – he taught tens, if not Vītols played a great role in the development of Lithuanian music. He provided a strong foundation for many of today’s hundreds, of pupils.4 Vītols foreign students of compo- Lithuanian musicians. I consider my time studying with him sition included prominent Russian composers Nikolay a very happy stage in my musical development. This method Myaskovsky and Sergei Prokofiev. Prokofiev studied of learning in Riga, will not be easily found elsewhere today. music theory disciplines as a speciality with Vītols in It is a really strict and serious school, and for me it was a sys- St. Petersburg from 1904 until 1909, and Myaskovsky tematic development of my musical awareness. [...] Therefore, after similarly studied with Vītols from 1906 until 1911. my studies in Germany, one thing for me is clear now: Modernism has led Also, the composer and famous theorist of Ar- to disorganization in music pedagogy, nowadays there are many modern menian descent (also related to Georgian musical symphony authors, who manage the new techniques of composition. culture) Sarkis Barhudarian (1887–1973) studied However, they do not have any clarity on proper voice motion in the composition as a speciality with Vītols at the St. musical score (Jakubėnas 1933: 272). Petersburg conservatory from 1909 until 1915. Ten years later, in 1943, when Vītols’ eightieth The outstanding American music theorist Joseph birthday was celebrated in Riga, one letter of greeting Schillinger (1895–1943), born to a Jewish family in was sent from Paris, from the conductor, composer Kharkiv, in the former Russian Empire, studied special and music theorist Nikolay Tcherepnin. Tcherepnin, harmony and composition as a speciality with Vītols like Vītols, was a pupil of Rimsky-Korsakov, and, up in St. Petersburg from 1912 until 1917. Victor Babin to 1917, worked in the St. Petersburg Conservatory. (1908, Moscow – 1972, Cleveland, USA), another Between the two world wars, Tcherepnin and Vītols familiar composer of Russian-Jewish descent, studied were members of the Mitrofan Belyaev publishing composition with Vītols at the Latvian Conservatory, house council outside of Russia. In his greeting letter, in Riga from 1922 until 1928, after which he went to Tcherepnin wrote: Germany and, before the start of World War II, to the USA. The well-known Estonian composer Juhan Vītols was an excellent teacher. Thanks to his genius, Josif Aavik (1884–1982) studied some composition disci- Ivanovich quickly won an honorary position in the profes- plines with Vītols in St. Petersburg from 1907 until sorship, and he was really respected and loved by many of his 1911.5 Well-known Lithuanian composers and musi- colleagues and pupils. He was very demanding of himself and cians also studied with Vītols. For instance, Vladas of his students. He ordered his students to work a lot and he Jakubėnas – composition with Vītols in Riga from was rigid, like Rimsky-Korsakov. However, he never erased ‘the life of the spirit’ in his pupils. (Čerepņins 1944: 179–180) 1924 until 1928,6 Stasys Vainiūnas – piano and later composition with Vītols at the Latvian Conservatory Estonian composer Juhan Aavik also sent a greet- from 1923 until 1934.7 ing from Tallinn in 1943, and wrote the following These facts show that, in the first half of the th20 sentences: century, Vītols in both St. Petersburg and Riga became a composition teacher with a notable international rep- Vītols was a strict teacher, but his tasks were clear and un- utation. The question remains – what kind of specific derstandable, they were easy to realize. I remember that he method of composition or compositional school did never forced on us his personal tastes, he made it possible to create music according to one’s inner convictions. He only Vītols represent and realise in practice? To determine gave general and objective corrections. (...) We, the Estonian a starting point for a response, I suggest one reviews music community, are united with the Latvian musicians and some of Vītols pupils’ memoirs about the teacher. express our deep gratitude to Jāzeps Vītols for his great life’s work, which has international importance and impact. We In 1933, when Vītols’ seventieth birthday was cel- are grateful to him for the great interest and love for Estonian ebrated, Russian composer Glazunov from Paris sent music, for his noble teaching work, which influenced many a letter with such greetings: Estonian musicians. (Āviks 1944: 198) We lived with Vitole for almost 35 years in Russia. The time In the 1970s, Lithuanian composer Vainiūnas remi- has passed very quickly. Thanks to his sincerity and great tact, niscences were published in one of Riga’s newspapers, we had never been in dispute. Vitole always created a special where he reached the following conclusion: atmosphere in society. (...) Please, accept, my friend, the best greetings! Live a lot of years for you! Continue to create for Though professor Vītols was strict and demanding, he fought us the everlasting art and give honour for the homeland! for the true and classical ideals in music.8 (Glazunovs 1933: 265, 266)

72 Composition School, Tradition or a Remarkable Personality? Some Remarks on Jāzeps Vītols’ Creative and Pedagogical Work

Therefore, if we review the reminiscences of Vītols’ that confirms a direct continuation of his composi- contemporaries and pupils, then we regularly identify tional principles and aesthetic ideas. None of Vītols key words such as ‘the classic ideal’, ‘classic values’, pupils in other countries has been a clear follower of ‘strict discipline’, etc. In turn, if we recall that Vītols the Latvian composer and teacher. However, some represents the St. Petersburg academic compositional pupils developed contrary to expectations. For ex- and music theory school, then it is perfectly natural ample, Vītols was a great master of refined musical that his ideals in music are associated with classical miniatures. However, one of his pupils in Latvia was harmony, polyphony and the study of musical form. Jānis Ivanovs – one of the most outstanding compos- It was also the basis for his unique training method ers of symphonic music in 20th century European for composition. It is symbolic that Jāzeps Vītols’ final music history. Also, Lithuanian composer Jakubėnas student, Latvian composer and critic in exile Longīns became a composer with a vivid individual style and Apkalns (1923–1999) contains a description of the he represented the tendency of the so-called moder- basic principles of Vītols compositional training in ate modernism. his memoirs written after WWII. Apkalns wrote the Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the notion ‘com- following: positional school’ with regards to the pedagogical work of Vītols. In his practice, it was a system of the basic It was a mechanical harmonisation technique, which had principles of classical composition and the teaching been brought to absolute perfection. In discussions with the of their individualized versions. Thus, it is possible to other students in Vītols’ composition class, we concluded that in such a way one could learn the basics of harmony conclude that Vītols represented the universal classic and composition almost like algebra and geometry. Vītols’ composition teaching method both in St. Petersburg basic model of exercise was the ‘modulation prelude’ with and in Riga. It was not the ‘compositional school’ as a square musical structures. At the start point, several beats concept of general perception, but it was an opportu- and cadences were written. Clear beats needed to be filled in nity to learn basic principles of classical composition with the correct harmonies and modulations. In this process, under the direction of a very talented teacher. It is the piece of music could be developed with a hundred or reasonable to ask an interesting question for further more cycle beats. [...] Vītols pointed out in his memoirs – he research: how to explain such a paradox - the classical never wanted to teach his students about aesthetic issues. His composition principles, acquired when studying with method was based on the thesis that it is not impossible to Vītols, allowed many composers to become radical or teach composition of music. It is possible to teach composi- moderate modernists in their creative activity later in tion technique only in the general sense. And it was also his the 20th century. Perhaps, the music and composition method. (Apkalns 1999: 177) theory studies with Vītols stimulated the excellent Based on the memoirs of many of Vītols’ contem- American music theorist Joseph Schillinger to develop poraries, it is possible to conclude the following. The his famous original composition theory system, based so-called ‘modulation prelude’ model in musicologi- on the interpretation of mathematical models? And cal literature is known as one of the basic principles, maybe, when researching 20th century music history, which was created by Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov there is not enough analysis of the impact of the theory and described in his study on harmony (Римский- of classical composition on several modernist tenden- Корсаков 1886). However, over time Vītols managed cies and their interactions? to create his own unique version for this principle In this context, perhaps, there has not been and realized it in pedagogical practice. In light of the enough investigation of Vītols’ major role in the mu- above, the recognition of this fact allows one to make sical history of Northern and Central Europe in the the following conclusions. first half of the 20th century. For example, nowadays Fundamentally, it is a question of what is really there are many excellent research papers about one meant by the concept of the ‘composition school’. great composition teacher in Western Europe at that Traditionally in music and other art history, it is time, and by this I mean the legendary teacher Nadia the notion of the iteration of specific compositional Boulanger (1887–1979), who lived and worked in principles in the next generations. Also, it includes Paris. However, at the same time, in our northern continuing specific aesthetic ideas. However, if we European latitudes, there is an equal peer in music look at Vītols’ case, we can’t confirm many aspects pedagogy, and it was Jāzeps Vītols. As one of the of compliance with the general concept. It is a great greatest music teachers in 20th century European paradox. In Latvian musical history, there is no com- music history, Vītols and his creative work is still poser, nor any creative work by any of Vītols’ pupils open for further study.

73 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Jānis KUDIŅŠ

References 70th birthday], in: Mūzikas apskats [Musical Review], Rīga, 1933, No. 9, p. 262–266. 1 Vītols from St. Petersburg (conservatory pedagogue from Grāvītis Oļģerts, Jāzepa Vītola daudzpusība [Jāzeps Vītols’ Ver- 1886, professor from 1901) returned to Latvia, in Riga in satility], in: Jāzeps Vītols tuvinieku, audzēkņu un laikabiedru 1918, shortly before the proclamation of the Republic of atmiņās [Jāzeps Vītols in Memories of Family Members, Latvia. In August 1919, the Government of the Republic of Pupils and Contemporaries], ed. Oļģerts Grāvītis, Rīga: Latvia instructed Vītols to establish Conservatoire in Riga. Zinātne, 1999, p. 8–30. Vītols from 1919 to 1944 (included a short break) was the Graubiņš Jēkabs (ed.), Jāzeps Vītols. Raksti par viņa dzīvi un darbu rector of the Conservatoire of Latvia and head of the composi- 80 gados [Jāzeps Vītols. Articles on His Life and Work, dedi- tion studies. cated to 80 Years Anniversary], Rīga: Latvju grāmata, 1944. 2 The Latvian Songs Festival has occurred regularly since 1873 Hanslick Eduard, Vom Musikalisch-Schönen. Ein Beitrag zur Revi- and its tradition is an important part of Latvian history and sion der Ästhetik der Tonkunst, Leipzig: Rudolph Weigel, 1854. national culture both present and past. Vītols became involved Jakubėnas Vladas, Jāzeps Vītols un lietuvju mūziķi [Jāzeps Vītols in the festival processes (as participant and organizer) from and Lithuanian Musicians], in: Mūzikas apskats [Musical the Third Festival in 1888, until the Ninth Festival in 1938. Review], Rīga, 1933, No. 9, p. 271–272. See, for example, Liepiņa Ilze, Jāzeps Vītols un Dziesmu svētku Klotiņš Arnolds, Jāzeps Vītols kā mūzikas fundamentālists un tradīcija [Jāzeps Vītols and the Tradition of Latvian Song universālists [Jāzeps Vītols as a Fundamentalist and Universal- Festivals], Rīga: Jāzepa Vītola Latvijas Mūzikas akadēmija, ist of Music], in: Music in Latvia, 2013, http://www.lmic.lv/ p. 52–69. core.php?pageId=754?pageId=754&id=26793&&subPage 3 More about Vītols personality see the article by Klotiņš 2013. Id=756&action=showSubPage [last checked 2018 09 18]. 4 According to Latvian musicologist Oļģerts Grāvītis Vītols Jāzeps, Manas dzīves atmiņas [Memoirs of My Life], Stok- (1926–2015) collected information, Jāzeps Vītols taught holma: Daugava, 1963. composition as a speciality and harmony and musical form disciplines for dozens of composers from different countries in Римский-Корсаков Николай, Практический учебник гармонии St. Petersburg and for 135 composers in Riga. He also taught [Practical Manual of Harmony], St. Petersburg, 1886 (first harmony and musical form disciplines for several hundred edition). musicians from different countries (Grāvītis 1999: 18). 5 Information is based off the following sources:Музыкальная энциклопедия (in Russian, Musical Encyclopaedia), Mos- cow, Sovetskaya Encyklopedia 1973-1978; Brodsky Warren. Santrauka Joseph Schillinger (1895–1943): Music Science Promethean, in: American Music, Vol. 21, No. 1, University of Illinois Remiantis Latvijos muzikos istoriografija, kompo- Press, 2003, p. 45–73; Babin, Victor https://case.edu/ech/ zitorius Jāzepas Vītolis (1863–1948) – pirmasis tikrai articles/b/babin-victor [last checked 2018 09 18]. universalus latvių kilmės muzikas profesionalas, kurio 6 http://www.mic.lt/lt/baze/klasikine-siuolaikine/kompozitoriai/jakubenas/#bio [last checked 2018 09 18]. darbai visus latvių muzikos žanrus pakėlė į aukštesnį 7 http://www.ipmc-lt.com/vainiunas-about [last checked 2018 klasikinio meistriškumo ir neabejotino meniškumo 09 18]. lygmenį. Jis išugdė keletą kompozitorių kartų, įkūrė 8 From an interview with Stasys Vainiūnas. Please, see: Kriķis Latvijos muzikos akademiją. J. Vītolis atliko svarbų Centis. Arī manas dzīves daļa. Rīga, Literatūra un Māksla, vaidmenį puoselėjant profesionaliąją Latvijos mu- 1979, May 5. zikinę kultūrą. Per pastarąjį šimtmetį kai kurie šio kompozitoriaus kūriniai, ypač susiję su dainų šventės tradicija, tapo nacionaliniais latvių kultūros simboliais. Literature Visgi įdomu panagrinėti, ar yra kitų aspektų, kurie Apkalns Longīns, Meti un velki kādam Jāzepa Vītola piemiņas būtų įdomūs ne tik tautos kultūrinės mitologijos, bet vērpumam [Outlines in the Memories of Jāzeps Vītols], in: ir platesniame, pasaulio muzikos kontekste. Latvijos Jāzeps Vītols tuvinieku, audzēkņu un laikabiedru atmiņās muzikos istorijos tyrinėtojai teigia, kad tokių aspektų [Jāzeps Vītols in Memories of Family Members, Pupils and yra. XIX a. II pusėje–XX a. pradžioje J. Vītolis atsto- Contemporaries], ed. Oļģerts Grāvītis, Rīga: Zinātne, 1999, vavo akademinės muzikos srovei, derinančiai klasikines p. 169–187. Āviks Juhans, Atmiņas par profesoru Vītolu [Memories on Pro- tradicijas ir romantinį stilių. Ši srovė, vadinama Naująja fessor Vītols], in: Jāzeps Vītols. Raksti par viņa dzīvi 80 gados rusų mokykla, įkūnijo Sankt Peterburgo kompozito- [Jāzeps Vītols. Writings on His Life to the 80th Anniversary], rių grupės, kuriai 1844–1908 m. vadovavo Nikolajus ed. Jēkabs Poruks, Rīga: Latvju grāmata, 1944, p. 191–198. Rimskis-Korsakovas, estetinius idealus. Tai buvo labai Čerepņins Nikolajs, Josifu Ivanoviču atceroties [Remembering Jo- įdomus reiškinys Europos muzikos istorijoje. Kai ku- siph Ivanovich], in: Jāzeps Vītols. Raksti par viņa dzīvi 80 gados [Jāzeps Vītols. Writings on His Life to the 80th Anniversary], riuose J. Vītolio darbuose ypač ryškiai atsiskleidžia ši ed. Jēkabs Poruks, Rīga: Latvju grāmata, 1944, p. 178–183. stilistinė tendencija. Eidamas kompozicijos ir muzikos Glazunovs Aleksandrs, Mans veltījums Jāzepam Vītolam viņa teorijos profesoriaus pareigas ne tik Sankt Peterburge, 70-tajā dzimšanas dienā [My tribute to Jāzeps Vītols on his bet ir Rygoje, jis dėstė ne tik latvių, bet ir kitų Rytų

74 Composition School, Tradition or a Remarkable Personality? Some Remarks on Jāzeps Vītols’ Creative and Pedagogical Work

Europos šalių muzikos studentams, išugdė daugybę prasme, bet veikiau galimybė išmokti pagrindinių estų, latvių, lenkų, vokiečių ir kitų tautų kompozitorių klasikinės kompozicijos principų vadovaujant labai bei muzikos teoretikų. Tarp jų minėtinas estų kompo- talentingam pedagogui. Prasminga kelti klausimą zitorius Juhanas Aavikas (1882–1982), lietuvių kom- tolesniems tyrinėjimams: kaip paaiškinti paradoksą, pozitoriai Vladas Jakubėnas (1904–1976) ir Stasys kad daugelis kompozitorių, pas J. Vītolį įgiję klasikinės Vainiūnas (1909–1982), rusų kompozitoriai Nikolajus kompozicijos pagrindus, XX a. pasuko radikalaus Miaskovskis (1880–1950) ir Sergejus Prokofjevas arba saikingo modernizmo keliu? Galbūt muzikos ir (1891–1953), armėnų kilmės kompozitorius ir garsus kompozicijos teorijos studijos pas J. Vītolį paskatino teoretikas (taip pat susijęs su gruzinų muzikine kultū- didįjį amerikiečių muzikos teoretiką Josephą Schil- ra) Sarkis Barhudarianas (1887–1973), įžymus ame- lingerį sukurti savo garsiąją unikalią kompozicijos rikiečių muzikos teoretikas (gimęs buvusioje Rusijos teorijos sistemą, pagrįstą matematinių modelių inter- imperijos teritorijoje, Charkove) Josephas Schillingeris pretacija? O galbūt XX a. muzikos istorijos studijose (1895–1943) bei daugelis kitų. Pagrindinis šio straip- trūksta analizės apie klasikinės kompozicijos teorijos snio tikslas – atskleisti, kokią įtaką ilgainiui turėjo poveikį kai kurioms modernizmo tendencijoms bei J. Vītolis latvių kompozitorių kūrybai. jų tarpusavio sąveikai? Straipsnyje išsakoma būtinybė patikslinti „kom- Šiame kontekste galima daryti prielaidą, kad pozicinės mokyklos“ sąvoką kalbant apie J. Vītolio svarbus J. Vītolio vaidmuo XX a. I pusės Šiaurės ir pedagoginę veiklą. Remdamasis pagrindinių kla- Vidurio Europos muzikos istorijoje nelabai įvertintas. sikinės kompozicijos principų sistema, pedagogas Pavyzdžiui, šiandien parašyta daugybė puikių studijų pritaikydavo juos kiekvienam individualiam atvejui. apie vieną garsiausių Vakarų Europos kompozicijos Galima teigti, kad J. Vītolis tiek Sankt Peterburge, tiek pedagogių, legendinę Nadią Boulanger (1887–1979), Rygoje naudojosi universalia klasikinės kompozicijos gyvenusią ir dirbusią Paryžiuje. Tačiau labiau į šiaurę mokymo metodika (pagrįsta adaptuotu N. Rimskio- nutolusioje Europos dalyje yra jai lygiavertis didis Korsakovo vadinamuoju „moduliacijos preliudo“ mo- muzikos pedagogas – Jāzepas Vītolis, kurio veikla ir deliu). Tai nebuvo „kompozicinė mokykla“ bendrąja muzikinė kūryba vis dar nėra pakankamai išstudijuota.

75 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Jūlija JONĀNE The Foundation of Sacred Music within the Framework of Jāzeps Vītols’ Musical Creativity1 Sakralinės muzikos įsitvirtinimas Jāzepo Vītolio muzikinės kūrybos kontekste

Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music, Krišjāņa Barona iela 1, Riga, Latvia Email [email protected] Abstract Jāzeps Vītols – one of the greatest Latvian composers – is also known as an important person in Latvian social life, a talented teacher, an authority as the head of the Latvian Academy of Music, Latvian National Opera and many artistic associations in Latvia, as well as in the Russian Empire. He is one of the first Latvian composers who worked in the field of sacred music with great variety and intensity. Reviewing his contribution, a broad field for research appears – both his active practical work, as well as the theoretical and even the philosophically theological conclusions he left, and, of course, his extensive oeuvre in various church music genres. Still, even when not considering the broad range and confirmed historical significance of the artistic work, the aforementioned field has still not been analysed in detail, and this article provides an important contribution for a common panorama of Vītols’ creativity. The principle aim of the paper is to show and reveal how the Vītols’ creativity in sacred music flourished and gradually overshadowed practically all other fields. Keywords: Sacred genres, church music, Latvian music, Lutheran church, Jāzeps Vītols. Anotacija Jāzepas Vītolis – ne tik vienas žymiausių Latvijos kompozitorių, bet ir svarbus visuomenės veikėjas, talentingas pedagogas, vienas iš šalies kultūrinio gyvenimo autoritetų, vadovavęs Latvijos muzikos akademijai, Latvijos nacionalinei operai bei daugeliui kitų Latvijos ir Rusijos imperijos meno organizacijų. Norint įvertinti jo indėlį, būtina apžvelgti daugelį sričių: aktyvią praktinę veiklą, paliktas teorines bei filosofines įžvalgas ir, žinoma, gausią, įvairius religinės muzikos žanrus aprėpiančią kūrybą. Vis dėlto, nepaisant meninės kūrybos įvairiapusiškumo ir pripažintos jos vertės, ši J. Vītolio veiklos sritis nebuvo išsamiai aprašyta. Taigi šis straipsnis reikšmingai prisideda pateikiant visą šio didžio latvių kompozitoriaus kūrybos panoramą. Pagrindinis rašinio tikslas yra parodyti, kaip J. Vītolio kūrybingumas išsiskleidė jo religinėje muzikoje ir palengva tiesiog užgožė kitas veiklas. Reikšminiai žodžiai: sakralinės muzikos žanrai, bažnytinė muzika, Latvijos muzika, liuteronų bažnyčia, Jāzepas Vītolis.

Introduction Consequently, Vītols, working in the field of sacred music, manifested himself with great variety and Jāzeps Vītols is one of the greatest Latvian compos- intensity. Reviewing his contribution, a broad field ers, a founder of the Latvian Conservatory (today – the for research appears – both his active practical work, Academy of Music), and one of the most important as well as the theoretical and even the philosophi- teachers of composition, who in his own creative cally theological conclusions he left, and, of course, works tried to achieve a perfect structure and a high his extensive oeuvre in various church music genres. artistic level of expression and asked the same of his Still, even when not considering the broad range and students. During his active life, Vītols demonstrated confirmed historical significance of the artistic work, his versatile talent in many other spheres: he was a the aforementioned field has still not been analysed in rector of the Latvian Conservatory and a head of the detail. Therefore, the principal aim of my research is to Latvian National Opera from its very beginning. His reveal these many-sided contributions and to proclaim authority was welcomed in many artistic associations Vītols as a founder of sacred music in Latvia. at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, for example, as a member of the well-known music score publisher, Imperial Russian philanthropist Between sacred music history and practice and meloman Mitrofan Belyayev’s “Fridays’ coterie/ group”, a member of the University of Latvia Student When considering Vītols’ practical input in the Fraternity “Fraternitas Lataviensis”, the Latvian Con- field of sacred music, we first refer to the Baznīcas servatory’s Student Fraternity “Līgusoņi”, the founder mūzikas vēstures (Church Music History) lectures at of the first society of Latvian composers – “Skaņražu the Faculty of Theology of the University of Latvia, kopa” (literally: a “group of music makers”), etc. which were given periodically between 1926 and

76 The Foundation of Sacred Music within the Framework of Jāzeps Vītols’ Musical Creativity1

1936 (Vītols 1964/1999: 80–81)2. The collection of The panorama of musical works five notebooks of conspectuses, made while preparing for the above-mentioned lectures have not been In the context of the composer’s creative work in published, and to this day remain in the archives of the religious genres, developed sacred compositions are the Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music. woven throughout the entirety of Vītols’ career – there The composer’s theoretical observations and con- are opuses with varied levels of difficulty and types of clusions about the history of sacred music and prob- performers. The appearance of the religious genres lems are periodically reflected in the press of his time in Vītols’ creative works happened with chronologi- as well. In this context, one has to admit that Vītols cally fateful succession. Initially, his favoured form of was one of the first who attempted to differentiate the expression was the choir song – in 1886, not long various kinds of terminology that was in use during his before completing studies at the St. Petersburg Con- time for the synonymous description of sacred music in servatory under Professor Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Latvian musicology, attempting to clarify and system- he composes the heartfelt miniature for mixed choir ize church music genres, as well as forming his own Lūgšana (A Prayer) with text by Russian poet Mikhail view on the varied history of church music. Lermontov. In turn, he also ended his creative work A vivid and significant example of this journalism in the same way – at the end of his career in exile he practise was written in 1928. Observing the develop- composed religious patriotic miniatures. ment of sacred music in his article “Our church music” From the 1910s, the choir music genre is sup- in the newspaper Burtnieks, Vītols notes that: plemented by chorale arrangements. A serious and … after J.S. Bach, a masterful high quality sacred music gradu- thorough effort was invested in the creation of music ally moved from church vaults to concert halls, leaving behind that was appropriate for church ceremonies – for ex- only inessential, formally stale remnants, and therefore it is ample, A Songbook for Latvian Evangelical Lutheran time to work on artistically wholesome liturgy reconstruction Congregations (Meldiju grāmata Latvijas evaņģēliski and renovation.3 (Vītols 1928: 682) luteriskajām draudzēm), was published already in 1924. This book consists of Vītols’ composed chorales His sacred large-scale works and miniatures com- as well as harmonisations and arrangements of well- pletely confirm this position as well as reflect his ideas, known German Lutheran chorales. It is notable that intentions and expectations. The above-mentioned Vītols’ final compositions are more resigned patriotic thesis by Vītols could be perceived as a credo of his chorale arrangements too: creativity which also was transferred to future genera- •• When my Life’s Sea is Covered by Thick Fog / Kad dziļa tions –not only among composers, but among other migla manu dzives juru sedz, chorale arrangement S, musicians and Lutheran pastors – his ex-students, and A, violin and organ; traditional text, trans. by Teodors vividly expressed not only in the field of church music, Grinbergs; 1945. but in greater and smaller concert halls as well. •• A Latvian’s Prayer, Roaming a Foreign Land / Latviešu As a result, under his professional supervision an lugšana, svešuma klistot, choral arrangement for mixed entire generation of musically educated Lutheran pastors choir, text by Ella Verle-Andersone; 1945. grew. In close collaboration with many of them, Vītols •• Great God, Who is Chosen by the Soul / Dievs augstais, attempted to musically supplement, enrich and thereby dvesles izredzetais, chorale for three female voices, tra- reform the liturgy of overly German chorales used by ditional chorale text for three women’s voices; 1946. the Lutheran church in Latvia, writing and arranging compositions for certain liturgical sections, vespers, can- Consequently, in the 1920s, religious art songs tatas,4 etc. He also took part in the first experiment with appear. Then, a vocal-instrumental combination of all his ex-student and the Dean of the Kuldīga Lutheran three genres appears in the 1930s and 1940s in two Church Oskars Kārlis Sakārnis in preparing the Riga liturgies, a vesper, as well as nine cantatas, Bible stories Radiophone translation of the two hour Easter Sunday and oratorio type works. We should also note Vītols’ service in 1935 from Kuldīga (a small town in the district time in exile, when the composer’s searches focused on of Kurzeme in the west of Latvia) church. Vītols’ music more specific liturgical music, and, for the first time in was performed in various ways – as harmonisations of the history of Latvian religious music, an Evangelical chorales, liturgical responses by the parish, choir songs Lutheran Church vesper cycle was created. and, at the end of ceremony, the cantata Jesus by the Well. Reviewing the composer’s activities, as well as As we know, these days it is a common tradition to see evaluating the analysis of the compositional regular- and to listen to a Sunday service on TV or radio. Vītols is ity of the most vivid opuses, a vital conclusion can be considered to be the initiator of this tradition in Latvia. formed. During the composer’s life, the curve of the

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Table 1. A perspective of sacred genres in Jāzeps Vītols’ creation’s chronological output

Sacred genres 1880s 1890s Early 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s Choir song Chorale, chant Art song Cantata, Bible scene Liturgy, vespers Oratorio development of his religious works forms as a long “prayer”, however the texts consist of an invocation crescendo wave with a culmination at the end of his to God: creative activity, when the greatest sacred music genre •• Don’t Let Me Drop in the People’s’ Hands, Oh Lord / diversity and quantity can be observed (see Table 1): Neliec, Kungs, jel krist man ļaužu rokās for mixed choir; Gerok-Neiken; 1894 •• Pelegrin’s Night Song (You, who live in the sky) / Gājēja Sacred music genres review dziesma naktī for mixed choir / also exists as an art song, W. Goete - J. Alunāns; 1899 When reviewing Vītols’ musical oeuvre, the field •• God, Dear Father / Dievs, mīļais tētiņ for female choir, of sacred choir music becomes the most significant, R. Bērziņš; 1925 quantitatively important as well as intensively devel- •• You, Who Live In Celestial Glory / Tu, kas debess godā oped sphere. For example, a choir miniature in the field mīti for mixed choir, K. Jēkabsons; 1927 of sacred music stands out as a basic and, at the same •• High God, Chosen By My Soul / Dievs augstais, dvēsles time, a more experimental genre. A development of izredzētaisfor female choir;1946 this genre, with more than 40 compositions, forms the •• Praised is the Highest God / Slavēts Dievs Visaugstākais most extensive evolution. In the common context of for mixed choir, S. Dies (s.a.) sacred works by Vītols, covering more than 60 music •• Bless, God, This Mother Land / Svētī, Dievs, šo zemi pieces, it is two thirds of the entire output – a very dzimto for mixed choir, L. Bērziņš (s.a.) impressive part of his sacred music creativity. His favourite title in choir songs is lūgšana, lūgsna, Contextually calm and bright choir music is re- lūgums (which could be translated as a prayer, a plea, newed by several sacred choir compositions, created in an invocation). As mentioned before, his first sacred the 1930s that, in terms of compositional proficiency, composition appeared while still a student – A Prayer became a climax of this sphere: for mixed choir with texts by Lermontov. After that •• David In Front of Saul / Dāvids Zaula priekšā for mixed was the more popular prayer – A Plea to God (1904) choir, F. Bārda; 1928 with texts by Augusts Kažoks and many other prayers: •• Dies irae for men’s choir, V. Plūdonis; 1930 •• A Prayer / Lūgšana for mixed choir; text by M. Ler- •• Rekviēms/ Requiem for men’s choir, R. Bebrs; 1933 montov; 1886 •• A Plea to God / Dieva lūgums for mixed/men’s choir; In Latvian music Jāzeps Vītols is known as a master text by A. Kažoks; 1904 of the choir ballad genre. The choir ballad stylistics •• A Latvian Prayer, Roaming a Foreign Land / Lūgšana with narrative elements, epic painting, high dramatic latvietim, svešumā klīstot for mixed choir; text by E. rises and romantic tempestuousness now appeared in Verle-Andersone; 1945 the religious sphere. For example, the surreal choir •• Let a Keen Prayer Rise / Lai kvēla lūgšana ceļas for mixed ballad for mixed choir a cappella – David in Front choir; text by O. Vainags, (s.a.5) of Saul (1928) – we could perceive this ballad as the •• A Small Person’s Evening Prayer / Mazā cilvēka vakara beginning of the Bible scene genre in Latvian music. lūgšana; art song, Op. 58; text by F. Bārda; 1921, etc. However, Vītols wasn’t the first composer of a Bible scene in Latvian music, as Andrejs Jurjāns in 1881 wrote This list of prayers is supplemented by other com- his first cantataA Feast of Belzatsar (Belzacara dzīres) positions, the titles of which do not include the word as his St. Petersburg Conservatory graduation work.

78 The Foundation of Sacred Music within the Framework of Jāzeps Vītols’ Musical Creativity1

Figure 1. Vītols’ David In Front Of Saul (1928), opening bars of the song

However, this musical input was never premiered, while not as well known, therefore going forward it will be Vītols’ Bible scenes were performed several times dur- analysed in detail. ing his life (during the Song Contest Festival, church Hypothetically, one must conclude that Vītols’ turn services, concerts etc.). Accordingly, Vītols, for all in- to such a personal, sacred lyrical creation was due to tents and purposes the founder of this genre in Latvian the appearance of songstress Annija Vītols in Jāzeps’ music, also became its most important composer. life, who in 1921 became the composer’s wife. She had The balladDavid In Front Of Saul, composed for enjoyed performing during church ceremonies and, 8-voiced mixed choir, has long been considered to be through her activity, had inspired Jāzeps to compose a 20th century choir music masterpiece. The composer sacred songs and arrange other sacred compositions thought so as well. As a student of Nikolai Rimsky- for her. Additionally, the above-mentioned book of Korsakov, Vītols adds an element of orientalism, Chorale melodies is also inspired and revised by her. however – without quotations and stylization. For The first art song with a sacred context is included example, the outer parts are built as a perception of in the collection Op. 58: 12 Songs for Children from the genre of medieval organum (see Figure 1), resulting 1921 – Vītols’ wedding year. This isA Small Person’s in a combination of an oriental mood with a strong Evening Prayer. And, very soon, the organ became an foundation of church music tradition. Here you can instrument of accompaniment. Therefore, from 1925 see the very calm and simple texture – but it is only until 1942, five songs were composed with organ. from the beginning and at the end – making an epic Some creative searches within art songs became and moderate effect of narration. a very impressive foundation for other successors, as In addition to this, Vītols is the first Latvian well as Latvian expressionism. The musical language composer who started to create sacred art songs. of the art song A Ray of Peace (Miera stars, text by During the period from 1921 to 1946, ten solo works Kārlis Jēkabsons, 1936; see Figure 2) is particularly appeared. In the common context of sacred music, interesting. The line in the organ part is based on a these compositions are written freely, spontaneously chromatic descent of parallel thirds, covering a minor and even expressively – as in the relief of a vocal line, seventh interval and growing into a five-voiced texture, so in expressive harmony, language and in structure. visualized as a ray of light from its beginning. This type Unfortunately, this genre of Vītols’ sacred music is of composition also includes the popular Baroque

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Figure 2. Vītols’ A Ray of a Peace, organ part introduction

Figure 3. Vītols’ To God – Redeemer, organ introduction figure –passus duriusculus, that here is in the middle of eternity and God himself. Normally, it seems that register and, when influenced by romantic harmony, is when using the pedal point, the harmony development transformed into an expression of elegiac suffering and is limited. However, it is quite the opposite – this melancholy. As we know, this type of visualization of method became a peculiar impulse for the composer’s a shining star became important during 20th century own independence. As a result, within the short prel- music – in musical works by Ligeti, Tavener, Gorecki ude the composer makes five (!) digressions, constantly as well as among Latvian composers such as Ēriks balancing between G major, D major, E minor and B Ešenvalds (b. 1977) and Rihards Dubra (b. 1964). minor. Therefore, the pedal tone that initially seems The next vivid example of descriptive visualization to be very restrictive and limiting, in reality provides a of this particular content is the art song To God – Re- great support and addition, which allows it to be free. deemer / Liberator (Dievam – atsvabinātājam; text by Contextually, this music example could be considered Kārlis Ieviņš, 1928; see Figure 3). This composition as the interrelations between God and a believer that impresses with its emotional straightforwardness are reflected in text. As we know, the further develop- and expressiveness that the composer, in an unchar- ment of sacred music (particularly by sacred minimal- acteristic manner, uses in the field of sacred music. It ism composers such as Pärt, Tavener, as well as many is confirmed in the instrumental introduction of this contemporary Latvian composers), perceives and song – the eight bars of pedal point on D express all uses the idea of pedal tone similarly, however – more the ideas of this song. The pedal point is perceived as a intensively and deeply – as the personification and the foundation, basis, and even more – as a personification presence of God within a composition.

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The amplitude of the sacred genre has been sig- •• Jesus in Nazareth / Jēzus Nācaretē oratorio for STBarB, nificantly expanded by large-scale scores, including mixed choir and organ; K. Jēkabsons; 1942 liturgical genres by Vītols. It is notable that they were •• Water of Life / Dzīvības ūdens cantata for STB, mixed all composed to be premiered during a church service choir, organ. and also make an important practical contribution. In creating compositions suitable for liturgy and ritual, the composer collaborated with many Lutheran Observations and remarks church pastors as previously mentioned. With this in mind, it is necessary to point out that When reviewing these scores, which, though many Jāzeps Vītols was the first professional Latvian composer, of them are not often performed, one has to point out who, though not involved in one particular church’s some significant features that explain and justify the activities, was not afraid to help and tried to improve style of composing that is unusual for Professor Vītols: the status of Lutheran church music. The issue of church the choice of performers and music material. music development had occupied the composer’s First of all, despite his education and high ideals in mind also in his time in exile. In collaboration with music, particularly in the field of sacred and church other ex-students, as well as Lutheran pastor Ernests music, the composer was looking for suitability. Ver y Sarkanbārdis, the first cycle of Lutheran vespers was cre- important factors for sacred compositions included: ated – for celebrant, parish, and organ – with ordinari- an appropriate ensemble, performance time / dura- um and proprium (or changeable) movements, depend- tion, and the level of difficulty of the musical language ing on the phase of the church year. As Sarkanbārdis for a church performance, which were dependant on has admitted, an important new contribution in this traditions and the audience – a parish. An appropriate cycle was pronunciation and accents according to the selection ensures the natural inclusion of the musical Latvian language. Although this cycle was performed piece in the ceremony. at Christmas in 1946, in the Latvian refugee camp in However, as mentioned before, Vītols also created Greven, Germany, unfortunately, the score was lost. sacred non-liturgical music as well – which is very well Vītols’ non-liturgical sphere of vocal instrumental known, emotionally expressive and performed rather music is made of nine opuses: one oratorio, a Bible scene often. In that way, one can see a broad range of music and seven cantatas. Particularly notable is the genre and genres among his sacred compositions – beginning choice and some kind of genre alternation, variability with simple chorale arrangements and ending with and even a mixture of cantata, oratorio, Bible scene and refined (in a musical language sense) solo songs, sophis- liturgical drama; there is a sort of synthetic genre that ticated ballads or expansive vocal-instrumental opuses. today has various interpretations – as a mini opera The second notable feature regards the principal scene or medieval liturgical drama, a static concert mood of vocal-instrumental scores and their so-called performance or as a supplement to a Lutheran church attempted emotionality – a mostly narrative procla- service. However, specific immanent lines of each genre mation with an emphasis on prominence of positive here are not as clearly expressed and therefore can be radiation from the image of Christ, and a kind of dis- discussed. As a result, many other cantatas and even the tancing of the author’s personal attitude. This opens first oratorio work in Latvian music – Vītols’Jesus in up the possibility to interpret the relatively objectively Nazareth – could be considered as Bible scenes: created score, depending on the performing conditions •• From a Forbidden Tree / No atzīšanas koka cantata for by adding emotional subjectivity. mixed choir, symphonic orchestra; V. Plūdonis; 1924 Thirdly, regarding vocal as well as choral music, text and verses •• Sermon on the Mount / Kalna sprediķis cantata for Bar, an important role belongs to . The mixed choir, organ; 1935 composer shows interest in the sacred texts of various •• Jesus by the Well / Jēzus pie akas Bible scene, STB, mixed Latvian poets (including Kārlis Jēkabsons, Fricis Bārda, choir, organ.; O. Sakārnis and Holy Scripts; 1935 Kārlis Skalbe, Jānis Kleinbergs, Kārlis Ieviņš, Teodors, •• Maria and Martha / Marija un Marta cantata for SATB, Andrejs Pumpurs, Vensku Edvards), as well as foreign mixed choir, organ; L. Bērziņš and Holy Scripts; 1937 poets (Goethe, von Gerok, Held, Lermontov etc.). •• Jesus and the Sinner Woman / Jēzus un grēciniece cantata The composer also shows his preference for traditional for STBar, mixed choir, organ; L. Bērziņš; 1937 religious texts – fragments from the Old and New •• Cantata / Kantāte for Bar, mixed choir, organ; E. Bergs Testaments, psalms and chorales. The assistance of and Holy Scripts; 1937 Evangelical Lutheran Church ministers in arranging •• For Consecration / Iesvētīšanai cantata for female choir the verses requires a closer link to the traditions and and organ; J. Kleinbergs; 1939 canons of this confession.

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And fourth, the ability to create a composition, •• Jēkabs Graubiņš (1886–1961) which is suitable to the potential of performers (this A Prayer for men’s choir, 1938 mainly refers to congregation choirs and organists) Send me your Angel / Savu eņģeli man sūti for mixed that may not always be technically the most appro- choir (text by Tirzmaliete), 1925 priate and, during the premiere, the most convincing • Leonīds Vīgners (1906–2003) artistically. The composer, being a very delicate con- • Ave Maria for female choir, s.a. noisseur of the late-romantic style and new techniques, Eternal / Mūžīgais solo with piano (text by Jānis Zie- would appear to be fully prepared for these creation meļnieks), s.a. circumstances and, with just a few bars is able to show his independent and original creativity. For example, •• Jānis Ivanovs (1906–1983) the complex and colourful harmony of the organ part Cantus monodicus. Gloria vocalise for mixed choir, 1979 in the oratorio and in the cantata “For Consecra- A Prayer for men’s choir, 1938 tion”. In general, the texture of Vītols’ sacred works is responsorial, creating a form of dialogue between In the second group there are composers who emi- the soloists and the choir, as well as a block chord grated in 1944 from the territory of Latvia. Actually, texture – occasionally refreshing it with counterpoint every composer who lived abroad, feeling homesick, fragments. The usage of organ is mostly parsimonious longing for relief, shelter and peace, seeking for some and reserved – it performs an arrangement function kind of eternal homeland and refuge, focused on sacred with more visible colouristic individual solo episodes. music genres and themes. Many of them also started to work in different churches – particularly in North America – the USA and Canada. Therefore, sacred Vītols’ Latvian sacred music composers’ school music became a main activity – bread and butter for these composers. They could continue and develop A question appears at the end of this article re- the sphere of sacred music voluntarily and freely, en- garding the composer’s school and successors in the riched it with choir and vocal compositions, as well as perspective of this sacred sphere. The changing of large-scale works. So, a taboo on and a deficit of sacred generations happened in a very difficult historical music in Soviet Latvia was offset by the composers period for Latvia. Beginning in 1944, Latvian culture, in exile, most of whom had found their refuge and including music, underwent not only a geographical, work under the auspices of churches in democratic but also a thematic separation. In other words, music countries. We can observe this situation in the musi- was developed within two separate realms or territo- cal oeuvre of Vītols himself – he was also forced to ries – composers, who lived in the territory of Soviet emigrate and ended his compositional journey in Latvia, and composers, who, owing to the political Germany – Lübeck, where, during 1944–1948, he situation in 1944, had emigrated to other countries. had been writing and arranging the above-mentioned This fact directly affected not just the state of sacred chorales and vespers. music, but all Latvian music culture – many very intel- His most fruitful period of sacred music creation ligent and talented people were forced to emigrate and coincided with exile, as Vītols commented in one letter continue their musical activities in so-called exile or to his choir singer Paul Kunstmann in 1946: had to keep silent in the sacred music sphere within the ... I’m very glad, that I’m honoured with commissions from framework of the Soviet Union system. Therefore, all holy priests: one needs new liturgy, other – even a whole of Vītols’ Latvian students are divided into two groups. oratorio. Within these works there isn’t much opportunity to The first group includes composers, who stayed create something truly new, but sacred music, in my opinion, in their homeland and, until 1943, had shown some has its own peculiar style, specifics, that are understandable kind of interest in sacred genres in their early compo- for everyone. Nevertheless, hopefully these sounds could sitions, but later they practically stopped composing make someone else happy. Maybe it will seem like I want to sacred music6: earn “a golden chair in heaven” in my old age. However, it will not forgive my sins, which are like sand in the sea.7 (Vitols •• Lūcija Garūta (1902–1977) 1963/1999: 69) cantata God, Your Land is Burning!, 1943 Among these exile-composers I first should men- • Ādolfs Skulte (1909–2000) • tion Bruno Skulte (1905–1976; the eldest brother choral Come to the Cross with Your Suffering / Nāc pie of composer Ādolfs Skulte, who remained in Soviet s.a. krusta savās bēdās, Latvia) who, while living in the USA, created almost

82 The Foundation of Sacred Music within the Framework of Jāzeps Vītols’ Musical Creativity1

40 sacred compositions – most of them are for differ- Being a highly-educated professional composer, ent types of choir or art songs, but also some cantatas. Vītols was able to descend from the heights of his ar- The most popular is the cantata based on the politically tistic flight and create not only very sophisticated and and historically fateful poem8 by Andrejs Eglītis God, complicated sacred compositions (that he of course Your Land is Burning! / Dievs, Tava zeme deg! – Lat- did), but also simple, even elementary music pieces vians’ prayer for SATB, mixed choir, orchestra and for amateur church choirs, as well as making chorale organ (1950). and traditional songs arrangements for parishes as well. The next important composer isJānis Kalniņš As a result, the composer created a strong foundation (1904–2000) – the son of the composer Alfrēds for Latvian-composed church music. Along with this Kalniņš (1879-1951); he also remained in Soviet achievement, he has worked on and developed a rather Latvia and therefore was tragically separated from his new genre in Latvian sacred music history – a Bible son. He developed sacred music in Canada mostly scene, that includes genres features of a cantata, a cho- in the sacred cantata and oratorio genres, but overall rale, a motet, an oratorio, an art song, an organ pre-, created more than 20 different sacred compositions, post-, and interludes etc., and is able to be included among which the best known are: within a framework of the ceremony of the Lutheran •• When Jesus come to Birmingham / Kad Jēzus nāca uz liturgy, as well as in a concert programme. Birmingemu for 9-voice mixed choir, text by G.A. Stud- Being a very busy professor and rector of the Lat- dert-Kennedy, 1951 vian Conservatory, Vītols still agreed to lecture at the •• Symphony of Beautitudes / Svētlaimības simfonija for B, University of Latvia on the subject of Church music mixed choir, symphony orchestra, 1953 history, which was, initially, a completely new and un- •• Potter’s Field / Asins tīrums cantata for T, mixed choir, known terra incognita for him. However, working with piano/organ/symphonic orchestra, text from Holy high returns and sense of responsibility, he revealed Scripts and by John Oxenham, 1953 for himself a new sphere of work. Excellent observations, revealing the errors, imperfections and so-called We should also mention Viktors Baštiks (1912– blankspots, which he felt a duty to address and point 2001), while living in Great Britain and the USA, out to young Lutheran church pastors – his students. composed about three hundred (!) different sacred As a result, collaborating with a new generation of compositions, and Tālivaldis Ķeniņš (1919–2008), Lutheran pastors, Vītols could achieve great results living in Canada, was very active in this sphere – he and deal with deeply vital questions and problems, composed more than 30 sacred compositions for dif- first of them was the Latvianization of German chants, ferent performers: chorales and liturgy singing, liturgy translations on •• A Prayer for Latvia / Lūgšana Latvijai cantata for men’s Radio, and press publications. choir and organ, verses by Andrejs Eglītis, 1951 This active and prolific work did not go unnoticed •• Daniel / Pravietis Daniēls oratorio-Bible scene for ABar, by Vītols’ composition students – the most prominent men’s choir, organ, 1956 of them continued to develop these ideas in the ter- •• Psalm 65 for solo and piano, 1959 ritory of Latvia, but especially intensively – in exile •• Psalm 150 for mixed choir, 1970, etc. Latvia – working within churches and supplementing the absence of religious music genres in the homeland. As a result, the great example of working in the field Conclusions of sacred music by Vītols himself developed into a compositional school, whose fruitsare still topical and The contribution of Jāzeps Vītols within the important today. framework of Latvian sacred music is not just simply obvious. The role of his multiple activities within this sphere is itself worth noting, and does not require a References context of many other activities and responsibilities. 1 It is important to first point out the uniqueness of his This topics was first presented at the International Conferen- ce, dedicated to Jāzeps Vītols’ 150th anniversary in October action – Vītols was the first professional composer, 2013, in Rīga, at the Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music. who gave so much of his attention to this field of Then, an article in Latvian was published (“The (Re)View of music. The levels of this attention were different the Sacred Music of Jāzeps Vītols”; see Jonāne 2016). This is and dependant on the functions of the sacred music an expanded English version of mentioned article focusing in each specific case (dedication, liturgy, concert, mainly on the sacred music school foundation and its follo- religious verses etc.). wers as well.

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2 His lectures were given during the following study years: Santrauka 1926/1927, 1928/1929, and in the longer period of 1931- 1936. Jāzepo Vītolio veikla religinės muzikos srityje buvo 3 ... makslinieciski augstvertiga religiska muzika pec J. S. Baha darbibas perioda no baznicas velvem pakapeniski parcelusies uz labai intensyvi ir įvairiapusiška. Norint įvertinti jo koncertzalem, atstajot baznicas liturgijai tikai maznozimigas, indėlį, būtina apžvelgti daugelį sričių: aktyvią prakti- formali sastingušas paliekas, un tapec ir laiks stradat nę veiklą, paliktas teorines bei filosofines įžvalgas ir, makslinieciski pilnvertigas liturgijas atjaunošanai un radišanai. žinoma, gausią, įvairius religinės muzikos žanrus aprė- 4 Regarding these musical pieces, please see below. piančią kūrybą. Vis dėlto, nepaisant meninės kūrybos 5 Sine anno – creating year is not known. 6 Only the most significant sacred music examples are mentio- įvairiapusiškumo ir pripažintos jos vertės, ši J. Vītolio ned for each composer. veiklos sritis nebuvo išsamiai aprašyta. Aptariant 7 ... priecajos, ka mani ar saviem pasutinajumiem pagodina svetie praktinę J. Vītolio veiklą religinės muzikos srityje, pir- viri: tam vajadziga jauna liturgija, citam – vai pat vesela ora- miausia minėtinos 1926–1936 m. reguliariai skaitomos torija. Daudz jauna jau nevar tados darbos nodibinat, garigai religinės muzikos istorijos paskaitos Latvijos universi- muzikai, pec manas parliecibas, pieder savs ipatnejs stils, visiem teto Teologijos fakultete. J. Vītolis buvo pirmas, kuris saprotams vienkaršums. Bet varbut kadu citu šis skanas tomer iepriecinas. Gan izskatisies ta, ka ar to vecuma dienas gribetu atsidėjo rimtam ir kruopščiam darbui kuriant muziką vel izpelnities “zelta kreslu debesis”. Bet tie manus grekus, kas bažnytinei liturgijai. Buvo išleistas Latvijos evangelikų ka smiltis jura, vairs atsvert nevares. liuteronų bendruomenei skirtas giesmynas (1924), 8 The dramatically fateful poemGod, Your Land is Burning!, parašyta muzikos kai kurioms liturginėms apeigoms, written by poet Andrejs Eglītis had inspired three composers giesmių mišparams, kantatų ir pan. during a short but very tragic period of time for Latvians: the above-mentioned Lūcija Garūta wrote a cantata with this Teorinės kompozitoriaus įžvalgos ir mintys apie poetry in 1943 in the territory of Latvia, then in 1950 his own religinės muzikos istoriją ir aktualijas nuolat pasiro- large-scale interpretation of this text was created by Bruno dydavo to meto spaudoje, taip pat buvo surinkti penki Skulte. And the third composer was Tālivaldis Ķeniņš, who sąsiuviniai užrašų, parengtų ruošiantis paskaitoms used this text for his cantata A Prayer for Latvia in 1951. minėtame Teologijos fakultete. J. Vītolis pirmasis pa- bandė atskirti įvairius to meto latvių muzikologijoje gyvavusius terminus religinei muzikai apibūdinti, siekė Literature patikslinti ir susisteminti religinės muzikos žanrus, suformulavo savo požiūrį į sudėtingą religinės muzikos Jonāne Jūlija, Jāzepa Vītola sakrālā mūzikas (re)vīzija [The (Re)View of the Sacred Music of Jāzeps Vītols], in: Jāzepam istoriją. Vītolam – 150. Mūzikas akadēmijas raksti, Vol. XII, Rīga: Kompozitorius parašė įvairaus sudėtingumo ir JVLMA, 2015, p. 239 – 254. įvairioms atlikėjų sudėtims skirtų kūrinių religinėmis Vitols Annija, Lappuses mana atminu gramata [Some pages from temomis. Visoje J. Vītolio kūryboje gausu tiek religinės my memories notes], in: Jazeps Vitols. Manas dzives atminas muzikos, tiek labiau pasaulietinių kūrinių. Religinės [Memories of My Life]. Uppsala, 1963, p. 183–229; reprinted: Jazeps Vitols tuvinieku, audzeknu un laikabiedru atmiņs muzikos žanrai kompozitoriaus kūryboje pasirodydavo [Jāzeps Vītols in memories of his students and contempora- dėsninga chronologine seka. Iš pradžių jo mėgstamiau- ries], Riga: JVLMA, Zinatne, 1999, p. 33–78. sia muzikinė forma buvo chorinės dainos, jos taip pat Vitols Annija, Dieva godam. Profesors Jazeps Vitols baznicas ir užbaigia Vītolio kūrybinį kelią. muzikas darba [To the Glory of God. Professor Jāzeps Vītols Nuo XX a. 2-ojo dešimtmečio chorinę muziką in church music working], in: Latvijas evaņgliski luteriskais papildo ne tik choralų aranžuotės, bet ir originalūs baznicas kalendars 1965. gadam [1965th Calendar of Evange- lical Lutheran church], Glenviera, 1964, p. 76–83; reprinted: šio žanro kūriniai. Trečiajame dešimtmetyje pasirodo Jazeps Vitols tuvinieku, audzeknu un laikabiedru atmiņs bažnytinės solo giesmės. Ketvirtajame ir 5-ajame de- [Jāzeps Vītols in memories of his students and contempora- šimtmetyje kompozitorius ima derinti visus tris žanrus ries], Riga: JVLMA, Zinatne, 1999, p. 80–81. vokalinėse-instrumentinėse kompozicijose, parašo dve- Vitols Jazeps, Musu baznicmuzika [Our church music], in: Bur- jas mišias, mišparus, devynias kantatas, biblinių istorijų , No. 8, 1928, p. 682. tnieks ir oratorijos tipo kompozicijų. Reikėtų paminėti trem- tyje praleistą laiką, kai kompozitorius labiau susitelkė į liturginę muziką, ir pirmą kartą Latvijos religinės muzikos istorijoje buvo parašytas evangelikų liuteronų mišparų giesmių ciklas. Apžvelgus J. Vītolio kūrybą ir apibendrinus ryškiausių veikalų kompozicinės sąran- gos analizę, galima suformuluoti keletą išvadų. Per visą gyvenimą sukurtą religinę muziką galima palyginti su ilgu crescendo, kurio kulminacija – J. Vītolio kūrybinio

84 The Foundation of Sacred Music within the Framework of Jāzeps Vītols’ Musical Creativity1 kelio pabaiga, pasižyminti bažnytinės muzikos gausa Aktyvi, vaisinga maestro veikla neliko nepastebėta ir žanrų įvairove. J. Vītolio kompozicijos studentų. Kartų kaita vyko Kompozitorių įkvėpė ne tik įvairių Latvijos poetų istoriškai itin sudėtingu Latvijai laiku. Nuo 1944-ųjų (K. Jēkabsono, F. Bārdos, K. Skalbe, J. Kleinbergo, Latvijos kultūra, taip pat ir muzikinė, išgyveno ne tik K. Ieviņio, A. Pumpuro ir kt.) eilės religine tematika, geografinį, bet ir tematinį padalijimą. Kitaip tariant, bet ir tradiciniai religiniai tekstai – Senojo ir Naujojo to laiko muzika buvo sukurta dviejose atskirose terito- Testamento ištraukos bei choralai. Bendradarbiau- rijose – Sovietų Latvijoje gyvenusių kompozitorių ir damas su pastoriais, J. Vītolis priartino poeziją prie dėl politinių įvykių emigracijoje atsidūrusių kompozi- evangelikų liuteronų tradicijų ir kanonų. Bažnytinei torių. Todėl ir J. Vītolio studentai sudaro dvi grupes. Į muzikai ypač svarbūs tokie aspektai kaip tinkamas pirmąją patenka Tėvynėje likę muzikai (Lūcija Garūta, ansamblis, atlikimo laikas ir atlikimui bažnyčioje Leonīdas Vīgneris, Jēkabas Graubiņis, Jānis Ivanovas), pritaikytas sudėtingumo lygis, atitinkantis atlikėjų ankstyvuoju kūrybos laikotarpiu, iki 1943-iųjų, šiek profesinį pasirengimą. Tinkamai atsižvelgus į šiuos tiek rašę religinės muzikos, bet paskui beveik jos nekū- aspektus, kūrinys natūraliai įsilies į apeigas, o bažnyčios rę. Tačiau latvių egzodo kompozitoriai (Bruno Skulte, choras galės jį deramai atlikti. Dėl to J. Vītolio kūrybi- Jānis Kalniņis, Tālivaldis Ķeniņis, Viktoras Baštikas ir niame palikime rasime įvairiausių žanrų religinės mu- kt.), aktyviai darbavęsi bažnyčiose, užpildė religinės zikos – nuo paprastų choralo aranžuočių iki sudėtingų muzikos spragą gimtinėje. Taigi Jāzepo Vītolio veikla (muzikinės kalbos atžvilgiu) solo giesmių ar stambių religinės muzikos srityje suformavo kompozicinę mo- vokalinių-instrumentinių veikalų. kyklą, kurios vaisiai aktualūs bei svarbūs ir šiais laikais.

85 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Baiba JAUNSLAVIETE The Composition School of Maija Einfelde: Some Pedagogical and Stylistic Aspects Maijos Einfeldes kompozicinė mokykla: pedagoginiai ir stiliaus aspektai

Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music, Krišjāņa Barona iela 1, Riga, Latvia Email [email protected]

Abstract The Latvian composer Maija Einfelde (b. 1939) was a teacher of composition from the 1970s until 2008. She has taught in music schools rather than the Music Academy and therefore we can’t discuss her composition school to the full extent – however, a number of her former students have emphasized Maija Einfelde’s investment in their creative development. The paper aims to find out what are the features, which, despite differences in personalities and generations, tie together the composition school of Einfelde. The relation between approaches that Einfelde has inherited from her teachers, amidst them Jānis Ivanovs, and principles that she has transferred to her students is discussed. The interviews of her former students (Dzintra Kurme-Gedroica, Mārtiņš Viļums, Oskars Herliņš) and analytical insights in some compositions permit us to highlight the characteristics of the Einfelde’s composition school. Keywords: Dzintra Kurme-Gedroica, Mārtiņš Viļums, Oskars Herliņš, study process, stylistics.

Anotacija Latvių kompozitorė Maija Einfelde (g. 1939) nuo XX a. 8-ojo dešimtmečio iki 2008-ųjų dėstė kompoziciją, tačiau daugiausia muzikos mokyklose, o ne Latvijos muzikos akademijoje. Dėl šios priežasties negalime kalbėti apie M. Einfeldes kompozicinę mokyklą tradicine prasme. Nepaisant to, keletas jos buvusių mokinių pabrėžė kompozitorės įtaką jų kūrybiniam keliui. Šiame straipsnyje siekiama išskirti bruožus, siejančius visus M. Einfelde mokinius, nepaisant kartų ir asmenybių skirtumų. Aptariama, kaip M. Einfeldes kompozicijos samprata, jos perimta iš pedagogų, tarp kurių minėtinas Jānis Ivanovas, siejasi su mokiniams perduodamais principais. Pasitelkiant pokalbius su buvusiais mokiniais (Dzintra Kurme-Gedroica, Mārtiņiu Viļumu, Oskaru Herliņiu) ir analizuojant kai kuriuos kompozitorės kūrybos pavyzdžius, pateikiama M. Einfeldes kompozicinės mokyklos charakteristika. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Dzintra Kurme-Gedroica, Mārtiņš Viļums, Oskars Herliņš, studijų procesas, stilistika.

Introduction for Music Competition, Einfelde did not belong to the Latvian composers’ elite: she was more likely considered as Composition school is a term that is often used quite an outsider with an enthusiastic, however relatively small liberally and even controversially in musicological litera- group of supporting listeners and interpreters. ture. One of the commonly accepted meanings refers to a Like many musicians, Einfelde also worked as a peda- stylistic continuity that is found in the music by composers gogue throughout her entire career – she taught solfeggio, of different generations: namely, the succession by younger harmony, music literature as well as composition in various composers to the composition principles and aesthetics music education institutions, including the most prominent of their predecessors, even if they didn’t have a student- Latvian music schools, such as Jāzeps Mediņš Music Second- teacher relationship (for example, the so-called Mannheim ary School (1980–1994), and Emīls Dārziņš Music School school). Another definition describes an interaction of the (1997–2001, 2006–2008). However, she was mostly the composition pedagogue and his/her students during the first or the second and not the final composition teacher teaching/learning process. However, if the pedagogue is for her students – predominantly teenagers. Composition an outstanding composer, the attention in this case should school is usually considered a higher level of teaching – a not only be paid to the pedagogical work itself, but also music academy or a similar institution with students who to manifestations of stylistic parallels in the music of the have already managed the theoretical and technical basis of pedagogue and their students. composition and, in collaboration with their professor, are From this second perspective, the article discusses the able to develop a certain musical style. The presumption, composition school by Latvian composer Maija Einfelde verified in this article, however, is that this could already (b. 1939). Nowadays she is one of the best-known Latvian happen at an earlier stage of tuition, if the pedagogue is an female composers internationally. Her path to this recog- outstanding personality. In order to prove this presump- nition has not been easy: until 1997, when she won an tion, the main principles of Einfelde’s composition school International Competition by the Barlow Endowement are analysed in the following chapters. The discussion is

86 The Composition School of Maija Einfelde: Some Pedagogical and Stylistic Aspects primarily based on structured interviews with the composer music theory Līcītis, and soon she started enthusiastically and her former students and, secondarily, on analytical listening to contemporary music. Līcītis recommended insight into some compositions. Einfelde to study composition with Jānis Kaijaks; the latter remembers that Līcītis asked him to take in his class a very talented, but also very stubborn student: Maija Einfelde and her composition teachers The girl was disobedient, ready to stand up for her ideas, in some ways wild even. At the time when we started working together, When researching the personalities of pedagogues, it her main interest was Prokofiev, and so all of her compositions, is worth looking at their school and student years: who without fail, were a continuity from Prokofiev’s Visions Fugitives. were their teachers, which methods did the students ‘bor- Maija needed to be “disentangled” from an overly complicated row’ from them, which principles did they abandon due to expression, and, at the time, I encouraged [her] to look for her negative experiences? own style. For this purpose, I ask her to compose piano accom- Discussing this issue in the context of the pedagogical paniments to Latvian folk songs. Although very reluctantly, work by Einfelde, I will characterize her cooperation with she did it. The other problem was Maija’s spontaneity, which two (although not the only) composition teachers that she also surfaced in her music – everything she composed sounded names as having been particularly important for her: Jānis rather improvised. Therefore, it was particularly hard to search Kaijaks (b. 1931) and Jānis Ivanovs (1906–1983)1. for a theme for the final exam’s variations. The variations them- Kaijaks was her pedagogue at Jāzeps Mediņš Mu- selves were ready, but we still lacked an at least somewhat suitable sic Secondary School that Maija Einfelde attended in theme, until, in the end, we chose one of the variations that, in 1958–1961. She had started her music education rather its expression, was the most clear and concise. Maija graduated late, at the age of 13, and outside of Riga – in the music with the highest mark (five) in Composition. So which parts of her style from those times has she schools of Liepāja, Limbaži and finally Cēsis. Einfelde kept? It must definitely be the sharp harmonic language and, acknowledges that the music studied in these schools was generally speaking, the expressionist tendency.4 created mostly in the classical or romantic tradition, and her musical mindset was romantic as well: Einfelde remembers this pedagogue with significant gratitude, however the specific methodical solutions have One of my first compositions that I proudly demonstrated been forgotten, except for the principle itself – develop to my teacher in Mediņš School, Jānis Līcītis, turned out to the skills of the student that they are good at naturally and be something very similar to the first subject of the Violin Concerto by Mendelssohn.2 refuse everything that feels fake, overworked according to the teacher’s taste and stylistic preferences.5 This romantic way of musical expression reflects a In her Mediņš school years, Einfelde also heard works feature that generally was characteristic for Latvia (partly of Jānis Ivanovs for the first time. Their harsh expression, also for other regions of the former USSR) in the 1950s. monumentality and originality of harmony fascinated her By realizing Lenin’s thesis dictating that art is owned by the so strongly that in 1961, when applying at the Latvian State people (Zetkin 1929: 13), representatives of Soviet ideology Conservatory, she expressed desire to study in his class. This preferred a simple and easily understandable music.3 Sepa- wish was accepted. However, reflecting on it, Einfelde admits rate aspects of romanticism – a cult of melody, a tendency that Ivanovs’ music influenced her creative development towards program music, attention to folklore material – fit much more than the studies in his class. One possible reason in well with the abovementioned Leninist thesis. Therefore, for this was suggested by Jānis Kaijaks in an interview: the romantic tradition was dominant in the Latvian music In my opinion, Ivanovs’ method of teaching in the conserva- of the second half of the 1940s and first half of the 1950s, tory was not really suited for her – if the student got “stuck” and modernism had no place in this environment. De- at some part of the composition, Ivanovs sat down at the Stalinization, alongside other positive changes, brought piano and improvised himself, trying to show the way out along wider pluralism in art (Torgāns 2010: 261–262), and of the dead end. It might have helped several other students, already at the end of the 1950s it significantly expanded but not Maija.6 the stylistic panorama of the music created by composers, performed in concert halls and taught in the schools of Einfelde herself nowadays is still fascinated by Ivanovs’ Latvia. However, initially these changes appeared only in personality and his music, half-jokingly stating that for the largest cultural centres, including Riga, and not in the her entire life she has been trying to rid herself of “Ivanovs’ periphery. Therefore, the studies in Mediņš School in Riga ninth chords”. However, this fascination is joined by an was a real stylistic surprise for Einfelde after the ‘romantic admission that it is forgivable for an excellent composer period’ of her musical education. to not be the perfect pedagogue. In her opinion, Ivanovs’ Einfelde got her first impulses for a radical expansion method of teaching was oriented too much towards crafting of musical experience from the aforementioned teacher of his students into “junior Ivanovs”.7

87 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Baiba JAUNSLAVIETE

Despite problems in the communication between the are chamber and choral works, and many of them, such as professor Ivanovs and the student Einfelde, the comparison string quartet Sansara (1996) and choral composition Le of their music confirms that Einfelde could be considered as a temps scintille... (2003) have gained international acclaim. representative of the composition school by Ivanovs if we take In 2012, Viļums received the Latvian Great Music Award.11 the term of a school in a broader sense – regarding the stylistic Out of the three respondents, Oskars Herliņš (b. succession and not just the study process itself. At the same 1980) was the oldest to become a student of Einfelde. He time, besides the stylistic parallels, the individual features in took her class in the Rīdze Night Music School between the music of both composers are also strongly expressed (see the ages of 24–28 (2004–2008), furthermore, in contrast more about it in my article; Jaunslaviete 2007). to the previously discussed students, he did not have any kind of formal music education – his experience consisted of working in the pop-music scene and as a self-taught gui- 2. Maija Einfelde in the recollections tar player. Starting studies by Einfelde, he was, in his own of her former students words, already a little tired from pop-music and wanted to try something different. When Herliņš mastered a full 2.1. Respondents course in Rīdze, he studied in the Latvian Academy of Mu- The composition class of Maija Einfelde was attended sic with Rolands Kronlaks and received a bachelor degree in by students of various music schools. A large part of them 2014. Later he completed his education abroad, including never became professional composers, although they have a postgraduate program in the Royal Conservatoire Hague. interesting recollections of the pedagogical work by Ein- Herliņš is a winner of various composition competitions. felde and its influence on their creativity. However, the His music is included in the repertoire of the Latvian most comprehensive characterisation of her composition Radio Choir, the Latvian National Symphony Orchestra, school by her former students can be offered by– present chamber ensembles from Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, and composers. I have interviewed three of them, all of whom other performers.12 have achieved significant results in this area. In order to find out the views of the respondents on the Dzintra Kurme-Gedroica (b. 1968), started her studies composition school by Einfelde, I asked them to answer in Einfelde’s class the earliest out of all respondents – ages three questions. A summary of their answers will be given 12–16, from 1980 to 1984. She is the only one who studied in the following chapter. under Einfelde in the Mediņš Children’ Music School (later her pedagogues were Tamāra Kalna in Mediņš Secondary 2.2. Three aspects in the pedagogical work by School and Ādolfs Skulte in the Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Acad- Maija Einfelde (answers to the questions of the emy of Music; she graduated from the Academy in 1992).8 structured interview) Her works, especially choral compositions based on folk My first question to the three composers was the fol- music, and organ compositions have gained recognition lowing: Which music parameters were the most extensively and have been frequently performed. covered in composition lessons – the overall concept of the work, Mārtiņš Viļums (b. 1974) in 1991–1996 was a student form, harmony, texture, instrumentation, or something else? at Mediņš School. He studied in the accordion class, and The answers to this question were quite different. How- the composition lessons were not intended for this specialty. ever, they suggest that in her lessons Einfelde paid great However, in 1993, he first attended the composition class attention to two aspects of the composition: firstly, the by Einfelde together with a fellow student, and later arrived originality of harmony, and, secondly, to one specific aspect separately. There were around 10 meetings, and, as Viļums of the musical form – the techniques used for developing a stresses, they were extraordinarily valuable: single thematic core of the musical work. The preferences of Einfelde in the field of the harmony The laconic remarks by Maija, addressed to me, were an excel- were most comprehensively characterized in the answer by lent stimulus for my creative inspiration, in an indirect way, Dzintra Kurme-Gedroica. At the beginning of her composi- she encouraged me to believe that I was able to write music. tion studies, e.g. at the age of twelve, she found Einfelde’s In my opinion, there was also a mutual sympathy between push towards searching for a new harmony quite shocking: us – on her part an inner smile about my musical exaggera- tion, on my part, a concentrated and grateful contact, after The first impression was rather dramatic. Although I had which I immediately wanted to compose. Her words were the previously heard that she is quite strict and demanding, the first and greatest driver to write the music that I’ve ever had.9 contrast between her and my first teacher [in the non-formal education – B. J.], who praised each one of my expressions Later Viļums studied composition at the Lithuanian in the field of composition, was rather grand...What followed Academy of Music and Theatre with various professors, in- after listening to my childish compositions was a very harsh, cluding Rimantas Janeliauskas (1996–2001 Bachelor’s pro- nearly crushing, judgment. To be fair, my first compositions gram, 2004 Master’s program10). Main genres of his music had a clearly defined line of melody and background, usually

88 The Composition School of Maija Einfelde: Some Pedagogical and Stylistic Aspects

based on the traditional harmonic sequences of T-S-D-T, so Within this processuality and free spontaneity, certain they really resembled children’ play songs at best. It was also principles of the form-building preferred by the composer said that, if my mum expects the teacher to turn me into a can be found, and interviews with her students confirm 13 second Raimonds Pauls, we should be looking for a different that she followed these principles also in her pedagogical 14 teacher and a different path in general, as soon as possible. work. Oskars Herliņš remembers a focus on the techniques Einfelde herself does not deny that a great attention to of development of a single thematic core, in order to, on 20 the originality of harmony in her work with each student this basis create a whole composition. A similar issue is has been very important. Furthermore, the first thing upon discussed by Mārtiņš Viļums in his recollections about meeting a new student for her has really been encouraging studies by Einfelde: them to look from their own chords. At the same time, On one hand, a lot of attention was paid to the focus and Einfelde emphasizes: laconism of musical expression (I recall preludes by Chopin as examples); on the other hand – working on musical material, You can write contemporary music with triads as well – how- finding possible ways to development.21 ever, this is if and only if the other harmonic possibilities have been explored in their diversity, and then you are returning Viļums remembers a critique by Einfelde addressed to to triads, but in a different level of development. However, if one of his compositions: the student chooses the easiest path from the very beginning She compared my musical material with beautiful pictures that and chooses rather dull repetitions of triads, layered with a I show, then quickly hide and pull out the next.22 rather unoriginal melody, it is a dead end.15 This statement also confirms that for Einfelde, both as Einfelde reveals that she instructs her students to work a composer and teacher, the unity of the thematic mate- on harmony the same way she does it when composing: first rial of music is very important, however, it is expressed in horizontally – a chain of special, non-standard chords, and, rather different transformations, and, in creating them, afterwards, just like a weaver, she weaves the musical texture, the composer displays a significant diversity. She does not sorting these chords into different layers of texture.16 choose variations as a form, and she has also never assigned Oskars Herliņš answer also leaves the impression that this form to her students. She shows transformations of the Maija Einfelde found harmony particularly important. thematic core in a monologue-like, free expression, the flow From the discussion on the various ways to avoid the clichés of which is not interrupted by a strong structural division.23 of classical functional harmony, Herliņš remembers, for ex- An indirect witness to the attention paid to a single the- ample, a demonstration of possibilities to connect different matic core and its development process is a composition by tonalities with long-lasting repeats of one or another pitch Mārtiņš Viļums, which was created at the time of his studies until we perceive it as a quantitative tonic.17 The composer also self-critically admits that in her les- with Einfelde around 1995 – the piano piece Apmātība sons she paid somewhat little attention to form, saying: “I (Infatuation). Similarly to Einfelde’s music, there are not consider form to be the weak point in my own music as well”. strongly structured, from other material enclosed themes, Einfelde compares herself to another long-time composition however there are freely arranged, melodically related pedagogue and her ex-colleague at the Jāzeps Mediņš Music microstructures. The united elements are lamentive mo- Secondary school, Tamāra Kalna:18 tives (falling, at times chromatic, intonations of seconds), appearing in the context of a dissonant harmony (second- I mostly work on harmony, expressiveness, and colours; structured chords are frequently used). Such diversity and, meanwhile Tamāra was great at crafting the form. I think at the same time, unity and continuality of thematic versions that the best education was received by students like Dzintra can be observed in the music by Einfelde as well. Kurme, who were taught by both me and Tamāra – so they got the chance to learn the process of composition from two The second question I asked to the former students different perspectives.19 was the following: did the study process reflect the musical The musical form by Einfelde herself is indeed rarely clearly (stylistic) preferences of Einfelde herself? structured and with strongly expressed caesuras. Her works All respondents answered positively: they had frequently frequently are free in form, created in a monologue-like expres- discussed various compositions and stylistics with the sion, and a certain degree of improvisation can be felt in them. pedagogue, because a large part of lessons was allocated to However, it’s not universally agreeable that these properties are analysing music. This activity was used both for an overall actually a weak spot – they can also be considered specific to accumulation of musical experience, and in cases where the her style. “I was always interested in processes over schemes. student could not find a successful solution to a certain Musicologists have proven again and again that they cannot compositional problem. The listening and analysis offered see these schemes in my works,” so Maija Einfelde said in her a possibility to see how other composers dealt with similar interview to Orests Silabriedis (Einfelde 2008: 23). problems. Viļums remembers that works by Bartók and

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Prokofiev were frequently in focus.24 Dzintra Kurme-Ged- influence of the pedagogues’ ‘handwriting’, that could be roica who started her compositional education with Einfelde seen in the works of other students. “Well, my charisma as a child says the teacher stimulated her imagination, giving isn’t strong enough to encourage people to imitate me,” tasks to portray a character, an emotion, either similar or half-jokingly admits the composer.29 completely opposite to that which she had demonstrated In fact, the stylistic diversity of music by Einfelde’s in another musical work. Einfelde also sometimes asked her students follows from the specifics of her pedagogical to imitate the writing of a certain composer, for example, principles: she did not favour her own former teacher’s Jānis of Bartók (Mikrokosmos), or Hindemith (Ludus tonalis) – Ivanovs’ approach of sitting down at the piano and impro- however, it was merely an exercise for mastering composition vising, indirectly hinting at the path the student should be technique, rather than stylistic copying.25 taking. From the very beginning she encourages the student Herliņš started his studies with Einfelde in the 21st to look for their own individual expression and come up century. Alongside works that were mentioned previously, with something out of the ordinary – first in harmony, and he names compositions by Georg Friedrich Haas, Sofia then in other musical parameters as well. Gubaidulina and some Latvian composers – Diversities by Are there grounds to speak about succession within a Tālivaldis Ķeniņš (Einfelde considered it as a good example certain composition school in this case? The answers of the of how to introduce the young students to contemporary respondents confirm that it is still justified: they mention vari- piano music techniques), and Landscape with Birds by ous aspects of their own music that reflect a direct or indirect Pēteris Vasks (varied sonoristic techniques of flute). A influence by Einfelde.Dzintra Kurme-Gedroica recalls: work that’s especially highlighted by Herliņš is Piece From Her ironically biting scherzo attracted me for several years. The Year 1981by Lepo Sumera. Einfelde demonstrated it Even after graduating the conservatory I kept returning to it during a composition lesson, as an example of creating an again and again…30 interesting composition using minimalism techniques.26 Einfelde’s attitude towards minimalism with its repeti- Such ironically biting scherzo continues the traditions of Dmitri Shostakovich who is one of Einfelde’s favourite tivity is rather sceptical, and she considers this style as too composers. It’s not a genre used heavily by either Einfelde monotonous: or Kurme-Gedroica, however, it is represented with several I do not understand the composers who are interested in repeat- interesting examples, including the middle movement of the ing the same thing for half an hour, when it could have been said cycle Sad Serenades (Three Songs for the Dying Sea, 1988) for much quicker. Heavenly lengths only rarely are truly heavenly… clarinet and string quartet by Einfelde and finale of the Trip- Wordiness bothers me. And yet, I do not criticise anyone – tich for clarinet quartet (2003) by Kurme-Gedroica. In both 27 clearly I simply do not understand this musical thinking... works, the semantics of the clarinet and use of the sonoristic However, she calls Piece from the Year 1981 by Sumera effects of the instrument are to a certain extent similar. Clari- an exception because the repetition there is combined with netist Egīls Šēfers comments on the middle movement (for diverse and fantasy-rich changes of the thematic core.28 clarinet solo) from Sad Serenades by Einfelde: Thus, the musical preferences of the composer mani- By making the clarinet gurgle and swoosh like polluted wa- fests the same principles that are found in her music and ter, squawk like birds coated in oil, and sing a dirge for the that she transfers to students: on one hand, a laconic, dying sea, the composer invokes the ecological catastrophe concentrate expression, on the other hand – a unity of to which this forced industrialization contributed. (Šēfers, musical work based on a certain thematic core. However, Dombrovska 2010) its development is never reduced to simple variations At least the first part of this quotation (the character- (which, in Einfelde’s opinion, carry a risk of becoming istic of the sonoristic effects of the clarinet) could also be ‘wordy’), but includes a wide range of changes that high- attributed to the ‘ironically biting’ finale of the Triptich by lights its inner diversity. Kurme-Gedroica. Mārtiņš Viļums mentions a work that might reflect Finally, the third question to the former students was a certain similarity to Einfelde’s sonatas for violin and the following: Do you consider your composition style to be piano – his composition Sansara for string quartet, bass influenced by the teachings of Einfelde? drum and cymbals (1996).31 It was completed one year Before analysing their answers, it is worthy to quote the after finishing composition lessons with Einfelde, and was recollections on this topic by Einfelde herself. At the begin- awarded a Grand Prix in a composition contest organized ning of the 21st century, she worked in the Emīls Dārziņš by the Latvian Philharmonics and the Composers union. Music School, where other composition teachers included The following quote by Viļums is significant in this context: well-known Latvian composers – Pēteris Vasks, Imants This recalls some characteristics of Maija’s music that are Zemzaris, and Marina Gribinčika. After student concerts, related to the display and repetition of a single pitch, this the colleagues often noted that Einfelde’s students showed property has become a very important part in my current the most diversity, and there was not a strongly expressed music aesthetic.32 90 The Composition School of Maija Einfelde: Some Pedagogical and Stylistic Aspects

Figure 1. Maija Einfelde, First Sonata for Violin and Piano: beginning. Composer’s handwriting

Figure 2. Mārtiņš Viļums, Le temps scintille…: a fragment with soprano and alto parts. Composer’s handwriting

Both Sansara and Viļums’ further works, for example, was composed during his third year of study with Einfelde the choral composition Le temps scintille… (2003) do con- in 2006, and it made him the winner of the creative camp firm this. The composer has developed an entire technique for young Latvian composers (2008). of diversifying and individualising a single pitch, noting Einfelde explores the possibilities of unison in her fine gradations, for example, the exchange of different own music as well – especially (but not limited) to piano voiced/unvoiced sound effects; in the context of his choir and organ timbre, tied to dynamic and aggressive musical music this has been further discussed by Gundega Šmite characters. An example is the finale of her First Violin (Šmite 2013: 124). Of course, in this aspect, Viļums could Sonata. This sonata has been dedicated to the memory of have also been influenced by different contemporary com- the composer’s former teacher Jānis Līcītis, and, in its final posers as well, such as Giacinto Scelsi or György Ligeti. movement, Einfelde, as stated by her, has tried to achieve However, Einfelde, alongside with Pēteris Vasks, was one a similar effect to the finale of Chopin’s Second Piano of the first to use the possibilities of micro-change of a Sonata – a vision of a hurricane, sweeping away everything single pitch in Latvian music. This can be seen in several secular.34 The unisons used in her works could not have of her works, including the First Sonata for Violin and directly influenced Herliņš’ Etude for Two, as, like other Piano (1980). students, he reveals that Einfelde’s music was not analysed Oskars Herliņš remembers some suggestions by the in class, and he was barely familiar with it.35 However, the composer that were interesting and useful to him, includ- teacher’s own pointers towards possibilities for expression ing a rather constructive and seemingly simple exercise – to have been hidden in the unison and, likely, specific advice compose something for two unison instruments.33 Thus, he for their revelation in the composition process could have created the Etude for Two for bass clarinet and xylophone. It also proven to be an inspiration.

91 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Baiba JAUNSLAVIETE

Conclusions 7 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 8 Jaunslaviete Baiba, Kurme-Gedroica, Dzintra, in: Latvian Interviews with the composer, her teacher Jānis Kaijaks Music Information Centre, http://www.lmic.lv/core.php?pa geId=747&id=3008&profile=1 [last checked 2018 09 18]. and her students, as well as an analytical insight into various 9 Viļums Mārtiņš, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. compositions let us conclude: 10 In 2011, he received also his PhD in Humanitarian Sciences, about his doctoral thesis The Compositional Principles of Arti- •• Regarding each student as an individual, rather than as a follower of the path of the pedagogue, was determined culation of the Musical Timespace (the Aspects of Spatialization of Sound Parameters in Music in the Second Half of the 20th by Einfelde’s own student experiences: evaluating her Century and at the Beginning of the 21st Century). cooperation both with Kaijaks and Ivanovs, Einfelde 11 Pupa Guntars (supplemented by Mārīte Dombrovska), Vi- has chosen to continue the principles of Kaijaks as the ļums, Mārtiņš, in: Latvian Music Information Centre, http:// most appropriate to her; www.lmic.lv/core.php?pageId=747&id=488&profile=1 • Highlighting the individuality of students is the reason [last checked 2018 09 18]. • 12 Herliņš Oskars (supplemented by Mārīte Dombrovska), why they’re not perceived as mere followers of a clearly Herliņš, Oskars, in: Latvian Music Information Centre, http:// expressed composition school; www.lmic.lv/core.php?pageId=747&id=4269&profile=1 • However, detailed analysis unveils links between the [last checked 2018 09 18]. • 13 pedagogue and the students; these links are not uni- Raimonds Pauls (b. 1936) – one the most famous composers of Latvian popular music. form – each student inherited something different 14 Kurme-Gedroica Dzintra, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, from Einfelde, and, in the interaction with his/her own Riga, 2016. individuality, these aspects of the composition school 15 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. get completely diverse interpretations. 16 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 17 Maija Einfelde admits that her work in teaching com- Herliņš Oskars, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 18 The abovementioned teacher of composition and music position can be described by paraphrasing the words of theory Tamāra Kalna is the mother of the internationally Arthur Honegger: recognized soprano Inga Kalna. 19 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. It is like a stairway to heaven, and you never know whether 20 Herliņš Oskars, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 36 you will be able to climb it, or end up falling down. 21 Viļums Mārtiņš, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 22 The pedagogue must have a very fine intuition to be able Viļums Mārtiņš, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 23 In this aspect, the aesthetic ideal by Einfelde, according to to tell the point at which they should not intervene with the herself, has been Shostakovich with, for example, the flute student’s composition in progress, and when help is actually theme from the beginning of the 15th Symphony. Einfelde needed.37 Einfelde has usually succeeded in this area. She remembers once choosing it for a dictation in a solfeggio has created an independent and research-worthy composi- lesson, and realizing that she doesn’t know at which point to stop – the flow of the melody is seemingly endless. tion school, which is characteristic both of a consequent 24 Viļums Mārtiņš, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. realisation of methodical principles, and of the resulting 25 Kurme-Gedroica Dzintra, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, career achievements of her students. Riga, 2016. 26 Herliņš Oskars, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 27 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. References 28 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 29 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 1 Both Kaijaks and Ivanovs have graduated the composition 30 Kurme-Gedroica Dzintra, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, and the symphony orchestra conducting classes in the Latvian Riga, 2016. Conservatory (today Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy of Music). 31 Viļums Mārtiņš, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. However, Kaijaks is better known as a long-term conductor, 32 Viļums Mārtiņš, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. and he aknowledges: “For my entire life two muses have fought 33 Herliņš Oskars, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. within me: composition and conducting; it seems that the lat- 34 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. ter has achieved victory.” Quoted from: Dombrovska Mārīte, 35 Herliņš Oskars, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. 36 Kaijaks, Jānis, in: Latvian Music Information Centre, http:// Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. www.lmic.lv/core.php?pageId=747&id=402&profile=1 [last The words by Honegger in the original version are as follows: checked 2018 09 18]. Ivanovs is one of the most outstanding To write music is to raise a ladder without a wall to lean it Latvian symphonists; 1944–1983 he taught composition at against. There is no scaffolding: the building under construction the Latvian Conservatory. is held in balance only by the miracle of a kind of internal logic, 2 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. an innate sense of proportion. (Honegger 1966: 69) 37 3 A wider insight into the impact of this ideal to the Latvian Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. music is given by Sergei Kruk in his book with a telling title “For Beautiful and Melodic Music!” Soviet Cultural Politics, Literature 1932–1964 (Kruks 2008: 29). 4 Kaijaks Jānis, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2009. Einfelde Maija, Miķelīši un lilijas. Intervija Orestam Silabriedim 5 Einfelde Maija, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2016. [Michaelmas daisies and lilies. Interview to Orests Silabriedis], 6 Kaijaks Jānis, Interview to Baiba Jaunslaviete, Riga, 2009. in: Mūzikas Saule, No. 5, 2008, p. 20–23, 64.

92 The Composition School of Maija Einfelde: Some Pedagogical and Stylistic Aspects

Honegger Arthur, I am a Composer, transl. from the French by Atsakymai buvo skirtingi. Tačiau matyti, kad savo pa- W. O. Clough and A. A.Willman, London: Faber and Faber, mokose M. Einfelde daug dėmesio skyrė dviem dalykams: 1966. harmonijos originalumui ir vienam iš muzikinės formos Jaunslaviete Baiba, Jānis Ivanovs and Maija Einfelde: Similarities and Differences in Their Musical Style, in: The 20th Century aspektų – vientiso kūrinio tematinio branduolio sukūrimo and the Phenomenon of Personality in Music / 39th Baltic technikai. Kompozitorei ir pedagogei M. Einfeldei ypač Musicology Conference: Selected Papers, Rīga: Latvijas rūpėjo tematinės medžiagos vientisumas. Vis dėlto ji nie- Komponistu savienība, Musica Baltica, 2007, p. 19–28. kada nesirinkdavo variacijų formos ir niekada šios formos Kruks Sergejs, “Par mūziku, skaistu un melodisku!”: padomju kultūras neskirdavo savo mokiniams. Tematinio branduolio virsmus – [“For !” politika, 1932 1964 beautiful and Melodic Music Soviet ji atskleidžia laisva, monologą primenančia forma, kurios Cultural Politics, 1932–1964], Rīga: Neputns, 2008. Šēfers Egīls, Contemporary Latvian Chamber Music for Clarinet, tėkmės nepertraukia griežtas struktūrinis dalijimas. in: Ziemeļsaule / Northern Sun (CD), Rīga: Egīls Šēfers, Lat- Antras klausimas skambėjo taip: ar mokymosi procese vian Music Information Centre, 2010, LMIC 022. atsispindėjo pačios M. Einfeldes muzikiniai (stilistiniai) Šmite Gundega, Mūzikas un teksta mijiedarbes jaunās koncep- polinkiai? cijas latviešu kormūzikā (21. gadsimta pirmā dekāde) [New Visi pašnekovai tvirtino, kad taip. Didelė dalis pamokų Concepts in the Relationships Between Music and Text in Latvian Choral Music (The First Decade of the 21st Century)], buvo skiriama muzikinių kūrinių (B. Bartoko, S. Prokofjevo, Doctoral Thesis, Rīga: JVLMA, 2013. G. F. Haaso, S. Gubaidulinos, L. Sumeros ir kitų) analizei. Torgāns Jānis, Latviešu mūzikas virsotnes [Peaks of the Latvian Mokiniai su pedagoge aptardavo įvairias kompozicines Music], Rīga: Zinātne, 2010. technikas ir kūrinių stilistiką. Į minimalizmą M. Einfelde Zetkin Clara, Reminiscences of Lenin, London: Modern Books, 1929. žiūrėjo skeptiškai, nes šį stilių laikė perdėm monotonišku: Electronic, online sources Nesuprantu kompozitorių, kuriems įdomu pusvalandį kar- toti tą patį – tai, ką būtų galėję pasakyti trumpiau. [...] Man Dombrovska Mārīte, Kaijaks, Jānis, in: Latvian Music Informa- nepatinka daugžodžiavimas... tion Centre, http://www.lmic.lv/core.php?pageId=747&id= 402&profile=1[last checked 2018 09 18]. Vis dėlto Lepo Sumeros kūrinį „Piece From The Year Herliņš Oskars (supplemented by Mārīte Dombrovska), Herliņš, 1981“ ji vadino išimtimi, nes čia kartojimus papildo įvai- Oskars, in: Latvian Music Information Centre, http://www. riausios išradingos tematinio branduolio transformacijos. lmic.lv/core.php?pageId=747&id=4269&profile=1 [last checked 2017 11 07]. Taigi, vadovaudamasi savo muzikiniu skoniu, kompozitorė Jaunslaviete Baiba, Kurme-Gedroica, Dzintra, in: Latvian Music formuoja ir perduoda mokiniams principus, kurie aptinka- Information Centre, http://www.lmic.lv/core.php?pageId=7 mi ir jos pačios kūryboje: lakoniška, koncentruota išraiška ir 47&id=3008&profile=1 [last checked 2018 09 18]. tematiniu branduoliu grįsto muzikinio kūrinio vientisumas. Pupa Guntars (supplemented by Mārīte Dombrovska), Viļums, Trečias buvusiems M. Einfeldes mokiniams užduotas Mārtiņš, in: Latvian Music Information Centre, http://www. lmic.lv/core.php?pageId=747&id=488&profile=1 [last klausimas: ar jūsų kompoziciniam stiliui turėjo įtakos Einfelde checked 2018 09 18]. mokymas? Atsakymai ir kai kurių kūrinių analizė atskleidė, kad kiekvieno mokinio kūryboje galima rasti sąsajų su M. Einfeldes Santrauka muzikos stilistika. D. Kurme-Gedroica pripažino, kad jai Straipsnyje analizuojama vienos iš labiausiai pasaulyje artima ironiško ir kandaus scherzo semantika. M. Viļumas žinomų šių laikų Latvijos moterų kompozitorių Maijos Einfel- įvardino vieno tono diversifikavimo ir individualizavimo des (g. 1939) kompozicinė mokykla. Kaip daugelis muzikantų, techniką, kai pažymimos smulkios tono gradacijos. O. Her- M. Einfelde visą gyvenimą užsiėmė ir pedagogine veikla: mokė liņis įdomiai panaudoja unisonų faktūrą, aptinkamą ir solfedžio, harmonijos, muzikos literatūros ir kompozicijos M. Einfeldes muzikoje. įvairiose šalies muzikos mokyklose, tarp jų – J. Mediņio mu- Pakalbinus pačią kompozitorę, jos dėstytoją Jānį zikos mokykloje (1980–1994) ir E. Dārziņio muzikos mo- Kaijaksą ir jos mokinius, taip pat išanalizavus įvairius kykloje (1997–2001, 2006–2008). Straipsnyje nagrinėjami jos kūrinius daroma išvada, kad Maija Einfelde žvelgia į pagrindiniai M. Einfeldes kompozicinės mokyklos principai, kiekvieną mokinį kaip į asmenybę, o ne kaip į pedagogo pasitelkiant struktūruotus interviu ir kelių kūrinių analizę. tradicijų sekėją. Visgi gilesnė analizė atskleidžia tam tikras Buvo pakalbinti trys buvę M. Einfeldes mokiniai, sąsajas tarp pedagogės ir jos mokinių kūrybos. Šios sąsajos pasirinkę kompozitoriaus kelią ir pasiekę sėkmingų rezul- nėra vienodos – kiekvienas mokinys iš mokytojos perėmė tatų šioje veikloje. Tai Dzintra Kurme-Gedroica (g. 1968), skirtingus dalykus. Dėl kompozitoriaus (-ės) asmenybės Mārtiņis Viļumas (g. 1974) ir Oskaras Herliņis (g. 1980). savitumo šie kompozicinės mokyklos aspektai skirtingai Pirmiausia jų paklausiau: kokiems muzikos elementams interpretuojami. M. Einfelde sukūrė savarankišką, moks- kompozicijos pamokose buvo skiriama daugiausia dėmesio – linės analizės vertą kompozicinę mokyklą, kurią apibrėžia bendrai kūrinio koncepcijai, formai, harmonijai, faktūrai, tiek metodinių principų įgyvendinimas, tiek kompozitorės instrumentuotei ar kitiems? mokinių kūrybiniai pasiekimai.

93 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Danutė PETRAUSKAITĖ Lietuviškos kompozicinės mokyklos paieškos išeivijoje (JAV) Search for the Lithuanian Composition School in exile (the USA)

Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Klaipėdos fakultetas, K. Donelaičio g. 4, Klaipėda, LT-92144, Vilnius, Lietuva El. paštas [email protected]

Anotacija Straipsnis yra skirtas XX a. lietuvių emigrantų muzikos kūrimo proceso Jungtinėse Amerikos Valstijose apžvalgai. Pagrindinis jo tikslas – kom- pozicinės mokyklos paieškos. Šiuo darbu siekiama išsiaiškinti, kas skatino išeivius kurti, kokiomis sąlygomis jie tai darė, įvertinti jų muzikinę kūrybą ir įvardyti priežastis, trukdžiusias kompozicinei mokyklai susiformuoti. Straipsnis susideda iš kelių dalių: įvade aptariamas muzikos vaidmuo išeivijoje skirtingais istoriniais laikotarpiais; pirmoje dalyje analizuojama muzikinės kūrybos situacija XX a. pirmoje pusėje ir prieinama prie išvados, kad jokia kompozicijos mokykla tuo metu negalėjo susiformuoti; antroje dalyje gilinamasi į kūrybos proceso eigą XX a. antroje pusėje, apčiuopiamos kompozicijos mokyklos užuomazgos ir aiškinamasi, kodėl joms buvo lemta nunykti. Reikšminiai žodžiai: lietuvių kompozicinė mokykla, emigracija, išeivija, Jungtinės Amerikos Valstijos, chorinė muzika, instrumentinė muzika, tautinė tapatybė.

Abstract The article is devoted to an overview of Lithuanian emigrant music writing in the United States of America in the 20th century. The main goal is to search for the Lithuanian composition school in exile. The work seeks to find out who encouraged emigrants to write music, under what conditions they did it, to assess their musical compositions, and to identify the reasons that prevented the formation of the composition school. The article consists of several parts. The introduction presents the role of music in emigration in different historical periods. The first part deals with the situation of music writing in the first half of the 20th century and concludes that the Lithuanian composition school could not form at that time. The second part focuses on the process of music writing in the second half of the 20th century, discovers the rudiments of the composition school, and argues why they were destined to be abandoned. Keywords: Lithuanian composition school, emigration, exile, the United States of America, choral music, instrumental music, national identity.

Įvadas tapatybę, taip pat nuslopinti nostalgiją ir neprarasti dvasinio ryšio su tėvyne. Įgyvendinant šiuos uždavinius, meniškumo Masinė lietuvių emigracija į JAV prasidėjo XIX a. pabai- kriterijus atsidūrė antroje vietoje. Į jį buvo atsižvelgiama tiek, goje. Šį procesą skatino kelios priežastys: a) skurdi gimtojo kiek jis padėjo įsitvirtinti svetimame krašte. krašto ekonomika; b) po 1863 m. sukilimo prasidėjusios Tarpukariu į JAV vyko ne tik vargonininkai, bet ir operos represijos; c) jaunuoliams privaloma tarnyba carinės Ru- solistai, pianistai, smuikininkai, kurių muzikinis išsilavinimas sijos kariuomenėje; d) lietuviškos spaudos draudimas ir buvo gerokai aukštesnis už pirmųjų emigrantų. Deja, jų buvo rusinimo politika; e) Amerikos, kaip turtingos, laisvės ir vienetai ir padaryti didesnį poveikį diletantiškam muzikos demokratijos idealus puoselėjančios šalies įvaizdis. Į JAV atlikimui bei kūrimui jie neturėjo didesnių galimybių. Tik po daugiausia keliavo beraščiai ar mažaraščiai Lietuvos kaimų Antrojo pasaulinio karo ūžtelėjusi antroji masinės emigraci- gyventojai, tačiau po kelių dešimtmečių ėmė vykti labiau jos banga atplukdė gausų būrį profesionalių kompozitorių, išprusę žmonės – teisininkai, gydytojai, kunigai, nemažai atlikėjų, pedagogų, kurie ne tik tęsė, bet ir praturtino išeivijos būta ir muzikantų1. Didžiąją pastarųjų dalį sudarė Lietuvos muzikinį gyvenimą. Tačiau naujovės sunkiai skynėsi kelią, dvarų bei caro kariuomenės orkestrantai ir vargonininkai2. nes muzikai ir vėl teko šalutinis vaidmuo. Mat svarbiausias Būtent jie ir tapo muzikinio gyvenimo išeivijoje ašimi – stei- tikslas išeiviams buvo išsilaikyti emigracijoje kaip politiškai gė chorus, orkestrus, muzikos mokyklas, rūpinosi bažnytinės bei kultūriškai aktyviai etninei grupei. Šiam tikslui pasiekti ir pasaulietinės muzikos reikalais, rengė koncertus, dainų labiausiai tiko tautinė muzika, todėl kūrėjo individualumas ir šventes, kūrė muziką. Visa tai buvo daroma stengiantis originalumas tik trukdė. Kūryboje svarbiausia buvo nenutolti neištirpti daugiatautėse Jungtinėse Amerikos Valstijose, nuo tradicijų ir neprarasti išlikimo garantijų. Nors vienam pramintose tautų lydimo katilu. Taigi muzika pirmiausia kitam iš Lietuvos atvykusiam profesionaliam muzikui tapo konsoliduojančiu veiksniu, siekiant sutelkti bendrai pavyko įsitvirtinti amerikietiškose institucijose ir tęsti savo veiklai lietuvius ir padėti jiems išsaugoti konfesinę bei etninę meninę karjerą, bendradarbiaujant su tautiečiais teko daryti

94 Lietuviškos kompozicinės mokyklos paieškos išeivijoje (JAV) kompromisus, pritapti prie įsigalėjusių išeivijoje muzikos toli į priekį. Kai Lietuvoje buvo draudžiamas spausdintas kūrimo bei atlikimo normų ir vertinimo standartų, kaip ir žodis, lietuviai Amerikoje leido laikraščius ir knygas, steigė visiems kitiems, radusiems darbus lietuviškose parapijose ar parapijas, statė bažnyčias, būrėsi į draugijas, chorus bei or- mokymo įstaigose. kestrus, statė operetes, minėjo Lietuvai reikšmingas istorines Apie lietuvių muzikinį gyvenimą išeivijoje pirmasis datas, giedojo Vinco Kudirkos „Tautišką giesmę“. pradėjo rašyti nuo 1929 m. JAV gyvenęs vargonininkas, Tačiau prabėgus keliems dešimtmečiams po nepri- chorvedys, kompozitorius ir pedagogas Juozas Žilevičius. klausomos Lietuvos atsikūrimo, padėtis išeivijoje iš esmės Jo publikacijas dar tarpukario metais spausdino Lietuvos pasikeitė – džiugesio nuotaikas ėmė keisti susirūpinimas. žurnalai (1934 m. ir 1937 m. pasirodė straipsnių serija Antanas Pocius, vienas aktyviausių to meto chorvedžių, „Naujojoje Romuvoje“ ir „Židinyje“), išeivijos periodiniai 1940 m. rašė: leidiniai („Amerika“, „Darbininkas“, „Draugas“, „Dirva“, Kai pas mus išeivijoje chorai didžiumoje dar primityvų chorų „Garsas“, „Margutis“, „Muzikos žinios“, „Naujienos“, gyvenimą tebegyvena ir kompozitoriai daugumoje tonika- „Vienybė“), 1971 m. tėvų pranciškonų spaustuvė Brukline dominantinius trumpučiukus dalykėlius rašo, Lietuvoje kaip išleido knygą „Lietuvis vargonininkas išeivijoje“. blynai kepamos naujos operos, baletai, simfonijos. [...] Mūsų Sovietmečiu informacija apie emigrantus Lietuvoje tarpe veikią solistai-instrumentalistai nepasirūpina savo buvo nepageidaujama, jų kūryba ignoruojama, todėl tik programas praturinti lietuviškais kūrinėliais, bet koncertuose atkūrus nepriklausomą Lietuvos valstybę muzikologai pra- klausytojams duoda seniai visur nusibodusius dalykus lengvojo dėjo domėtis išeivijoje vykusiais meniniais procesais3. Bene turinio. Vargiai išeivijoje lietuviška muzika lietuvių tarpe išsamiausias darbas, kuriame nuosekliai apžvelgiama visa bepakils kiek, ji drauge merdėja su lietuviškumu.4 išeivijos muzikinė kultūra JAV nuo jos ištakų iki 1990 m., buvo išspausdintas 2015 m. ir priklauso šio straipsnio auto- Skirtumai išeivijos nenaudai ypač išryškėjo trečiajame rei. Jame analizuojama chorų, orkestrų, solistų dainininkų ir ketvirtajame dešimtmečiuose: ir instrumentalistų veikla, aptariami Miko Petrausko, Stasio Šis palyginti trumpas laikotarpis buvo itin reikšmingas tiek Šimkaus, Antano Vanagaičio ir Juozo Žilevičiaus atlikti kuriant Lietuvos valstybinę struktūrą, jos ekonominius darbai JAV, gilinamasi į koncertinio gyvenimo ypatumus, pagrindus, tiek plėtojant šalies kultūrą, įvairias meno šakas, tautinės tapatybės paieškas, tačiau mažai rašoma apie visu- tarp jų ir muziką. Nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje labai išaugo minį muzikos kūrimo procesą kaip neatsiejamą meninės atlikimo menas, gimė ir itin aukštą lygį pasiekė operos teatras, emigrantų raiškos komponentą. Todėl šiame straipsnyje, suklestėjo chorai, buvo surengtos pirmosios visos šalies dainų remiantis sukaupta informacija bei praeityje atliktais šventės. Daug žymių atlikėjų ir kompozitorių parengė muzi- tyrimais, taip pat naujai taikomu istoriniu analitiniu bei kos mokymo įstaigos. Muzikos kūryba iš esmės įveikė iki tol gyvavusį mėgėjiškumą; išaugo nauja, aukštą profesionalumo lyginamuoju metodu, chronologiniu istorinių įvykių sekos lygį pasiekusi kompozitorių karta. Apskritai buvo žengtas fiksavimu, pusiau struktūruotu interviu su kompozitoriais didelis žingsnis Lietuvos muzikos europėjimo kelyje, padėti Jeronimu Kačinsku, Nijole Sparkis, Dariumi Lapinsku bei pagrindai tolesnei jos raidai.5 pastarojo našle Laima Rastenyte-Lapinskiene, bandoma ieškoti kompozicinės mokyklos apraiškų ir nustatyti, ar Tuo metu išeivijoje daugiausia dėmesio buvo skiriama apskritai tokia mokykla galėjo išeivijoje gyvuoti. smulkiems vokaliniams žanrams. Tarp pirmųjų emigrantų vos vienas kitas sugebėjo kurti muziką, tarp jų – savamokslis chorvedys Leonas Ereminas (1863–1927), atvykęs į JAV Kūrybinio proceso raida XX a. pirmojoje pusėje 1891 metais. Nors ir susipažinęs su muzikos pagrindais Latvijoje pas vietinius chorų dirigentus ir pedagogus, jis Jei kas būtų paprašęs Amerikos lietuvio, gyvenančio turėjo menką supratimą apie muzikos komponavimą, XX a. pradžioje, patvirtinti, kad išeivijos muzikinis gyveni- tačiau, trūkstant lietuviško repertuaro6, ėmėsi plunksnos mas yra daug labiau įvairesnis ir intensyvesnis nei Lietuvoje, ir 1902 m. Tilžėje išleido dainų rinkinį mišriems bei vyrų jis nedvejodamas būtų atsakęs: chorams „Dainos sutaisytos ant keturių balsų“. Šis rinkinys greitai išpopuliarėjo ir, pasak J. Žilevičiaus, „nebuvo choro , mes turime daugiau chorų ir orkestrų nei Jūs. , mes Sure Sure nei inteligento ar kiek apsišvietusios šeimos, kad nebūtų šis rengiame dainų dienas ir dainų šventes, renkamės į tūkstan- raudonais viršeliais dainų rinkinys buvęs sielos penu“7. Ypač tinius piknikus ir dainuojame lietuviškas dainas, statome operetes. Amerika yra laisvas kraštas, Amerika yra didi šalis, mėgstama tapo latvių kompozitoriaus Karlio Baumanio todėl mes galime daryti viską, kas yra draudžiama carinės daina, vėliau pripažinta Latvijos himnu, kurią L. Eremi- Rusijos valdomoje Lietuvoje. nas, pritaikęs lietuviškus žodžius, pavadino „Lai gyvuoj Lietuva“. Rinkinio sudarytojas pratarmėje apgailestavo, Ir jis būtų buvęs teisus. Iš tiesų išeiviai visose kultūrinės kad, stingant lietuviškų melodijų bei žodžių, jam teko su- veiklos srityse pralenkė savo tautiečius tėvynėje ir išsiveržė lietuvinti vokiečių bei latvių kompozitorių – Hugo Preiso,

95 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Danutė PETRAUSKAITĖ

Padėtis ėmė gerėti į Ameriką pradėjus keliauti vargonininkams, įgijusiems muzikinį išsilavinimą Lietuvoje, Lenki- joje ar Rusijoje. Jie ir tapo pirmaisiais kompozitoriais. Deja, tik vienas kitas buvo studijavęs teorinius dalykus ar mokęsis komponuoti, pavyzdžiui, Povilas Čiurlionis (1884–1945), Varšuvos konservatorijos absolventas, baigęs fortepijono ir kompozicijos klases. JAV jis gyveno 1904–1920 m. ir aktyviai reiškėsi muzikiniame gyvenime – emigrantų vaikus mokė skambinti pianinu, vargonininkavo, priklausė Ame- rikos lietuvių Romos katalikų vargonininkų sąjungai, kūrė muziką. Ši sąjunga 1912 m. išleido jo kalėdinę giesmę chorui su vargonais „Piemenys, piemenys Beatliejun bėgo“ – vieną pirmųjų išeivijoje sukurtų profesionalių kompozicijų, ir apdovanojo jos autorių vargonininko garbės titulu. Matyt, tai buvo išskirtinis įvykis to meto išeivijos padangėje, nes dauguma kitų vargonininkų neturėjo komponavimo patirties, todėl rašė primityvius kūrinėlius. 1907 m. į JAV atvykus Mikui Petrauskui (1873–1937), 1915 m. – Stasiui Šimkui (1887–1943), 1929 m. – Juozui Žilevičiui (1891–1985), lietuvių muzikinis gyvenimas JAV įgavo naują pagreitį. Šie kompozitoriai prisidėjo prie didesnės koncertinių programų įvairovės, įtraukdami į jas ne tik savo, bet ir Juozo Naujalio bei Česlovo Sasnausko dainas, praturtino muzikos kalbą, ėmė kurti stambesnių žanrų kūrinius – operetes, operas, kantatas. Svarų indėlį 1 pav. Leono Eremino chorinio rinkinio „Dainos“ titulinis lapas atnaujinant repertuarą įnešė ir Varšuvos konservatorijos auklėtiniai – Aleksandras Aleksis (1886–1883) ir Juozas Neimontas (1883–1963), taip pat J. Naujalio mokinys Antanas Pocius (1884–1953), kuris Amerikos konservatorijoje ir De Paulio universiteto mokykloje Čikagoje studijavo fortepijoną, vargonus ir muzikos teoriją. Visi šie vargonininkai vertėsi privačia pedagogine praktika, tačiau retas kuris dėstė su komponavimu susijusius dalykus. Visgi palaipsniui atsirado poreikis lygiuotis į amerikiečius –ne tik dainuoti savo dainas, bet turėti ir lietuviškų instrumentinės muzikos veikalų. Pirmieji kompozitoriai, pradėję rašyti pjeses fortepijo- 2 pav. Į Leono Eremino chorinį rinkinį „Dainos“ patekusi latvių nui, buvo M. Petrauskas ir S. Šimkus. Jie jas patys atlikdavo kompozitoriaus daina, kuriai buvo pritaikyti lietuviški žodžiai kaip intarpus vokalinės muzikos koncertuose. Deja, tai buvo tik trumpos liaudies dainų išdailos. Niekas nesiėmė rašyti Carlo Marios von Weberio, Oscaro Schepsky’io, L. Liebe’s, nei sonatinos, nei sonatos, net ir J. Žilevičius – pirmosios Roberto Schumanno, Leopoldo Damroscho, Leo Kranzo, lietuviškos simfonijos autorius, Peterburgo konservatorijoje Carlo Cromerio, H. Schraderio, H. Schäfferio, Friedricho išėjęs visą specialiųjų muzikos teorijos dalykų kursą. Iškiliau- Augusto Schulzo, Erwino Forschnerio, Friedricho Silcherio, sias išeivijoje sukurtas jo kūrinys buvo „Kantata Vytautui Carlo Isemanno, Carlo Häserio, Hanso von Bülowo, Franzo Didžiajam“ chorui, solistams ir vargonams, tačiau imtis Mairio, Jānio Straume’s, Ferdinando Möhringo, Ernsto stambesnių žanrų jis nesiryžo. Net ir jo operetės niekuo Moritzo Arndto, Wilhelmo Sturmo, Gustavo Baldamuso nesiskyrė nuo kitų to meto išeivijos scenoje statomų lietuvių bei kitų autorių kūrinius, liaudies melodijas, tarp jų net ir autorių, pavyzdžiui, M. Petrausko ir S. Šimkaus, muzikinių vieną airišką dainą. Šis rinkinys bei didžiulė jo paklausa (iki vaidinimų. Jų kalbamieji tekstai buvo kaitaliojami su dai- 1937 m. buvo išleistos dvi laidos, kiekviena jų – 3 tūkst. nomis, parašytomis įvairiais kūrybos laikotarpiais, ir tik egzempliorių tiražu) byloja, kad XIX–XX a. sandūroje ir vėliau pritaikytomis prie operečių turinio. Visgi J. Žilevičius net vėliau išeiviai dainavo svetimtaučių sukurtas dainas, nes buvo bene iškiliausias 4-ojo dešimtmečio JAV kūręs lietu- savų turėjo nepakankamai. vių muzikas. Nors jo užmojai ir nebuvo tokie drąsūs kaip

96 Lietuviškos kompozicinės mokyklos paieškos išeivijoje (JAV)

M. K. Čiurlionio ar J. Gruodžio, jis rašė, pasak Kazimiero Viktoro Banaičio, tvarkingai, stilingai ir išbaigtai, mėgo naudoti polifoninės muzikos išraiškos priemones, ypač imitacijas, dinaminį intensyvumą, dramatizmą, ir nenuėjo pigaus pataikavimo keliu8. Pirmuosius žingsnius simfoninės muzikos baruose žengė kompozitorius Mikas Petrauskas, 1920 m. gegužės 29 d. Vusteryje (Masačusetso valstija) vykusiame koncerte šalia pasaulinio garso veikalų su orkestru atlikęs ir savo Lasą Nr. 3. Kaip vėliau paaiškėjo, tai buvo jo paties sugalvotas popuri žanro pavadinimas, įvardijantis į vieną kūrinį sudėtas iš visur „sulesiotas“ melodijas. Šio kompozitoriaus kūrybą taikliai apibūdino K. V. Banaitis:

Nežiūrint gausumo, M. Petrausko kūryba neprilygsta nei Sas- nausko nei Naujalio darbams. M. Petrausko kūriniams trūksta techniško išbaigtumo, didesnio įsigilinimo bei kūrybinio išradingumo. Jis visą savo gyvenimą paliko labai darbštus, daug rašantis diletantas su aiškia savikritikos stoka.9

Rapsodinis mąstymas buvo būdingas ir kitiems to meto kūrėjams. Apie tai byloja 1926 m. Filadelfijoje įvykusios JAV 150-osios nepriklausomybės deklaracijos metinių iškilmės, kurių metu lietuviai į savo koncertinę programą įtraukė Vinco Nickaus, Antano Pociaus ir Wladyslawo Grigaičio (lietuvių kilmės lenko, studijavusio Varšuvos konservatorijoje) simfoninius kūrinius. Deja, pastarieji du autoriai tik suorkestravo kelias lietuviškas dainas bei šokius ir pateikė klausytojams kelias liaudies melodijų pynes. Vienintelis V. Nickaus veikalas, Simfonija g-moll, pretendavo į klasi- kinės muzikos žanrą. Lietuviška išeivijos periodinė spauda teigė, kad šis kūrinys Čikagoje vykusiame konkurse, į kurį buvo pasiųsta 80 kompozicijų, pateko tarp penkių geriau- siųjų10, tačiau sužinoti, kokio lygio tai buvo konkursas ir kas jame dalyvavo, kol kas nepavyko. V. Nickus (1886–1938) istoriografijoje yra įvardijamas kaip vienas pirmųjų lietuviškų simfoninės muzikos kūrėjų išeivijoje11. Jis rašė ir dainas, giesmes, mišparus, kūrinius fortepijonui, bet labiausiai išgarsėjo savo orkestriniais kūri- niais – daugiausia šokiais. Nors muzikinį išsilavinimą buvo įgijęs Milvokio muzikos kolegijoje (Viskonsino valstija), kompozicijos srities žinių jam trūko, ir apie tai šis kūrėjas pasakojo laiške J. Žilevičiui: Kai pradėjau Chicagoj vargoninkaut vienuoliktais metais, tuomet jau pradėjau ir muziką rašyt. Sutvėriau dvi orkestras mažųjų ir didelių ir buvau priverstas rašyt suktinius, valcus, klumpakojus. Instrumentalistas tuomet jau buvau neblogas, bet [h]armonijos tik ką pas Singenbergerį12 buvau mažai pramokęs ir dar prieš tai mokiausi pas M. Petrauską. Paraleliškų oktavų kvintų nedariau, ale šiaip tokių teoriškų mažų apsirikimų pri- dirbau. Tai yra pirmas mano šokių rinkinys13. Prieš padavimą į spaudą, pasirašė patvirtino lenkų kom[pozitorius] Pšibilskis, tuomet buvo mano geras draugas. Dar prieš tai pergraino visą 3, 4 pav. Povilo Čiurlionio „Kalėdų giesmės“ viršelis ir fragmentas rinkinį Jakaičio14 orkestro oginskiniai muzikantai. Klausėsi

97 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Danutė PETRAUSKAITĖ

1927 m. balandžio 26 d. Amsterdame (Niujorko valstija) įvyko V. Nickaus kūrinių koncertas ir dauguma neiš- prususių klausytojų džiaugėsi lietuviškomis „simfonijomis“, bet muzikinį išsilavinimą turintys emigrantai suvokė – tokie kūriniai negali reprezentuoti lietuvių profesionaliosios muzikos. Nepaisant to, V. Nickus vienas iš nedaugelio turėjo įgijęs tvirtesnius muzikos teorijos pagrindus, todėl ir buvo pakviestas dėstyti harmonijos lietuviškoje Čikagos Beethoveno konservatorijoje. Teorines muzikos žinias jis siejo su pasaulio sąranga ir Dievo pažinimu, apie ką rašė savo laiškuose kolegoms: Kai Dievas tvėrė šį pasaulį per šešias dienas, o septintą dieną ilsėjosi ir klausėsi muzikos. Nors Šventam rašte nėra pasakyta apie muzikos sutvėrimą, bet mes žinome gerai, kad Dievas sutvėrė ir muziką. Kada šio pasaulio visas sutvėrimas pra- dėjo judėti: saulė, žvaigždės, kometos, planetos sudarė [h] armoniją ir išleido mums nežinomus, negirdėtus garsus, tai buvo muzikos pradžia. Muzika yra dvejopa – reguliariška ir nereguliariška. Muzika sureguliuota yra maloni, švelni priimti, o nereguliuota – bildėjimas, užimas, trenksmas, riksmas, tai vis muzika. Dabar mes turime žmogaus sureguliuotą instru- mentinę muziką ir nereguliuotą laukinę muziką. Kad nebūtų muzikos, nebūtų pasaulio. Viskas numirtų, nutiltų. Pasaulio surėdymas remiasi ant dviejų skirtingų esybių: matomų ir nematomų – šviesa, tamsa, ramybė, audra, vėjas, šaltis, šiluma. Gyvūnai vyriškos ir moteriškos lyties. Augmenys taip pat turi dvi skirtingas ypatybes. Tas pats yra ir muzikoj: muzika linksma, muzika liūdna, reguliuota ir nereguliuota. Du laiptai (scales) major-minor, du akordai: didelis-mažas, dvi tercijos; didelė ir maža; du figūrai, du motyvai, du frazai. Vis tai yra du skirtumai. Skambinant vieną stygą ar vieną gaidą, nėra [h]armonijos nei įvairumo, vis tas pats ir vienas. O vienas šiame pasaulyje niekas negali egzistuoti. Vis turi būti du skirtingumai. Skambinant dvi gaidas ant karto, jau čia būna [h]armonija ir įvairumas. Akordas susideda iš trijų gaidų ar iš dviejų tercijų – didelės ir mažos. Imkim pavyzdin C tonacijos, C-E-G, jau čia girdisi malonus skambėjimas. Pridedant keltuką prie g sharp, pasidaro dvi lygios tercijos ir girdisi kaulinis skambėjimas. Visų pirma moduliuojam tik į penkias tonacijas16: nuo garsinio C į 5, 6 pav. Juozo Žilevičiaus „Vytauto Didžiojo kantatos“ titulinis dominantą, subdominantą, viršgarsinį, subvidurinį ir vidurinį. 17 lapas ir fragmentas Nemoduliuojama į subgarsinį dėlto, kad B -D-F pasidaro abi lygios tercijos – sumažintas akordas. Taigi šiuomi pareiškiu, kad muzikoj nerandu socializmo ir bolševizmo lygybės ir jis Pocius ir kiti Chicagos vargonininkai. [...] Mišparus buvau pri- muzikoj negali egzistuoti. Dievas viską sutvėrė ant dviejų skir- verstas rašyt. Chicagoj man bevargoninkaujant, mano klebonas tingumų. Studijuok muziką, pažink muziką, nebūsi ciciliku, sako, kur tiktai nuvažiuosiant atlaidų, tai visur visose parapijose bolševiku. Pažinsi Dievą.18 tuos pačius Singenbergerio mišparus gieda. Tai ėmiausi [...].15 Siekdamas, kad amerikiečiai geriau susipažintų su lie- Taigi V. Nickus buvo bene vienintelis lietuvis, mokęsis tuvių muzikine kultūra, aktorius ir dainų kūrėjas Antanas pas to meto bažnytinės muzikos korifėjų Johanną Baptistą Vanagaitis, muzikos mokęsis ne tik Kaune vykusiuose Singenbergerį, o iš šio laiško tęsinio paaiškėja, kad jaunasis vargonininkų kursuose, bet ir Dresdeno konservatorijoje, kompozitorius ir pats daug dėmesio skyrė savarankiškoms nutarė per 1934 m. Pasaulinę parodą Čikagoje suruošti kompozicijos studijoms – analizuodavo savo ranka perrašy- simfoninį koncertą. Tik tai padaryti nebuvo taip lengva dėl tų J. S. Bacho, W. A. Mozarto, L. van Beethoveno, R. Schu- lietuviškų kūrinių stygiaus. Pirmiausia šio renginio organiza- manno, F. Mendelssohno fortepijoninių kūrinių formą, torius suprato, kad išeivijoje nėra nė vieno autoriaus, kurio muzikos kalbą, tačiau užpildyti visų spragų jam nepavyko. veikalas būtų pakankamai profesionaliai parašytas ir vertas

98 Lietuviškos kompozicinės mokyklos paieškos išeivijoje (JAV) amerikiečių scenos. Tinkamiausi jam pasirodė M. K. Čiur- lionio, J. Naujalio, B. Dvariono, J. Karnavičiaus, V. Jakubėno kūriniai. Jų partitūros ir buvo atgabentos iš Lietuvos. Taigi tarpukario išeivijos kompozitoriai nieko negalėjo pasiūlyti simfoniniam koncertui. Šią situaciją lėmė kelios priežastys: a) dominuojant chorinei muzikai, instrumentiniai kūriniai neturėjo paklausos, be to, trūko ir savų atlikėjų; b) amerikiečių konservatorijose ir muzikos kolegijose mokęsi asmenys dažniausiai apsiribodavo tik pasirinkto instrumento ar pedagogikos studijomis, todėl jiems trūko žinių, norint rašyti stambios formos kūrinius. Jiems atrodė, jog muzikos teorijos dalykų kursai, už kuriuos reikia mokėti, nereikalingi, kaip nereikalingos lietuvių diasporai sonatos ir simfonijos, o kurti dainas ar giesmes užtenka ir elementarių įgūdžių. Tokį mąstymą lėmė įsigalėjęs muzikos vertinimas tautiškumo aspektu – svarbiausi dalykai kūrinyje yra lietuviški žodžiai ar liaudies dainų intonacijos. Geriausia komponavimo mokykla išei- vijoje dirbusiems vargonininkams ir chorvedžiams buvo Kaune lankyti J. Naujalio vargonininkų kursai. Gilesnis M. K. Čiurlionio tautinės muzikos suvokimas, kaip ir Juozo 7 pav. Dariaus Lapinsko operos „Maras“ fragmentas Gruodžio pastangos rašyti šiuolaikinę muziką, jiems buvo visai nežinomos. Tik vienas kitas muzikos mėgėjas bandė mokytis teorinių dalykų pas J. Žilevičių, pavyzdžiui, smui- išsiduodame kaip be galo žemos kultūros tautelė, paskendusi, kininkas Jonas Žemaitis (1892–?) iš Bruklino19. Tačiau šiam dažnai svetimos kilmės kabaretinių, lygiai ir savų karčiaminių atlikėjui trumpalaikės kompozicijos studijos nepadėjo – jo nevertingų girtuokliškų dainuškų liūne. Klausant tokių pro- vokalinė ir fortepijoninė kūryba išeivijoje plačiau nepaplito, gramų koncertuose, radijo valandėlėse, niekas nepatikės, kad Lietuva kada nors buvo bei yra puikių originalių dainų šalis! nors ir buvo grindžiama liaudies dainų intonacijomis. Ne Priešingai – tik pamanys, kad mes be svetimų polkų ir tuščių vienus metus egzilyje gyvenę M. Petrauskas ir S. Šimkus trivialių dainuškų nieko vertingo neturime! Kai tauta visko savo patirties komponavimo srityje niekam neperdavė – nustojo, tai bent jos kultūros veido neterškime pigiu šlamštu!20 nebuvo nei sąlygų, nei poreikio, todėl akivaizdu, kad XX a. pirmoje pusėje jokia lietuviška kompozicijos mokykla JAV Tarp pokario bangos išeivių būta įvairių kartų kompo- neegzistavo. zitorių. Vyresnieji buvo baigę įvairias Europos konservatorijas: Vytautas Bacevičius – Lodzės ir Rusų konservatoriją Paryžiuje, Kazimieras Viktoras Banaitis – Leipcigo, Vladas Kompozicijos mokyklos užuomazgos Jakubėnas – Rygos ir Berlyno, Jeronimas Kačinskas – Pra- XX a. antroje pusėje hos. Jaunesnieji – Bronius Budriūnas, Julius Gaidelis, Al- fonsas Mikulskis – studijavo kompoziciją Kaune pas Juozą Po Antrojo pasaulinio karo JAV apsigyvenę emigrantai, Gruodį. Patys jauniausieji – Giedra Gudauskienė, Bruno pabėgę nuo komunistinio režimo Lietuvoje, nebuvo paten- Markaitis, Jonas Švedas – muzikinį išsilavinimą įgijo JAV. kinti anksčiau atvykusių savo tautiečių kultūrine veikla. Tad kyla klausimas, ar galėjo išeivijoje susiformuoti lietu- Ypač buvo nusivylę profesionalūs kompozitoriai, kurie ėmė viška kompozitorių mokykla. Juk vyresnieji buvo pajėgūs atvirai apie tai kalbėti ir sukti muzikinį gyvenimą nauja vaga. savo patirtį perduoti jaunesniajai kartai, o ši – savo amži- K. V. Banaitis piktinosi: ninkų atžaloms, bet to neužteko – reikėjo tinkamų sąlygų, tradicijų, institucijų. Deja, Europos ir Amerikos muzikinė ...mūsų išeivijoje daugumoje dar tebemėgiamos visokios kultūra labai skyrėsi, kaip ir žmonių mentalitetas, meninis „dzimdzi drimdzi liu-lialiuškos“, įvairios „Agnieškų ir storų skonis, pasaulėžiūra. Greitai paaiškėjo, kad didžioji dalis bobų polkos“. [Šiuo keliu] čia pasuko, deja, net ir daugelis emigrantų vaikų pageidavo išmokti tik skambinti pianinu naujai atvykusių iš tremties muzikų, kurių uždavinys kaip tik, man rodos, turėtų būti kelti mūsų išeivijos estetinį skonį, arba dainuoti, todėl profesionalūs kompozitoriai, kaip turtinti ir plėsti jos kultūrinius užsimojimus bei siekimus, o ne V. Bacevičius ar V. Jakubėnas, kurie buvo įsteigę privačias pataikauti vulgariškiems polinkiams. Tomis pigiomis balaga- muzikos studijas, mokė vien skambinti fortepijonu. Be to, niškomis bei diletantiškomis įvairių parengimų programomis kompozicijos dalyką galima buvo dėstyti jau pažengusiems mes visiškai neparodome garbingos lietuvių tautos meno, o tik muzikos srityje jaunuoliams, o tokių tarp išeivijos vaikų

99 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Danutė PETRAUSKAITĖ

8, 9 pav. Jeronimo Kačinsko Mišių karaliaus Mindaugo krikšto 700 metų sukakčiai paminėti viršelis ir fragmentas beveik neatsirado. Tie, kuriuos domino kompozicija, ėjo Honorem Immaculati Cordis Beate Mariae Virginis), kurių studijuoti į Amerikos konservatorijas, tačiau įsidarbinti Amerikos lietuviai dėl sudėtingos ir jiems neįprastos muzi- jose vyresnės kartos lietuvių kompozitoriai neturėjo jokių kos kalbos taip ir nesiryžo atlikti. J. Žilevičius, išklausęs kai galimybių. Taigi nebuvo europietiškose ir lietuviškose kom- kurias Mišių dalis, J. Kačinsko skambinamas pianinu, liko pozicijos mokyklose susiformavusių tradicijų tąsos, išskyrus jomis sužavėtas. Jam jos pasirodė „nepaprastai įspūdingos, J. Žilevičiaus bei jo buvusio mokinio J. Kačinsko kūrybinę savotiškai gražios: temų ir harmonijų kombinacijų slinktis draugystę ir pastarojo mokinio Dariaus Lapinsko atvejį. lyg jūros bangos viena kitą vejasi“22. J. Kačinskas (1907–2005) jau Lietuvoje buvo žinomas J. Kačinskui, vienam pirmųjų lietuvių modernistų, kaip moderniosios muzikos kūrėjas. Pirmuosius kūrinius emigracijoje pasisekė labiausiai – pavyko įsidarbinti gerai jis parašė dar besimokydamas Klaipėdos muzikos moky- žinomoje amerikiečių muzikos mokymo įstaigoje – Berklio kloje, J. Žilevičiaus klasėje. Šio pedagogo priežiūroje jis muzikos kolegijoje Bostone, daugiausia rengusioje džiazo 1928–1929 m. sukūrė Variacijas fortepijonui, su kuriomis muzikantus23. Į garsią visoje Masačusetso valstijoje kolegiją sėkmingai įstojo į Prahos konservatoriją. Nežinia, koks buvo pedagogai buvo atrenkami labai kruopščiai. Joje veikė ir J. Žilevičiaus, tradicinės muzikos atstovo, indėlis ieškant nedidelis klasikinės muzikos skyrius. Šiame skyriuje mu- naujų meninės raiškos priemonių. Gali būti, kad J. Kačins- zikas iš Lietuvos 19 metų dėstė dirigavimą ir kompoziciją. kas savarankiškai atliko darbą ir mokytojo priežiūra buvo Remiantis kompozitoriaus prisiminimais, kompozicijos minimali. Visgi akivaizdu – J. Žilevičius skatino jaunojo kurse iš įvairių šalių suvažiavę studentai buvo supažindinami kompozitoriaus ieškojimus. Jis sekė jo muzikinę veiklą šiam su muzikos formomis ir pagal jų schemas rašė kūrinius. Tad apsigyvenus JAV, gelbėjo patarimais, rašė apie savo buvusį negalima teigti, kad J. Kačinskas Bostone ugdė kompozi- mokinį į periodinę išeivijos spaudą21, užstojo jį sunkiais gy- torius, kad jis sukūrė kompozicijos mokyklą, kurią būtų venimo momentais, kai jo kūryba buvo nepelnytai menkina- tęsę jo studentai, tarp kurių nepasitaikė nė vieno lietuvio. ma. Vienas iš pavyzdžių – 1951 m. sukurtos Mišios karaliaus Neturėjo J. Kačinskas ir savo privačios studijos. Vis dėlto Mindaugo krikšto 700 metų sukakčiai paminėti (Missa in Bostono lietuviai gerai jį pažinojo kaip Šv. Petro bažnyčios

100 Lietuviškos kompozicinės mokyklos paieškos išeivijoje (JAV) vargonininką ir, jei reikdavo pasikonsultuoti muzikos klausimais, visuomet į jį kreipdavosi. Tarp tokių buvo ir šešiolikmetis Darius Lapinskas (1934–2015), vėliau tapęs profesionaliu kompozitoriumi. Štai ką apie pirmąjį susiti- kimą su J. Kačinsku jis pasakojo:

Susitikome mudu pirmą kartą jo bute. Aš tada buvau labai tylus, nedrąsus jaunuolis, mokąs šiek tiek paskambinti pianinu. Ir koks buvo mano nustebimas, kai po trumpo įžanginio pokalbio jis mane paklausė, ar esu ką nors parašęs, sukompo- navęs. Mat, buvau užėjęs tada pas jį pasiteirauti apie pianino pamokas. Pasijutau tada lyg gimnazistas, užtiktas berašant savo pirmąsias eiles, tačiau sukaupęs visas jėgas atsakiau taip, ir taip prasidėjo mano pamokos, studijos, diskusijos kompozicijoje bei dirigavimo mene su Jeronimu Kačinsku. Ir taip aš metų eigoje augau jo įtakoje, susipažinau su jo muzikine pasaulėžiūra, išmokau jį suprasti kaip žmogų ir kūrėją. Jeigu jis tada pamokose pabrėždavo stiliaus vientisumą, visų muzikos epochų sintezės ieškojimą bei išsikalbėjimą muzikos frazėse, sakiniuose ar motyvuose iki nepaprasto užbaigtumo, tai vėliau, susipažinęs su jo veikalais, atradau visas šias savybes jo kūryboje. Tik apie vieną savybę jis nediskutavo per daug su manim, kurią tačiau galima atrasti visuose jo veikaluose, – tai atematinė kompozicijos technika.24 Tikriausiai mokytojas manė, kad su jaunu mokiniu, dar ne- susipažinusiu su klasikinėmis komponavimo taisyklėmis, apie 10 pav. Dariaus Lapinsko operos „Rex Amos“ fragmentas nekartotiniu tematizmu grįstą muziką yra per anksti kalbėti. J. Kačinskas atkreipė dėmesį į gabų jaunuolį ir ragino jį pasirinkti muziko profesiją. D. Lapinskas savo mokytojo bei analizavimą, taip pat dalyvauti Walterio Levino vedama- paklaũsė ir nutarė tęsti kompozicijos studijas Naujosios me praktikume atliekant Naujųjų Vienos klasikų kamerinę Anglijos konservatorijoje. Tais metais jis sukūrė pluoštą ins- muziką. Visa ši kultūrinė aplinka padarė nemažą įtaką trumentinių ir chorinių kūrinių. Keletas jų net buvo įrašyti D. Lapinsko stiliaus raidai. Ji akivaizdi vokaliniame cikle į plokštelę. Tai Koncertas altui ir Trio obojui, violončelei ir „Penkios kinų poemos“, bylojančiame apie potraukį Rytų fortepijonui. Konservatoriją jaunasis kompozitorius baigė poezijai. Į tai linko ne vienas lietuvių kompozitorius, tik aukso diplomu, tačiau juo nesitenkino – išvyko tęsti studijų į šios tendencijos Lietuvoje pradėjo ryškėti keliais dešim- Austriją ir Vokietiją: 1957–1958 m. gilino dirigavimo žinias tmečiais vėliau. D. Lapinskas Vokietijoje atrado ir lietuvių Vienos valstybinėje muzikos akademijoje, 1958–1961 m. liaudies dainų grožį. Jam neatsispyrė ir sukūrė dar vieną studijavo kompoziciją Štutgarto aukštojoje muzikos moky- vokalinį ciklą – „Mergaitės dalia“, tapusį vienu geriausių jo kloje, vėliau darbavosi Vokietijos teatruose. J. Kačinskas sekė kūrinių. Vėliau, grįžęs į JAV, rytietiškos tematikos atsisakė: savo buvusio mokinio kūrybą ir ją teigiamai charakterizavo: kūrė daugiausia tai, kas buvo aktualu išeivijai, semdamasis idėjų iš lietuviškos tradicijos ir Lietuvos istorijos, tik savo Muzika moderni, vyrauja polifonija, forma laisva, nuotaikos dramatinės.25 muzikine kalba niekada nenusileido iki vargonininkų lygio. Jis stengėsi, kad išeivijos publika pasijustų gyvenanti ne Vienas reikšmingiausių įvykių D. Lapinsko kūrybiniame XIX, bet XX a., kad užčiuoptų šiuolaikinio meno pulsą, kelyje buvo dalyvavimas 1961 m. Darmštate vykusiame mu- priartėtų prie naujausių Amerikos ir Europos meno tenden- zikos festivalyje, kuriame į jaunųjų kompozitorių koncerto cijų. J. Kačinsko pamokos negrįžtamai pasuko D. Lapinską programą šalia kitų vokiečių ir amerikiečių kompozitorių šiuolaikinės muzikos keliu, o studijos ir darbas Europoje buvo įtrauktas jo vokalinis ciklas „Haiku“, susidedantis iš jam įskiepijo meilę totaliniam teatrui, kuriame susiliejo ne dešimties miniatiūrų. Jį atliko vokiečių dainininkė Carla tik įvairūs menai – šokis, dailė, pantomima, opera, drama, Henius, akompanuojant autoriui, ir abu susilaukė didžiulės bet ir techniniai elementai – vaizdo projekcijos, garso įra- sėkmės. Festivalyje D. Lapinskas turėjo puikią galimybę šai bei šviesų efektai. Tik ši muzika buvo svetima išeivijos ne tik išgirsti pačią naujausią muziką, bet ir pasiklausyti publikai, net ir profesionaliems kūrėjams, apsiribojusiems O. Messiaeno, K. Stockhauseno, G. Ligeti, B. Madernos klasicizmo ir romantizmo stilistika. Todėl nenuostabu, kad skaitomų paskaitų apie šiuolaikinės muzikos komponavimą jaunąjį eksperimentatorių labai kritikavo muzikos mėgėjai ir

101 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Danutė PETRAUSKAITĖ profesionalai. Ypač daug kritikos jis susilaukė po savo operų Bet greitai paaiškėjo, kad jaunuolius daug labiau viliojo „Lokys“, „Maras“, „Karalius Mindaugas“, „Dux Magnus“, teatras nei muzika ir D. Lapinskas, įsteigęs teatro studiją, „Rex amos“ pastatymų bei kitų kūrinių atlikimo. Jaunąjį ėmė su jais statyti eksperimentinius veikalus. Jie dažnai kūrėją palaikė labai nedaug menininkų. Vienas jų buvo šokiruodavo publiką, priversdavo apsnūdusius žiūrovus J. Kačinskas, kurį D. Lapinskas visą gyvenimą vadino savo giliau jausti ir mąstyti. Visgi viena iš šios studijos lankytojų mokytoju. Po 1980 m. įvykusios „Tolminkiemio kantatos“ Nijolė Sparkis, nors ir nelankė kompozicijos pamokų pas premjeros, kai jis spaudoje buvo be gailesčio sukritikuotas, D. Lapinską, paveikta jo kūrybinių impulsų, ėmė savaran- buvęs mokytojas rašė: kiškai kurti dainas, kaip pati sakė, „su etninėmis temomis“31, ir tapo plačiai žinoma JAV populiariosios muzikos kūrėja. Lapinskas – tai kontroversinė asmenybė, iššaukianti ir kon- Net ir senosios kartos profesionalai, tokie kaip J. Kačinskas, troversiškų nuomonių. Vieniems – tai neabejotinas talentas. išvydęs Čikagoje vieną iš savo buvusio mokinio operų, pa- Kitiems – pasimetęs meno galimybių labirintuose muzikas. Tačiau, peržvelgus Lapinsko kūrybinio išsivystymo kreivę, juto meninę įtaigą ir savo atsiminimuose rašė: tenka stoti pirmųjų pusėje, neišvengiamai pripažįstant jo Jaunas kompozitorius pasirodė besąs labai kompetentingas ir 26 išradingumo talentą. mokantis atskleisti stiprų muzikos ir dramos ryšį.32

D. Lapinską bandė apginti ir J. Žilevičius, išvesdamas Pasak poeto Kazio Bradūno, D. Lapinskas išeivijos mu- paralelę su M. K. Čiurlionio epocha, kai neišsilavinusi ziką pastūmėjo 50 metų į priekį. Deja, jo, kaip mokytojo, publika sunkiai suvokdavo į priekį išsiveržusių meni- pėdomis daugiau niekas nepasekė. ninkų polėkius. Reikia pripažinti, kad tarp J. Kačinsko ir D. Lapinsko visą laiką egzistavo stiprus meninis ryšys. 27 Mokinys žavėjosi savo mokytoju – ne tradicionalistu, ne Išvados revoliucionieriumi, bet išsiskiriančiu individualiu braižu28, o pastarasis palaikė savo mylimo mokinio kūrybinius su- Iš carinės Rusijos valdomos ekonomiškai ir kultūriškai manymus. Taigi galima įžvelgti kompozicijos mokyklos nualintos Lietuvos į JAV emigravę lietuviai, dauguma kurių užuomazgas grandyje: buvo mažai išprusę asmenys, neturėjo didelių meninių am- J. Žilevičius→J. Kačinskas→D. Lapinskas. bicijų. Jų būrimąsi į parapijas, draugijas, chorus bei orkestrus lėmė konfesiniai, socialiniai ir tautiniai interesai, todėl ir Apmaudu, bet ši grandis nutrūko. Nors, pasak L. Raste- profesionaliosios lietuviškos muzikos mokyklos formavima- nytės, D. Lapinskas kurį laiką dėstė kompoziciją De Paulio sis neturėjo jokių perspektyvų, ypač svetimame krašte, kurio universitete, bet pas jį, kaip ir pas J. Kačinską, mokėsi vien gyventojai daugiausia dėmesio skyrė techninei pažangai, tik amerikiečiai. Į klausimą, kodėl lietuviai nenorėjo išmokti o meninių profesijų nelaikė pelningomis ir prestižinėmis. komponuoti, jo žmona atsakė: Apibendrinant XX a. antrosios pusės lietuvių egzodo muzikinį gyvenimą, galima įžvelgti tas pačias priežas- Jie buvo labai praktiški, žinojo, kad sunku pragyventi iš tis, kurios lėmė ir ankstesnį kūrybinį sąstingį: nebuvo muzikos.29 europietiškų ir lietuviškų komponavimo tradicijų tąsos, Tiesa, buvo bandymų įkurti muzikos mokyklą ir apie amerikietiškos mokyklos, kurias baigė pavieniai asmenys, tai jaunimą informavo išeivijos spauda: menkai veikė išeivijoje kūrusių muzikų meninę raišką. Už- darai diasporoje gyvenę lietuviai nepasigedo profesionalios Dariaus Lapinsko muzikos mokykla Chicagoje atidaroma šį kompozicinės mokyklos, nesistengė išsiugdyti originalių rudenį, rugsėjo mėnesio antroj pusėj. Mokykla veiks Baleto kūrėjų, nes svarbiausias jų tikslas buvo išsaugoti tautinę mokyklos patalpose, 69 gatvėje, Marquette Parke. Dėstomuos tapatybę. Norint šį tikslą įgyvendinti, užteko mėgėjiškos dalykuos bus išeinama bendrieji muzikos pradai, supažindi- nama su muzikinėmis formomis, instrumentais, kreipiamas kūrybos, pagrįstos liaudies dainų stilizacijomis, trafaretinės dėmesys į piano pamokas, improvizaciją, muzikos istoriją ir masinės produkcijos, ypač dainų rašymo srityje, bet dėl to kt. Kursas bus dėstomas grupinėse klasėse, bet taip pat bus emigrantams negalima priekaištauti – jų kilnūs siekiai buvo duodamos privačios pamokos. Kaip žinoma, kompozitorius susiję su tautos ir valstybės išlikimu. Tai lėmė, kad žinių bei Darius Lapinskas pastaraisiais metais mūsų muzikiniame įgūdžių perdavimas iš kartos į kartą, mokytojo – mokiniui, gyvenime dinamiškai pasireiškė kaip kūrybingas jo atšvie- išryškėjęs J. Žilevičiaus, J. Kačinsko ir D. Lapinsko kūrybi- žintojas, girdėtas ne viename koncerte ir dar daugiau žadąs nėje sąveikoje, neturėjo jokių tęstinumo perspektyvų, todėl rinktiniam mūsų muzikos lobynui. [...] Kompozitoriaus ir nacionalinė kompozicijos mokykla egzilyje negalėjo neatšokimas nuo lietuviškojo muzikinio gyvenimo, bet pasi- susiformuoti. Peršasi hipotezė – muzikos kūrimo tradicijų likimas jame, o dabar net ir muzikos mokyklos įkūrimas, yra perdavimas ir perėmimas yra brandžios muzikinės kultūros labai sveikintinas reiškinys.30 apraiška, kuriai sąlygos tarpti išeivijoje nepalankios.

102 Lietuviškos kompozicinės mokyklos paieškos išeivijoje (JAV)

Nuorodos 19 Muziką kūrė dar vienas Jonas Žemaitis (1868–1932), gyvenęs Šenandoa (Pensilvanijos valstija). Jo dainos, kurių nemažai 1 Karolis Vairas-Račkauskas, Amerika arba rinkinys įvairių buvo įrašyta į pianoloms skirtus ritinėlius, išpopuliarėjo ir faktų, žinotinų Amerikoje gyvenantiems ir čion atkeliaujantiems net virto liaudies dainomis. lietuviams, New York: Tėvynės spaustuvė, 1915, p. 206. 20 Kazimieras Viktoras Banaitis, Lietuvių muzikos raida ir Juozo 2 Išeivijos muzikos tyrinėtojo Juozo Žilevičiaus duomenimis, Žilevičiaus vaidmuo, Aidai, 1952, Nr. 8, p. 368. pirmasis vargonininkas į JAV atvyko 1879 metais. Tai buvo 21 J. Žilevičiaus publikuoti straipsniai apie J. Kačinską: Kom- Domininkas Bačkauskas iš Alvito, Lietuviai muzikai Vaka- pozitorius Jeronimas Kačinskas, Darbininkas, 1949, liepos 7; ruose. Žilevičiaus Vardynas / redagavo Saulė K. Jautokaitė, Istorinis baltų muzikos koncertas, Vienybė, 1952, spalio 24; Tickney, Illinois: Lithuanian Library Press, 1999, p. 21. Mišios karaliaus Mindaugo garbei, Darbininkas, 1953, sausio 3 Po 1990 m. pasirodė šios knygos apie išeivijos atlikėjus ir kom- 13; Komp. Jeron. Kačinskas, Draugas, 1957, balandžio 19; pozitorius: Vytautės Markeliūnienės – apie Izidorių Vasyliūną Kačinskas Jeronimas, Lietuvių enciklopedija, X T., Bostonas: (2006), Onos Narbutienės – apie Kazimierą Viktorą Banaitį Lietuvių enciklopedijos leidykla, 1957. (1996), Stasį Barą (2000), Vytautą Bacevičių (2005), Danos 22 Juozas Žilevičius, Mišios karaliaus Mindaugo garbei, Darbi- Palionytės – apie Julių Gaidelį (2008) ir Joną Švedą (2012), ninkas, 1953, sausio 13, p. 4. Danutės Petrauskaitės – apie Jeronimą Kačinską (1997), 23 A brief history [interaktyvus], [žiūrėta 2017 12 20]. Vyliūtės – apie Vladą Baltrušaitį (1996), taip pat pianistės 24 Darius Lapinskas, Susitikimai su Jeronimu Kačinsku, Aidai, Ramunės Kryžauskienės – apie lietuvių fortepijoninę kultūrą 1967, Nr. 4, p. 157. JAV (2007). 25 Vytautas Alseika, Darius Lapinskas vis labiau vertinamas Vo- 4 Chromatiškos pabiros, Muzikos žinios, 1940, Nr. 2, p. 15. kietijoje, Draugas, 1962, birželio 2, priedas „Mokslas, menas, 5 Lietuvos muzikos istorija. II knyga. Nepriklausomybės metai, literatūra“, p. 3. 1918–1940 / sudarė Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas, Vilnius: Lie- 26 Jeronimas Kačinskas, Dariaus Lapinsko „Tolminkiemio kan- tuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2009, p. 9. tata“, Draugas, 1980, balandžio 26, priedas „Mokslas, menas, 6 XIX a. pabaigoje ir XX a. pradžioje Amerikoje daugiausia literatūra“, p. 4. buvo dainuojamos Antano Baranausko ir Antano Viena- 27 Darius Lapinskas apie Jeronimą Kačinską, Keleivis, 1977, žindžio giesmės bei dainos, kurias dauguma išeivių mokėjo gegužės 17, p. 5. atmintinai, taip pat Vinco Kudirkos parengtose „Kanklėse“ 28 Darius Lapinskas, Kiek daug kelio nueita ir kaip dar toli spausdinti kūrinėliai. namolio..., Draugas, 1977, liepos 9, priedas „Mokslas, menas, 7 Juozas Žilevičius, Leonas Ereminas (1863–1927), Naujoji literatūra“, p. 1. Romuva, 1937, Nr. 48, p. 904–905. 29 Danutės Petrauskaitės pokalbis su Laima Rastenyte, 2017, 8 Kazimieras Viktoras Banaitis, Lietuvių muzikos raida ir Juozo gruodžio 20. Žilevičiaus vaidmuo, Aidai, 1952, Nr. 8, p. 366. 30 Kultūrinė kronika, Draugas, 1967, rugpjūčio 26, priedas 9 Ten pat, p. 365. „Mokslas, menas, literatūra“, p. 7. 10 Kun. S. Draugelis, Lietuviai Amerikoj. Philadelphia, Pa. Ame- 31 Danutės Petrauskaitės pokalbis su Nijole Starkis, 2017, gruo- rikos lietuvių dienai įvykus, Amerikos lietuvis, 1926, rugsėjo džio 22. 23, p. 4. 32 Jeronimas Kačinskas. Gyvenimas ir muzikinė veikla / sudarė 11 V. Nickaus plunksnai priklauso simfoninės poemos „Trimitas“, Danutė Petrauskaitė, Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 1997, p. 432. „Gegužinė“, „Didžiojo kunigaikščio medžioklė“, „Paukščių daina“. 12 Johann Baptist Singenberger (1848–1924) – šveicarų kilmės Šaltiniai kompozitorius, pedagogas, leidėjas, nuo 1873 m. gyveno JAV, ten įkūrė Šv. Cecilijos draugiją ir daugiau nei 30 metų jai Nickaus Vinco laiškas Juozui Žilevičiui, 1936, rugsėjo 12, Tribes vadovavo. Europos ir Amerikos katalikų bažnyčiose didžiąją Hill, New York, J. Žilevičiaus–J. Kreivėno lietuviškos muzikos liturginio repertuaro dalį sudarė J. B. Singenbergerio kūriniai. archyvas. Įvairiu metu pas jį mokėsi per 1000 mokinių, vienas iš kurių Petrauskaitės Danutės pokalbis su Laima Rastenyte, 2017, Milvokio muzikos kolegijoje buvo Vincas Nickus. gruodžio 20. 13 Tikriausiai čia minimas šokių rinkinys Album Lithuanian Petrauskaitės Danutės pokalbis su Nijole Starkis, 2017, gruodžio 22. Dances for Orchestra, išleistas 1914 m. Paskutinis komp. Vinco Nickaus laiškas, Muzikos žinios, 1938, 14 Jonas Juozas Jakaitis (1883–1963) – smuikininkas, dirigentas, lapkritis, p. 3. muzikos mokytojas. Muzikos teorijos mokėsi Oginskio dvare Rie- tave pas čekų pedagogą Jozefą Mašeką Bogdano. 1908 m. atvyko į JAV, vadovavo chorams ir pučiamųjų instrumentų orkestrams. Literatūra 15 Vinco Nickaus laiškas Juozui Žilevičiui, 1936, rugsėjo 12, Tribes Hill, New York, J. Žilevičiaus–J. Kreivėno lietuviškos A brief history [interaktyvus], [žiūrėta 2017 12 20]. archyvas. Alseika Vytautas, Darius Lapinskas vis labiau vertinamas Vokie- 16 V. Nickus mini pirmo giminingumo moduliacijas iš C-dur į tijoje, Draugas, 1962, birželio 2, priedas „Mokslas, menas, d-moll, e-moll, F-dur, G-dur ir a-moll. literatūra“, p. 3. 17 Anglų kalboje B yra natos si (arba H) atitikmuo. Banaitis Kazimieras Viktoras, Lietuvių muzikos raida ir Juozo 18 Paskutinis komp. Vinco Nickaus laiškas, Muzikos žinios, 1938, Žilevičiaus vaidmuo, Aidai, 1952, Nr. 8, p. 363–368. lapkritis, p. 3. Chromatiškos pabiros, Muzikos žinios, 1940, Nr. 2, p. 15.

103 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Danutė PETRAUSKAITĖ

Darius Lapinskas apie Jeronimą Kačinską, Keleivis, 1977, gegužės c) Music served only as a consolidating factor in order 17, p. 5. to preserve the confessional and ethnic identity and not Draugelis S., Lietuviai Amerikoj. Philadelphia, Pa. Amerikos to lose the spiritual connection with the Motherland; and lietuvių dienai įvykus, Amerikos lietuvis, 1926, rugsėjo 23, p. 4. Jeronimas Kačinskas. Gyvenimas ir muzikinė veikla, sud. Danutė d) An unprofessional approach to music. Petrauskaitė, Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 1997. Concert programmes in exile mostly consisted of the Kačinskas Jeronimas, Dariaus Lapinsko „Tolminkiemio kanta- works of composers who were graduates from Warsaw and ta“, Draugas, 1980, balandžio 26, priedas „Mokslas, menas, St. Petersburg Conservatoires, as well as Juozas Naujalis’ literatūra“, p. 4. training courses for church organists in Kaunas: Aleksan- Kultūrinė kronika, Draugas, 1967, rugpjūčio 26, priedas „Mokslas, menas, literatūra“, p. 7. dras Aleksis, Mikas Petrauskas, Juozas Naujalis, Česlovas Lapinskas Darius, Kiek daug kelio nueita ir kaip dar toli na- Sasnauskas, Stasys Šimkus, and Juozas Žilevičius. Some molio..., Draugas, 1977, liepos 9, priedas „Mokslas, menas, of those composers lived in the USA for a period of time, literatūra“, p. 1. but did not pass their experience on to anyone: there was Lapinskas Darius, Susitikimai su Jeronimu Kačinsku, Aidai, 1967, neither demand nor conditions. Therefore, it is possible to Nr. 4, p. 157–159. conclude that in the first half of the 20th century there was Lietuviai muzikai Vakaruose. Žilevičiaus Vardynas, red. Saulė K. Jautokaitė, Tickney, Illinois: Lithuanian Library Press, no Lithuanian composition school in the United States. 1999, p. 21. Summing up the Lithuanian musical life in exile during Lietuvos muzikos istorija. II knyga. Nepriklausomybės metai, the 2nd half of the 20th century, one can see the reasons why 1918–1940, sud. Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas, Vilnius: Lietuvos a composition school was unnecessary there. Despite the muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2009. fact that many professional composers (such as Vytautas Petrauskaitė Danutė, Lietuvių muzikinė kultūra Jungtinėse Ameri- kos Valstijose 1870–1990. Tautinės tapatybės kontūrai, Vilnius: Bacevičius, Kazimieras Viktoras Banaitis, Julius Gaidelis, Vilniaus dailės akademijos leidykla, 2015. Vladas Jakubėnas, and Jeronimas Kačinskas), who had Vairas-Račkauskas Karolis, Amerika arba rinkinys įvairių faktų, graduated from the conservatoires of Czechoslovakia, žinotinų Amerikoje gyvenantiems ir čion atkeliaujantiems Germany, France, Poland, and Latvia, came to the United , New York: Tėvynės spaustuvė, 1915. lietuviams States and made a great contribution to Lithuanian music by Žilevičius Juozas, Leonas Ereminas (1863–1927), Naujoji Romu- va, 1937, Nr. 48, p. 904–905. their compositions, they did not really change the situation. Žilevičius Juozas, Mišios karaliaus Mindaugo garbei, Darbininkas, There was no continuity of the European and Lithuanian 1953, sausio 13, p. 4. composing traditions, because emigrants had no possibility to work in American educational institutions, except for Kačinskas, former pupil of Žilevičius at Klaipėda Music Summary School. Kačinskas taught composition at Berklee College of Music in Boston, however, Lithuanians did not attend American Lithuanians were more advanced in their his lectures. Only young Lithuanian musician Darius cultural life than those who stayed in their homeland ruled Lapinskas took some private lessons from him and later by Tsarist Russia in the late 19th and early 20th century. became a professional composer, but he never worked as Unfortunately, after a few decades of Lithuania’s Independ- a composition teacher of emigrants’ children. Lithuanians ence Declaration, the situation changed dramatically. The lived in a closed diaspora. They did not seek to develop differences were revealed in the 1920’s and 30’s, when the originality and mastery, because their primary goal was to State Opera was founded in Kaunas and conservatoires in preserve national identity and liberate occupied Lithuania. Kaunas and Klaipėda. Not only did those institutions train To achieve that, an amateur level, folk songs, and clichéd performers, but also prepared composers and organized compositions sufficed, and emigrants could not be blamed symphony and chamber music concerts. for that. The rudiments of the composition school that Meanwhile, in exile, only the song genre was popular. appeared due to the interaction of Žilevičius, Kačinskas, Attempts were made to have some Lithuanian symphony and Darius Lapinskas had no possibilities to develop. The music; however, those works were far from classical sym- hypothesis can be raised that the transfer and adoption of phony and therefore could not represent professional music. music traditions as a manifestation of a mature musical It was a result of the following factors: culture was not possible among emigrants to the USA, a) Choral music predominated, and therefore there was therefore, the formation of a national composition school no demand for instrumental works; in exile is hardly feasible. b) Lithuanians who studied at American conservatoires tended to choose the studies of piano, singing, or pedagogy over composition courses;

104 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Audronė ŽIŪRAITYTĖ The BalletAnt marių kranto in a Cultural- Ideological Context and in the Creative Work of Julius Juzeliūnas Baletas „Ant marių kranto“ kultūriniame ideologiniame ir Juliaus Juzeliūno kūrybos kontekste

Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Gedimino pr. 42, LT-01110, Vilnius, Lietuva Email [email protected]

Abstract On the occasion of Julius Juzeliūnas’ 100th jubilee (b. 2016), one of Lithuania’s most illustrious composers, a music teacher, a musicologist and activist in public affairs, the author of the article looks back to the early creative period of the composer’s work. Analysing the writing, production and the great success and popularity of the ballet Ant marių kranto (On the Seashore, 1953) in Lithuania and abroad as well as the cultural ideological context that determined them. The last fundamental monograph,Julius Juzeliūnas. Gyvenimo ir veiklos panorama. Kūrybos įžvalgos (Julius Juzeliūnas: Panorama of his Life and Activities. Creative Insights; 2015) by Algirdas Ambrazas, a researcher of the composer’s work, created the preconditions for examining the wider context. The goal of the article is to highlight the talent of the composer, a symphonic dramatist and a lyricist that was demonstrated in the ballet “national in its form and Soviet in its content”. However, the composer never dissociated himself from his earliest compositions. The author also aimed to recall the emotional richness of the composer’s “romantic” period that is in strong contrast to the later “modernistic” rational, constructive period, which best showed the composer’s individuality. Remembering the earlier composition by Juzeliūnas we better perceive the amplitude of the evolution of the composer’s creative life. Keywords: Julius Juzeliūnas, Ant marių kranto (On the Seashore), Vytautas Grivickas, cultural and ideological contexts, libretto, premises to symphonisation, emotional richness, melodiousness, nationality. Anotacija Straipsnyje Juliaus Juzeliūno 100-mečio proga (2016) grįžtama į kompozitoriaus ankstyvąjį, pirmąjį kūrybos periodą, analizuojamas baleto „Ant marių kranto“ (1953) atsiradimas, pastatymas ir didžiulę sėkmę bei populiarumą Lietuvoje ir už jos ribų nulėmęs kultūrinis bei ideologinis kontekstas. Jį plačiau išskleisti paskatino bei prielaidas tam sudarė ir paskutinis, fundamentalus J. Juzeliūno kūrybos tyrinėtojo Algirdo Ambrazo veikalas – knyga „Julius Juzeliūnas. Gyvenimo ir veiklos panorama. Kūrybos įžvalgos“ (2015). Straipsnyje siekiama išryškinti kompozitoriaus simfonisto dramaturgo talentą, atsivėrusį „nacionalinio savo forma ir tarybinio savo turiniu“ veikale, kurio autorius niekada neišsižadėjo. Siekiama prisiminti emocinį „romantinio“ kompozitoriaus periodo turtingumą, kuris sudaro ryškų kontrastą vėlesniam „modernistiniam“, labiausiai kompozitoriaus individualumą atskleidusiam racionaliai konstruktyviam laikotarpiui. Prisiminę ankstyvąjį J. Juzeliūno kūrinį geriau suvokiame kompozitoriaus kūrybinio kelio evoliucijos amplitudę. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Julius Juzeliūnas, „Ant marių kranto“, Vytautas Grivickas, kultūrinis ideologinis kontekstas, libretas, simfonizacijos prielaidos, emocinis turtingumas, dainingumas, tautiškumas.

Preamble Meanwhile the earlier works of the composer Julius Juzeliūnas’ “romantic” period were highly professional and According to Algirdas Ambrazas, researcher of Julius were marked by the power of expression. Juzeliūnas’ creative work, the individuality and originality of The emotional richness of his music was best demon- this composer is best revealed in the music of his “modern- strated in lyrical pieces with sonorous folk intonations ist” period. That the musicologist tentatively distinguished in the entire melodious texture. It is not by chance that in the works of this composer beginning with the 1961 the composer’s most important compositions written be- orchestral suite Afrikietiški eskizai1 (African Sketches; in- tween 1948 and 1958 (among them the ballet Ant marių cidentally, the appearance of this suite was inspired by the kranto) were very popular with the audiences and were idea of writing a ballet with an African theme). However, critically acclaimed by professionals. It is noteworthy that at the same time, Ambrazas notes that: in 1953–1964, the ballet was performed 250 times at the … the advantages and achievements of the music of this period Vilnius Opera House, it was also produced in Riga, Tallinn were accompanied by some losses. The prevailing rational con- and Lvov theatres, performances were also planned at the structive thinking made an impact on the decreased emotional Moscow Bolshoi Theatre. Juzeliūnas was twice nominated influence of some pieces.2 (for Second Symphony and the ballet) for the highest award

105 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Audronė ŽIŪRAITYTĖ in the USSR – the State (Stalin) Prize. The composer never The roots of Grivickas’ creative work (from direction to cho- dissociated himself from his earliest compositions, approved reography to painting, which was his favourite pastime) were of the performances of the ballet praised by the Soviets and in a real, rich and tangible world. His feet are firmly planted 10 the opera Sukilėliai (The Insurgents) that was condemned by on the ground, which gives him strength. the ideologists (see Ambrazas Ibid.: 571–572). As a young man, Grivickas went to Moscow to study at the Lunacharsky Institute of Theatre Art from 1947 to 1952 under Prof. Zacharov, one of the most talented Ballet culture and the ideological context Soviet choreographers and opera directors. Zacharov was an enthusiast and creator of the artistic trend of ballet, The first years of the post-war period of the th20 century who paid great attention to ideologically important lines saw the end of modern processes, which appeared in the of the plot, psychological characteristics of personages, first decade of Lithuania’s independence3and which was dramaturgy, effective dances, which realistically expressed determined by historical circumstances and Soviet oc- the dramatic content. These principles became the mainstay cupation, as well as the official cultural policy.4 The art of of the creative work of his disciple – famous Lithuanian ballet found itself in a paradoxical situation. Professional choreographer and director Grivickas. Zacharov promoted Lithuanian ballet came into being with Delibes’ Coppelia contemporary Soviet themes. Klebanov’s Svetlana (1951) at the State Theatre in Kaunas in 1925 ballet (produced chosen by Grivickas portrayed the Soviet youth. In order to by Pavel Petrov). The Natural processes of its development depict life realistically the young choreographer was not able were interrupted. Theatre critic Aliodija Ruzgaitė expressed to avoid being illustrative and drawing upon naturalism.11 doubts about the trend chosen for ballet in the post-war At the same time, it was a preparatory stage for Juzeliūnas’ years admitting: ballet Ant marių kranto that was produced in 195312 and was presented at the Lithuanian literary and art festival … choreographers of the post-war decade attempted to reveal real life on stage often forgetting that the conditional in Moscow in 1954. Grivickas created mass dances and and original language of dance has its own laws and its own mise-en-scenes for the ballet. Meserer, a Bolshoi Theatre psychological truth.5 pedagogue and choreographer, staged solo parts (Kastė and Marius’ duets, Jonis’ character sketch). From 1954 The chance to present their work during the Lithu- until 1971 (with an interval), Grivickas worked as a senior anian Literature and Art Ten-Day Festival (called Dekada) choreographer of the Lithuanian company.13 in Moscow was a great stimulus for Lithuanian artists. The ballet libretto suggested to Juzeliūnas, in the com- Already in the autumn of 1941 it was planned to show Pa- poser’s opinion, was insipid, unnatural, and dramaturgi- kalnis’ ballet Sužadėtinė (The Betrothed) at such a festival, cally not integral. Working on the libretto, the composer but the event was not held until 1954; new performances searched for a dramaturgical line with meaning, thus bring- of Račiūnas’ opera Marytė and Juzeliūnas’ ballet Ant marių ing to life Jonis’ vivid character and a romantic love triangle kranto were presented.6 Both works corresponded with the (see Ambrazas 2015: 74). According to Ruzgaitė’s reminis- joyful aesthetics and heroic pathos of Soviet ideology that cences, the main theme of the ballet was a love triangle and was a norm, which, according to Nerija Putinaitė, Lithu- Soviet ideology was not strongly felt on the stage (Ruzgaitė ania after it was incorporated into the Soviet Union had 2010: 89). Nevertheless, in a 1953 discussion, in preparation to accept since the images of Soviet realities created for for the Lithuanian Literature and Art Ten-Day Festival in it were more important than facts or real experience.7 In Moscow and in the presence of well known Russian music the philosopher’s opinion, “the creative intelligentsia did and theatre figures, the ballet libretto whose shortcom- the adaptive work even if it did not believe in the value ings unavoidably influenced its musical dramaturgy was of what it was doing”.8 criticized. Attention was drawn to separate long episodes, Although Juzeliūnas had promised himself not to a divertissement-like finale, the insipid musical character- write any ballets, unexpectedly even to himself, he agreed istics of unsympathetic personages. Faults were found with to collaborate and accepted the choreographer Vytautas the ballet’s musical language too (dull texture, absence of Grivickas’ suggestion (see Ambrazas Ibid: 74). Grivickas’ polyphony; Ambrazas 2015: 105). Despite this, the Rus- libretto told the story of the life of the people of a collective sian composer who was present there, Vladimir Jurovski, farm situated by the sea and their all-consuming passions.9 It thought, “the ballet may become a performance that can seems it was not a very suitable theme for the genre of ballet, interest the entire USSR” (quoted from Ambrazas Ibid.). but the Soviet authorities approved of and cultivated the The content of the ballet Ant marių kranto especially so-called realistic dramatic ballet (called “drama-ballet”). the finale reflected very well Soviet ideology and the friend- Besides, as Lidija Motiejūnaitė wrote aptly: ship between Soviet nations that was under the authorities’

106 The Ballet Ant marių kranto in a Cultural-Ideological Context and in the Creative Work of Julius Juzeliūnas control. In the last act, this friendship was recreated by at the Bolshoi Theatre, and it was suggested the composer divertissement-like Latvian, Estonian and Russian dances should edit it. that had nothing to do with the ballet. In Moscow during In the autumn of 1954 Juzeliūnas added several new the Literature and Art Festival, the Lithuanian dances dances that made the dramaturgical line of the main dancers besides the Wedding polka were added, while in the finale more pronounced (Marius and the men’s dance, Kastėand all the participants holding hands would approach the foot- Onė’s dances in Act 3), made essential changes to some other lights. This provoked criticism from Lithuanian composers episodes (Jonis’ dance in Act 1, the final Kastė and Marius’ and even Soviet ballet experts. Vainiūnas pointed out the Adagio). The idea of staging the ballet did not take hold as unsatisfactory originality of some themes, criticised the the composer did not make any concessions, refusing to folk dances Kubilas and Gaidys performed by the State make radical change to the dramaturgy that was insisted Folk Song and Dance Ensemble added to the final act (in- on in order to make ideological stresses stronger (Ambrazas cidentally, right before the premiere). Kalinauskas noted Ibid: 108). As the composer recalled, the Lithuanian ballet the advertisement-like final act was one of the main ballet’s enjoyed the patronage of the distinguished Russian ballet shortcomings.14 Critic Kurilov expressed critique: dancer Galina Ulanova:

... the development of the ballet’s plot essentially comes to ... many letters were written demanding the ballet should an end in the second act. With the exception of the enemies’ be performed, but there were behind-the-scene factors that arrest scene, the entire third act is an ordinary ballet divertisse- prevented it, and it was not produced at the Bolshoi Theatre. ment, its dances are thematically disconnected. As a matter of The reasons were not recorded in order not to show what or fact, they are very well staged and performed but nevertheless who interfered with its production.18 concert items.15 The first Soviet Lithuanian ballets (Indra’sAudronė too) The finale of the ballet Ant marių kranto reflected the became part of the Soviet Union’s context of ballet. Young signs of favouritism criticised by artists, tough adaptation, artists of the socialist republics were encouraged to deal according to Putinaitė: with urgent social themes, to make the genre of ballet more ... in the aestheticised reality contrary to society based on relevant. Composers made attempts to write democratic the ethical or political norms could happen not convincing music, classical traditions combined with the characteristic the public in the good of the [socialist – A.Ž.] order but as features of national music, the musical content was made though bewitched, involving it in the racket of common more definite with sonorous melodies and folklore citations. 16 artificial joy. These were the compositions of the so-called “romantic realism”. Their national colouring was emphasised by many folk However, the ballet and its choreography were extolled dance suites, as well as combining classical choreography in high-flown metaphors in the Soviet press (Solodovnikov, with movement characteristic of folk dances. The style of Brunak): “romantic realism” was natural to Juzeliūnas, who was then Here, the essential thing has been found [what is meant here a postgraduate student (1949–1952) at the Leningrad (now is the synthesis between classical and Lithuanian national St Petersburg) Conservatory. Lithuanian folk music was a dance – A.Ž.] that undoubtedly will become the basis for focus for the composer in all periods of his creative work further development of the ballet […]. This is not only an (he completed his postgraduate course with the thesis achievement of Lithuanian choreography culture, but also The of the entire Soviet choreography.17 Lithuanian Song in the Symphonic Music of Lithuanian Composers), music of other non-European nations. Besides The Soviet press praised Juzeliūnas’ ballet “as one of its folk character, sincerity and unaffectedness, the music the best ballet performances with a contemporary theme” of the ballet reveals the great talent of the composer as an (Grosheva; quote from Ambrazas 2015: 107). Theatre author of symphony music (he completed his postgraduate critic Solodovnikov wrote that Juzeliūnas’ ballet just like course with Symphony No. 2). Mention should be made the composer from Azerbaijan Kara Karajev’s Seven Beau- of his heroic opera Sukilėliai (Insurgents) composed by ties was “a great achievement of the entire Soviet culture” Juzeliūnas in 1957, which finished the composer’s early (Solodovnikov Ibid.). Juzeliūnas together with other creative period. Due to ideological reasons, it was not pro- Lithuanian artists was awarded the Order of Lenin, the duced until 1977. The features of the neoromantic style – highest Soviet award. Several days later Juzeliūnas received melodiousness, emotional richness, power of expression, the honorary title of the Republic’s Merited Artist. The marked the period. Lithuanian Composers Union nominated the ballet for Ant marių kranto was the first national ballet by a Lithu- the State Prize (then still Stalin Prize; see Ambrazas Ibid.). anian composer that crossed the borders of the republic It should be noted that the ballet was included in the (produced in Riga in 1954, Lvov in 1956, Tallinn in 1958). Bolshoi Theatre’s plans; discussions were held to stage it Following the premiere in Tallinn the press praised it highly

107 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Audronė ŽIŪRAITYTĖ

(the article was entitled “Joy of Life”) in the style that causes 109). However then, following the premieres of his Second surprise nowadays: Symphony and ballet Ant marių kranto the composer was idolised, becoming an authority for young composers (ac- The finale of the premiere is natural: followed by thunderous cording to Viliūtė, see Ambrazas 2015: 87). applause the Lithuanian Merited Artist V. Grivickas flew upwards to the stage ceiling on the hands of the dancers. The ballet ‘won’ in another city, we became friends, came closer to the nice guys and girls of the Lithuanian seashore. It gave us Musical structure (premises for symphonisation) a taste of spring and beautiful life. When you walk forwards, you walk and win.19 As far back as the second half of the 19th century the principles of the continuous development of opera and bal- In 1958 the ballet performed in Leningrad also received let as well as dramaturgy with leitmotifs were formed. Most a particular anonymous praise: often, they make ballet music more symphonic. This concept … what richness of the sensations of the ‘choreographic life’, supposes the ability to fully reveal the idea promoted, inten- what ideal truth of the feelings […]. Watching the first act, I sively develop music themes. However, the extent to which did not have the libretto, but was able to comprehend eve- instrumental symphonic genres are developed in ballet is rything from the duets – Kastė and Jonis’, his hope and love determined by a “slower” tempo of dance, while in a ballet for her, her love of Marius. I even understood Marius’ return with a plot a specific tempo of stage dramaturgy also influ- and his love for his native land, the jokes by the pretty girl ences it. Since a long time ago, an expositional type of the Onė. I saw the people who hated, loved, joked and lived in distribution of musical material and traditional divertisse- the dance. Their dance flooded the hall by a hot wave bringing ment form have been characteristic of ballet. 20 new thoughts, the vivid pulse of life. Juzeliūnas based musical dramaturgy of ballet on a In spite of the success of the first Soviet ballet, its renewal 61-number system, which encompasses 24 numbered pantomime scenes, employing a widely branched system in 1975 did not remind of the triumph of the 1950s. It of leitmotifs. According to Ambrazas, is affirms the all-embracing integrity of this work, musical- Ant marių kranto a somewhat symphonized “ballet of numbers” (Ambrazas choreographic and dramaturgical, which is inseparable Ibid: 681). The planned change of dance and pantomime from the time it was created. The idea of the Ant marių scenes unfold action, conflict grows, and musical dramatur- kranto ballet when the flow of the music was diverted by a gy has a purpose. The drama of the main characters’ feelings detailed, ideologically determined plot that had completely is also entwined into the flow of the numbers. Among the lost its relevancy, and the then natural musical language of dynamic events, there are several more developed scenes: “romantic realism” was an important stage although already two Kastė and Marius’ Adagios (Nos. 20, 60),23 of which a thing of the past, out-of-date. The composer had also the second is the lyrical culmination of the ballet; also Kastė taken a new modern musical path from 1961. Juzeliūnas and Jonis’ duet (No. 9). had never denounced his compositions written in an earlier As an important beginning of Jonis’ drama, this duet is style, claiming that he did everything sincerely, without any 21 inseparable from the continuous development of his musi- pretence. In the opinion of Balys Dvarionas, an authority cal characteristic. A dramatic character is seen for the first on music of post-war years, “the ballet’s music enchants lis- time on the stage of Lithuanian ballet. Dramatic situations, teners with the first chords charming them with its sincerity, Jonis’ temperament full of contradictions form new features 22 its picturesqueness and simplicity.” of his personality. Similar musical images take on different Nevertheless, even Juzeliūnas’ compositions written features: Jonis’ leitmotif is transformed and moves away while still a student at the Kaunas Conservatoire was a more from the original image, getting closer to the musical char- independent and original stage of creative work (1947– acterisation of negative characters – diatonics is followed 1948). The First Sonata for piano andFirst Symphony, by chromaticisms. The dynamics of Jonis’ themes is made according to Ambrazas, were written in a comparatively more pronounced by Kastė’s leitmotif that is emotionally original language for that time’s music.. The ballet belongs constant (not responding to Jonis’ feelings she remains to the most traditional, even most conservative creative faithful to Marius). The leitmotifs are intensive in two acts, period (1949–1954) – compositions written during his while Act 3 does not follow from earlier musical events. post-graduate studies at the Leningrad Conservatoire and The symphonic pictureAudra (Storm; No. 40, end later (besides the ballet, Heroic Poem, Second Symphony). of Act 2) is the culmination of the drama. An illustrative At that time Juzeliūnas improved his compositional tech- picture of the sea, painted by orchestral colours includes nique in the academic framework, in the shadow of the the leitmotifs of the main heroes. The scene of Jonis’ death famous Russian composers-romantics of the 19th century sounds like the coda of the symphonic picture, which is (particularly that of Tchaikovsky; see Ambrazas 2007: the climax of the main drama line. The symphonic picture

108 The Ballet Ant marių kranto in a Cultural-Ideological Context and in the Creative Work of Julius Juzeliūnas

Audra can be considered an argument of the symphonisation of the ballet, as the creation of this composition for stage started with it. The ballet was written at the Soviet creative workers’ home in Ivanovo in 1951. When I was working in Ivanovo [recalls Juzeliūnas], its plot and the plan of dramaturgy were not final yet. However, I knew that in any case there would be a storm and I would include it in one way or another. The symphonic picture Audra was the first to appear and at the beginning it was a separate composition.24 After a public hearing at Vilnius Radiophone (conductor Rimas Geniušas) the symphonic picture received favourable appraisal that was expressed with such superlatives as “Wagnerian aim, perfect instrumentation, harmony, the music is expressive, creatively mature”.25 In 1952, Audra was performed several times in Leningrad (conductors Chaikin, Tons from Latvia; Ambrazas Ibid: 76). In a 1952 Leningrad Conservatoire report it was written that in the hall of the Vilnius Philharmonic, the Lithuanian Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Geniušas performed the Heroic Poem, Second Symphony and extracts from the ballet that was being written: the symphonic poem Audra, Prelude (Act 1Adagio) and a dance.26 Russian composer Marian Koval in his 1953 review emphasised Juzeliūnas’ ability to expand the ballet’s musical themes in a symphony-like manner, as well as to recreate Figure 1. Kastė and Marius’ final Adagio No. 60: Ballet piano the picturesqueness of the scene of nature by an orchestral score (Mосква: Советский композитор, 1959, p. 217–218) means of expression.27 According to Ambrazas: The melodies of the lyrical scenes bring to mind Slon- ... the ballet’s instrumentation is based on the principals dominating in the Second Symphony. Employing the same imski’s words that dance starts with melody and ensues 28 triple orchestra structure, several additional features came to from it . The expansion of the lyrical scenes (when the light. Attention should be paid to the chamber-like, subtly highest point of climax is reached in consistent waves most refined nuances of lyrical episodes (e.g. Kastė and Marius’ often coincides with the beginning of the reprise), as well final Adagio: the violin solo cantilena at the beginning, string as some ways of instrumentation (Adagio – solo violin, in tremolo, azure harp passages). (Ambrazas Ibid: 449) culminations brass winds surrounded by strings and woodwinds) prove Tchaikovsky’s influence. The symphonisation Ambrazas wrote: of Tchaikovsky’s ballets is also reminded by the use of the We will not find so many easily memorised melodies in any waltz, which helps Juzeliūnas to create an integral composi- other of Juzeliūnas’ composition. (Ambrazas Ibid: 448) tion – the arch principle (No. 12 and 15; No. 24 and 49) strengthens the form, contrasting the next episodes. In this case, Asafiev’s maxim about the treatment of In music, as in abstract art, following the reflections by melody in the ballet as thinking in the form of dramaturgy Skaidra Trilupaitytė, in musical idiom and even stylistics, (Слонимский 1959: 385) is quite apt. At the same time, the “requirements” of the artist’s loyalty to the socialist Adagio which embodies the melody, according to Asafiev, artistic system is not reflected and the concepts of “Soviet becomes a “sonata-like ballet form” (Aсафьев 1974). This prohibitions” often become speculative (see Trilupaitytė is particularly characteristic of Indra’s ballet Audronė 2007: 112).29 (1957). Juzeliūnas’ consultations given to Indra who edited the ballet, left their mark. The Adagios in Juzeliūnas’ Ant marių kranto mark the moments of dramaturgy particularly From national romanticism to national modernism important for the specificity of the genre of ballet, reflects outbursts of feelings (No. 20), their culmination (No. 60), According to Ambrazas, creating an exceptionally while Andantino (No. 9) reveals the psychological drama national ballet, Juzeliūnas used a lot of folklore material. of the “love triangle”. Thanks to ample folk melodies it could be called, the

109 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Audronė ŽIŪRAITYTĖ researcher wrote, to be an ethnographic ballet, although it Another stimulus to renew musical language was work at is not mostly based on folklore songs but dances – waltzes the ballet’s African theme. Hopes to perform the ballet were and polkas.30However, “the original melodies stand out by ruined, but the orchestral suite Afrikietiški eskizai (Afrikan the organic integration of intonational, harmonious, and Sketches, 1961) was created. This suite marks the begin- rhythmic features characteristic of musical folklore”.31 He- ning of the creation of a unique tonal-harmony system by roic Poem (1950) and Second Symphony (1951) were also Juzeliūnas based on Lithuanian folklore and contemporary permeated by the national spirit by quoting and re-intoning means of expression (using non-tertian structure chords). folklore. In the opera Sukilėliai (The Insurgents, 1957), there According to the composer: were many premises for an approaching turning point in I imagined I was in Africa, but it turned out that I am still in the composer’s style. We already note the beginning of the a Lithuanian village – all melody structures completely cor- renewal of Juzeliūnas’ musical language.32 respond with our folk spirit.34 Julius Juzeliūnas said: Intense intellectual work and a change in political situa- The situation of our music in the post-war years made me tion influenced composers to move from national romanti- think. Composers’ music was too uniform; a 1948 decree, without any doubt, added much that artists’ individuality cism to modernism in early 1960s. Besides the Afrikietiški receded into the background and all of them used the same eskizai other Lithuanian composers’ compositions marked source for their ideas. Almost the same intonations prevail, the beginning of a new period in Lithuanian music. In 1958, fragments of folk songs, some mode turns. For example, from Vainiūnas’ Symphony in C-sharp minor, Balsys’ Second the angle of musical language my ballet or the Second Sym- concerto for violin and orchestra were performed, Indra’s phony became very similar to Klova’s opera Pilėnai, Indra’s bal- Symphony Griuvėsių miestas (City of RUins, 1960) appeared. let Audronė. Although the composers are quite different even The advantages of the musical dramaturgy of Lithuanian I listening to the radio found I could no longer distinguish ballets discussed here are the system of leitmotifs, dynamic between my own and their music. I was greatly concerned characters, an active dramaturgical function of suites, and with such a loss of creative individuality and felt discontent. expressive expanded lyrical scenes were creatively taken up Remembering Gruodis’ statement that we should derive by Balsys’ ballet Eglė žalčių karalienė (Eglė – the Queen of individuality from our national culture, I started an in-depth , 1960), which is characterised also by a more study of the structural characteristics of the Lithuanian folk Grass Snakes melody system, looking for new ways of their meaningful use. generalised folklore treatment. In Jonas Bruveris’ opinion: [...] I kept remembering Gruodis’ words that composers have [It was Eglė that] by its stylistics and a more creative attitude to speak the language of their time. This gave me a stimulus to by the composer to the nature of ballet demonstrated that study Bartok, Messiaen, Hindemith, Schönberg; I paid great the renewal process of our music also touched the genre of attention to Prokofiev’s and Shostakovich’s work.33 ballet. (Bruveris 1979)

Figure 2. Ant marių kranto (On the Seashore), Genovaitė Sabaliauskaitė and Henrikas Banys, 1953

110 The Ballet Ant marių kranto in a Cultural-Ideological Context and in the Creative Work of Julius Juzeliūnas

It should be remembered that the “national” concept of the opera Sukilėliai (“The Insurgents”, 1957) that raised the role of Father Mackevičius during the 1863 uprising was condemned by Soviet ideologues. Ambrazas testified that: ... two years later after the premiere of Sukilėliai was banned, Julius Juzeliūnas was surrounded by an oppressive atmosphere of ideological and moral pressure.37 However, the international recognition of the Afrikietiški eskizai fully ‘rehabilitated’ the composer in the eyes of the ideological leaders of Lithuanian musical culture (Am- brazas Ibid: 147). Julius Juzeliūnas managed to remain an authentic Lithuanian and world composer under various circumstances, who was a stranger to xenophobia. Ballets in Juzeliūnas’ creative work were more successful than operas although the composer had as if given them up as a genre.

References

1 Ambrazas 2015: 572: „Juzeliūno muzikos savitumas ir individualumas labiausiai atsiskleidė jo modernistinio periodo kū- riniuose, pradedant 1961 m. sukurtais Afrikietiškais eskizais“. Further some of the most significant quotes will also be given in the original language. 2 Ambrazas Ibid: „Modernistinio periodo muzikos privalumus Figure 3. Ant marių kranto (On the Seashore), Leokadija ir pasiekimus lydėjo ir kai kurie praradimai. Įsivyravęs raci- Aškelovičiūtė and Vytautas Kudzma, 1975 onalus, konstruktyvus mąstymas atsiliepė kai kurių kūrinių emociniam poveikiui“. 3 From the point of view of Gruodis’ (N. Zverevas) Jūratė ir Kastytis, Bacevičius’ Šokių sukūryje (1933). Back in pre-war Ideological and stylistic intersections Lithuania, there were also other signs of ballet becoming modern. The prestigious, “world” page of Lithuanian ballet It is a paradox but Juzeliūnas’ styles that represented should be linked to the early work of choreographer G. Ba- various periods of his creative work were favoured by official lanchine, who later consolidated the neoclassical style. The 1932 production of Balanchine’s (music by Poulenc) Soviet ideology, which propagated the idea of “nations’ Aubade was performed in Kaunas shortly after its world premiere in friendship” and internationalism. In a rather simple or even Paris (1930, Ballets Russes de Vera Nemchinova). Unfortu- primitive way (repertoire of a countryside orchestra, accord- nately, we stopped at the work of the distinguished choreo- ing to Ambrazas35) this idea is expressed in the ballet Ant grapher. Balanchine’s “The prodigal Son” (1929; music by marių kranto when in folk dance suites the composer uses Prokofiev) was performed in our theatre in 2004 (producer not only Lithuanian folk dances but also quotes Latvian, Paul Boos, USA), while Balanchine’s mature works, which later became 20th century classics have not been staged yet at Estonian, and Russian dances. On the contrary, it appears the National Opera and Ballet Theatre. in the Afrikietiški eskizai in a more refined and original way. 4 5 See The Communist Party (Bolshevik) 10 Feb. 1948 decree This suite for symphony orchestra was highly praised in “About V. Muradeli’s opera “Great Friendship”. Severely critici- Moscow – it was performed by several Soviet orchestras all sed for formalism, Shostakovich, Prokofiev and Khachaturian over the USSR, its full score published. Ambrazas noted: were rehabilitated ten years later. 5 Ruzgaitė 1979: 343: „Pokario dešimtmečio baletmeisteriai Moscow propagated the Afrikietiški eskizai with political stengėsi atskleisti scenoje gyvenimo tiesą, dažniausiai pamirš- purposes. With certain processes taking place in Africa, it dami, kad sąlygiška ir savita šokio kalba turi savus dėsnius, savą was useful to show that the Soviet Union was interested in meninę psichologinę tiesą“. 6 The first Lithuanian ballet master Bronius Kelbauskas staged the continent.36 several versions of Juozas Pakalnis’ ballet Sužadėtinė. In 1940 In these cases, different types of the artist’s attitudes that when the Soviets occupied Lithuania and preparations for the first Lithuanian Literature and Art Ten-Day Festival in naturally corresponded with the creative development of his Moscow started in 1941, composer and theatre conductor creative work in the conditions of the absence of political Pakalnis composed the ballet Sužadėtinė. Its premiere was freedom were approved by ideologues. However, other cases not given in Moscow, but during the next occupation – that are also known in Juzeliūnas’ creative biography. of the Nazis in 1943 – at the State Theatre in Kaunas. With

111 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Audronė ŽIŪRAITYTĖ

this ballet, the theatre started the 1944 season, when the Nazis libreto, bet viską supratau iš duetų – Kastės ir Jonio, jo viltį were driven out of the city and the Soviets returned. ir atsisakymą, maldavimą ir Jonio meilę jai, jos meilę Mariui. 7 See Putinaitė 2007: 74: „Sovietų Sąjungos dalimi tapusi Lie- Aš net supratau Mariaus grįžimą ir jo meilę gimtajam kraštui, tuva turėjo perimti sovietinę džiugesio estetiką ir heroizmo žaviosios Onės juokus. Mačiau žmones, kurie nekentė, mylėjo, etosą”.Ibid: 23: „Sovietinės tikrovės pagrindinis bruožas buvo juokavo ir gyveno šokyje. Jų šokis karšta banga užliedavo salę tas, kad sukurtieji jos vaizdiniai buvo daug svarbesni nei faktai naujomis mintimis, gyvybingu gyvenimo pulsu“. ar reali patirtis“. 21 See Juzeliūnas 2002: 280: „...viską dariau nuoširdžiai, 8 Putinaitė Ibid: 20: „Kūrybinė inteligentija atliko pritaikomąjį neapsimetinėjant“. darbą, net jei jį dirbdama pati juo vertybiškai netikėjo“. 22 Dvarionas, quote from Ambrazas 2015: 104: „J. Juzeliūno 9 The choreographer’s libretto tells of the life of Lithuanian muzika nuo pirmųjų akordų pagauna klausytoją ir pavergia fishermen and sabotage of the people’s enemies’ opposing jį savo jautriu nuoširdumu, vaizdingumu ir paprastumu“. collectivisation: they turned off the beacon light that the 23 Ballets’ numbers are given according to the piano score fisherman Jonis, who overcame his erroneous views, turned it (Mосква: Советский композитор, 1959). on again at the price of his life. This served as the background 24 Quote from Ambrazas Ibid: 75: „Darbuojantis Ivanove baleto for the love story between Marius, who had just returned from siužetas, dramaturginis dar planas nebuvo galutinai nusistovė- the war, and Kastė, a forewoman. See Šabasevičius 2009:70. jęs. Tačiau žinojau, kad kaip ten bebūtų, audra vis vien kils ir aš 10 Motiejūnaitė, quote from Vytautas Grivickas, 2005: 364–365: ją vienaip ar kitaip įkomponuosiu. Taip pirmiausia ir atsirado „V. Grivicko kūrybos šaknys (ir režisūros, ir choreografijos, ir simfoninis paveikslas „Audra“, kuris pradžioje funkcionavo jo pamėgtos laisvalaikio tapybos) – realus, sodrus, apčiuopia- kaip savarankiškas kūrinys“. mas pasaulis. Jis tvirtai stovi ant žemės, ir tai yra jo jėga“. 25 See Ambrazas Ibid: 76: „vagneriškas užsimojimas, puiki 11 See Ruzgaitė 1979: 334: „Tačiau jaunas choreografas, siekda- instrumentuotė, harmonija, muzika vaizdinga, kūrybinis mas balete gyvenimiškos tiesos, neišvengė ir natūralizmo“. subrendimas“. 12 The premiere was held on 10 May 1953 at the Lithuanian 26 From the music of the ballet that was being composed Juzeliū- State Opera and Ballet Theatre, conductor Rimas Geniušas, nas prepared more fragments for concert performance. Five of sets and costumes by Jonas Surkevičius and Regina Songailaitė. them made up a ballet suite (Žvejų grįžimas, Senių šokis, Vaikų 13 From 1972 (after a 1954–1971 spell as a senior ballet mas- šokis, Merginų šokis, Finalas, 1951). A year later he presented ter) Grivickas was the theatre’s senior director; from 1976, a the future Marius and Kastė’s duet (Adagio from the end of Lithuanian TV senior director; in 1979 he returned to the Act 1) as a symphonic prelude. See Ambrazas Ibid. theatre as a ballet master. 27 Ambrazas Ibid: 104: „Rusų kompozitorius Marianas Kovalis 14 Vainiūnas, Kalinauskas; Ambrazas Ibid: 104. savo recenzijoje ypač pabrėžė J. Juzeliūno sugebėjimą simfoniš- 15 Quoted from Ruzgaitė Ibid: 337: „...baleto siužeto plėtojimas kai išplėtoti muzikines temas, taip pat orkestro priemonėmis iš esmės pasibaigia antrajame veiksme. Išskyrus priešų tapybiškai atkurti gamtos vaizdų spalvingumą“. suėmimo sceną, visas trečiasis veiksmas yra paprastas baleto 28 Слонимский 1968: 210: „Танец начинаеться с мелодии, divertismentas, jo šokiai temiškai nesusiję – tai veikiau puikiai основываеться на ней, вырастает из нее.“ pastatyti ir atlikti, bet vis dėlto – koncertiniai numeriai“. 29 A deeper insight into various circumstances of other local 16 Putinaitė 2007: 22: „Estetizuotoje tikrovėje, priešingai nei contexts often made clear that the only “requirement” for etinėmis ar politinėmis normomis grindžiamoje visuomenėje, national socialist art systems was linked not so much with prisitaikymas galėjo vykti ne įtikinant tvarkos gėriu, o tarytum the issues of artistic idiom or style but more with the artists’ apžavint, įtraukiant į bendrą dirbtinio džiaugsmo šurmulį“. loyalty to the system which was hardly identified in the artistic 17 Quoted from Ruzgaitė Ibid: 337: „Čia rastas grūdas (turima idiom (in the systems of some socialist countries modernistic omenyje klasikinio ir lietuvių nacionalinio šokio sintezė – expression and abstraction were more tolerated; in others, it A.Ž.), kuris be abejonės taps baleto tolesnio vystymosi pagrin- was figurative art etc). Therefore, the speculativeness of the du […] Tai ne tik lietuvių, bet ir visos tarybinės choreografinės concept of “Soviet time bans” has also been recognized. kultūros laimėjimas“. 30 See Ambrazas Ibid: 449–450: „Kurdamas pabrėžtinai tautinį 18 Quote by Julius Juzeliūnas, from Vytautas Grivickas 2005: 449: baletą, J. Juzeliūnas, savaime suprantama, gausiai naudojo “Ulanova globojo, buvo daugybė raštų, kurie tvirtino, kad bale- folklorinę medžiagą. Dėl liaudies melodijų gausos jį galima tas turi pasirodyti, tačiau užkulisiniai veiksniai kliudė, ir dėl to būtų netgi pavadinti etnografiniu baletu [...] Savajame balete Maskvos Didžiajame teatre baletas nebuvo pastatytas. Priežasčių Juzeliūnas pirmiausiai rėmėsi lietuvių liaudies šokiais (valsais, turbūt stegtasi nedokumentuoti, kad nesimatytų, kas kliudė”. polkomis – A.Ž.).“ One more time besides other ballets (Eglė žalčių karalienė, 31 See Ambrazas Ibid: 451, 452: „Nemaža dalis originalių melo- Delibes’ Silvia) Ant marių kranto was performed during the dijų [...] pasižymi muzikiniui folklorui būdingų intonacinių, 1963 Lithuanian theatre tour in Moscow. derminių, ritminių savybių organišku integravimu“. 19 Kukanov, quote from Vytautas Grivickas Ibid: 181: „…ir visiškai 32 See Ibid: 435, 466, 468, 550, 682. dėsningas premjeros finalas, kai audringai žiūrovams pritariant 33 Quote from Ambrazas Ibid: 135–136: „Mūsų muzikos padėtis artistų rankų pagautas Lietuvos nusipelnęs artistas V. Grivickas pokario laikotarpiu mane privertė susimąstyti. Kompozitoriai atliko keletą skrydžių į scenos palubę. Baletas „nugalėjo“ dar pernelyg suvienodėjo, 1948 m. nutarimas, be abejo, daug viename mieste, susibičiuliavom, suartėjom su puikiais lietuvių prisidėjo prie to, kad menininko individualybė nuėjo į anrtrą pajūrio žvejų vaikinais ir merginomis. Jis pagirdė mus pavasariu, planą ir visi pradėjo semtis iš vieno katilo. Įsivyravo maždaug šviesiu gyvenimu. Kai eini į priekį, eini ir laimi“. tos pačios intonacijos, liaudies dainų nuotrupos, kai kurie 20 Quote from Vytautas Grivickas Ibid: 187–188: „…koks derminiai posūkiai. Pavyzdžiui, muzikinės kalbos atžvilgiu „choreografinio gyvenimo“ pojūčių turtingumas, kokia ideali visiškai supanašejo mano baletas arba Antroji simfonija su išgyvenimų tiesa… Žiūrėdama pirmą veiksmą dar neturėjau V. Klovos opera „Pilėnai“, Indros baletu „Audronė“. Nors

112 The Ballet Ant marių kranto in a Cultural-Ideological Context and in the Creative Work of Julius Juzeliūnas

autoriai labai nevienodi, tačiau net aš klausydamasis per radiją Aсафьев Борис, O балете: Статьи. Рецензии. Воспоминания. pradėjau nebeatskirti savo ir jų muzikos. Toks individualaus Ленинград: Музыка, 1974. kūrybinio veido praradimas man kėlė didelį rūpestį ir vidinį Слонимский Юрий, “Раймонда”. Путь Глазунова к балетному nepasitenkinimą. Prisiminęs Gruodžio teiginius, kad indi- творчеству, in: Глазунов, исследования, материалы, публи- vidualumo reikia semtis iš tautinės kultūros klodų, pradėjau кации, письма: в 2 томах. Ленинград: Музгиз, 1959–1960. giliau studijuoti lietuvių liaudies melodikos struktūrines Vol.1 1959: p. 377–503. ypatybes, ieškoti naujų jų įprasminimo būdų. [...] Nuolat Слонимский Юрий, В честь танца. Moсква: Искусство, 1968. prisimindavau Gruodžio žodžius, kad kompozitorius turi kalbėti savo laikotarpio kalba. Tai mane skatino studijuoti Bartoką, Messiaeną, Hindemithą, Schönbergą; daug dėmesio Santrauka buvo skirta Prokofjevo bei Šostakovičiaus kūrybai“. 34 Quote from Ambrazas Ibid: 145: „Įsivaizdavau, kad Afrikoje esu, bet pasirodė, kad tebesu lietuviškame kaime – visos me- Juliaus Juzeliūno baletas „Ant marių kranto“ sukurtas lodinės struktūros visiškai atitinka mūsų liaudies dvasią“. 1953 metais pagal choreografo V. Grivicko parašytą li- Several years later, the suite received a choreographic solu- bretą. Tais pačiais metais baletas pastatytas Lietuvos TSR tion. On Adamkevičienė’s initiative, Žebrauskas produced valstybiniame operos ir baleto teatre. Šis spektaklis tapo Afrikietiški eskizai for Lithuanian television; at the Kaunas sovietinio meno – „nacionalinio savo forma ir tarybinio Music Theatre in 1972, Kondratavičius created the one-act savo turiniu“ – etalonu, buvo įtrauktas į 1954 m. Maskvoje ballet Archegono žemė based on Afrikietiški eskizai, and later Brazdylis staged it with the M.K. Čiurlionis Art School stu- vykusią Lietuvos TSR literatūros ir meno dekadą. Baleto dents of the ballet department. siužetas atitinka normatyvinę sovietų ideologijos džiuge- 35 Divertissements consisting of dances sounded like a repertoire sio estetiką, heroizmo patosas derinamas su lyrine meilės of a countryside orchestra arranged for symphony orchestra. trikampio tema. Sadutė stands out among them for its rather artistic form. See „Ant marių kranto“ – pirmasis lietuvių muzikinis Ambrazas Ibid: 451: „Iš šokių sudaryti divertismentai skam- bėjo tarsi simfoniniam orkestrui aranžuotas kaimo kapelų sceninis veikalas, peržengęs respublikos ribas, pastatytas repertuaras. Tarp jų gana išradinga išdaila išsiskiria Sadutė“. Rygos, Lvovo, Talino teatruose. Tai lėmė sovietams aktuali 36 See Ambrazas Ibid: 146–147: „Kas be ko – Maskva Afri- baleto tematika, jų propaguojamo draminio baleto kanonus kietiškus eskizus propagavo ir konjunktūriniais sumetimais. atitinkantis pastatymas, taip pat talentinga kompozitoriaus Afrikoje vykstant tam tikriems judėjimams, buvo naudinga muzika. Vadinamas „romantinio realizmo“ stilius J. Juzeliū- pademonstruoti, kad Sovietų Sąjunga domisi šiuo kontinentu.“ nui, baigusiam Leningrado (Sankt Peterburgo) konservato- 37 After the situation changed a little in 1977, Sukilėliai was produced (conductor Jonas Aleksa). The last performance rijos aspirantūros studijas, buvo natūralus (1949–1952 m. was in 1979. See Ambrazas Ibid: 130. jis tobulinosi V. Vološinovo klasėje). Kompozitorius visais kūrybos laikotarpiais domėjosi lietuvių liaudies muzika (aspirantūrą jis baigė parašęs disertaciją „Lietuvių liaudies Literature daina kai kurių lietuvių kompozitorių simfoninėje kūry- boje“), taip pat kitų ir neeuropinių tautų kūryba. Balete Ambrazas Algirdas Juozas, Julius Juzeliūnas. Gyvenimo ir veiklos greta muzikos kalbos dainingumo, liaudiškumo, nuoširdaus panorama. Kūrybos įžvalgos, Vilnius: LKS, LMTA, 2015. Ambrazas Algirdas Juozas, Muzikos tradicijos ir dabartis, Vilnius: lyrizmo iškyla ir kompozitoriaus simfonisto (aspirantūrą LKS, 2007. baigė sukurdamas Simfoniją Nr. 2) bei dramaturgo talentas. Bruveris Jonas, Baletas – sau? Poleminės pastabos, in: Literatūra Minėtina 1957 m. J. Juzeliūno sukurta, bet dėl ideologinių ir menas, 1979 04 21. priežasčių tik 1977 m. pastatyta herojinė opera „Sukilėliai“, Vytautas Grivickas: Baletmeisterio užrašai, sud. Aldona Grivickie- kuri užbaigė ankstyvąjį J. Juzeliūno kūrybos laikotarpį, nė, Vilnius: Tyto Alba, 2005. Juzeliūnas Julius, Straipsniai. Kalbos. Pokalbiai. Amžininkų atsi- pasižymintį neoromantinio stiliaus bruožais – daininga minimai, Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų sąjungos leidykla, 2002. melodika, didele kuriamos muzikos emocinio poveikio jėga. Putinaitė Nerija, Nenutrūkusi styga. Prisitaikymas ir pasipriešini- Senasis „Ant marių kranto“ pastatymas buvo pakartotas mas sovietų Lietuvoje, Vilnius: Aidai, 2007. 1975 m., tačiau netapo repertuaro puošmena kaip prieš kelis Ruzgaitė Aliodija, Baletas, in: Lietuvių tarybinis teatras, Vilnius: dešimtmečius. Akivaizdu, kad reikšmingas baleto istorijos Mintis, 1979, p. 316–345. etapas tapo jau praeitimi. Toks požiūris turi pozityvumo, Ruzgaitė Aliodija, Prisiminių blyksniai, Vilnius: Tyto Alba, 2010. Šabasevičius Helmutas, Ideologija ir XX a. Lietuvos baleto raida, nes liudija visaapimantį – muzikinį choreografinį, drama- in: Menotyra, 2015, No. 2, p. 177–188. turginį ir nuo kuriamojo laikotarpio kultūrinio ideolo- Šabasevičius Helmutas, A Concise History of Lithuanian Ballet, ginio konteksto neatskiriamą – veikalo integralumą. Tai Vilnius: Krantai, 2009. nepanaikina akivaizdžiai ryškių kompozitoriaus talento ir Trilupaitytė Skaidra, Totalitarizmas ir sovietmečio meno (ne) meistriškumo žymių, pastangų simfonizuoti baleto žanrą. laisvė. Kai kurie vertinimo klausimai, in: Darbai ir dienos, No. 47, 2007, p. 93−114. Prisiminę kompozitoriaus kūrybinio kelio pradžią geriau Žiūraitytė Audronė, Kūrybinis palikimas ir šiuolaikinio baleto suvokiame jo evoliucijos amplitudę. tendencijos, in: Muzika, No. 3, Vilnius:Vaga, 1982, p. 28–36.

113 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Algirdas Jonas AMBRAZAS Julius Juzeliūnas ir Eduardas Balsys: to paties kelio skirtingos atšakos Julius Juzeliūnas and Eduardas Balsys: Two Branches of the Same Path

Anotacija Šis straipsnis parengtas prof. Algirdo Jono Ambrazo (1934–2016) pranešimo1 pagrindu. Straipsnis gvildena dviejų lietuvių kompozitorių, amžininkų – Juliaus Juzeliūno (1916–2001) ir Eduardo Balsio (1919–1984) – estetinių pozicijų bei kūrybinio kelio ypatumus. Abu kompozitoriai buvo vėlyvojo sovietmečio, J. Juzeliūnas – ir Nepriklausomybės pirmojo dešimtmečio modernios nacionalinės muzikos kūrimo šalininkai. Skirtingų pedagoginių kompozitorių mokyklų (E. Balsys – Antano Račiūno, J. Juzeliūnas – Juozo Gruodžio) auklėtiniai skirtingai konceptualizavo pamatinę savo kūrybinio kelio viziją. Straipsnyje konstatuojama, kad nepaisant ilgainiui pasireiškusio komponavimo metodų skirtumo, savo esme J. Juzeliūno ir E. Balsio kūryba liko artimai giminingos: jų kūriniams būdinga muzikos emocinio įtaigumo ir racionalumo darna, formos monumentalumas ir išbaigtumas. Tautiniam savitumui išreikšti J. Juzeliūnas ir E. Balsys rėmėsi lietuvių liaudies muzikos turtais. Straipsnyje tyrinėjami abiem meistrams charakteringi individualūs komponavimo principai, dėmesį sutelkiant į skirtingą modernios tautinės muzikos sampratą bei realizacijos būdus. Daroma išvada, kad J. Juzeliūnas ir E. Balsys – vieni ryškiausių tautinio modernizmo atstovų lietuvių muzikoje – kūryboje žengė viena kryptimi to paties kelio skirtingomis atšakomis. Tiek savo kūryba, tiek vaisinga pedagogine veikla jie padarė įtaką tolimesnei lietuvių kompozitorių mokyklos raidai. Reikšminiai žodžiai: lietuvių muzika, nacionalinė muzika, modernėjimas, folkloras, tonacinė sistema, dodekafonija, Julius Juzeliūnas, Eduardas Balsys, kūrybos procesas.

Abstract The article is based on the report2 by Prof. Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas. The aim of this article is to discuss the resolution of the issue of national individuality of music in the creative work of Julius Juzeliūnas (1916–2001) and Eduardas Balsys (1919–1984), two of the most prominent representatives of the Lithuanian compositional school. They both followed the principle formulated by Juozas Gruodis: to aim for national character of music through the use of modern means of expression. This concept of national modernism was implemented in the most mature works of Juzeliūnas and Balsys. The 1960s saw the emergence of Juzeliūnas’s original composition system based on non-tertian chords. The link with Lithuanian folk melodies was sought by integrating the characteristic supporting tones into the harmony texture. The twelve-tone series divided into several segments each consisting of an equal number of varying sounds became the starting point of harmony. In this way, Juzeliūnas’s system externally approached dodecaphony. Starting with Dramatinės freskos (Dramatic Frescoes, 1956), Eduardas Balsys began to use classic dodecaphony, which was shortly followed by the elements of sonorism and aleatoricism. Atonal structures were contrasted with thematicism, which rested on characteristic folklore intonations or even complete Lithuanian folk melodies. Balsys was critical of Juzeliūnas’s composition system and maintained that constructiveness of the works based on this system weakened their emotional impact. Both composers held differing attitudes towards certain manifestations of modern music. Even in his most modernistic works Balsys resorted to conflicting dramaturgy; the tendencies of minimalism were fundamentally alien to him. Meanwhile, Juzeliūnas had been gradually leaning towards variant developments of the thematicism of static dramaturgy. On the whole, however, the creative work of both Juzeliūnas and Balsys has much in common. The harmony of emotional suggestion and rationalism, and the monumentality and perfection of form are inherent in the most valuable works of both masters. To highlight national individuality, they did not stop at the use of external qualities of folklore but sought to reveal the inner character of folk music. As typical representatives of national modernism, Juzeliūnas and Balsys followed different branches of the same path and influenced further developments in the Lithuanian compositional school with their work and rewarding pedagogical activities. Keywords: Lithuanian music, national music, modernization, folklore, tonal system, dodecaphony, Julius Juzeliūnas, Eduardas Balsys, creative process.

Tautinio savitumo svarbą lietuvių muzikai dar pačioje Čiurlionio pažiūras į tautinę muziką perėmė ir išplėtojo XX a. pradžioje iškėlė Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis Juozas Gruodis (1884–1948) – pirmasis kompozicijos (1875–1911). Programiniame straipsnyje „Apie muziką“3 klasės vedėjas Lietuvos aukštojoje mokykloje – Kauno jis lietuvių kompozitorius ragino savo kūryboje sąmoningai konservatorijoje. 1932 m. jis suformulavo pagarsėjusią tezę: remtis liaudies melodika, ypač seniausiais, savičiausiais jos Naudodamasis moderniomis priemonėmis stengiuosi būti klodais; tuo pat metu jis ragino kalbėti šiuolaikine muzikos lietuvių tautinis kompozitorius.5 kalba. Čiurlionis teigė: Tiesa, J. Gruodžio vartotos „modernios priemonės“ iš Mūsų credo – tai mūsų seniausios dainos ir mūsų ateities muzika.4 esmės dar rėmėsi neoromantinio stiliaus arsenalu, tačiau jo

114 Julius Juzeliūnas ir Eduardas Balsys: to paties kelio skirtingos atšakos iškeltas tautinio modernizmo principas tapo visos lietuvių (1957), o ypač simfoninė siuita „Afrikietiški eskizai“ (1961). kompozitorių mokyklos pagrindu. Šių etapinių abiejų kompozitorių kūrinių muzikos kalboje XX a. antroje pusėje lietuvių muzikoje tautinio mo- šalia individualių skirtumų galima įžvelgti nemaža bendrų dernizmo principą bene labiausiai išreiškė Julius Juzeliū- bruožų. Pažymėtina ryškus tonacinės sistemos ir funkcinės nas (1916–2001) ir Eduardas Balsys (1919–1984). Šių harmonijos praturtinimas chromatika, bet išsaugant tonalu- ryškiausių savo epochoje lietuvių kompozitorių gyvenime, mą. Vis dažniau ir drąsiau panaudojami netercinės sandaros muzikinėje veikloje, kūryboje rasime daug bendro. Abu akordai. Ryšiai su lietuvių muzikiniu folkloru nesusilpnėjo; kompozicijos studijas Kauno konservatorijoje pradėjo bū- retsykiais panaudojamos net ištisos lietuvių liaudies me- dami brandaus amžiaus: J. Juzeliūnas – dvidešimt aštuonerių lodijos, tačiau iš esmės keičiamas jų pirminis charakteris. metų, E. Balsys – dvidešimt šešerių. Juzeliūnas, baigęs kon- Pavyzdžiui, Antrojo koncerto smuikui ir orkestrui pirmoje servatoriją 1948 m., buvo paskutinis J. Gruodžio mokinys, dalyje panaudotos archajinės santūraus pobūdžio lietuvių tiesioginis jo kūrybos idėjų perėmėjas ir tęsėjas. E. Balsys, liaudies melodijos dėl įvesto gyvo tempo, pramoginių šalių baigęs konservatoriją metais vėliau Antano Račiūno klasėje, muzikai būdingos ritmikos suskambėjo labai veržliai ir buvo karštas J. Gruodžio muzikos adoratorius. J. Juzeliūno aktyviai. Baleto „Eglės raudoje“ panaudota autentiška avi- paskatintas, E. Balsys drauge su juo tęsė studijas Leningrado žapjūtės melodija dėl chromatinės harmonijos, ostinatiškai (Sankt Peterburgo) konservatorijos aspirantūroje pas tą patį kartojamų sekundinių sąskambių įgavo tragišką skambesį. specialybės vadovą – Viktorą Vološinovą. J. Juzeliūno „Afrikietiški eskizai“, žymia dalimi pagrįsti Užbaigę aspirantūros studijas abu muzikai pradėjo peda- Kongo srities melodijomis, išsaugojo ryšius su lietuvių goginį darbą Lietuvos valstybinėje konservatorijoje – šalia liaudies melodijų tradiciniais ypatumais. Pradedant „Afri- teorinių disciplinų dėstymo jie ėmė vadovauti kompozicijos kietiškais eskizais“, liaudinei melodikai būdingi atraminiai klasėms (J. Juzeliūnas išleido 47, E. Balsys – 32 absolventus). garsai ėmė lemti akordų sandarą. Daugelį metų jie ėjo vadovaujančias pareigas Lietuvos kom- Septintajame dešimtmetyje iš esmės susiformavo J. Juze- pozitorių sąjungoje (E. Balsys buvo atsakingasis sekretorius, liūno tolimesnei kūrybai būdinga savita tonacinė harmoninė vėliau – pirmininkas, J. Juzeliūnas – pirmininko pavaduo- sistema. Pradiniame jos raidos etape iš J. Juzeliūno atrinktų tojas, valdybos narys). charakteringų lietuvių liaudies melodikai intervalų buvo J. Juzeliūno ir E. Balsio kūryba taip pat plėtojosi ly- suformuotas specifinės sandaros akordas (vadinamasis „Ju- gia greta, modernėjimo kryptimi. Abiejų kompozitorių zeliūno akordas“); jį sudarė didžiosios arba mažosios tercijos, kūriniai, parašyti aspirantūroje ir pirmaisiais metais po didžiosios sekundos, grynosios kvartos intervalai. Sudaromas jos baigimo, iš esmės dar atstovavo vėlyvojo romantizmo nuo įvairių chromatinės gamos laipsnių, šis tipiškas akordas stiliui, artimam Piotro Čaikovskio ir kitų XIX a. pabaigos lėmė ir atitinkamus funkcinius santykius (šio laikotarpio kū- rusų kompozitorių kūrybai. Žymesni šio laikotarpio J. Ju- riniai: Poema-koncertas styginių orkestrui (1961), Pasakalija zeliūno kūriniai – Antroji simfonija (1949–1951), baletas (poema), Pirmasis styginių kvartetas (abu 1962), „Pelenų „Ant marių kranto“ (1953), Koncertas balsui ir orkestrui lopšinė“, Koncertas vargonams, smuikui ir styginių orkestrui (1954). Balsio kūrybinio kelio pradžią apibūdina Styginių (abu 1963), trečioji simfonija „Žmogaus lyra“ (1964). kvartetas (1953) ir Pirmasis koncertas smuikui ir orkestrui Nuo 1966 m. prasidėjo naujas J. Juzeliūno tonacinės (1954). Minėtų kūrinių harmonija – tonacinė, pagrįsta harmoninės sistemos etapas. Harmonijos išeities tašku tapo tercinės sandaros akordais ir tradiciniais jų funkciniais dvylikalaipsnis garsaeilis, dalijamas į kelis (tris ar keturis) santykiais. Muzikos tautinio savitumo siekta tiesiogiai vienodo garsų kiekio, bet skirtingos intervalinės sudėties remiantis lietuvišku folkloru. Nevengiama ištisų lietuvių segmentus („ląsteles“). Toks komponavimo būdas primena liaudies melodijų panaudojimo („citavimo“), bet dažniausiai dodekafoninę techniką, ypač Antonui Webernui būdingą į originalią (autorinę) melodiją įpinamos charakteringos dvylikagarsės serijos segmentavimą į pasirinktos intervalinės liaudies intonacijos. Lietuvių liaudies melodijų derminiai struktūros atkarpas. Tačiau J. Juzeliūnas griežtai nesilaikė bruožai lėmė harmonijoje vyraujančią diatoniką, pratur- dodekafonijai specifinio serijos garsų nekartojamumo prin- tintą specifiniais dermių laipsniais, lemiančiais atitinkamų cipo ir išsaugojo tonalumą ir funkcinius sąskambių ryšius. akordų santykius (vadinamieji modalizmai). Intervalinių ląstelių atrankai didelės reikšmės turėjo lietuvių Šeštojo dešimtmečio pabaigoje lietuvių muzikoje iškilusi liaudies muzikai būdingos intonacijos. J. Juzeliūno tonaci- stilistinio atsinaujinimo banga buvo labiausiai būdinga to nės harmoninės sistemos naujo etapo pradžia – Antrasis laikotarpio J. Juzeliūno ir E. Balsio kūrybai. Muzikos kalbos styginių kvartetas, „Concerto grosso“ (abu 1966), opera permainos anksčiausiai ir bene radikaliausiai pasireiškė „Žaidimas“ (1968). Esminiai šios sistemos bruožai išliko E. Balsio Antrajame koncerte smuikui ir orkestrui (1958), iki J. Juzeliūno kūrybinio kelio pabaigos. kiek nuosaikiau – balete „Eglė žalčių karalienė“ (1960). Maždaug tuo pačiu metu ryžtingas posūkis link naujų J. Juzeliūno kūryboje laipsnišką perėjimą į kokybiškai naują komponavimo technologijų pasireiškė ir E. Balsio kūryboje. muzikinio mąstymo plotmę liudija jo opera „Sukilėliai“ Tačiau jo siekis užsienyje susiformavusius moderniuosius

115 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Algirdas Jonas AMBRAZAS kūrybos metodus sieti su lietuviškuoju folkloru iš esmės „ląstelėmis“, iš kurių formavo tiek melodinį, tiek harmoninį skyrėsi nuo Juzeliūno. muzikos audinį. Taigi jo kūryboje išryškėjo tendencija fol- 1965 m. suskambėjo E. Balsio „Dramatinės freskos“ kloro struktūrinius elementus integruoti į originalių kūrinių (iš esmės – dvigubas koncertas smuikui, fortepijonui ir or- muzikos kalbos kompleksą. kestrui). Šiame monumentaliame kūrinyje E. Balsys vienas J. Juzeliūno kompozicinės sistemos atžvilgiu E. Balsys pirmųjų iš lietuvių kompozitorių panaudojo dodekafoninę buvo nusiteikęs kritiškai. Manė, kad šia sistema pagrįstų techniką. Kūrinių melodinį tematizmą ir faktūros balsus kūrinių muzikos konstruktyvumas silpnina jų emociona- formavo dvi dvylikatonės serijos; harmoninė vertikalė buvo lumą. E. Balsį erzino daugelio J. Juzeliūno kūrinių aukštas sudaryta iš laisvai atrinktų chromatinio garsaeilio tonų. Kai vertinimas spaudoje. kurie teminiai „Dramatinių freskų“ epizodai savo intonacine Susikaupusios nuoskaudos prasiveržė 1971 m. gegužės struktūra yra artimi senovinio lietuviškojo folkloro pavyz- mėnesį įvykusiame Lietuvos kompozitorių sąjungos 6-ajame džiams, tačiau ištisinių liaudies melodijų citatų nevartota. suvažiavime perskaitytame E. Balsio, kaip kompozitorių Naujas reikšmingas kūrinys E. Balsio tautinio moder- sąjungos pirmininko, pranešime. Jame E. Balsys pabrėžė nizmo kelyje buvo oratorija „Nelieskite mėlyno gaublio“ „nacionalinės muzikos pagrindų“ būtinumą, pagyrė kai (1970). Apibendrintai atskleisdamas tragiškus Antrojo kurių lietuvių modernistų atsigręžimą į folklorą (pavyzdžiui, pasaulinio karo vaizdus kompozitorius pasitelkė platų Vytauto Montvilos „Gotiškoji poema“, Vytauto Barkausko moderniųjų komponavimo priemonių ratą. Šalia gausių „Trys aspektai“, Antroji simfonija). Darydamas aiškią užuo- dodekafoninių epizodų plačiai panaudoti to meto lietuvių miną į J. Juzeliūno kūrybą, E. Balsys pažymėjo, kad muzikos muzikoje nauji sonoristikos ir ribotos aleatorikos metodai. nacionalumą sudaro ne „sustingusių liaudinių intonacijų Svarbiausiai oratorijos temai paimta lietuvių senovinės mechaniškas persodinimas“6. rugiapjūtės dainos „Oi teka, bėga vakarinė žvaigždelė“ Juzeliūnas savo 1961–1969 m. kūriniuose suformuotus melodija. Ji jau skambėjo Antrojo koncerto smuikui ir kompozicinės sistemos principus apibendrino studijoje orkestrui antrojoje dalyje. Tačiau oratorijoje kompozito- „Akordo sandaros klausimu“. Leningrado (Sankt Peterburgo) rius išlaikė ir netgi sustiprino šios paprastutės melodijos konservatorijos profesoriaus Anatolijaus Dmitrijevo inici- eleginius bruožus. atyva, ši studija (J. Juzeliūno buvo pateikta kaip disertacija Oratorijai būdinga atonalių ir tonalių sferų priešprieša menotyros daktaro (t. y. habilituoto daktaro) moksliniam yra būdinga ir vienintelei E. Balsio operai „Kelionė į Tilžę“ laipsniui įgyti. Disertacijos gynimui, numatytam Leningrado (1980). Operos muzikinė medžiaga formuojama dodekafo- konservatorijos mokslo taryboje, buvo būtinas atsiliepimas iš nijos pagrindu, svarbiausiems personažams charakterizuoti Lietuvos. E. Balsys, kaip Lietuvos valstybinės konservatorijos naudojamos atskiros serijos. Tačiau muzikinėje dramatur- Kompozicijos katedros vedėjas, drauge su muzikologinių ka- gijoje reikšmingų buitinių epizodų muzika akivaizdžiai tedrų vedėjais Povilu Tamuliūnu ir Juozu Gaudrimu, pateikė folklorinė. Kai kuriuose operos epizoduose net dvylikagarsė pabrėžtinai neigiamą disertacijos vertinimą. Tik J. Juzeliūnui serija tampa faktišku tematizmo pagrindu. Pavyzdžiui, pavykus suorganizuoti išsamų kolektyvinį disertacijos svarsty- pabrėžtinai liaudiška „Indrės raudos“ melodija iš operos mą Lietuvos kompozitorių sąjungoje, buvo parengtas teigia- pirmojo veiksmo yra sudaryta iš šiam personažui apibūdinti mas atsiliepimas. 1972 m. J. Juzeliūno disertacija sėkmingai skirtos dvylikagarsės serijos garsų. apginta Leningrado konservatorijos mokslo taryboje. Lygindami J. Juzeliūno ir E. Balsio 7–8-ojo dešimtmečio Disertacijos svarstymo konfliktas tarp J. Juzeliūno ir kūrinius, atstovaujančius tautinio modernizmo krypčiai, E. Balsio ilgainiui atslūgo. Vis dėlto abiejų menininkų pastebime nemaža bendrų bruožų. pažiūros į kai kurias moderniosios muzikos apraiškas liko Abu kompozitoriai, kiekvienas savaip, priartėjo prie skirtingos. chromatinio garsaeilio tonų lygiateisiškumo, artimo do- E. Balsys net savo moderniausiuose kūriniuose atstovavo dekafonijai. Panašus serijų traktavimas, jų transformavimo konfliktinei dramaturgijai. Iki pat savo kūrybinio kelio pa- būdai. Neretai siekiama serijų intervalinėje struktūroje baigos jis teikė pirmenybę raiškiam tematizmui, nuosekliai išryškinti liaudies muzikai būdingą diatoniškumą, net ir logiškai jo plėtotei. Muzikos statiškumas, mozaikiškumas, intonacinius bendrumus. o ypač XX a. pabaigoje Lietuvoje išryškėjusios minimalizmo Tačiau muzikinio folkloro traktavimo atžvilgiu pasi- tendencijos jam buvo visiškai nepriimtinos. Tuo paaiškinti- reiškė abiejų kompozitorių kūrybos skirtumai. E. Balsys nas E. Balsio priešiškumas kai kurių jaunesnės kartos lietuvių neatsisakė ištisinio lietuvių liaudies melodijų naudojimo, kompozitorių (ypač Broniaus Kutavičiaus) kūrybai. Antai paprastai jas priešindamas atonaliam harmoniniam fonui; po B. Kutavičiaus „Panteistinės oratorijos“ perklausos Kom- folkloro ir modernių raiškos priemonių atžvilgiu vyravo pozitorių sąjungoje (1971 02 25) E. Balsys yra pareiškęs: antiteziškumo, priešpriešos tendencija. J. Juzeliūnas savo Tai vienas baisiausių kūrinių, kokį tik esu girdėjęs. Žemiau originaliojoje kompozicijos sistemoje rėmėsi ne ištisinėmis jau nėra kur pult.7 liaudies melodijomis, bet iš jų atrinktomis intonacinėmis

116 Julius Juzeliūnas ir Eduardas Balsys: to paties kelio skirtingos atšakos

O J. Juzeliūnas ilgainiui pradėjo linkti prie statiškosios Julius Juzeliūnas (1916–2001) and Eduardas Balsys dramaturgijos, pirmenybę teikdamas tematizmo varianti- (1919–1984) were by far the most prominent adherents niam plėtojimui. Kai kuriuose vėlyvuosiuose kūriniuose of the national modernism principle in Lithuanian music (pavyzdžiui, Penktojoje simfonijoje „Lygumų giesmės“, of the 2nd half of the 20th century. The lives and work of „Litanijose“ obojui solo) akivaizdūs ir minimalizmo bruo- these two Lithuanian composers, the most distinguished žai. Kitaip nei E. Balsys, J. Juzeliūnas visada labai aukštai in their epoch, have many similarities. Both began studies vertino B. Kutavičiaus kūrybą (antai 1979 m. J. Juzeliūnas of composition at the Kaunas Conservatory well in their tarp žymiausių lietuvių chorinės muzikos pasiekimų įvardijo adulthood – Juzeliūnas being twenty-eight years old, Balsys B. Kutavičiaus oratorijas – „Panteistinę oratoriją“, „Pasku- twenty-six. Juzeliūnas, who graduated from the Conserva- tines pagonių apeigas“). Savo kūryboje J. Juzeliūnas neliko tory in 1948, was Gruodis’ last student and direct adopter abejingas ir naujų garso išgavimo būdų paieškoms (ypač and successor of his creative ideas. Balsys, who graduated a „Flobio-Clavio“, t. y. kvartetas fleitai, obojui ir klavesinui), year later in Antanas Račiūnas’ class, was an ardent admirer kartais atsisakydavo ir apibrėžto aukštumo garsų (kūrinyje of Gruodis’ music. Encouraged by Juzeliūnas, Balsys con- mušamųjų instrumentų ansambliui „Vixy et altera“). tinued studies together with him in a postgraduate course Nepaisant ilgainiui pasireiškusio komponavimo metodų at the Leningrad (Saint Petersburg) conservatory under the skirtumo, savo esme J. Juzeliūno ir E. Balsio kūryba liko same supervisor – Viktor Voloshinov. artimai giminingos. Vertingiausiems abiejų meistrų kūri- After completing the postgraduate course both compos- niams būdinga emocinio muzikos įtaigumo ir racionalumo ers began teaching at the Lithuanian State Conservatory – darna, formos monumentalumas ir išbaigtumas. Tautiniam in addition to lecturing in theoretical disciplines, they savitumui išreikšti J. Juzeliūnas ir E. Balsys rėmėsi lietuvių supervised composition classes (Juzeliūnas had 47 alumni liaudies muzikos turtais. Nesitenkindami išorinių folkloro and Balsys 32). For many years they held leading positions ypatybių panaudojimu abu kompozitoriai siekė įkūnyti at the Lithuanian Composers’ Union (Balsys was Execu- liaudies muzikos dvasią, vidinį charakterį. tive Secretary and later Chairman of the Union, Juzeliūnas Julius Juzeliūnas ir Eduardas Balsys laikytini vienais Deputy Chairman and member of the Governing Board). ryškiausių tautinio modernizmo atstovų lietuvių muzikoje. The work of Juzeliūnas and Balsys also evolved and mod- Eidami viena kryptimi to paties kelio skirtingomis atša- ernised in parallel. The pieces written by both composers komis, tiek savo kūryba, tiek vaisinga pedagogine veikla during the postgraduate studies and in the first years after jie paveikė tolesnę lietuvių kompozitorių mokyklos raidą. the completion of the latter represented the late Romantic style, cognate with the oeuvre of Pyotr Tchaikovsky and other late 19th century Russian composers. Juzeliūnas’ notable works from this period include Symphony No. 2 * * * * * * (1949–1951), the ballet On the Lagoon Shore (1953), and Concerto for voice and orchestra (1954). The beginning of The importance of national uniqueness for Lithuanian Balsys’ creative path is defined by the String Quartet (1953) music was pointed out as early as the very beginning of and Concerto No. 1 for violin and orchestra (1954). The th the 20 century by Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis mentioned works feature tonal harmonies based on tertian 8 (1875–1911). In his programmatic article “On Music”, he chords and their traditional functional interaction. The urged Lithuanian composers to deliberately base their work national character of the music was derived from direct on the folk tunes, particularly its most archaic and distinc- references to Lithuanian folklore. In some cases entire tive layers, and simultaneously advocated a contemporary Lithuanian folk melodies were used (“cited”), but most musical language. Čiurlionis argued: often it was achieved by weaving recognisable folk tones Our credo is our oldest songs and our future music.9 into the original melody written by the author. The modal features of Lithuanian folk melodies were responsible for Juozas Gruodis (1884–1948), the first head of a com- the diatonics dominating the harmony, enriched with spe- position class at a Lithuanian graduate school – the Kaunas cific modal degrees which determined the relationships of Conservatory, adopted and developed Čiurlionis’ views on the corresponding chords (so-called modalisms). national music. In 1932 he formulated his famous thesis: The wave of stylistic renewal which rose in Lithuanian While using modern means, I seek to be a Lithuanian music in the late 1950s was most characteristic of the works national composer.10 of Juzeliūnas and Balsys. The earliest and perhaps most radi- Sure, the “modern means” Gruodis used still essentially cal manifestation of the changes in the musical language was relied on the neo-Romantic stylistic arsenal, but the prin- Balsys’ Concerto No. 2 for violin and orchestra (1958), while ciple of national modernism he proposed became the basis the ballet Eglė the Queen of Grass Snakes (1960) was some- of an entire school of Lithuanian composers. what more restrained. The gradual transition to a qualitatively

117 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Algirdas Jonas AMBRAZAS new plane of musical thinking in the work of Juzeliūnas is time. Yet his way of combining the imported modern crea- demonstrated by his opera Rebels (1957), and particularly tive methods with Lithuanian folklore was fundamentally the symphonic suite African Sketches (1961). The musical different from that of Juzeliūnas. language of these landmark works of both composers has Balsys’ Dramatic Frescoes (essentially a double concerto quite a few common features alongside individual differences. for violin, piano and orchestra) came about in 1965. Bal- Particularly noteworthy is the obvious enrichment of the sys was among the first Lithuanian composers to use the tonal system and the functional harmony through chromat- dodecaphonic technique in this monumental work. The ics while retaining the tonality. Non-tertian harmony is used melodic themes and textures of the works were shaped by increasingly frequently and boldly. The ties with Lithuanian two dodecatonic series; the harmonic vertical comprised folklore remain strong; Lithuanian folk melodies are occa- of freely selected tones of the chromatic scale. Some of the sionally used in their entirety, but their original character is thematic episodes of Dramatic Frescoes come close to ex- fundamentally changed. For instance, the reserved archaic amples of archaic Lithuanian folklore in their intonational Lithuanian folk melodies used in the first part of Concerto structure, but citations of entire folk melodies are not used. No. 2 for violin and orchestra sound very vigorous and active The oratorioDon’t Touch the Blue Globe (1970) was a due to the introduction of lively tempo and ballroom dancing landmark work in Balsys’ national modernism endeavour. rhythms. The authentic oat harvest melody used in the bal- In this abstracted depiction of the tragic scenes of WWII, let’s Eglė’s Lament acquires a tragic sound due to chromatic the composer employed a wide range of compositional harmony and ostinato of second chords. means. Abundant dodecaphonic episodes, widely used in Juzeliūnas’ African Sketches, prominently based on melo- Lithuanian music at the time, are combined with the new dies from the Congo region, retain the connection with the methods of sonorism and limited aleatoricism. The melody traditional features of Lithuanian folk melodies. Starting of the ancient Lithuanian rye harvest song Evening Star is with this piece, the basic sounds of the folk melodics start Rising is employed as the main theme of the oratorio. The to determine the structure of the chords. composer had already used it in the second part of Concerto The distinctive tonal harmonic system characteristic of No. 2 for violin and orchestra. However, in the oratorio the Juzeliūnas’ later work essentially developed in the 1960s. In composer retained and even intensified the elegiac features its early development stage, a chord of a specific structure of this plain melody. (the so-called Juzeliūnas chord) formed from the selected The contraposition of atonal and tonal spheres charac- typical intervals of the Lithuanian folk tunes; it consisted teristic of the oratorio also defines Balsys’ sole opera,The of major or minor thirds, major seconds, or perfect fourths. Voyage to Tilsit (1980). The musical material of the opera Formed from different degrees of the chromatic scale, this is based on dodecaphony, and separate series are used to typical chord determined specific functional relationships develop the main characters. Yet the music accompanying (this period’s works include Concerto Poem for string or- the significant household episodes is obviously folkloric. chestra (1961), Passacaglia (Poem) and String Quartet No. In some of the opera’s episodes, even the dodecatonic series 1 (both 1962), Ash Lullaby and Concerto for organ, violin effectively becomes a thematic base. For instance, the point- and string orchestra (both 1963), and Symphony No. 3, The edly folk melody of Indrė’s Lament from the first act of the Human Lyre (1964). opera is made up of the sounds from the dodecatonic series The year 1966 saw the beginning of a new stage in which defines this character. Juzeliūnas’ tonal harmonic system. The starting point of the A comparison of the 1960s–70s works by Juzeliūnas and harmony became the dodecatonic scale, divided into several Balsys which belong to the stream of national modernism (three or four) segments of equal number of sounds but reveals numerous common traits. different interval constitution (“cells”). This composition Both composers, each in their own way, approached method resembles the dodecaphonic technique, particularly the equality of the chromatic scale tones characteristic of Anton Webern’s segmentation of the dodecatonic series dodecaphony. Their treatment of series and the ways of into segments of chosen interval structure. Yet Juzeliūnas transforming them are similar. Both authors often seek to did not strictly adhere to the principle of non-repetition highlight the diatonic nature reminiscent of folk music of the series, characteristic of dodecaphony, and retained and even intonational similarities in the interval structure tonality and the functional relationships of the chords. The of the series. beginning of this new stage is marked by String Quartet No. Yet the treatment of folk music reveals the differences of 2 and Concerto Grosso (both 1966) and opera The Game the two composers’ approaches. Balsys did not reject the use (1968). The fundamental features of this system remained of entire Lithuanian folk melodies, usually counterpoising unchanged until the very end of Juzeliūnas’ creative career. them to the atonal harmonic background; the folkloric and A decisive turn towards new compositional techniques modern means of expression were combined according to became manifest in the work of Balsys around the same the principle of antithesis and contraposition. In contrast,

118 Julius Juzeliūnas ir Eduardas Balsys: to paties kelio skirtingos atšakos

Juzeliūnas based his original composition system not on This is one of the most horrible works I have ever heard. It entire folk melodies, but instead on intonational “cells” hits rock bottom.12 extracted from them, which he used to develop both the Meanwhile, Juzeliūnas eventually gravitated towards melodic and the harmonic texture of music. Hence, his work static dramaturgy, preferring variant thematic development. demonstrates a tendency towards integrating structural Some of his late works (e. g. Symphony No. 5 Songs of the folk music elements into the musical language of original Plains, or Litanies for solo oboe) display evident features compositions. of minimalism. Unlike Balsys, Juzeliūnas always highly Balsys was critical of Juzeliūnas’ composition system. regarded the work of Kutavičius (for instance, in 1979 He held that the constructive nature of the works based he mentioned the latter’s oratorios – Pantheistic Oratorio, on this system diminished their emotional effect. Balsys Last Pagan Rites – among the most notable achievements was irritated by the praise Juzeliūnas’ works received from of Lithuanian choral music). Juzeliūnas also explored new the press. ways of making sound (especially in his Flobio-Clavio, a The accumulated resentment erupted in the speech quartet for flute, oboe and harpsichord), and occasionally given by Balsys as the Chairman of the Composers Union even rejected sounds with defined pitch (e g. in his work at its Sixth Assembly in 1971. In this address, Balsys empha- for percussion ensemble, Vixy et altera). sised the necessity of the “national foundations of music”, Regardless of the eventual difference in the composi- praised certain Lithuanian modernists’ turn to folklore (e. tional methods, the work of Juzeliūnas and Balsys remained g. Vytautas Montvila’s Gothic Poem or Vytautas Barkauskas’ closely related in essence. The most significant works of Three Aspects and Symphony No. 2). Clearly alluding to both masters are characterised by a balance of emotional the work of Juzeliūnas, Balsys remarked that the national suggestion and rationality, as well as monumentality and character of music did not originate in a “mechanic trans- completeness of form. Juzeliūnas and Balsys turned to the plantation of frozen folk intonations”.11 riches of Lithuanian folk music to express the unique na- Juzeliūnas summarised the compositional principles tional character. Not content with using merely the outward developed in his 1961–1969 works in a treatise titled features of folklore, both composers sought to embody the On Chord Structure. Anatoly Dmitriev, a professor at the spirit and inner character of folk music. Leningrad (Saint Petersburg) Conservatory, proposed that Julius Juzeliūnas and Eduardas Balsys are among the Juzeliūnas submitted this treatise as a doctoral thesis in most notable representatives of national modernism in art theory (thereby seeking a Habilitated Doctor degree). Lithuanian music. Moving in the same direction along the The defense of the dissertation, planned at the Research different branches of the same path, they influenced the Council of the Leningrad Conservatory, required a review further development of the Lithuanian composition school from Lithuania. Balsys, as head of the Composition De- with both their work and productive teaching activity. partment at the Lithuanian State Conservatory, presented an emphatically negative evaluation of the thesis together with the musicology department heads Povilas Tamuliūnas Nuorodos | References and Juozas Gaudrimas. Only a collective consideration of the thesis at the Lithuanian Composers’ Union, which 1 Profesorius, dr. habil. Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas šį tekstą pa- Juzeliūnas managed to organise, yielded a positive review. rengė 2016 m. balandžio 7 d., tikėdamasis vėliau praplėsti ir In 1972, Juzeliūnas successfully defended his thesis at the papildyti. Tai buvo pranešimas 2016 m. spalio mėn. 19–22 d. Research Council of the Leningrad Conservatory. Vilniuje vyksiančiai 45-ajai Baltijos muzikologų konferencijai, The thesis review conflict between Juzeliūnas and Balsys skirtai Juliaus Juzeliūno gimimo 100-osioms metinėms. Deja, išvykęs į Nidoje rengiamą Tomo Manno festivalį, 2016 m. eventually subsided. Nevertheless, the two composers’ per- liepos 20 d. profesorius netikėtai mirė. Išverstą į anglų kalbą spectives on certain modern music forms remained divided. pranešimą konferencijoje perskaitė Lietuvos kompozitorių Balsys represented conflict dramaturgy even in his most sąjungos Muzikologų sekcijos pirmininkė Jūratė Katinaitė. modern works. He preferred thematic expression and its Žurnale „Lietuvos muzikologija“, t. XIX, in memoriam consistent and logical development until the very end of his Algirdui Jonui Ambrazui skelbiamas profesoriaus paliktas lietuviškas bei verstinis pranešimo variantai. Publikavimui creative career. Static and mosaic musical forms, and par- tekstus parengė Gražina Daunoravičienė (red. pastaba). ticularly the minimalist tendencies which became promi- 2 This text was written as a sketch for a plenary lecture at the nent in Lithuania in the late 20th century, were completely 45th Baltic Musicological Conference, dedicated to the cen- unacceptable to him. This explains Balsys hostility towards tennial anniversary of Julius Juzeliūnas and titled Composition the work of certain Lithuanian composers of the younger Schools in the 20th Century: The Institution and the Context. generation (especially Bronius Kutavičius). For instance, The conference, initiated by Prof. Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas (1934–2016), took place on October 19–22, 2016 at the after the audition of Kutavičius’ Pantheistic Oratorio at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre. This address was Composers’ Union (February 25, 1971), Balsys declared: read at the conference as an opus posthumus. The professor

119 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Algirdas Jonas AMBRAZAS

intended to develop it after his vacation in Nida, where he Ambrazas Algirdas, Juozo Gruodžio gyvenimas ir kūryba, Vilnius: died suddenly on July 20th. Vaga, 1981. 3 Skelbta Sofijos Čiurlionienės-Kymantaitės knygojeLietuvoje: Broniaus Kutavičiaus muzika: Praeinantis laikas, I. Jasinskaitė- kritikos knyga, Vilnius, 1910, p. 59–83. Jankauskienė (ed.), Vilnius: Versus Aureus, 2008. 4 Cit. iš: Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis. Apie muziką ir Čiurlionis Mikalojus Konstantinas, Apie muziką ir dailę. Laiškai, dailę. Laiškai, užrašai ir straipsniai, V. Čiurlionytė-Karužienė užrašai ir straipsniai, V. Čiurlionytė-Karužienė (ed.), Vilnius: (red.), Vilnius: Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1960, Valstybinė grožinė leidykla, 1960. p. 317. Daunoravičienė-Žuklytė Gražina, Lietuvių muzikos modernistinės 5 Cit. iš: Juozas Gruodis: straipsniai, laiškai, užrašai. Amžininkų tapatybės žvalgymas, Vilnius: LMTA 2016. atsiminimai, Algirdas Ambrazas (red.). Vilnius: Vaga, 1965, Eduardas Balsys, Ona Narbutienė (ed.), Vilnius: Baltos lankos, p. 91. 1999. 6 Lietuvos kompozitorių sąjungos VI suvažiavimo stenograma, Jakubėnas Vladas, Lietuvių muzikos plėtros perspektyvos, in: žr.: LLMA, f. 21, ap. 1, b. 396. Naujoji Romuva. 1935, Nr. 10–11 p. 218–219. 7 Cit. iš: Broniaus Kutavičiaus muzika: Praeinantis laikas, I. Ja- Jasinskaitė-Jankauskienė Inga, Pagoniškasis avangardizmas: sinskaitė-Jankauskienė (red.), Vilnius: Versus Aureus, 2008, Teoriniai Broniaus Kutavičiaus muzikos aspektai, Vilnius: p. 28. Gervelė, 2001. 8 Published in Sofija Čiurlionienė-Kymantaitė’sbook Lietuvoje: Julius Juzeliūnas. Straipsniai. Kalbos. Pokalbiai. Amžininkų atsi- kritikos knyga, Vilnius, 1910, p. 59–83. minimai, Algirdas Ambrazas (ed.), Vilnius: Lietuvos rašytojų 9 Quoted from: Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis. Apie sąjungos leidykla, 2002. muziką ir dailę. Laiškai, užrašai ir straipsniai, V. Čiurliony- Juozas Gruodis: straipsniai, laiškai, užrašai. Amžininkų atsimini- tė-Karužienė (ed.), Vilnius: Valstybinė grožinės literatūros mai, Algirdas Ambrazas (ed.), Vilnius: Vaga, 1965. leidykla, 1960, p. 317. Landsbergis Vytautas, Das Königliche Konsrvatorium zum 10 Quoted from: Juozas Gruodis: straipsniai, laiškai, užrašai. Leipzig mit den Augen eines Studenten. Briefe von M.K. Amžininkų atsiminimai, Algirdas Ambrazas (ed.), Vilnius: Čiurlionis, In: Baiträge zur Musikwissenschaft. Berlin, 1979. Vaga, 1965, p. 91. Heft 1, p. 42–69. 11 Transcript of the Sixth Assembly of the Lithuanian Com- Vilimaitė Rasa, Juliaus Juzeliūno kompozicijos mokykla kaip posers’ Union, see in: Lithuanian Archives of Literature and istorijos liudijimas. Pokalbis iš ciklo, skirto Lietuvos muzikos Art, Fund 21, schedule (inventory) 1, file 396 [LLMA, f. 21, ir teatro akademijos 75 metų sukakčiai, in: 7 meno dienos, ap. 1, b. 396]. 2008-03-21, Nr. 794. p. 3. 12 Quoted from: Broniaus Kutavičiaus muzika: Praeinantis laikas, Inga Jasinskaitė-Jankauskienė (ed.), Vilnius, 2008, p. 28. Амбразас Aльгирдас, Юозас Грooдис и формирование литов- ской композиторской школы. Автореферат диссертации на соискание ученой степени доктора искусствоведения, Москва, 1991. Literatūra | Bibliography Туйск Офелия, Роль школы Артура Каппа и Хейно Еллера в развитии эстонской симфонической музыки, in: При- Ambrazas Algirdas Jonas, Julius Juzeliūnas: Gyvenimo ir veiklos балтийский музыковедческий сборник, Vilnius: Vaga, 1982, , Vilnius: Lietuvos kompozitorių panorama. Kūrybos įžvalgos p. 92–105. sąjunga, LMTA, 2015.

120 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse Lietuvos kompozitorių klasės ir mokyklos: genealogijos diskursas

Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Gedimino pr. 42, LT-01110, Vilnius, Lietuva Email [email protected]

Abstract The article addresses issues related to the development of the system for composition studies in Lithuania and beyond. Even though the ‘composition school’ notion has been featuring in musicological texts for quite some time, as a theoretical definition, it has received little reflection and conceptualisation. A study of different musicological texts shows that the notion is actually used to describe different phenomena and is not perceived differentially to this day. Theoretical discourse lacks in fundamental research aimed at uncovering the whole range of its meanings. This study is based on the hierarchical trinomial concept of the composition school proposed by Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas in his habilitation thesis entitled The Development of the Composition School of Juozas Gruodis and Other Lithuanian Composers (1991). The paper gives a brief historical and factual account of the emergence of the Lithuanian composition school. A particular focus is placed on the analysis of the creative approach and teaching methods of teachers associated with major Lithuanian composition classes and schools, namely Juozas Gruodis, Julius Juzeliūnas, Eduardas Balsys and Osvaldas Balakauskas. The relationship of these composition classes and schools with the national modernism idea articulated by Gruodis is investigated. The article delineates the difference between the two nonequivalent concepts, ‘composition class’ and ‘composition school’. From a genealogical point of view, the author defines two primary composition teaching schools – one of Gruodis and the other of Balakauskas – in the history of Lithuanian musical culture. Keywords: school of composers, composition class, Lithuanian Pedagogical School of Composers, phylogenetics, nationalism, national music, national culture, teaching methodology, creative programme, Juozas Gruodis, Eduardas Balsys, Julius Juzeliūnas, Osvaldas Balakauskas.

Anotacija Studija gvildena kompozitorių ugdymo sistemos raidos klausimus Lietuvoje ir plačiau. Nors sąvoka „kompozitorių mokykla“ senokai figūruoja muzikologijos tekstuose, vis dėlto kaip teorinė sąvoka ji silpnai apmąstyta ir konceptualizuota. Įvairių muzikologijos tekstų tyrimas rodo, kad sąvoka praktiškai taikoma skirtingiems reiškiniams apibūdinti, ji iki šiol suvokiama nediferencijuotai. Teoriniame diskurse stokojama fundamen- talių darbų, skirtų jos reikšmių spektro išskleidimui. Šiame tyrime remiamasi Algirdo Ambrazo habilitacijos darbe „Juozas Gruodis ir lietuvių kompozitorių mokyklos formavimasis“ (1991) siūloma hierarchine trinare kompozitorių mokyklų samprata. Studijoje glaustai pristatoma lietuvių kompozitorių mokyklų radimosi istorija ir faktai. Daugiausia dėmesio skiriama stambiausių Lietuvos pedagoginių kompozitorių klasių bei mokyklų mokytojų – Juozo Gruodžio, Juliaus Juzeliūno, Eduardo Balsio ir Osvaldo Balakausko – kūrybos pozicijų ir pedagogikos metodikų analizei. Gilinamasi į šių kompozicijos klasių bei mokyklų santykį su J. Gruodžio suformuluota nacionalinio modernizmo idėja. Studijoje pagrindžiamas dviejų netapataus lygmens sąvokų – „kompozicijos klasė“ bei „kompozitorių mokykla“ – skirtumas. Genealogijos požiūriu, Lietuvos muzikos kultūros istorijoje autorė išskiria dvi J. Gruodžio ir O. Balakausko įsteigtas „kamienines“ pedagogines kompozitorių mokyklas. Reikšminiai žodžiai: kompozitorių mokykla, kompozicijos klasė, lietuvių kompozitorių mokykla, filogenezė, tautiškumas, nacionalinė muzika, nacionalinė kultūra, pedagogikos metodika, kūrybinė programa, Juozas Gruodis, Eduardas Balsys, Julius Juzeliūnas, Osvaldas Balakauskas.

Most musicologists, upon encountering the concept of consolidation remain varied and indefinite. The situation a ‘school of composers’ and lingering over the issue of its of the use of the concept of a ‘school of composers’ based on meaning, had an opportunity to reflect on different situa- the cause-effect relationship is reflected by several specific tions of its use. When studying various types of musicologi- cases commented upon below. They substantiate a belief cal sources, an impression is created that, in the majority of that the concept, important for the musical culture and the musicological texts, the term of a ‘school of composers’ research, calls for the development of a further rational is used as a concept with a generic, undifferentiated content. scientific discourse. Frequently it refers to a group of composers associated on For example, should we talk of the Russian school of a certain basis or else is related to geographic or national composers, we conceptualise it at the broad level of national characteristics. As a rule, groups of composers from such culture, however, if we want to go deeper and be more large musical empires as France, Germany, Russia, Italy, specific, we shall inevitably get engaged in the discussion of USA, etc., acquire their identity through fragmentation its component parts. In the characteristics of the Moscow when they become related to specific cities, individuals, schools of composers of the 19th – 20th centuries, differ- or historical periods. However, so far, the principles of ent arguments arise for the associations of composers. The

121 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ so-called Moscow School of Composers (Alexey Verstovsky, Creative Activity of 1980 (academic advisor: prof. dr. habil. Alexander Alyabyev, Alexander Varlamov, Alexander Guri- Yuri Kholopov). In her research, the concept of the Moscow lyov) of the late 19th century was based on the de facto prin- School of Composers included the contemporary compos- ciple, i.e., “here and now” (on the basis of time and place). ers of modern music (V. Lobanov, E. Denisov, N. Sidel- In the second half of the 20th century, in the same cultural nikov, R. Ledenev, N. Korndorf, D. Smirnov, G. Sviridov, milieu in Moscow, several schools co-existed. One of them A. Schnittke, A. Eshpay, S. Gubaidulina, B. Tchaiko- was the Moscow Synodal School of Church Singing which vsky, J. Firsova, A. Raskatov, R. Shchedrin, V. Yekimovsky, became a gymnasium in 1886. Its hall was recognised as one L. Bobylev, S. Pavlenko, E. Artemov, V. Tarnopolsky, and of the best in Moscow in terms of acoustics; the gymnasium K. Volkov). As we shall see later, the consolidation of the boasted a scientific library of manuscripts of Russian choral said composers was based on the considerations of an ar- singing. In it, models and methodologies of musical edu- tistic character: in their compositions, they demonstrated cation1 were elaborated, and the gymnasium substantially an individual relationship with the 20th century modernist contributed to the ecclesiastic musical education. However, and post-modernist composition technologies. However, next to it, the Moscow Conservatoire founded by Anton Tsenova did not conceptualise the content or the boundaries Rubinstein in 1886 (currently Moscow State Tchaikovsky of the concept of a ‘school of composers’, either. Conservatoire) worked for several decades. It is no less common knowledge that a fierce rival and The schools of composers – professionals, branching out opponent of the Moscow Conservatory was the St. Peters- over the Russian Empire, were identified, based on a specific burg (Leningrad) Conservatoire (currently, the Rimsky- pedagogical tradition (teacher and pupils). The “stem” Mos- Korsakov St. Petersburg State Conservatoire). The School cow School of Composers in the second half of the 19th cen- of Rimsky-Korsakov founded in St Petersburg in 1871, a tury was named after a chain of pupils of several generations rival of the Composition School of Tchaikovsky, educated a of the composition class set up by Pyotr Tchaikovsky in 1866 number of distinguished composers (Jāzeps Vītols, Alexan- (Sergei Taneyev, Reinhold Glière, Alexander Scriabin, Ser- der Glazunov, Alexander Gretchaninov, Mikhail Ippolitov- gei Rachmaninoff, Nikolai Myaskovski, Nikolai Medtner, Ivanov, Anatolyj Lyadov, Nikolai Myaskovsky, Sergej etc.). Even though the school was set up by Tchaikovsky, his Prokofjev, Igor Stravinsky, Nikolaj Tcherepnin, Maximilian pupil Sergei Taneyev to whom Tchaikovsky had left his place Steinberg). The pedagogical style, theoretical attitudes, and in the Conservatoire contributed greatly to the education the creations of the professors themselves and their pupils of composers. Tchaikovsky as a teacher felt oppressed by differed. Igor Stravinsky wrote about his studies: the pedagogical routine which “clipped the wings” of his creative flight. In theРусская музыкальная газета [Rus- My musical education had one big advantage: I studied under sian Musical Paper], pianist Rostislav Genika who attended Rimsky-Korsakov. He was an absolutely remarkable teacher, Tchaikovsky’s creative seminars in harmony, orchestration, especially attentive and meticulous, wise and witty. His com- and composition testified to the fact of Tchaikovsky’s be- ments were provided in a form that was almost impossible to forget. The pupils of Rimsky-Korsakov understood one thing ing bored with academic activities, therefore, and, as soon for the rest of their lives: he never extended praise. A pupil as the opportunity came, Tchaikovsky left it without any who expected an encouraging pat on the shoulder would have pangs of conscience. been disappointed in Rimsky-Korsakov. On the contrary, his 3 For a genius, hard boring craftsmanship is twice difficult. […] criticism could be ruthlessly strict. The hours of theory lessons for Tchaikovsky were dragging in a Those were the representatives of the St. Petersburg bleak row; he was openly bored and could hardly stop a yawn.2 School (particularly Stravinsky and Prokofiev) who As Nadezhda von Meck settled an annuity of 6,000 most effectively disseminated Russian musical culture in rubles on him, on 6 October 1878, he gave his last class in emigration; moreover, as we shall see , the graduates of the Conservatoire. that Conservatoire founded the schools of composers in As for the Moscow School of Composers in the late Latvia and Estonia. Soviet period, a prerequisite for associating composers I shall comment on another case of interpretation of was the policy of art, ideology, and the outcomes of its the ‘school of composers’ phenomenon, based on the Bos- struggle against formalism. Due to the hermeticity of the ton School in the USA that Richard Taruskin also called Iron Curtain of culture, the so-called Moscow School of the Stravinsky School (Taruskin 1997: 457). Taruskin Composers in the 70s and 80s of the 20th century united emphasised that the Boston School consisted mainly of the authors who violated the legitimate relations with the composers of Jewish descent (Arthur Berger, Irving Fine, modernism of technologies. Valeria Tsenova named them Lukas Foss, Alexei Haieff, Harold Shapero, etc.), inspired in her dissertation for the degree of Candidate of Sciences by Igor Stravinsky’s neo-classicism,4 who had settled in Bos- Problems of Music Composition in the Moscow Composers’ ton. The reason of their getting together was an ideological

122 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse counterweight to Schönberg’s model of modernism and apparent paucity of new approaches and of fundamental the commonality of views and aesthetic attitudes. In other research on the phenomenon of ‘a school of composers’. words, the philosophy of the school, as identified by Theo- The said disadvantage works systematically, therefore the dor Adorno, formed in the dispute of the two directions emerging new facts and sources are of no help. They do of modernism in the 20th century – those of Stravinsky not help to identify the boundaries of the concept, hinder and Schönberg. The Boston composers were inspired by discussions, and expand the discourse. the direction of the Russian modernist. However, their as- Since we stopped at the 20th century Paris School, its sociation was predetermined by deeper reasons. They were identity was expanded by a group of émigré composers from revealed by the thorough research conducted by Phillip different countries effectively functioning in the interwar Ramey (Ramey 2005: 49–50). Ramey indicated, for exam- period. As is well known, France, Paris, and Montmartre ple, the fact that most of the representatives of the school became a magnet for the artists of those countries (choreog- had been pupils of Nadia Boulanger. They collaborated with raphers, painters, theatre people, and, of course, musicians). Serge Koussevitzky, who had emigrated to the USA, and The so-calledÉcole de Paris-Émigré – a concept that first all that predetermined the identity of the school. As can appeared on the pages of journals – later was transferred to be seen, an active component of the teacher’s pedagogical articles on ‘school of composers’, encyclopaedias, dictionar- tradition was included into the constitutive structure of ies, etc. From the viewpoint of Polish Alexandre Tansman, the school of composers next to geography, place and time, who had moved to Paris in 1923 and who could not resist and the aesthetic priorities (the direction). The effectiveness the influence of Ravel and Stravinsky, composers from of the former could be observed also in the genesis of the Eastern and Central Europe were active at that school, Russian schools of composers. and “they were united by a deep friendship, as well as the Nadia Boulanger, the teacher of quite a few composers attachment to France and its culture”.7 As Tansman put it: of the Boston School, was a fan of French impressionists (Debussy and Ravel). She met Americans when reading a Their ties lay more in maintaining creative communication course of harmony in the French Music School for Ameri- and reviewing one another’s compositions. If one had to identify common stylistic features, it would probably point to cans founded in 1921. It was no coincidence that among folklore [...]. The group‘s headquarters was the Café du Dom the students of the first year was Aaron Copland, one of 5 in the Boulevard Montparnasse. The École de Paris did not the initiators of the national USA School of Composers. arise from protest against something, nor did it have its own He testified: Jean Cocteau. It simply did not aspire to appear in print.8

Nadia Boulanger knew everything there was to know about Still, confusion arises when one starts naming the music; she knew the oldest and the latest music, pre-Bach and geography of émigré composers and the lists of the school post-Stravinsky. All technical know-how was at her fingertips.6 members, since Paris attracted not merely Eastern and After the premiere of Igor Stravinsky’s The Firebird Central Europeans. In the framework of her research in performed by Sergei Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes Company in École de Paris-Émigré, Liudmila Korabelnikova who tried the 1921 Paris season and to the end of her life, Boulanger to solve the dilemma named the main figures: Polish Al- became a sworn fan of Stravinsky’s music and his friend. It exandre Tansman, Russian Alexander Tcherepnin, Czech was an obvious opposition to the “hard”, rational German Bohuslav Martinů, Marcel Mihalovici from Romania, and (Austrian) modernism and an open approval of the direc- a Hungarian Tobor Harsányi9. When naming the Russian tion of modernisation of Stravinsky’s compositions. The émigrés, A. Girard named Prokofiev, Lourié, Obuchov, but Boston School representatives never became supporters of not Stravinsky. Meanwhile, famous French critic Henri serial constructivism, however, they re-contemplated tonal- Pruniéres among the Russian émigrés indicated Stravinsky, ity, and their values included the diatonic and pandiatonic Prokofiev, Igor Markevitch, and Nikolai Obuchov. The na- scales and a quasi-modal way of thinking. However, should tional identification of the émigrés was expanded by Ameri- we include the component of the creative-pedagogical pro- cans, British, Austrians, Italians, Bulgarians, Finns, Greeks, gramme of Boulanger in the genesis of the Boston School, Norwegians, Canadians, Portuguese, Swiss, and Yugoslavs. we ought to “switch over” to the tradition of another school: The above discussed examples serve as an illustration of the in the context of the 20th century, numerous sources associ- pluralistic use of the term ‘a school of composers’, the key ated the School of Boulanger with the Paris School. We have concept in the present research. to admit that, in the late 20th century, the Paris School was As we can see, the criteria that got composer groups increasingly more closely associated with spectral music, or together have so far been various and indefinite, and the spectralism, or a compositional technique developed in the use of the concept of a ‘school of composers’ in a number of 1970s by Gérard Grisey, Tristan Murail, and their followers musicological texts is similar to a noncommittal use of a ge- at IRCAM. The above mentioned examples highlight the neric noun. The word-concept has been applied on different

123 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ bases, and its content seems not to have ever been seriously researcher developed a theory of another fundamental considered. In the texts of philosophy and anthropology concept, that of a national style. Ambrazas wrote: of music, the phenomenon of a ‘school of composers’ has The national style in its mature state is a certain system of never been, nor is, actively investigated. There is a lack of elements and their relations, characteristic from the national new approaches and fundamental research, although the point of view, which is open and developing. (Амбразас importance of the phenomenon has never been questioned. 1991: 37) Fragments of the history of national schools of composers substantiating the concept, facts, and specific angles have Obviously, in the definition of the category of a musical spread over numerous discourses interpreting the art of style, Ambrazas applied the basic concepts of General Sys- sounds. I summarised the insights that cover the keyword ‘a tem Theory (GST), developed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy12 school of composition’, based on the studies of facts, creative in the middle of the century, or of an organismic view on and pedagogical contexts, and the situations of use. I shall the theory of evolution. He defined the mental, spiritual, present them as a sequence of four theses which ought to and national folklore characteristics typical of a nation as encourage the development of a further discourse. characteristic elements, as stable and invariant levels of the Firstly, in most musicological texts, the concept of a national style structure. The changing and developing levels, ‘school of composers’ has been used as a conventional, generic according to him, were the national tradition of profes- concept or a generic noun with an undifferentiated content. sional composing, the adoption of cultural experience of Secondly, the principles upon which one would sub- other nations, and an individual style of composers. He sume a group of composers under a certain school seems to emphasised that the national style of an individual com- be largely pluralistic, variable, and unspecified. poser, depending on their talent, aesthetic attitudes, and Thirdly, the semantic potential of the term is mostly the achieved level of compositional techniques, could be applied in the nationalist discourse where it usually func- traditional or innovative and conservative or contemporary. tions retroactively. In his works, Ambrazas also arranged the levels of the Fourthly, the concept appears to lose its currency in the categories of the national identity of music and the subor- 21st century due to the lack of new approaches and more dination of characteristics: fundamental research. •• national uniqueness; Further research aims to provide theoretical interpreta- •• a national style (a system of individual national char- tions of the relevant content of the concept of a ‘school of acteristics); composers’. The case of an analysis of the concept with a •• a national school of composers – professional creations of differentiated content will be presented by the study of the composers characterised by an established national style; development of Lithuanian professional music. •• national music: a category covering folk and professional creations; •• national culture – the supreme integrating category Consideration of the theoretical discourse covering composing, performance, forms of musical of a school of composers life, musical education, etc.13

When viewing the schools of composers from a re- As we see, the central concept of the research (‘a school searcher’s angle, attention is drawn to the conception of a of composers’) is placed in the centre of the levels of the school of composers laid out in the habilitation paper Juozas national style system. It acquires a fundamental significance Gruodis and the Development of the Lithuanian School of in Ambrazas’ hierarchical, tripartite conception of ‘a school Composers (1991)10 by Lithuanian musicologist Algirdas of composers’. The latter differentiates the following levels: Jonas Ambrazas (1937–2016). Its origins can be found in a) Pedagogical schools, or schools of composers, based on the the so-called Candidate of Sciences dissertation Issues of the general components of a school (a curriculum, a teacher, Musical Heritage of Juozas Gruodis, defended at the N.A. pupils, a fixed specific place, time, and tradition); Rimsky-Korsakov Leningrad State Conservatoire in 1969.11 b) ‘Free schools’ (the concept of Ofelia Tuisk), voluntary It was a comprehensive and thorough research paper on associations of artists and like-minded people – schools the musical activity of Juozas Gruodis (1884–1948), the of composers; founder of the Lithuanian Pedagogical School of Composers. c) National schools of composers – as mentioned above, that In the habilitation paper (defended in Moscow in 1991), means creations of professional composers characterised Ambrazas formed and substantiated a tripartite structural by a formed national style.14 Ambrazas pointed out that model of schools of composers. His most fundamental two levels intersect in the concept: the characteristics concept was the phenomenon of a national school of com- of the national culture represented by the artist and the posers. When preparing its theoretical substantiation, the aesthetical orientation of his creative activity.

124 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

The critical context of a national school of composers Another wave of criticism of the concept of a national integrates the idea of national or folk music. It is important school of composers was inspired by a live process of com- to note that the views of Western European and Eastern position. The prevailing aspirations for original, individual European musicians immediately clash at that point. The interpretations of relevant compositional technologies ac- concept itself implies a certain ideological and historical count for the fact that presently, technological ideas bring connotation. The concept of a national style, if viewed composers together, but not on the basis of a national not merely from the environment of the formation of a characteristic. Thus, in the ranks of spectralist adherents, Guido Adler-style theory (Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, we see a Finn (Kaija Saariaho), a Romanian (Horatiu Rad- Handbook of Music History, 1924), and even more from the ulescu), and a Frenchman (Philippe Hurel), while the fractal time of post-modernism, brings about no less theoretical phenomenon of polytempo brings together composers from controversy than the principal keyword ‘a school of com- Mexico (Conlon Nancarrow), Denmark (Per Nørgård), posers’. Controversial and artistic ideological views have and Lithuania (Rytis Mažulis). Ivan Florjanc seconds the been clashing over the idea of a national (folk) music since idea that the identification of national identity in a modern olden times. Classical examples of insensitivity to the idea society is replaced by multiple complex identifications of of national music were left by Danish Niels Gade, Edward another kind, e.g., assimilations, racial, linguistic, or geo- 19 Grieg’s teacher and an adept of Felix Mendelssohn’s music,15 political affiliation, etc. Influential American musicolo- Carl Reinacke, Čiurlionis’ teacher at the Leipzig Conserva- gist Richard Taruskin who “inflamed” the criticism of the toire, and a number of Western composers. concept of national music defined the oppositions “national vs. Cosmopolitan” or “progressive vs. Conservative” as old- A sceptical approach to the creation of national music fashioned binary structures. was also promoted by a large number of famous musicolo- The second meaning of the concept of a school of com- gists, such as Th. Adorno, W. Apel, F. Blume, H. Eggebrecht, posers (“free schools”) is related to voluntary associations C. Dahlhaus, and others. For example, Dahlhaus argued of like-minded artists whose representatives were united that the declaration of a national music (school) was by the goal of manifestation and development of creative acknowledged and that the musical phenomena covered traditions (the conceptions of O. Tuisk, M. S. Kаgan, and by those concepts were peripheral. He believed that the V. G. Vlasov); it overlaps with the concept of an “artistic definition undoubtedly showed that ‘nationality’ was op- direction”, an artistic school.20 To quote Viktor Vlasov: posed to ‘universality’, and ‘universality’ was merged with the privilege of the “central” musical nations.16 From the ...artistic schools [...] could be more precisely and strictly lo- viewpoint of the cultural parataxis theory, the opposition calised in time and space, based on chronological, territorial, 21 of the imperial geomodern “centre” and the national “pe- and geographical boundaries. riphery” was not, however, the final decision of Dahlhaus. In that case, the concept of “school” replaces that of “di- Later he converted the opposition into synergy and, having rection”. Such artistic schools (“schools of free composers”) rephrased the statement, wrote: have existed in all times. One of those was the Neudeutsche 22 The universality is achieved not through the opposition to Schule (the so-called Weimar School) initiated by Liszt: nationality, but through nationality.17 it was a progressive movement of contemporary composers which opposed the conservativism of the old German The devaluation of the opposition between the “na- school and sought to implement the idea of the music of the tional” and the “international” increasing since Schönberg’s future (Musik der Zukunft). There was also a French school time, distinct geopolitical shifts, and the “internationality” The Six( Les Six), the so-called Paris School, that gathered of the establishment of compositional technologies pre- around Pierre Boulez, and IRCAM, the German school that determined the belief of most Westerners in the complete gathered around Karlheinz Stockhausen, etc. However, not obsolescence of the idea of national music (or a school of everybody agreed with the fact of the replacement of the composers). On the other hand, from the viewpoint of concept of “direction” by the concept of “school”. Octavian Lazăr Cosma, the concept of a “national school When in 1957 Luigi Nono called the Darmstadt In- of composers” became difficult to define for two reasons: ternational Summer Courses (Darmstädter Ferienkurse) a first of all, due to a shortage of technical terms to confirm school, a fierce and broad discussion arose. The authorities it and, second, due to the indefiniteness of the concept who opposed the view (Нerman Danuser,23 Hanz Heinz of ‘school’ because of it completely losing a precise mean- Stuckenschmidt, and Gionmario Borio) tried to prove that ing.18 The said defects can still be addressed by studying Nono was mistaken and argued that the Darmstadt courses the phenomenon of a school of composers in-depth and could not be called a school. However, when viewed from a to form its theoretical foundations, which so far has been differentiated viewpoint, in their discussion, they tended to developing slowly. substantiate the idea of a school of composers by the criteria

125 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ of a pedagogical school of composers (they looked for the name to a theory applied in the transformation of the rela- figure of a teacher and a single curriculum). Emphasis was tionship with the so-called imperial modernity (S. Fried- placed on a fluctuating state of the status of teacher and man (2001, 2006, 2007) and like-minded authors, such as pupil: from the beginning, the relationships between teach- A. L. Geist and J. B. Monléon, G. Yúdice, J. Scandura, L. ers and students were based on the difference in experience, Doyle, L. Winkel, M. Thurston, H. J. Booth, N. Rigby, A. despite the priority of age. In 1958, Stuckenschmidt wrote: Eysteinsson).27 Supporters of cultural parataxis (philoso- phers, culturologists, anthropologists, art critics) chose to 18 and 70-year-olds kept exchanging the roles of teachers criticise the facts raised by “the great modernity narratives”, and students, and it was specifically that constant change that written stories, periodisations, hierarchies, and heroes. “The accounted for the absence of hierarchy.24 great modernity narratives”, as a rule, adored the centres of Thus, the description of ‘school’ lacked some distinct modernism (the West) and their cultural figures, however, characteristics: there was no single teacher, and a curriculum they regarded the creators of local modernisms of the rest of serialism was replaced by one of post-serialism.25 Should of the world (the Rest) as successors to the discoveries of we apply the concept of hierarchical structures of Ambrazas’ imperial metropolises, imitators and plagiarists (the rec- schools of composition, the Darmstadt School would have ognised music centres included the New Viennese School, been closer to ‘free schools’. In his habilitation paper, the Darmstadt International Summer Courses, IRCAM, Ambrazas emphasised more than once that the concept ‘a etc.). In the theory of parataxis, of special importance school of composers’ was often used in several meanings: was the very new perception of modernity as a totality of in terms of the specification and localisation of a creative multiple, non-synchronic various modernisms in different direction (e.g., the New Viennese School), or, in another parts of the world. A parataxical view was to be taken both case, in terms of a specific national culture. of “cosmopolitan”, geo-modernist creations and of a musical culture fostering national identity. In the present study, I shall further expand the issue of the development of a pedagogical school of composers. In the structure of such schools, Ambrazas identified six main The prerequisites for setting up pedagogical components, listed in a certain subordinated sequence.26 schools of composers in Lithuania and their The system of a pedagogical school of composers genealogy consisted of: a) A totality of the knowledge, skills, beliefs, and the I shall comment upon an example of the development principles and techniques of their implementation, i.e. of Lithuanian pedagogical schools of composers, based a curriculum (what is taught and inculcated at school?); on the research into its development of over 9 decades. b) A teacher (one or a team) who conveys the curriculum First of all, I would like to discuss several prerequisites and of the school in his environment (who teaches?) conditions for the emergence of a Lithuanian pedagogical c) Pupils mastering the content of the curriculum of the schools of composers. Teaching composition is an exclu- school and adopting their teachers’ experience (who the sive phenomenon of cultural significance, and to mature knowledge is conveyed to?) it in Lithuania in the early 20th century, many factors of d) The venue where the process of teaching takes place the development of musical culture had to concentrate (where are pupils taught?) and interact. I shall mention several related ones: but for e) The time and duration of teaching (when and for how their effective interaction, it would have been difficult to long are pupils taught?) imagine the start of teaching composition and the work of f ) The continuity of the content of teaching, i.e. the tradi- still operating “stem” schools. tions that ensure the succession and sustainability of the Due to the absence of a musical education system, in the school (in what way?) late 19th and the early 20th century, Lithuanian composers and performers studied in foreign higher musical education Upon setting the aim to follow the performance of the institutions abroad: the Institute of Music in Warsaw, the Lithuanian schools of composers and the integration of Royal Institute of Church Music in Potsdam (Charlot- the creations of teachers and pupils into an international tenburg), the School of Church Music in Regensburg and context, it seems necessary to define a theoretical approach Berlin, Leipzig Conservatory, Saint Petersburg, Moscow, adapted to the present research: the theory of cultural and Berlin conservatories, the Russian Conservatory in parataxis and an approach of parataxical comparativism. Paris, the Prague Conservatory and Alois Hába’s Studio That is a typical post-modernist theory and a new strategy of Quartertones in Prague, etc. They were very important of reading cultural texts (compositions). The concept of for the emerging intentions to create national music and parataxis (Greek parataxis – alignment side by side) gave for the development of Lithuanian musical culture, and

126 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse afterwards for its maturity and the pedagogical tradition •• Moderate modernism (Gruodis, Banaitis, Jakubėnas, of teaching composition. Nabažas, Gaidelis, Pakalnis); th The cultural milieu of Lithuanian music in the early 20 •• Modernism, conditionally called the first Lithuanian century can be called a period both of the development of avant-garde (Bacevičius, Kačinskas). the compositional teaching system and the debuts of professional music genres. Before the First World War, Lithuanian The maturation of the creative milieu (“soil”) led to the composers produced their first: possibility of starting work at the level of composer educat- •• Symphonic poems (Čiurlionis’ In the Forest, 1901, The ing schools and conservatoires in Lithuania. I shall name Sea, 1907; Karnavičius’ Ulalume, 1917), several facts and events related to the process of launching •• Operas (Mikas Petrauskas’ Birutė, 1906, Eglė the Queen the Lithuanian pedagogical schools of composers. of Grass Snakes, 1910–1923); The start of teaching composition in Lithuania was •• Operettas (Petrauskas’ The Chimney-Sweeper and the marked by the opening of the first Department of Com- Miller, 1903; and 16 other ones afterwards); position at the Klaipėda Music School, or the Klaipėda •• Symphonies (Juozas Žilevičius’ Symphony, 1919; Conservatoire (Memeler Konservatorium für Musik), in Bacevičius’ Symphony No. 1, 1928); 1923 through the efforts of Stasys Šimkus. Šimkus had •• Other symphonic genres (Gruodis’ symphonic piece A graduated from Jāzeps Vītols class of composition in the Nice Autumn, 1922; A Symphonic Prologue, 1923, The St. Petersburg Conservatoire, therefore, he transferred its Dance of Life, 1928); curriculum and the model of studies to Klaipėda: the core •• Concerto for piano and orchestra (Bacevičius’ Concerto curriculum of four years, while the willing ones could ex- for Piano and Orchestra No. 1, 1929); tend their studies for another one or two years. However, •• A string quartet (Čiurlionis’ String Quartet in C minor, the beginning of the Lithuanian (pedagogical) schools of 1901/1902); composers is attributed to Gruodis and the Kaunas Music •• Mass and Requiem (Naujalis, Sasnauskas, Brazys); School in 1927, and later to the Kaunas Conservatoire •• Sonatas (Gruodis’ Sonata for piano No. 1 in C-sharp (1933). Why? The Composition Class of Šimkus had 24 minor Passionate; 1919; Sonata for violin and piano in pupils in the first year of studies, but only two of them – Do- D minor, 1922) mas Andrulis and Juozas Bertulis – completed the studies •• Pieces of piano music (Čiurlionis, Bacevičius); of composition. What went wrong? •• Solo and choir songs; The pedagogical activity of Šimkus and the process of •• Harmonisations of Lithuanian folk songs. composer education were complicated by at least three serious reasons: his own limited experience in composi- Although the classical rules of composing in a romantic tion, a defective teaching methodology, and his difficult shape predominated, however, as early as in the second half character. Prior to teaching at the Klaipėda Conservatoire, of the 1920s and the beginning of the 1930s, increasingly he had only composed works in several genres: he wrote solo more radically inclined young people were coming back songs, harmonised Lithuanian folk songs, and had several from their studies abroad (Gruodis, Bendorius, Banaitis, student-genre compositions, such as Variations for piano Dvarionas came from the Leipzig Conservatoire, Bacevičius Lithuanian Silhouettes (1921), and a cantata Farewell to from the Russian Paris Conservatoire, Kačinskas from the Homeland (1920). Large forms, such as the opera A Village Prague Conservatoire and Hába’s Quartertone Studio, by the Manor (Pagirėnai, 1941) and a symphonic poem and Jakubėnas from the Berlin Higher Music School); Nemunas (1930) were composed by Šimkus after he had both in their compositions and in the press, oppositional stopped teaching composition. The most serious defect in creative positions and orientations started to emerge which his large form compositions was a lack of the development manifested themselves in the discussions on national music of themes, the “post-expositional crisis”, a problem of most composing. The four-decade long development of Lithu- young national schools and young composers. Instead of anian professional music (until the Second World War), that, Šimkus developed new themes (Račiūnas also wrote depending on their aesthetic and technological orienta- in a similar way). In the early 20th century, only Čiurlionis tions and relationships with the modernist innovations of and Kačinskas, and partially Bacevičius, seemed to have European music, can be conditionally differentiated into avoided that. When teaching students, Šimkus behaved in five directions: a similar way: he assigned increasingly more tasks (asked •• Romantic – academic (Naujalis, Sasnauskas, Petrauskas, to harmonise up to 20 melodies). The teacher never com- Šimkus, Tallat Kelpša, Kačanauskas); mented on students works, did not correct mistakes, or did 28 •• Romantic – constructivist with manifestations of mod- not show the way to do things better . In the autumn of ernism (Čiurlionis); 1930, students refused to attend his classes, the situation •• Traditionalist (academic, classical) (Brazys); was getting worse, and the headmaster only agreed to meet

127 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ

Scheme 1. A genealogical tree of Juozas Gruodis’ pedagogical school of composers (Daunoravičienė’s design) students when two policemen in disguise participated. In by Juozas Gruodis, the interwar period “sun of modernism” May 1927, the Minister of Education Šakenis received the in Lithuanian music (as Gruodis was ironically titled by his students’ request to replace the headmaster of the school. Si- conservative colleague T. Brazys), that was recognised as multaneously, an issue of quality arose: was it really a higher the first and the largest pedagogical school of composers in school of musical education that operated in Klaipėda? In Lithuania. As argued by Ambrazas is his habilitation thesis 1928, the name of the conservatoire was annulled, and the and as testified by the present research, Gruodis’ creative author of the first Lithuanian symphony Juozas Žilevičius and pedagogical activity conformed to the system of the became the headmaster of the school. pedagogical schools for composers with all the components In 1927, on the initiative of Gruodis, the Kaunas Music present. Gruodis wrote its first curriculum and developed School was set up in the provisional capital, with the second the methodology of teaching.29 Gruodis was the creator in Lithuania Department of Composition (“free compos- of the national style of music and consistently fostered ing”) in it (in 1933, the school was renamed the Kaunas the conception of national modernism (Ernst Gellner’s Conservatoire). In 1949, the Kaunas Conservatoire was term).30 Professor Gruodis raised the “flag” (direction) of transferred to Vilnius, and the Department of Composition national modernism (as the organic whole of the interac- continued in the Lithuanian State Conservatoire (presently tion between the concepts of “national music” and “modern the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre). The history music”) and brought pupils together. Most of the later of the Lithuanian pedagogical schools of composers over generations of Lithuanian composers were the students of the period of 93 years of their operation has been recorded, two of his pupils: Julius Juzeliūnas (1916–2001) and An- and continues to be recorded, by the work of 16 Lithuanian tanas Račiūnas (1905–1984) (see Schema 1). The second classes of composition. “stem” pedagogical school was established by Osvaldas As composer education at the Klaipėda Music School Balakauskas (b. 1937), who came back from Kiev to Vilnius stopped, it was the system of composer education developed in 1972 and started teaching composition in the Lithuanian

128 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

Scheme 2. A genealogical tree of Osvaladas Balakauskas’ pedagogical school of composers (Daunoravičienė’s design)

Conservatoire in the 1980s. He was the central figure of the research. That was (c) the continuity of the pedagogical Lithuanian modernism in the 1960s to 1980s of the 20th tradition and a transforming relationship with the teacher’s century and made a substantial contribution to the rapid programme /curriculum. From the start of composers’ updating of Lithuanian music (see 2 scheme). education in Lithuania in 1923, the criteria of a pedagogi- The history of teaching composition in Lithuania in cal school of composers and the classes of composition im- the present research is represented by the schematised plemented in practice enabled the identification of the two “genealogical trees”, drawn by the author, of two core Lithu- most important “stem” pedagogical schools of composition. anian schools of composition. Their design differentiates The first and the oldest one was that of Juozas Gruodis at the non-identical concepts of the structure of the school the Kaunas Music School in 1927, and later, the school of of composers: the composition school and the composition composers set up at the Kaunas Conservatoire in 1933. The class. The arguments covering the factors of differentiating second genealogical tree represented, as mentioned above, between pedagogical schools of composition and classes the pedagogical school of composers established by professor of composition were laid out by Algirdas Ambrazas in his Osvaldas Balakauskas (on the principles of its work). theory. In his opinion, the concept of a school of composers The “genealogical trees” introducing the history of rested on several fundamental components, which included: teaching composition in Lithuania grew in different cultural (a) teacher’s articulated creative attitude (“a clearly expressed “soils” and inherited different pedagogical traditions that aesthetic, creative attitude” (Ambrazas), and (b) a systemic had raised the founders of the schools. That predetermined character of the compositional principles established by a the characteristics of the composer’s education or, in a teacher (Ofelia Tuisk: “not individual elements, but a system broader sense, the features of Lithuanian musical culture of compositional techniques and aesthetic provisions”31). identity, and its “face”. In the analysis of the curricula of However, the totality of the school criteria had to be sup- the two “stem” pedagogical schools of composers, one can plemented by a third component formulated by the author of suggest several fundamental insights: both were based on

129 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ a modernistic orientation, however, they differed in their independent studies of 20th century modernism, and espe- relationship with the idea of folk and national music. What cially of avant-garde music, from books and in the circle of else united or separated the two “stem” Lithuanian schools Blazhkov & Silvestrov and by communication with Kievan and their teachers? modernists. The knowledge of European avant-garde music On the one hand, in the “roots” of both of them, the brought by Balakauskas on his return to Lithuania in 1972 influences of Russian culture (and pedagogy) and of West- destroyed the hermeticity of the Soviet-era compositional ern culture (German, modernism of the 20th century) were education system and revealed the broader perspective of intertwined. They were united by a common aspiration for 20th century music composition. I shall add that, on the modern, contemporary creation. Several fundamental oppo- example of Silvestrov’s “night hearings”, upon returning sitions were inherent there: the ideas of national modernity to Lithuania, Balakauskas for some time kept inviting his and cosmopolitan modernity, practical teaching of compo- colleagues to his apartment in Vilnius (in the so-called sition and the development of an original compositional Scientist House, J. Tumo-Vaižganto g. 9/1) and educating system. The differences were based on the histories and crea- them: he introduced them to the literature of avant-garde tive activities of the founders of the schools. So far, we have music and the scores that he had brought, and they listened mostly been speaking about the contexts of the emerging of to recordings. Thus, through institutions and teachers, Rus- Lithuanian pedagogical schools of composers and their cul- sian (and partially Ukrainian) musical culture and its peda- tural milieu – the “soil” and the founders (“the stems” were gogical traditions at the Moscow and Kiev Conservatoires introduced); nonetheless, it is no less important to briefly were integrated into the foundations of Lithuanian schools. discuss the ideas, trends, and the theses of the programmes The impact of Western schools, adopted by Šimkus and that circulated in the network of the “roots” of the schools. Gruodis during their studies (1921–1922, 1920–1924) at From that viewpoint, it is obvious that, in the “roots” of the Leipzig Conservatoire and experienced by Balakauskas the Lithuanian schools of composers, traditions of different in the Kiev avant-garde circle, manifested itself to no lesser a musical cultures and pedagogies were intertwined. The pre- degree. As illustrated by the above drawn genealogical trees dominant influences came from German and Russian musical of the Lithuanian schools of composers, the two “stem” cultures. The founder of the first Department of Composi- schools were followed by a third, Julius Juzeliūnas’, school tion Stasys Šimkus studied composition in the Jāzeps Vītols that educated 47 composers. It branched from the main School of composition in the St Petersburg Conservatoire “stem” of Gruodis’ school of composition (see Schema 1). from 1908 to 1914. He was dissatisfied with the conservative It is especially important to emphasise that the identity teaching and the “stopped time” of that school (as defined by of the three Lithuanian schools of composition and their Šimkus). More refreshing inspirations came to Šimkus from orientation were strictly modernistic. his studies in Germany, at the Leipzig Conservatoire and at The comparison of Lithuanian, Estonian, and Latvian the Berlin Conservatoire, where in the years 1921–1922 he schools of composition reveals certain differences in the studied in the composition classes of Paul Graener, Sigfrid system of the “roots”. It is necessary to note that the Lat- Karg-Elert, and Max von Schillings. The founder of the vian and Estonian national schools of composers were largest school of composition Juozas Gruodis absorbed the established earlier than the Lithuanian ones. On the other German pedagogical tradition at the Leipzig Conservatoire hand, their founders (differently from Gruodis) were pupils in the period of 1920 to 1924, although in 1914, he took of the Russian pedagogical tradition (the St. Petersburg private lessons in the theory of music from A. Ilyinsky and N. Conservatoire). The founder and Rector of the Latvian Ladukhin, pupils of S. Teneyev, in Moscow and studied the Conservatoire Jāzeps Vītols (1863–1948) graduated from theory of music at Moscow Conservatoire in 1915 through Rimsky-Korsakov’s composition class at the St. Petersburg to 1916. Both Gruodis’ teachers of composition – Vladimir Conservatoire, became its professor, and, upon founding Rebikov (1866–1920) and Paul Graener (1872–1944) – the Latvian Conservatoire, acted as its Rector for 25 years studied theory of music and composition in Berlin, and (1919–1944). Vītols inculcated the foundations of profes- Rebikov privately also in Austria32. sionalism and a strongly constructed form in his pupils Osvaldas Balakauskas at the Kiev Conservatoire (Prokofiev, Myaskovsky, Vainiūnas, and others). He wrote (1964–1969) was educated by the tandem of Lyatoshinsky plenty of music for choir and, even though not being con- & Glière: adoration for Scriabin’s music became the trade- servative, he did not generate innovative ideas, either. His mark of Lyatoshinsky’s school. The studies of 20th century compositions and the pedagogical direction substantially modern music initiated by the night universities of the Kiev predetermined the trends of Latvian music development Avant-garde, the established values, and the creative vectors in the first half of the 20th century. Estonian musicologist were the second non-academic education for Balakauskas. Mart Humal who was engaged in the comparative studies Nonetheless, a greater influence on Balakauskas’ school of the modernisation of Latvian, Estonian, and Lithuanian of composition and his musical works was made by his professional music acknowledged that, in Latvia:

130 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

...the music of the 20s through the 30s was the most conserva- Valter Ojakäär, Uno Naissoo, Arne Oit, Jaan Rääts, Heino tive, and there were almost no compositions of the modernist Jürisalu, Arvo Pärt, Alo Põldmäe, and Lepo Sumera).40 type.33 Upon discussing the stories of emergence of Lithuanian schools of composers, classes of composition, and their Humal named Jānis Ivanovs’ works, e.g., his Symphony contexts and upon defining the key concepts of the pre- No. 4 in E-flat major Atlantis (1939),34 as an exception. In sent research, the genealogical trees of Lithuanian schools the discussion of the musical stylistics predominating in the of composers that summarised the research were drawn. school of Vītols, Jānis Kudiņš indicated the prevalence of the However, the research preamble and the graphic configu- classical standards in it, which accounted for a rather long stage ration of the “tree” provided just a prerequisite for further of national romanticism in the 20th century Latvian music.35 research. Undoubtedly, the work of the pedagogical schools In Estonia, the first music teaching schools were of composers is one of the fundamental cornerstones in the founded in 1919. In 1920, as many as two Estonian peda- formation of any national musical culture. gogical schools of composers were founded whose differences strongly influenced the development of 20th century Estonian national music. The Tallinn school of composers Juozas Gruodis’ creative programme was founded by Artur Kapp (1878–1952), another pupil of Rimsky-Korsakov, who in his creative provisions was close In our in-depth studies of the major Lithuanian to Vītols. Kapp created in the traditional genres and applied pedagogical schools of composers, we inevitably come to rather traditional means, and perhaps due to that there were the following fundamental questions: firstly, how did a not so many prominent composers among his pupils (Evald teacher, his creative activity, ideals, and the relations with Aav, Gustav Ernesaks, Helen Tobias-Duesberg): some the technological provisions of modernity affect the further of them imitated Tchaikovsky’s style, and others turned development of music through his pupils? Secondly, on towards choir conducting and compositions for choir. As what scale can national culture be sometimes affected by acknowledged by Ofelija Tuisk36, the Tallinn school was one creator-teacher? To put it simply, was Cage’s radicalism permeated by academism and held a negative or reserved substantiated by the fact that he had Henry Cowell and Ar- view of innovations. nold Schönberg41 among his teachers? (Cage studied under The modernisation of Estonian musical culture was Schönberg for two years after the former had immigrated to much more strongly influenced by the so-called Tartu Los Angeles in 1930s, just prior to World War II). As among School of Composers. It was founded by Heino Eller the subordinated components of pedagogical schools the (1887–1970) who in the years 1919 through 1920 studied teacher, his creative activity, and his programme emerge as under Vassily Kalafati, Maximilian Steinberg, and Mikhail the most important characteristics, I shall discuss the crea- Chernov in the St. Petersburg Conservatoire. Eller who tive positions of the teachers in the Lithuanian schools of surpassed the traditionalist Kapp by his compositions composers from that viewpoint. is considered to be the creator of the Estonian national The modernist orientation in the creations of Juozas instrumental style. The modernist trend in his creations Gruodis, the founder of the national school of composers, was especially clearly revealed in the 1920s (similarly to was predetermined by his private lessons under Vladimir Lyatoshinsky’s music), when it vividly responded to the Rebikov42 (1915–1919) in Yalta. When Rebikov was enroll- trends of expressionism and impressionism in European ing in the Moscow Conservatoire and playing a waltz with music (e.g., symphonic poems Night Calls, 1920; Phantoms, ‘modernist dissonances’, the chairman of the committee for 1924). Eller founded/gave meaning to the Tartu School entrance exams Sergei Taneyev condemned it as defective of Composers when working in the Faculty of Theory of and shouted: Music and Composition at the Tartu Higher School of You have no ear for music! You do not hear dissonances!43 Music (1920 to 1940).37 In the 1930s, his creative inclinations turned towards the composition of national music and A lack of academic education later predetermined and became close to Gruodis’ aesthetics: attention to folklore reflected the radicalism of Rebikov’s creative search and si- increased, and the musical material, harmony, the instru- multaneously “confined” his music in the forms of chamber mental texture, etc., changed. In the pre-war years, the mod- genres (songs, vocal cycles, composition for choirs, instru- ernist trend in music was developed by Eller’s pupils: Eduard mental pieces, chamber operas, etc.). However, the hasty Oja (1905–1950)38 and Eduard Tubin (1905–1982).39 authoritarian decision of Tchaikovsky’s pupil Taneyev must Eller’s school grew especially rapidly after he had moved to have harmed Russian music culture. Gruodis’ conception of Tallinn in 1940 and worked as a professor of composition modernist composition was undoubtedly inspired by the ex- at the Tallinn Conservatoire. In it, he educated a number periments of reformer Rebikov, ‘an eccentric composer’, and of well-known composers (Boris Kõrver, Anatoli Garšnek, infected by his courage. In his compositions, Rebikov used

131 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ cluster and polytonal chords, complex harmonic elements In 1927, Gruodis accepted the proposal of the Ministry (such as ninth chords or chords based upon the fourths and of Education to become the Director of the Kaunas State fifths). The works of Paul Graener (1872–1944), Gruodis’ Music School45 (at the time, it had 254 pupils studying teacher of composition at the Leipzig Conservatoire, on traditional specialties of music). He immediately (in 1927) the contrary, lacked individuality (they were similar to opened the Department of Composition, having taken the the stylistics of Richard Strauss and Max Reger) and the model of the Latvian Conservatoire which, in turn, had component of discovery (he composed works in the style adopted it from the St. Petersburg Conservatoire. Gruodis of late Romanticism, the expressionist atonality permeated himself taught all the theoretical courses, from harmony to with impressionist colours). “Gifted, but lazy” (begabt, aber orchestration and “free composing”. As early as 1927–1928, faulich) said Brahms about Graener after their meeting the new Director prepared a draft law on converting the in 1895 and advised him “to sit down and work hard”.44 school into a conservatoire, although the process lasted Brahms’ insight must have revealed the reasons why Graener for another six years, until 1933. Several publications and had not completed academic education, however, his operas public speeches of Gruodis (Music and “Modernism” in were regularly staged in the theatres of Nazi Germany. At it, The Issues of Contemporary Music, How the Lithuanian the Leipzig Conservatoire, Šimkus and Gruodis were most Nation has to Cultivate its Music, and Music must Come impressed by the refreshing idea of the creator of national from Folk to Folk),46 the pupils’ statements, and the works culture (völkisch Kulturschafender) advocated by Graener. of Gruodis himself testify to the fact that, when compos- On graduating from the Leipzig Conservatoire “with dis- ing and teaching composition, Gruodis was guided by the tinction” (mit ausgezeichnetem Erfolge) in 1924 and passing following principles: the final exam (Solistenprüfung), Gruodis returned to Lithu- •• He emphasised the significance of knowledge about ania, eager to create national music using contemporary ‘compositional craft’ and of ‘formal’ composing. He compositional means. understood progress in music as the evolution of the formal principles and the use of the contemporary means. •• Gruodis: I would really like to at least a bit equate Lithu- anian music, with Lithuanian folk songs as its basis, to European music.47 •• Modern music was defined as “the music rising to the contemporary means of expression”48 (modernity was identified with the concepts ‘contemporary’, ‘innovative’). •• Gruodis did not see any contradiction between the concepts ‘national music’ and ‘modern music’. •• Gruodis: I try to use modernist means and to be a national composer.49 •• Gruodis believed that it was not conservativism, but innovativeness that ensured the continuity of classical traditions. The new musical means had to evolve from the totality of the earlier used means. •• Gruodis: God forbid for an artist to descend to the level of the crowd, however, he has to educate the crowd to which he publishes his works.50 •• Gruodis argued that professional Lithuanian music, at least in the first stage, had to be based on the treasures of the folk music, which formed the basis of any national music. He encouraged the national tradition to be created through all the technological means available in music. •• When creating the Lithuanian harmony, he used modal harmony and chromatic tones, yet avoided the traditional functional sequences and formed consonances (harmonies) of the fourths-the fifths, the seconds, or of the trichord elements. Figure 1. A diploma of completion of the studies of •• The first one to have systematically used polyphonic part composition at the Leipzig Conservatoire, issued to Juozas songs, Gruodis found that their structure was closer to Gruodis in 1924 the contemporary music.

132 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

Photo 1. Juozas Gruodis and Julius Juzeliūnas at the Kaunas Conservatoire, 1948

•• Even if he emphasised the importance of the folk song As noted by Ambrazas, the first and the second levels for Lithuanian professional music (“It is necessary to get were stable, invariant, while the third to the fifth, varying. deeper acquainted with the folklore,” Gruodis would They could be traditionalist or innovative, conservative or frequently tell his pupils), he admitted that national contemporary. From among the pupils of Gruodis, it was uniqueness was ensured not by the mechanical use of Julius Juzeliūnas (1916–2001), his last pupil, who devel- quotations, but rather by the affinity of the way of think- oped the idea of national music in the most consistent way. ing (the mental level) and the world outlook. In his creations and in the classes of composition, Gruodis •• The programme of Gruodis’ school of composition and sought true professionalism, an innovative spirit and na- his vision of Lithuanian national music was a model of tional uniqueness, or an organic alloy of folklore elements. ‘national modernism’. However, the Lithuanian school of composers (the national culture) formed not merely on the basis of a single model The immanent expression of the national identity of of national music. As the issue remains a relevant topic of professional music was also of interest to Polish musicolo- a scholarly discourse, let us briefly dwell on the controversy gist Mieczysław Tomaszewski, another scholar of Ambrazas’ of Lithuanian musicians on the essence of national music generation. In consideration of the “formula” of an expres- that flared up in the interwar period. sion of a national characteristic, valid even in the current The beginning of nationally engaged music was inspired compositional practice, Tomaszewski listed a wide range of by Čiurlionis in his article On Music as early as in 1910. The the components of culture. First of all, there are the national relevance of folk songs to professional composition was language and dances and an intermediating medium of na- emphasised by Čiurlionis more than once: tional folkore; popular songs, the links with national history Those songs are like rocks of precious marble, and they are and national literature, landscapes, etc.51 In the works of waiting for a genius able to make immortal creations of them.54 Ambrazas, in the structure of a national style – “a distinct system of elements and their relationships, unique from the Čiurlionis saw and described the spiritual states of national viewpoint, forming under a sufficiently high level the national mentality by mysterious metaphors: “the of national culture and regularly developing”52 – identified Lithuanian tune”, “Lithuanian longing”, “a deep mysterious the following layers: character”,55 “as if religious longing and silent unearthly sadness”.56 Čiurlionis finished the programmatic article as ...a complex of mental and spiritual characteristics of the if by obligating: nation (the national character), the features of national folklore, the national traditions of professional composition, the Let us not forget what kind of responsibility lies with us. We adopted creative experience of other national cultures, and are the first Lithuanian composers, and the coming generations 53 the specificity of the creative individualities of composers. will look for examples in our works. We are like a link between

133 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ

Lithuanian songs and Lithuanian music of the future. [...] Our At the end of the paper, Kačinskas warned: credo is our ancient songs and our music of the future.57 When pursuing nationality in Lithuanian musical composi- Two years later (in 1912), Stevan Hristic58 in the journal tions, let us be cautious, so that, having exploited the old marks Zvezda [The Star] summarised the differences between the of Lithuanian creations, however, having abandoned much two components of the national character: the ‘psycho- more wider and deeper creative factors and characteristics of contemporary Lithuanians, we would not block the road to logical nationality’ and the ‘descriptive nationality’. The our progress.61 latter states of the Lithuanian spirit, difficult to define and described by Čiurlionis, could have been the examples of Even though Gruodis propagated modernist means, ‘psychological nationality’ in music. The phylogenetic (Gr. the fear that “by consuming alien, we ourselves shall be- phylon ‘tribe, variety’; genda ‘origin’) aspect reflecting the come aliens”62 got the better of him as he was viewing the mental processes of the nation is no less important than the expressionist “cosmopolitan” musical works of Kačinskas stereotypical models of folklore exploited by composers. emerging in Lithuania. Gruodis sought to gradually expose As early as the 1930s of the 20th century, Čiurlionis’ his pupils to the compositional innovations of modernism: holistic, integral model of nationality in music fast disinte- From folk songs to the contemporary art of music – ten, grated, and Lithuanian composers were developing different twenty years of hard work.63 views on how to saturate modern music with the spirit of national identity. The discussion focused on the most stable, He feared that: “material” element in the conception of national music (G. ...the quartertones, and especially of the same false tempered Gabšys’ concept) – the issue of the use of a folk song. Its tuning, artificially promoted by some musicians, experiment- consideration became the apple of discord in the discus- ers rather that musicians, may not take root. Quartertones sions of Bacevičius and Kačinskas, and, on the other hand, are too alien to diatonic Europe, and especially Lithuania.64 of Vladas Jakubėnas and Gruodis. Different approaches to the concept of the development of national professional In the interwar years, the possibility of preserving the music and to the forms of the folk song states in modern national identity of modern, contemporary music without composition and the time of their use clashed. making use of folk songs was actively advocated by Vytautas Similarly to other composers of microtonal music. e.g., Bacevičius (1905–1970), having returned from Paris. In Arthur Lourié who claimed that nationality was the “last his programmatic article On National Music (1938), he illusion” of non-talented people, Kačinskas in his creations shrugged his shoulders wondering why so many in Lithu- strictly rejected the “material” elements of folk music. In ania believed that: his paper Marks of the Works of Lithuanian Composers pub- ...if the Lithuanian nation was so old, and the folk songs so lished in Muzikos barai journal in 1938, he argued that the simple and primitive, then all Lithuanian compositions had to latter only hindered the expression of the national elements. be simple and primitive, far away from culture and new discov- According to Kačinskas: eries. [...] It is high time we got interested in, and concerned about, the latest achievements in the area of art, it is time we ...it would not be reasonable to limit oneself to the principles created such values of art that complied with the spirit of the of Lithuanian folk songs, as, by their structure, Lithuanian 20th century and were based on the national element, instead songs little differ from the Slavic peoples’ songs, i.e. a folk song of perpetually toying with folk songs.65 is a too weak basis for the composing of Lithuanian music.59 Bacevičius believed that the ‘national element’ in music Kačinskas, who sought in his compositions “to individu- had to be in tune with the spirit of the time. It would seem ally follow a progressive course”, gave priority to a personal- that Gruodis had to approve of such a conception. His istic individuality, and not to the products of collective work protected conception of the descriptive, “material” nation- (folklore); he was interested in the spiritual structure of a ality was expanding, integrating also the component of Lithuanian music, and he advocated the idea of “psychologi- “psychological nationality”. When giving a presentation On cal nationality”. In his paper Issues of National Lithuanian Issues of Contemporary Music at the Kaunas Music School Music Composition published in 1933, he was asking: in 1928, he admitted: Why, when looking for Lithuanianness in songs and hymns, One can create a purely national composition without making in Lithuanian nature – forests, rivers, and lakes, we ignore the use of a single folk song, and vice versa: to take a folk song for most important source of Lithuanianness – our individuality? every theme and to make the composition alien.66 Can a creative individuality raised on a liberal creative basis be alien to the Lithuanian spirit? [...] The uniqueness of composi- As early as in 1928, looking to the future, Gruodis tions of a Lithuanian composer and the difference from the saw the perspective of the dissemination of the structural- characteristics of other nations’ creations will be unavoidable.60 semantic principles of folklore. He argued:

134 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

Later, of course, no folk songs will remain in our music, how- The secondary aim of the present study is to examine ever, the rays of their soul that have woven our songs will shine and identify the systemic characteristics and the main com- forever, and if we lay proper foundations, our music, however ponents of 20th century national music. As we can see, there 67 it would develop, will stay Lithuanian forever. is no single opinion about the importance of the national What Gruodis was postponing for the future in the in- component in professional composition. Both the folk terwar period was the present for Bacevičius and Kačinskas. song and the intention of writing national music against Despite their different views, the participants of the discus- the background of the establishment of universals and sion were united by a common discourse and the lack of globalization may seem to have lost their relevance. On the theoretical conceptualisation of their insights. other hand, musicologists themselves (the case of Dallhaus) At the end of the 19th century, the concepts of ‘folk’ often changed their views. Richard Taruskin’s view also (Volk-, folk-) gradually became synonymous with the con- varied from the condemnation of folk music as “national cept of ‘nation’. That cultural-social transformation served as neoprimitivism” to the reflections on the Russian character the basis for the belief of Gruodis’ composition school, that in the 20th century music in his monograph Defining Russia the contact with folklore was necessary at least in the initial Musically (2000). In it, Taruskin did not doubt that Russian stage of the national school development. His ambition to artists were always committed to the aspiration of national write national music “using all the available technological identity and, as the Russian marks in music, pointed out means in music” was close to the aspirations of his contem- the symbolic senses of extra-musical elements. At the end poraries (Heino Eller, Leoš Janáček, Igor Stravinskym, etc.). of the chapter on Alfred Schnittke, he wrote: However, there were no inspiring examples in Lithuania ... a Russian voice is still special, still privileged. Russia is still of how to do it. From that viewpoint, Gruodis would have different, still other. And Russian music still has the power to accepted Janáček’s concept of “speech tunes”, shaped on define that difference.70 the basis of the folklore studies of Moravia and other Slavic nations. Most likely, Béla Bartók’s compositional method, Incidentally, at the academic level, the discourse of na- later decoded by Ernő Lendvay as being based on the ground tional music also developed, framed by extreme opposites of an axis systems of two opposing tonal systems, was not of opinions: between the local and the global, by opposing known either at the Kaunas or Klaipėda Music School in “one’s own” and “somebody else’s”, or by acknowledging the the interwar period. Doubts arise whether Gruodis, when discussion to be politically incorrect and provincial or, on taking Rebikov’s private lessons in Yalta, was introduced the contrary, of special importance. The views on the future to the reformatory ideas of his teacher (the concepts of of music also differ. Optimists see a bright outcome of glo- melo-mimics or rhythm-declamation). Differently from balization, i.e. the civilization of a post-national culture pro- Janáček and Bartók, Gruodis’ relationship with Lithuanian fessing universal (and not national) values. On the contrary, folklore and its structural integration into his compositional pessimists see negative and dangerous “West-toxication” system was not based on any specific method: those were (Featherstone’s concept), anonymous multiculturalism, and rather practical-creative solutions. An attempt to permeate a lost sense of self-identity which again provokes the longing modern creations with national folklore (traditional music) for the lost identity. In such a context, with the emerging was more a euphoric resolution than a radical compositional movements of the New Nationalism, an authorisation to solution, extended by theoretical reflection and conceptu- create national music inherent in the subconsciousness alisation. That is why, from the viewpoint of the original of Lithuanian culture does not deny the probability of its synthesis of the folk and contemporary composition ele- actualisation in incredible forms. I shall discuss the creative ments and individual style, the music of Gruodis never went activity of the most influential Lithuanian schools/classes beyond the boundaries of national romanticism with some of composition in that and other aspects. elements of moderate modernism. Similarly to the compositions of his teacher Paul Graener,68 the harmonic field of Late Romanticism sounded, shifting towards expression- The “branches” of Gruodis’ school: ist atonality and the colourfulness of impressionism. The systemic versus intuitive composing modernist constructive trend of composition in Lithuania before the Second World War was more strongly manifested A universal controversy of compositional thinking, in the works of Čiurlionis, Bacevičius, and Kačinskas. On reflected in the sections of different schools of composition, the other hand, the declaration of modern national music was formulated by John Cage in 1958, in his “sobering” lec- was of great significance for the further prospects of the ture Indeterminacy at the Darmstadt International Summer Lithuanian school of composers and became part of the Courses. Cage’s debut71 put an end to the Darmstadt’s serial compositional practice mainly in the works of the pupils avant-gardism – the era of investigation and systematisa- of the school founded by him.69 tion of musical material – and opened the perspective of

135 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ the post-serialist avant-garde music (as Gianmario Borio under Nadia Boulanger and Charles Koechlin as well as to named it is his dissertation).72 Simply put, Cage’s radical- take private lessons with the previously mentioned Alexan- ism freed the material from rational violence and proposed der Tcherepnin. He is thought to have been the first Lithu- the principles of improvised randomness. Still, composers’ anian who got acquainted with the modern techniques attempts to “reverse” the momentum- gathering rationalisa- of the first half of the 20th century (dodecaphony, etc.). tion of the composing process was already taking place both The “tree” of the composition school of Gruodis features in Europe and the USA. A polyvalent mobile form of two another of his pupils, Jonas Nabažas (1907–2002), who versions of Stockhausen’s Klavierstück XI, played by pianist one year later (1937–1939) studied composition under Paul Jacobs in the hothouse during the Darmstadt Summer the same teachers. Having come back to Lithuania before Courses on 28 July 1958, appeared in the focus of Cage’s the Second World War, both promising composers took critical reflection. In his musical works, he was already different roads. In 1948, during the campaign of the fight withdrawing from the ordered procedures in composition against “formalism”, Račiūnas did not take part in the fight and criticised Stockhausen’s method of composing, based and, never disturbed by a painful inner conflict, adapted to on Klavierstück XI (“the formal indeterminacy brings results the requirements of the Soviet art ideology76 (possibly also which are surprising, but in a limited plane” (John Cage)). due to the opposition of Boulanger to Schönberg’s modern- Having raised the opposition of the rational vs. irrational ism). When accused of “formalism”, Nabažas did not give up composition as an object of theoretical consideration, Cage his moderately modern style (his radicalism did not match strongly opposed the cult of determinism: the innovations of Kačinskas or Bacevičius), still, attacked by ideologists, he stopped composing. There is a tendency in my composition means away from ideas The compromise suppressed the modernistic trends in of order towards no ideas of order.73 Račiūnas’ compositions that had flashed back in Paris, there- Cage identified indeterminacy, i.e. a way to perform a fore, the majority of his Soviet period works were written composition in different ways,74 as the condition of libera- in a characterless “Stalinist” style (Šarūnas Nakas’ remark); tion and one’s own self, and vice versa: he called ordered standard expressive means prevailed as well as hackneyed procedures in musical composition as violence. Cage then dramaturgical solutions, programmatic neo-Romanticism, made his position clear in his correspondence with Stock- and an excess of occasional contrasts and themes in large hausen and Boulez.75 form compositions. Expositions of material predominated, In the comments on the systems of Lithuanian pedagog- and “post-expositional crises” (a lack of development) mani- ical schools of composers (the compositions of the teachers fested themselves. The establishment of the Soviet stylistics and the methodologies of their work with students), the in Račiūnas’ compositions meant the rejection of Gruodis’ analogy of separation of the two trends of avant-garde national modernism programme. Račiūnas dealt with folk- can be applied only symbolically, as a metaphor of the lore in a manner of “socialist realism”: he quoted melodies, “fractal” branching of the genealogical trees of the schools. looked at polyphonic part-songs with some reservations, Compared to the millennia-long development of European and applied rather elementary harmony to folk music ma- musical culture, the schools of composers of the Baltic terial (true, he avoided basic/leading tones). Conformism countries were a young phenomenon, and they developed and the nature of creative individuality resulted in the fact on the principle of “condensed”, overlapping processes. It that Račiūnas’ compositions of five decades (four operas, is not accidentally that different styles co-existed in the nine symphonies) developed weakly, and his melodic gift frameworks of individual schools: from the principles of led to the prevalence of neo-Romantic lyricism. national Romanticism to post-modernist spectralism. As a teacher, professor Račiūnas was tolerant, liberal, The design of the “tree” of the compositional school of and undemanding, and took a philosophical view of teach- Gruodis (see 1 scheme) presents the “branch” (the class of ing composition, which, incidentally, did not make his composition) of Antanas Račiūnas (1905–1984). In the students happy. As testified by Ona Narbutienė, during his interwar period, professor Račiūnas by his professional studies at the Conservatoire, Račiūnas’ student Eduardas preparation stood out from the rest of Lithuanian compos- Balsys (1919–1984) kept in touch with Juozas Gruodis ers. In different cycles of music education, for almost six who at the time was on a creative leave of absence. Accord- years Gruodis taught him major theoretical courses: theory ing to some contemporaries, Balsys constantly felt bitter of composition and harmony, and was also a tutor of his about studying composition under Račiūnas, and not under composition practice (Račiūnas graduated from the studies Gruodis. Vytautas Barkauskas, another pupil of Račiūnas, of composition under Gruodis at the Kaunas Conservatoire avoided writing the name of his teacher of composition in 1933). The scholarship awarded by the State of Lithu- in his questionnaires. The promotion of the national style ania for 1936–1939 provided him with an opportunity to in Račiūnas’ composition classes was limited to the en- continue studies in the Ecole Normale de Musique de Paris couragement to choose themes from the Lietuvių liaudies

136 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse melodijos (Lithuanian Folk Melodies, 1955)77 prepared by process typical of the 20th century avant-garde. He made Jadvyga Čiurlionytė. Students missed justified comments use of some constructivist means and was interested in on their composition assignments: the professor frequently dodecaphony, however, was indifferent to, and sceptical responded by an indifferent “it is possible” and never offered about, cold rational composition. He admitted: other ways of creation. The lack of a creative programme and the professor’s concord with socialist realism encouraged his …I am not fascinated by the good intentions of some scholars to teach composers to write music based on recommendations students to look for individual creative roads (Barkauskas or recipes derived through scientific analyses: the proposals to was interested in dodecaphonic, aleatoric, and sonoric tech- bring clarity to those, according to them, dark labyrinths of niques, and Bronius Kutavičius, in minimalism). Račiūnas’ creativity in which composer gropes around like with a blind- composition class activities were marked with conservativ- fold over his eyes and looks for the right way relying almost ism, and its “academic defects” kept dragging over several solely on his intuition. However, that “intuition” is a unique, generations of his pupils; the “scar” took a long time to heal. unimitable creative spirit of each one, an original character Based on the criteria of the definition of a pedagogical of a composer! I am against “creative recipes”, even if they school of composers (an articulated aesthetic and creative could facilitate the creative suffering.81 (Balsys undoubtedly position of teacher; a system of compositional techniques spoke about his opponent in composition Julius Juzeliūnas.) and aesthetic provisions instead of individual elements; the continuity of the pedagogical tradition; and a transforming Meanwhile, Juzeliūnas invited, instead of condemning relationship with teacher’s programme), the composition the manifestations of modern music, to find out what posi- class of Račiūnas cannot be recognised as a “school” due tives can be found in them, and particularly to deepen the to the unformulated creative programme and working theoretical analysis of the national roots. methods (Barkauskas: “there never has been a school of Balsys criticised the stagnant creative inertia, loathed Račiūnas as such”78). However, we have to admit that some “dry academism, gray craftsmanship, and a superficial -at 82 of his pupils became famous composers (Eduardas Balsys, titude to mastery”. However, sometimes he himself felt Vytautas Barkauskas, Vitolis Baumilas, Jurgis Gaižauskas, “a lack of the new” and certain hermeticity of his method. Vytautas Klova, Algimantas Kubiliūnas, Bronius Kutavičius, In 1980, he wrote: Mikalojus Novikas, Vytautas Paltanavičius). Thoughts are flying into unknown spaces, especially with so many innovations in the fields of both music and of science The creative activity and pedagogy of Račiūnas’ pupil and technology. One wishes to speak in a new, fresh way. And Eduardas Balsys (1919–1984) well reflected the nature of then one starts looking for that new way.83 the composition class of his teacher and simultaneously the modernisation of the Lithuanian music of the late Soviet Balsys never opposed the idea of composing national times. The views of the teacher (Račiūnas) marked the music, yet he dealt with folk melodies in a “Račiūnas-type” creative identity of Balsys in a specific way. As early as in way: exploited their melodiousness in his compositions the 1960s to 1970s of the 20th century, Balsys publicly dis- and wanted the audiences to recognise and identify them, cussed and doubted the value of the formalist, structuralist therefore, he used both quotations and recognisably trans- principles in composition. In 1971, at the 6th Congress of formed themes. Nonetheless, in his creations, he rejected the Lithuanian Composers’ Union, Balsys said: the so-called “dry constructivism”, i.e. rationalisation, and simultaneously Juzeliūnas’ invitation to analytically view Formal experimentation leads to non-viable “opuses”, giving the folklore structures and to regard them as the building 79 nothing either to head or heart. blocks of a musical system. Of course, that was a way alien By his creative attitudes, he opposed his colleague to Balsys, as he postulated his “liberal attitude to art” and Juzeliūnas, the latter’s “dry constructivism” and “uncritical “spontaneity in the creative process”. use of the avant-garde tools”. Balsys sincerely advocated We have to admit that such an approach justified itself, “spontaneity in the creative process”: and the music of Balsys was probably the most successful in Lithuania in embodying the ideal of the late Soviet period I am against any strict style which may only be needed when (the 1960s to the 1970s of the 20th century).84 The composi- we want to deny something through it. Much closer to me is tions of the master were permeated by the creative control a liberal approach to art. I tailor the emerging innovations of the conflicting dramaturgy and contrasts, the swing of a to my needs. Sometimes, in order to convey an idea, strict symphonist, and melodies which stuck in the memory. The construction yet a free form is necessary. To present the flight of an idea, I evade all the rules.80 ideal of Balsys – contrasting dramaturgies of specific forms & suggestive emotional dramatism in music – resulted in Balsys, like Balakauskas’ teacher Boris Lyatoshinsky, was impressive culminations in his scores. The suggestiveness not fascinated by the rationalisation of the compositional was enhanced by masterful orchestration.

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The totality of Balsys’ compositions was based on the Even though Balsys questioned the “formalist” methods, logic of contrastive solutions, still the “dry” schematism was in the series of his opera The Journey to Tilsit(1980), he veiled with the breakthroughs of passionate monologues, conceptualised the links of the “triangle” of its heroes on rhetorical passion, and emotional dramatism. He got ac- a similar principle, managing to constructively record the quainted with dodecaphony in 1962, when visiting conduc- essence of the conflict of the plot and even to symbolise the tor Piero Belugi in his home: the latter demonstrated the direction of its evolution. In other words, he resolved the works of Bruno Bartalozzi composed in that technique85. issues of the compositional structure of the opera and the Balsys applied 20th century compositional innovations synopsis of the plot in a modernist manner. The evidence (e.g., the formalised order of dodecaphony) in a selective was provided by the interfaces of the series of the main and cautious way. A series Dramatic Frescoes (1965), one heroes revealed through a set analysis: the series of Indrė of the earliest composition of Balsys based on the twelve- and Ansas were united by the initial tetrachord of the series tone technique, clearly presented the composer’s view of of Indrė Pcs [0137], set 4-Z29, which completed the series that source of themes established in the mid-1960s (see 2 of Ansas. The series of Bušė, the third character of the fatal figure). The series did not manage to escape the traces of “dry triangle, represented the interface with the series of Ansas constructivism”, it was characterised by symmetry, even if a on the same principle: they were related by tetrachord PCS spontaneous “vulnerable” place was left. The said place was [0246], set 4-21, which opened the series of Ansas and formed by four basic tritones and major thirds realising the completed the series of Bušė. Thus, the draft themes of The phenomenon of the attraction (resolution) of the latter. The Journey to Tilsit was modelled by Balsys at the structural harmonic movements of those intervals almost “verbally” level still in the pre-composition stage. declared the rejection of functional relationships: the first Balsys acknowledged Gruodis’ idea of national music tritone was still resolved to the standard major third (B flat – composition, however, dealt with it in a somewhat con- F → C – E); the second and the inverse third tritones based servative way. He exploited the cognitive experience of the the centre of the series (G sharp – D ↔ G – C sharp), while melodics recognition and the effect of the folk genesis of the final one “freely”, by functional inversion (the “Achilles themes, yet explicitly rejected the road of the modernisa- heel” of the series), was resolved to the enharmonic major tion of archaics explored by Bartók and Juzeliūnas. The third D sharp – A → F sharp – B flat (see the series of the Lithuanian music development programme Folklore + New Dramatic Frescoes in 2 figure). Expressive Means in Balsys’ compositions was marked by several breakthroughs. In the music of Concerto for violin Dramatic Frescoes (1965) and orchestra (1958), he started “cross-breeding” folk melodies with the language of popular music (and primarily rhythms). The coexistence (concord) of rumba with the national folklore was courageous, however, somewhat standard: against the background of rumba (the function of accompaniment), a melody was heard of the Lithuanian folk song Oi teka, bėga vakarė žvaigždelė (The Western Star is Rising). Jadvyga Čiurlionytė called the sound “a new, Don't Touch the Blue Globe (1969) Winter. A Mask of the Destroyed City individual language”, “an individual style”, “one’s own I”, and Juzeliūnas, “a new word”. By shifting from expanded tonalities to the twelve-tone material and not strictly applied dodecaphony (he ignored orthodox restrictions of

The Journey to Tilsit (1980) the dodecaphonic technique), Balsys did not renounce

Indrė's series the subcosciousness folklore of his music. Unconstrained by restrictions, the non-formalised use of folklore in the oratorio Don’t Touch the Blue Globe (1969) allowed the

Ansas' series folk song or its elements to sound in different formats – as a totality (quotation), as implanted in modal harmony, or as absorbed into the diatonic trichords/tetrachords of the

Bušė's series series. The major part of the oratorio themes retained links with folklore. At the end of the 1960s, with new trends of music composition gaining momentum in Lithuania and the USSR, the oratorio of Balsys sounded as a work freed Figure 2. A scheme of the development of a series of Eduardas from the yoke of the Soviet stylistics. Balsys (made by Gražina Daunoravičienė)

138 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

Figure 3. Eduardas Balsys. Oratorio Don’t Touch the Blue Globe (1969), Winter. A Mask of the Destroyed City. A fragment of the score, p. 85-87. For the structure of the series in the vocal part, see 2 figure

139 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ

Photo 2. Julius Juzeliūnas and Eduardas Balsys at the Lithuanian State Conservatoire

Should we apply the defined criteria of the school of him. He graduated from doctoral studies at the Leningrad composers, the composition class of Eduardas Balsys can- Conservatoire as early as 1954 and defended the so-called not be called a pedagogical school due to two fundamental dissertation of the Candidate of Sciences Lithuanian Folk reasons: the professor did not declare a clearly articulated Songs in the Symphonic Works of Some Soviet Lithuanian creative programme, and his pedagogical tradition ceased. Composers. In the field of composition, he evolved fast. As evidenced by the “genealogical tree” of Gruodis (see 1 The maturing authorial conception of modern national scheme), none of the graduates of the Balsys’ class teaches music was theoretically summarised by him in his research composition at the university level. (book) On the Issue of the Chord Structure (1972). In the For various reasons, the creative activity and the work same year, the monograph was defended as a habilitation of the composition classes of Račiūnas and Balsys were thesis at the Rimsky-Korsakov Leningrad Conservatoire. opposed by the creative positions, music, ideals, and peda- It is necessary to note that the study of the basic tones of gogical strategies of Juzeliūnas and Balakauskas. Lithuanian folklore was a unique phenomenon in the USSR The intentions of Bartók and Gruodis to base modern science policy. Neither in Eastern Europe or the USSR, compositional systems on the archaics of traditional music Russia, was it accepted to theoretically conceptualise or to (“primitive sources”) was actualised by Julius Juzeliūnas publish composition systems. Even the composers who had (1916–2001), the last pupil of Gruodis, through a unique undoubtedly developed them (Scriabin or Bartók) did not solution in the 1960s through the 1970s of the 20th century. dare to declare that. Meanwhile, it was the usual practice for Western composers: Henry Cowell, Paul Hindemith, For me as a composer, the folk song as the roots of folk music Olivier Messiaen, Milton Babbitt, Karlheinz Stockhausen, is not its purely ethnographic side, but rather a structural one Anatoly Vieru, Howard Hanson, etc. that can significantly better reveal the psychological depths.86 As mentioned before, the compositional system of Not only did Juzeliūnas approve of the idea of compos- Juzeliūnas was developing towards the goal set by Bartók, ing nationally engaged modern music, but he was also the seeking an organic synthesis of the archaic layer of Lithuani- first to go beyond the empirical (“spontaneous”) practice of an (and possibly other national) traditional music with the applying folk songs. Simultaneously, Juzeliūnas was the first innovations of 20th century compositional techniques. The in Lithuania who rejected the emotional, intuitive relation- basis of the Juzeliūnas’ system was not the principle of the ship with traditional music and opened the perspective of circle of fifths that had predominated for several centuries an analytical, constructive relationship. The natural rela- (and served as the basis for the systems of Pythagor, Han- tionship of Juzeliūnas with rationally interpreted structural son, Balakauskas, etc.), not the spectrum of overtones (the characteristics of folklore turned into theoretical consid- concept of the systems of Rameau, Riemann, Hindemith, erations (or reasoning, as he called it), rather favoured by and Schenker) which helped to substantiate the tertial

140 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse chord principle, but an immanent intonational structure of was the revision of the chord structure: as mentioned above, traditional melodies. On its basis, Juzeliūnas modelled con- Juzeliūnas’ chord structures PCS [0157] ir PCS [0147] (see sonants of different structures, declared their equivalence, figure 5), much like Webern’s groups (the concept of Yu. and avoided centering or functional operation. The system Kholopov) or a slightly later series of the Dramatic Frescoes of Juzeliūnas was an individual project of the implementa- by Balsys, still kept exploiting the relics of the “golden age” tion of his teacher Gruodis’ idea of modern national music. of harmony – major and minor thirds. In the theme of a That theorising of a method of composing was a rather passacaglia (poem) for organ (1961–1962), the harmonic typical work of the composer, permeated with empiricism (vertical) shapes of both chords were replaced by linear and subjective attitude. The “weaknesses” of the project forms which got established on the horizontal line. Sev- included a lack of strong theoretical argumentation and a eral years later, chords of even more various constructions wider theoretical concept which was repeatedly masked by filled the entire chromatic twelve-tone row. In the scores the desired freedom of the compositional process. of Juzeliūnas, the traces of constructive work (or, accord- In 1974, in the column of book reviews of the jour- ing to Balsys, of “scholarly recipes”) and expressive sound nal Советскaя музыка (Soviet Music), a brief review on started emerging. As evidenced by Ambrazas’ research,90 the Juzeliūnas’ book by an expert of contemporary music, eth- material of Concerto for organ, violin, and string orchestra nomusicologist Abram Yusphin appeared. He was impressed (1963) came from the three chords of the Juzeliūnas-type by Juzeliūnas’ ability to find that many so far unrealised construction and the projection of the latter in the fourth opportunities for composers in traditional music existed. structure (see figure 5). However, with a certain note of doubt, Yusfin wrote: Juzeliūnas’ system of the basic tones was externally approaching dodecaphony. Although he took the typical struc- ...in the examples of his compositions, the composer seems tures of twelve-tone chromatic rows from the Lithuanian to derive the features of the contemporary language of music folk melodics and consolidated them into the structures of from the folk ones, moreover, he does it without any “exer- tion”, naturally and organically.87 basic complexes, at first glance they were similar to the series created by Schönberg’s school. Webern’s hemitonality was The reaction of the staff of the N. Rimsky-Korsakov opposed, however, Juzeliūnas’ basic complexes were similarly Leningrad Conservatoire was testified to by the correspond- composed of the segments of trichords and tetrachords. ence of Juzeliūnas and his official opponent, prof. dr. habil. When expanding, the Lithuanian composer tried to shake Anatoly Dmitriev. The latter invited Juzeliūnas to come to the off “coercion”, i.e. ignored the requirement for the non- Department of History of Russian and Soviet Music of the repetition of tones, nonetheless, he applied similar principles Leningrad Conservatoire to give a lecture on his system and (inversion of series and their segments, retrograde, retrograde to demonstrate his compositions. There is no evidence that inversions, multiple combinatorics, etc.) We shall see the dif- Juzeliūnas did it, however, in his letter of 6 March 1972, Dmi- ferences between Juzeliūnas’ rows and the series of the pupils triev thanked Juzeliūnas for the acceptance of the invitation of Schönberg’s school by comparing the row of Juzeliūnas’ and also reported that Juzeliūnas’ work had been discussed in Melika (1973) (Judabra) with a series of Webern’s Symphony, the Department and unanimously recommended for defence Op. 21 (1928) (figure 4b). First of all, we shall see that both as a doctoral (habilitation – G.D.) thesis.88 series were organised by tritone centres, the symmetry of In 1961, influential teacher of the Lithuanian school of the adjacent minor seconds, and the border trichords. The composers J. Juzeliūnas substantially updated his creative level of constructive programming, nevertheless, differed method. The declaration of links between the harmonic substantially. In Juzeliūnas’ series (figure 4a), the symmetry and melodic structures and the genesis of their elements in of tones was diversified by the more freely inserted fourth folklore became a “trademark” of his creative laboratory. (A flat) and ninth (D flat) elements of the row. As is known, However, Juzeliūnas started revising harmonic means while Webern’s series (4b) consisted of the combinatorics of the writing his Symphony No. 2 in B minor (1949; second segments of minor seconds+ minor thirds, the so-called edition in 1951). In the Khrushchev “thaw” period, new “Webern’s groups” PCS [013]91, and of minor seconds + trends of music in the space of the USSR (Pärt, Silvestrov, major thirds PCS [014]). Webern’s series was absolutely Schnittke, etc.) and the debut of the dodecaphonic tech- symmetrical, and tritone “umbrellas” fractally lined up the nique inspired Juzeliūnas for changes in his own composi- palindrome tones (see figure 4b): tions. From his African Sketches (1961), he resolutely turned to the new construction chords in the structure of which, just in case, major and minor thirds were featured. In the introduction of Juzeliūnas’ system, Algirdas Am- brazas who had studied it in detail identified two stages of its Figure 4a. Symmetrical structures of the series in Julius 89 evolution: the phases of chords and of series. The first one Juzeliūnas’ Sonata for voice and organ Melika (1973), Judabra

141 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ

Figure 4b. Anton Webern. Symphony, Op. 21 (1928), the palindrome of the series, the “umbrella” of tritones

Even though on the basis of the archaic layer of Lithu- anian folk music Juzeliūnas approached the principal concept of dodecaphony, a series, the sound of his compositions radically differed from the creations of the followers of the New Viennese School. The system of Juzeliūnas stood out by several fundamental things: 1) the abstract twelve-tone chromatic structures were contrasted with the intonational complexes of traditional music (the differences of the row content were well revealed, based on the set analysis); 2) a different level of the rows’ constructivism; 3) the strictness of the technique application in composing (Juzeliūnas rejected the doctrine of the non-repetition of tones); and 4) Juzeliūnas freely developed the segments of rows (the “cells”), modified, and combinatorially transposed them.

Thus, in the twelve-tone composition of Juzeliūnas, the content of the row segments, the degree of strictness of its organisation, and the discipline of composing were different. The second stage of Juzeliūnas’ system’s evolution, or the linear interpretation of the verticals (harmonies, chords) of the basic tones, was continued by the further transformation of his compositional system. The composer did not stop in creation, he curiously looked for further roads, therefore, the third stage of the system evolution followed. It represented the direction of gradually leaving the conception of twelve- tone rows and, by its logic, it somehow resembled Josef Mat- thias Hauer’s conception of tropes as building blocks (see Figure 5. Evolution of Julius Juzeliūnas’ system of the basic Vom Wesen des Musikalischen (1920); Zwölftontechnik, Die tones in archaic Lithuanian folk music (the schema by Gražina Lehre von den Tropen (1926)). As early as in Melika (1973), Daunoravičienė) trichords started consolidating into hexachords, later, in the pre-composition projects (e.g., in the symphony Songs of In abundant compositions of Juzeliūnas,92 ever new Plains, 1982), increasingly frequently binary, complemen- scales kept appearing, and their composition changed: they tary (mainly inverse) hexachords or heptachords emerged, covered all the twelve chromatic tones or manipulated the and the composer was moving away from the condition so-called modi (a concept used by Juzeliūnas) and the basic of the twelve-tone continuum as a totality. The principles scales of a unique structure. Despite the structural sizes of of the three-tier evolution of the system of Juzeliūnas are the scales, the further functioning of twelve-tone rows and formally reflected in the schema of evolution developed by Juzeliūnas’ compositional technique were always based on the author of the present study: the possibility of “compositional freedom” that the composer left for himself. On the other hand, being familiar with

142 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

Figure 6. Julius Juzeliūnas. Sonata for Voice and Organ (1973), a fragment of the score, p. 13–15 (see the series in figure 5)

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Polish sonorism and aleatoric music, Lithuanian composers solved the problem of the acoustic intensity control of the most often employed mixed compositional elements com- system-generated material as a composer, i.e. intuitively, bining the twelve-tone technique with aleatoric, sonoristic, leaving it for creative phantasy. pointilistic, and even minimalist devices. The modal shape of all the twelve chromatic tones Julius Juzeliūnas composed as a creator who absorbed changed the treatment of the other fundamental phe- the ethnic consciousness, intensified the modi transposi- nomena of music, e.g., the opposition of the diatonic and tions, and manipulated their elements. Simultaneously, the chromatic lost its value. The harmonic attraction in he was always on the lookout for new modal technique the system of Juzeliūnas was based on the principle of the principles. By the modern interpretation of characteristic acoustic intensity control of the adjacent verticals. Their folk intonation complexes, Juzeliūnas sought to create a fluctuation curves were created by the remodelling of the ‘constructional atmosphere’,93 typical of folklore, in pro- tone composition and the effect of functional change. fessional music and to “combine modernity with the roots Juzeliūnas reasoned similarly to Schönberg or Hindemith of one’s own culture”. In the summary of the study on the and agreed with the statement that there was no specific basic tones of the cultural layer of Lithuanian folklore On natural boundary between dissonance and consonance; the Issue of the Chord Structure (1972), Juzeliūnas admitted: their perception depended on the context. As he further specified, from the viewpoint of his system, the actual The above presented method for the organization of musical content and the perception of the dichotomy dissonance – material, based on the principle of key tone structures, holds consonance depended on the predominant modal and special significance for the purposes of endowing music with intonational structure. Nonetheless, Juzeliūnas saw the a national colouring. Though in itself the method cannot war- rant the national colouring of a work, which is determined by criteria of the gradation of acoustic intensity in the idea the complex of the composer’s psychological characteristics, of the spectrum of overtones, thus, he supported Marine it nevertheless helps to create a certain constructional atmos- Mersenne and Hindemith’s conception of the affinity of phere characteristic of folk music.94 tones, which, as we shall see, was rejected in Balakauskas’ system of dodecatonics (1997). Juzeliūnas found the ways That was a harmony system tested by his own compo- of sound relationships, which, in his opinion, were based sitions and the algorithm of “production” of its material. on the characteristics of the basic tone complexes of Lithu- It was the harmony of the origin of the material and the anian folklore. Undoubtedly, based on that system, another principles of its formation (the modal material + the composer would write the music of a totally different sound modal formation strategies) that provided the sound of (which would be predetermined by what Juzeliūnas called Juzeliūnas’ music with a mark of identity and the priority a “psychological complex”). of an individual style. Another important segment of Juzeliūnas’ composi- Another, more recent compositional method of the tional technique – the logic of the material development – founder of a Lithuanian pedagogical school of composers was based on the idea of ‘acoustic intensity’ proposed by the was represented by the theoretical-compositional system composer. The concept in Juzeliūnas’ reasoning meant dif- of Osvaldas Balakauskas (b. 1937). Similarly to the case ferent degrees of the sound richness or sonantism (unequal of Juzeliūnas, Balakauskas’ compositional method and his tension of sound – Kholopov’s concept) of the interval and theoretical argumentation formed as a result of conceptu- the chord. The change in the sound tension in harmony alisation of his creative practice. Both were also similar in, combinations as the fundamental principle of music was as mentioned before, a certain opposition to the idea of the named an authorial term Harmonisches Gefälle (harmonic overtone spectrum, which for several hundred years pre- fall) by Paul Hindemith as early as in 1937 in Chapter 4, dominated in Jean-Philippe Rameau’s and subsequent har- Harmonikē, of his Unterweisung in Tonsatz (1937). The monic systems (those of Arthur von Oettingen, Hugo Rie- content of Kholopov’s concept ‘harmonic relief ’ was close mann, Zigfrid Karg-Elert, Hermann Erpf, Paul Hindemith, to the concept of ‘acoustic intensity’: each consonance etc.). From that viewpoint, the conceptual justification of was characterised by specific tension predetermined by its the Lithuanian composers’ theoretical systems indicated the intervalic structure. Juzeliūnas did not test the quality of direction of reasoning “forward to the unknown”, based on the compositional material produced in accordance with the principle “back to the unknown”. Balakauskas95 himself the method algorithm (“the recipe”), he did not classify its decoded the direction of his composition and theorisation elements in tables (as Hindemith did in his Tabelle zur Ak- by the criss-cross of those metaphors in the Lithuanian kordbestimmung), did not introduce the indices of measure, Composers’ Union, in a hearing in 1984. As a matter of thus, he rejected the necessity of the mathematical calcula- fact, as a theoretical constant of his compositional method, tions of harmonic structures and did not provide an analysis Balakauskas chose the interval of the minimal harmonic of the gradation of the consonance intensity changes. He contraposition, the fifth (Gr. diapenta), and the principle

144 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse of the Pythagorean circle of perfect fifths. When viewing the compositions of his colleague Balakauskas, Juzeliūnas acknowledged the individuality of his style:

I saw that he was different from others, unique: Lithuania needs more of such people.96

Balakauskas worked out his own compositional system and grounded it theoretically in his Dodekatonika [Dode- catonics], published in 1997 in Poland.97 The subtitle of the theoretical system specified the name of the system as “the study of the modal and harmonic potentiality of the 12-tone equal-temperament s y st em”. 98 Since the method served as an algorithm for composing his own music, Balakauskas also set another goal: to identify an objective Scheme 3. The conception of the projection of quints (PQ) basis for revealing the “logic of natural self-organization in Dodecatonics by Osvaldas Balakauskas: systemic and non- of the 12-tone continuum of pitches and the possibility systemic tones100 of systematisation on that basis”.99 The fifth (2:3), the -gen erating principle of the system, became the measure and unit of harmonic relatedness and intensity. Then we have a arranged in accordance with the arrangement of the pairs somewhat self-generating logical consequence – formation of inversible tones with respect to the generative tone. The of consonances, differentiation between systemic and non- opposition tones (As in row Rα, аnd As и Es in row Rβ) systemic (chromatic) consonances, study of the harmonic represented further relationship: intensity of consonances, issues of their functionality and So-called universal, “magic”, symmetrical tone row (see harmonic relations, etc. example 8) was modelled on the basis of the fundamental The said procedure took Balakauskas to one of the most fifths progression (PQ) principle. The row is formed on a important further steps of composer-theorist, viz., to the strictly diatonic base: it’s O = R, the second half of the row logical substantiation and construing of the so-called perfect (tones 7–12) is the reflection (retrograde inversion) of the rows. Based on the monovector of the projection of quints first half (tones 1-6). The row is constructed on two tritones, (PQ) model, the perfect Rα row was derived (see scheme 3), of which one is in the centre of the row (an axis) and the and based on the bivector PQ model, the perfect Rβ row (see other forms between the last and the first tone, which always figure 7). The degrees of relationship of the tone rows were guarantees highly rationalized Vorformung methods.

(a) (b)

Figure 7. A monovector model of Dodecatonic by Balakauskas (1997), perfect row Rα (a), and a bivector model, perfect row Rβ (b)101

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E F#

A C#

D G#

G D#

C A#

Figure 8. Osvaldas Balakauskas. The origin of the universal, Figure 9 (a). A spatial dodecagon of the circle of the fifths “magic”, symmetrical tone row (the 70s of the 20th century)

We should also mention that George Perle, scholar of the New Viennese School, created a basically analogous series – a cyclic set (from tone C), which is based on his 102 system of the circle of fifths. Both Perle and Balakauskas’ Figure 9 (b). A system of the “oppositional tones” (tritones) systems stop being twelve-tone technique systems and can of Osvaldas Balakauskas’ symmetrical tone sequence, a tritone be treated as modal or tonal, dodecaphonic or freely atonal. “umbrella” To sum up, Danuta Mirka103 associated Dodecatonics with the triumph of speculative thinking and emphasised the axes in the second part of the Symphony was “painted” structuralist character of the theory. with moving orchestral colours (Bewegungsfarben). The In the present study, there is no possibility to consist- composition method used by Balakauskas adds significance ently present the theory of Balakauskas’ Dodecatonics, to multi-dimensional relations of compositional structures, however, I shall indicate the examples of the analysis, which functionally develop in the general context of coher- which illustrate how the principles of the dodecatonic ence of macro and micro structures (see figure 10, the figure theory generated the series in Symphony No. 2 (1979) of macroforms in the Symphony). and projected the concept of the symphony’s macroform. The composition method used by Balakauskas adds Further examples (figure 9 (a) and (b)) expose the in-depth significance to the multi-dimensional relations of composi- construction – a palindrome of the twelve-tone “magic” tional structures, which functionally develop in the general series derived (on the monovector principle) from row Ry context of the coherence of macro and micro-structures. (to be compared with figure 7a). The rational structure of The later compositions by Balakauskas105 and the trans- the tones of the series is revealed by the tones being arranged formation of his serial technique represented further pivotal on the spatial 12-angle dodecagon principle. Figure 9 (a) reflections on compositional principles of the New Vien- spatially manifests the deep principle of the construction nese School in both Balakauskas’ work and in Lithuanian of the “oppositional tones” (ot) of dodecatonics: the series music at large. First of all, Balakauskas started to associate is organised by fractal tritone “umbrellas”: the twelve-tone technique not so much with its axiom, the An analytical figure 9 (b) reveals the organization of tone row, but with the idea of transpositions / transpolations the series in Balakauskas’ Symphony No. 2 on the principle and discipline. In Balakauskas’ new perception of serialism. of fractal tritone “umbrellas”. That is a consequence and The row was conceptualised as a principle which regulated an attribute of the rational construction of particularly the cycle of transpositions or the row of transpositions. At conceptual series of the 20th century.104 the start of the 21st century, Balakauskas concentrated on Like many serialist avant-garde composers, in the con- a logically controlled method of improvised creation and struction of the series, Balakauskas projected a number continues working with a formalised grammar of utterance of parameters of the opus and constructional solutions. in the context of anticipated tonality. The chromatic 12- Thus, e.g., the concepts of number, ratio, and symmetry tone continuum was replaced with the sound of individual implanted in the series and the construction of its axes ‘tonalities’ anticipating the centre of gravity. At the same coordinated the principles of formation of the material time, Balakauskas diminishes the importance of the idea of in the pre-composition of Balakauskas’ Symphony No. 2, comprehensive parameter management and opts for simpler reflected below in the analytical schema of the macroform and more transparent methods of organising material. The of the symphony (figure 10). The construction of crossing composer renounces musical revolutions and dethrones

146 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

Figure 10. Osvaldas Balakauskas. Symphony No. 2 (1979). The analytical totality of the form of a microcycle (design of schemas by Gražina Daunoravičienė) the things that formed the basis of his ideology of compo- traditions. He was certain that professional Lithuanian sitional identity. He refutes what he calls modernist infan- music, although in the initial stage of its development, tilism, his fears are of doing ‘the same’ and rejects its main had to rest on traditional music, which was the basis of any tenet – ‘refusing what has been accepted’ (Balakauskas). In national professional music. spite of Balakauskas’ declarations, it is hard to concede that The ideological oppositions of the Lithuanian classes of he has lost his modernist identity because after shedding the composition were clearly reflected in the student teaching chains constraining his creative flight, he does not refuse process. Alternative teaching processes in the composition the composition manner pervaded by the teleological ideal. classes of Antanas Račiūnas and Julius Juzeliūnas were revealed particularly perspicuously and significantly influenced the differences between the subsequent generation of Teaching methodologies pupils and their creations. Another ideological opposition was revealed by teachers’ creative answers to a philosophical At all times, the teaching of composition pursued one question –what was music? A language, meaningful speak- goal: to mature a professionally prepared composer for crea- ing in sound structures, as claimed by Joachim Burmeister, tive activity. It depended on the teacher how much he was able aesthete of feelings, hermeneutist Hermann Kretzschmar, to apply his knowledge, to see the nature of the talent or to Valentin Silvestrov, or rational play of perfect structures, tolerate “delusions”, and to stimulate the birth of a composer. “independent beauty of the art of sounds”, as argued by It depended on the teacher how much he was able to critically Eduard Hanslick or Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht? The com- reflect on the relevant technological and moral ideas, critical position classes of Račiūnas – Kutavičius – Balsys did not thinking, and the advantages of the teaching process as well reject narratives or the shapes of emotional states that could as to achieve professionalism – the latter covered the imple- be expressed in words. On the contrary, the formalist vision mentation of the chosen idea of the composition and the of Gruodis was developed by other composition classes, mastery in the use of compositional means. All that implied those of Juzeliūnas – Balakauskas – Mažulis –Janeliauskas – that, when learning composition, one had to acquire the ex- Kabelis. That trend was also declared by the unemotional, perience, taste, and skills for the implementation of one’s own modern music of structuralist origin by Balakauskas. He creative ideas, which called for thorough and persistent work acknowledged: of teacher and pupil. Thus, the professional preparedness of Music is by no means a language [...] Music does not want a composer directly depended on the maturity of the school to say anything. It wants to be beautiful [...] and, in terms of that raised him and on its conceptions, the curriculum, and beauty, it is as abstract as any natural phenomenon – a tree the methodology of its professors. or a sunset.106 The evolution of Lithuanian musical culture was strongly affected by the key concepts of Gruodis’ creative Valentin Silvestrov once defined the unemotional re- approaches and pedagogy. In his composition class, a lot lationship of Balakauskas with music as just “Haydn-like of attention was paid to the mastering of composition music”. ‘craft’ and its formal aspects. The use of modern means was the key indicator of progress in art for Gruodis. As Since he himself studied on the basis of the 18th through already mentioned above, he equated modernism in music to the 19th century music, both in composition and student to such concepts as ‘modern’, ‘innovative’, and did not see teaching Eduardas Balsys appreciated schemas of musical any contradiction between the concepts ‘national music’ dramaturgy nurtured by masters, emotional suggestiveness and ‘modern music’. According to Gruodis, innovation of music, and typical forms. Those guidelines were also re- rather than conservatism ensured the continuity of classical flected in the pedagogical strategies of Balsys. The professor

147 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ provided subjective impressions-based comments on stu- Juzeliūnas may have been somewhat more emotional and dent works and justified his statements by the authority of worried about his students. Balsys was reserved and, if the the tradition. When specific issues of the compositional student did not show initiative at all, the professor did not try process were raised, Balsys would frequently encourage his to wake it up. I never argued with professor Balsys, I simply 112 students to see how that was done by... Beethoven. In his could not bring myself to do it. classes, one could also feel some uncertainty and inability Balsys did not like haste or details drafted in haste and to choose between the “old” (classical composition) and “checked” the totality of a composition written by a student th the “new”. From the music of the 20 century, he studied (whenever it happened), which included everything: the thoroughly and recommended for his students the works form, the texture, the idea, originality, an analysis of the of Prokofiev, Bartók, Britten, Richard Strauss, and Ravel, existing classical examples, etc. and especially Lutosławski. However, they did not move Balsys towards more radical updating of his compositions. And that was that, the remarks, the communication, joys and As he himself admitted, he created “in accordance with all disappointments (naturally, mutual).113 the rules of writing a musical composition”.107 His rules of Balsys used to emphasise that, in order to have one’s composing included the above mentioned conflict-based own opinion, one had to know a lot. He was an erudite who dramaturgy, sustainable formation principles, and the con- calligraphically rewrote and, as composer, revised entire temporary treatment of folklore elements. He was cautious scores. Balsys’ teaching credo was professionalism + crea- about the radical 20th century innovations in composition tive freedom, and it often seemed that it was the professor and advocated a “decisive protest against the uncritical use himself who made the greatest efforts for the sake of the of the avant-garde means”: prestige of his class. ...formal experimentation produces non-viable “opuses”, giving 108 nothing either to head or heart. Eduardas Balsys’ pedagogical principles: Among all the composition professors in the Lithu- •• He aimed at the “golden middle”: students should not anian State Conservatoire (later Lithuanian Academy of create just “from heart and soul”, and compositions Music and Theatre), it was Balsys who most thoroughly should not be mere bare mathematical constructions; checked students’ works and most strictly interfered with compositions should be professional, fun to listen, and 114 their creative processes. Whenever students brought still the music should not be too banal or simplistic. not quite fully completed improvisations to the class, Bal- •• His ideal was the dramaturgy of a specific form, cul- sys would bravely break them, make a dramaturgical plan, minations, masterful orchestration, and an emotional and require a precise form. It was not accidentally that impact of the music. some of the study assignments turned into almost the best •• He was skeptical about the rationalisation of the creative opuses of the prospective composers, and the correcting process and the “recommendations and recipes derived hand of Balsys was strongly felt in them.109 In his classes, by means of scholarly analysis”. the professor kept offering his experience and revision to •• He did not particularly emphasise the issue of national the students. As Vidmantas Bartulis admitted, Balsys was music to his students and had been resolving it through correcting stupid mistakes in his diploma paper for three quoting and transforming traditional music melodies. days, until he finally said: He wanted the audience to hear and recognise them. •• His comments on student works were based on subjec- It may stay like that. tive impressions and the authority of the rich traditions The highest praise was “sounds well” pronounced during of music. rehearsals, joyful eyes, and a sincere smile,110 because he felt •• From among the Lithuanian professors, it was he who great responsibility for the sound of the outcome. To quote most thoroughly checked and corrected student works; Bartulis, in Balsys’ classes, discussions were held on how some works were brought to perfection under the strong else to resolve a specific place, or students were encouraged influence of Balsys. 111 to see how Beethoven dealt with such problems. Like •• Less attention was paid to the identification of student’s Lyatoshinsky, Balsys liked “rich”, “Beethovenic” symphonic individuality and self-creation, he trusted an innate music with its characteristic powerful conflict dramaturgy. talent. In his pupils’ memoirs on Balsys’ methods of work with •• He did not conceptualise his own creative method and students, the testimony of Gintaras Sodeika survived. He did not recommend that to his pupils (he opposed had studied both under Juzeliūnas and under Balsys and “dry constructivism” to the “spontaneity in the creative compared both professors in the following way: process”).

148 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

Naturally, at the end of the rebellious 20th century, composition modernisation. From that viewpoint, Balsys’ a significant part of Balsys’ students dwelt on different class reflected the composition teaching “defects” of his creative ideas and ideals than their professor. The tensions pedagogue Račiūnas. 118 The professor tended to trust the between students and professor Balsys were exacerbated by innate talent of his students, as its lack never made a creative generation-gap-type problems in the process of transforma- career quite successful. According to Bartulis: tion of artistic ideologies (modernism, avant-gardeism, and Balsys certainly did not have his own “school”, contrary to post-modernism). Ill-disposed towards the radicalism of the Juzeliūnas.119 post-war avant-garde composition, Balsys, as stated by his colleague Vytautas Laurušas: Julius Juzeliūnas, the opponent of professor Balsys, on ...painfully and sharply reacted to the experiments of the the other hand, recognised the priority of constructive, sys- younger generation, even to their specific discoveries. He temic composing: he interpreted the relationship between sincerely believed they were taking a misleading path and could not accept it.115 inspiration and logic as an issue of inspiration materialisa- tion and a set of expressive means (professional skills and When the manifestations of minimalism came to Lithu- education). The conception of the chord structure and basic ania, he did not see in them any “rich musical traditions” tones that substantiated his modal technique (see On the or “conflict-based dramaturgy”. In 1971, Chairman of the Issue of the Chord Structure)120 accounted for the fact that Lithuanian Composer’s Union Balsys wrote about “the the last pupil of Gruodis most consistently developed the young” of the time (Bronius Kutavičius): essence and spirit of his teacher’s creative principles.121 In his composition school, Juzeliūnas tirelessly promoted the By disguising themselves through accessibility and relevance, main theses of his teacher: folk creation-based nationality of some authors ignore rich musical traditions and write com- music and genuine professionalism. However, the principle positions where both the ideas and expressive means are poor ’ and primitive.116 of Gruodis structurised folklorism, despite the constant care of the professor and his own example, gradually declined He sincerely believed that, without “mastering” the in his pupils’ works. In the scores of the school graduates, classical forms and canons, his students will be nobody.117 individual developments of the technological aspects of He did not quite understand the creative perturbations of music got increasingly established as well as aspirations for his radical pupils (Algirdas Martinaitis, Vidmantas Bartu- the nationally non-engaged modern music. In order to speak lis, Faustas Latėnas). Seeking harmony in his composition the dialect “of the language of his time”, Juzeliūnas studied class, Balsys would ask his students to bring compositions the scores of Bartók, Messiaen, Hindemith, Schönberg, that fascinated them to the specialty classes. Encouraged by Stravinsky as well as Prokofiev and Shostakovich, but later that, Martinaitis brought Giya Kancheli’s Symphony No. 3 turned away from the latter. In his composition class, the (1973) and No. 4 In Memory of Michelangelo (1974). They professor analysed the music of Scriabin, Bartók, R. Strauss, contained a lot of “sounding” silence, the musical material and Lutosławski. He saw the systemic principles of their was rarefied, and long climbing crescendo immersed one creative methods and intuitively felt, that they resonated the in melancholic nostalgia, or the music awakened with prevailing trend of 20th century composition, i.e. formalism. cinematographic sound shocks. Of course, Balsys, fond of The idea of the contemporary use of the structural features Beethovenic symphonic music, disliked the compositions of Lithuanian folklore in professional music was undoubt- of Kancheli. The professor and the student got disappointed edly received by Juzeliūnas from Gruodis. in each other... Therefore, the head of the Department of Juzeliūnas’ creative activity and theory, or reasoning as Composition Eduardas Balsys faced a hard task of suppress- he liked to say, were not stagnant. The analytical, rational ing the creative rebellions of the young and the outbreak character of his composing (search for the ‘rational’) and the of revolutions. developed modal technique contributed to the professional Compared to Juzeliūnas, Balsys paid less attention to and creative dealing with the composer’s objectives and to a discovering the student’s individuality, self-creation, the purposeful moving towards modern and unique composi- development of an individual compositional system, and tions. The intellectual substantiation of the compositional motivation. He relied on more impulsive composing, process was also reflected in his teaching methodology. Re- driven by inspiration and practice, “writing with the hand” flection and “reasoning with himself ” was a natural state for (as Martinaitis ironically commented on his own composi- Juzeliūnas. He believed that a “stillborn” composition came tional technique). Thus, the composition classes of Balsys when a composer knew everything in advance... Juzeliūnas devoted less attention to the personality self-creation, tech- understood creation as a search for a new mystery in each nological innovations, and the prospect of the 20th century new composition.

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In another composition you have to discover a new unknown did not write or erase anything” (Rytis Mažulis).126 He tried x [...] Each composition has to contain a new discovery.122 to make every student open up;

For his students, Juzeliūnas regularly emphasised the ...made them suffer, experience, and express the content of priority of theoretical knowledge and intellectual composi- music in their own way. [...]He sought not merely to teach tion. He related the search of an artist and a researcher in compositional techniques, but, most importantly, to culti- his own way, as, in his opinion: vate individuality and to train one to think independently” (Genovaitė Vanagaitė).127 Composition is a process, therefore, each time it is necessary to find the unknown x. [...] For me, technical means is like The “key” of the professor’s school to the student- the theoretical part of the composition that you must know composer’s individuality coincided with Nadia Boulanger’s but not necessarily use.123 point of view:

The goals of his work with the composition class were Each student had to be approached differently: When you understood by Juzeliūnas in the following way: accept a new pupil, the first thing is to try to understand what natural gift, what intuitive talent he has. Each individual poses My pedagogical functions are to excite curiosity for an indi- a particular problem.128 vidual to search. I introduce all the compositional techniques, but do not impose a single one and do not consider one to Juzeliūnas’ methodology of teaching was based on the be better than another. I seek for the feeling of responsibility belief that the composition school/class had to foster a and independence to be formed. My pupils are very diverse, way of thinking and to encourage thinking. He sought to still my desire is for them to surpass me and to become indi- cultivate individuality. vidualities.124

Students of the school of Juzeliūnas were required to Julius Juzeliūnas’ pedagogical principles: find increasingly complex and individual resolutions and to •• He consistently promoted Juozas Gruodis’ initiative of acquire professionalism. The professor taught his students composing modern national music. to create their own composing systems and looked for the •• He encouraged creating a “‘constructive atmosphere’” methods of “expanding the space”. He believed that the typical of Lithuanian music: “to combine modernity school/class of composition had to provide one with the with the roots of one’s own culture and the structural principles of compositional techniques, to foster a way of characteristics of folk music” (“A more fruitful result is thinking, and to encourage each individual to think.125 obtained when the contemporary ideas pass through On coming to the specialty class and sitting down at the their own native blood”).129 “workbench” (as Juzeliūnas called the piano), he looked •• He did not relate national uniqueness to the use of at the scores in “Schönberg’s manner”: in the sketch of the quotations, however, as Juzeliūnas understood it, the student’s composition, he was looking for a “small fish”, or national consciousness had to be reflected in the struc- a “crackling”, a “grain of pepper”, in other words, a “rational ture of compositions, their intonations, their variation grain” that would help to organise all the elements of the techniques, etc., therefore, his students were made to composition and become its axis. In a similar way, Schön- look for in-depth things of composition. berg saw the basic shape which initiated Grundgestalt, or Juzeliūnas: Devoid of our cultural uniqueness, we shall thematics, let alone a specific form of the composition, not be interesting to anyone. since well-prepared material or an identified principle as if •• He appreciated analytical, intellectual composition and spontaneously generated and validated the form. Therefore, for that purpose developed his own creative method/ the school of Juzeliūnas examined the possibilities to unfold system, published in the monograph On the Issue of the the condensed primary material (the basic motiff, Modell) Chord Structure (1972). over various dimensions of the compositional structure, as- Juzeliūnas: There are as many thinking composers, as suming that the specific sound shape was predetermined by many, one can say, there are “systems” nowadays.130 the insights into the structural opportunities of the reduced •• Simultaneously, he encouraged his students to dilute the primary material. dry, absolute determinism of the compositional process As testified by Gintaras Sodeika, Rytis Mažulis, and with the spontaneity of uncertainty. Šarūnas Nakas, the professor was the first to see that “small •• He demanded increasingly sophisticated and individual fish” or “crackling” in the material brought by the student. resolutions from his students, however, never wrote or If, in order to make the works of his students always ‘the erased anything in their works. In his classes, he liked best’, Balsys diligently corrected them, Juzeliūnas behaved to reason and made students “torment themselves” and in a different way: “in specific situations, he never helped, find independent solutions of compositional rebuses.

150 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

•• In student compositions, he looked for a “rational grain” why in a specific situation in the score the sets of some or that would help to organise all the elements of the com- other tones or some specific rhythmic elements were used position and become a prerequisite for their generation. or why that specific texture or an orchestration solution On seeing the “grain”, Juzeliūnas taught them to “expand was chosen. The portrait of Balakauskas – composer and the space” in the composition. teacher – is characterised by an imprint of the conceptualisa- •• He cultivated a composer-individuality, stimulated tion of his own compositional method. The need for “pure” them to express the idea of music “with their own composition in his school was inculcated very seriously and blood”, and encouraged his students to use reflection regularly, therefore none of his pupils wrote eclectic music. and conceptualise their own creative methods. When working with students, Balakauskas paid attention to the major parameters of music: the rhythmics and Juzeliūnas, like his teacher Gruodis, was a supporter of the conceptually-based tone coordination and taught them consistent, serious, and systematic work, he worked in that to control the compositional material, to develop an indi- way himself and demanded the same from his students. vidual method, or to choose principles. From Lyatoshinsky’s Sensing the potential of each of them, Juzeliūnas sought to school where he had studied in 1964-1969 he must have get the maximum. When a student was looking for his own brought the idea of giving students almost absolute creative music and maturing his views, the professor was mainly his freedom and the responsibility for their own decisions. interlocutor and opponent. Juzeliūnas, like Balakauskas, of- Professor Balakauskas seldom gave any specific creative ten repeated: “I shall not interfere with the creative process “recipes”, however, in a case of difficulty, he was rescuing that is your business. I can only advise.” And he was proud students with a piece of practical advice. As testified by Justė of it in his own way. Janulytė, in the code of composition ethics, Balakauskas reserved the right to indicate what in the budding com- The advantages of systemic composing without grapho- position was impractical (difficult to perform), unstylish, mania (as commented by colleague Vytautas Jurgutis)131 non-dynamic (“stuck”), to draw attention to over-repeating in Lithuania was presented by the school of Osvaldas derivatives or, vice versa, to too frequently appearing ever Balakauskas. Both in his creative activity and in pedagogy, new material. Thus, in the classes of Balakauskas, banal and he categorically rejected the possibility of spontaneous stereotyped creative experiments as well as “impure”, non- incidents: systemic, intuitive, and consciously unmotivated sketches received bad comments. Even though the answer to the Experimentation as such is for me a method of composing question what and how much was “pure” (i.e. systemic) in I do not understand, one cannot be doing “something-I- the composition was rather subjective, nonetheless: do-not-know-what” and expecting... a miracle. First is the vision, and then doing, but not vice versa. Cage’s conception ...the regular posing of the question led to the fact that the “everything is music” is as productive as the statement “eve- pupils of Balakauskas were not writing eclectic music: the 132 rything is food”. requirement for “purity” was repeated seriously and constantly.134 Even if Balakauskas agreed that the future artistic discoveries were hidden in chaos, he always doubted whether Of course, the professor in his classes invited (even if one who “fished in the chaos” was always able to find not insistently) students to test the major musical material something, while the one who operated in chaos was not organisation techniques – heterophony, dodecaphony, or necessarily the master of the opportunities hidden in it any of its modifications, e.g. dodecatonics, or serial possi- (rather a slave). Balakauskas: bilities of composing – he did not prohibit writing in other systems and helped to deal with the problems of notation Probability theory does not give anything, it just allows one to expect.133 or instrumentation. The acquaintance with the established compositional techniques in Balakauskas’ school Balakauskas’ teaching methodology rested on the was permeated with the professor’s critical reflection. duty to inculcate the fundamentals of composition in his The opposition to the already composed and known was students, which were summed up as systemic thinking and spreading among the students of Balakauskas, therefore, composer’s ethics. Students were especially impressed by quite a few of the “well-trodden paths” of composing were his theoretically strongly motivated, but not subjective rejected by students. That encouraged them to develop impression-based spontaneously escaping comments (like their own composing systems (Ramūnas Motiekaitis, in Račiūnas and Balsys’ classes of compositions). Professor Raminta Šerkšnytė, Justė Janulytė, Ugnė Giedraitytė, Rita Balakauskas demanded that his students should precisely Mačiliūnaitė, etc.). substantiate the necessity and origin of one or another crea- In the context of the Lithuanian classes of composition, tive solution. In the classes, students were asked to justify Balakauskas’ school of composers was distinguished by

151 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ professionalism, broader horizons of the relevant issues of were the dynamics of the form and the organization of the composition, the strong suggestiveness of the teacher’s argu- musical time events. As mentioned above, he described mentation, and the individuality at the personal level. The the “primer” of composition as a state with its own “con- school boasted a refreshing atmosphere of the modernity of stitutional laws”. In that “state” (composition), he did not the 20th century art of sounds.135 The school of Balakauskas accept the unreasonable pursuit of experiments or extremely provided one with strong foundations of professionalism rational, too sophisticated, and impossible to perceive and an attitude supporting creative search. The intense work music. When evaluating pure, beautiful, and, shall we say, of the professor and his students resulted in an obvious fact cold “music”,137 he took a sceptical view of the paramusical that a number of his pupils became composers representing intentions of compositions, interesting probably only when Lithuanian musical culture. reading annotations and having nothing in common with the “genuine” parameters of music: melody, rhythm, and Osvaldas Balakauskas’ pedagogical principles: harmony.138 Intolerant to banality as an inertial simplified •• In his composition and pedagogy, he rejected the pos- solution (and not only in music), Balakauskas saw it in sibility of spontaneous incidents. the coquettish philosophising about music (Balakauskas: •• He appreciated constructive composing and taught it “around” music), especially when it was not absorbed by to his students. He conceptualised and published his the very body of the composition. However, Balakauskas, own creative method/system of dodecatonics (1997). like Juzeliūnas, felt as rather a “student’s interlocutor and 139 •• He inculcated the foundations of composition in his a bit of a helper, but in no way a moulder”. It is not by students: systemic thinking and composer’s ethics. He accident that students flocked to those teachers of composi- taught them to control compositional material and paid tion. They were impressed by their systemic thinking and particular attention to the conceptually based coordina- theoretically justified and substantiated, but not spontane- tion of tones and rhythmics. ous impressions-based, comments. •• The professor’s comments were theoretically motivated. It is obvious that, due to the diversity of the aesthetical They did not originate from subjective impressions but views of composers-professors, their pedagogical systems were considered in terms of the systemic nature of the featured the opposition of the priority given either to the compositional process. He seldom gave advice to stu- rational or to intuitive composing. There were also con- dents and did not interfere with specific technological trasts of personalities, of their philosophy of art, and the solutions. accumulated experience. Thus, in the creative activity and •• Stereotypical solutions or “impure”, i.e. unsystematic and pedagogy of the professors (teachers) of the Lithuanian unmotivated, sketches were considered as bad. pedagogical schools of composers, the idea of writing Balakauskas: A composition must be imagined as a state modern music was realised in different ways. Three major with its own rules, to be created before writing: a kind schools of Lithuanian composers (founded by Gruodis, of logic, the regularity of events, etc.136 Juzeliūnas, and Balakauskas, respectively) were related •• The issue of composing national music was not escalated through their general pursuit of modernism; yet this in the composition class of Balakauskas. As a creator of was manifested in quite contrary attitudes and creative music of the global world, Balakauskas was expressing practices, as follows: his national feelings elsewhere, but not in music. •• Lithuanian (nationalist) modernism (Gruodis, •• He took a critical view of the music of the past and Juzeliūnas) vs. universal modernity (Balakauskas); its composing techniques, frequently rejected by the •• A romanticized, “socialist realism” attitude towards professor himself and by his students. That encouraged traditional music (Gruodis, Račiūnas, Balsys) vs. con- students to develop their individual methods or to ceptualized, structural treatment of ethnic music and choose and motivate compositional principles. endeavours to develop an individual system of composition (Juzeliūnas); In the composition class of Osvaldas Balakauskas, each •• An empirical approach to the composition (Gruodis, time the idea generated by the students or the musical Račiūnas, Balsys) vs. a rational, systemic method of material developed by him was discussed first of all: when composition (e. g. Julius Juzeliūnas’ On the Issue of the analysed together, the opportunities inherent therein were Chord Structure, 1972; Osvaldas Balakauskas’ Dodeca- revealed. After the sketch of the composition had been tonics, 1997); discussed, the homework assignment followed: to bring •• Traditional, conservative instruction based on subjec- the idea or even the entire composition to possible perfec- tive commentaries (Račiūnas, Balsys) vs. theoretically tion, focusing on the harmony and the dynamics of the grounded comments, based on an individually devel- form, the texture, melody, rhythm, and the possibilities of oped and exploited system of composition (Juzeliūnas, variation of those parameters. Important for Balakauskas Balakauskas).

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Juozas Gruodis who founded the first and the largest new revolutionary explosions: “new phenomena” in the “stem” school of composers “grafted” further guidelines for art became such a banal thing that returning to the old is the growth of the tree of the Lithuanian school of compos- probably the most significant “new phenomenon” of our ers. When looking at the shoots-scions of the youngest days.141 The author of those statements himself thinks as branches of the genealogical tree, we can safely claim that having preserved an organic feeling of music which opened Gruodis’ mandate for composing “national music” has been up in the youth and which was not destroyed by the impres- realised no longer at the external, “material”, but at the men- sions of the Kiev avant-garde night hearings. It got even tal, spiritual level of Lithuanian music. In the musical works consolidated by the fierce rationalisation of composition of the students of Juzeliūnas’ school (the “children” and the and the discussions on the ratio of spontaneity doses with “grandchildren”), the formal, constructive part of com- Silvestrov.142 position has been strongly hypertrophied. The pursuit of And in general, how do Lithuanian (and not only) individual composing systems, and in successful cases, their schools of composers differ? development (Rytis Mažulis, Onutė Narbutaitė, Mārtiņš Only in the epoch. That is, in ideas flying in the world and Viļums, Marius Baranauskas) is in line with the trend of around us and affecting creative souls in one and another way. contemporary hyper-individualism in art. In terms of the (Osvaldas Balakauskas143) mandate for composing national music, the pupils of the Lithuanian schools of composers do not openly question Even more formal, “not influencing”, “not teaching”, “al- such a possibility, however, do not regard it as a manda- lowing everything” schools or classes of composition cannot tory creative obligation. Individual composing inevitably be directly claimed to be significantly “worse”. However, we absorbs the echoes of the ever-increasing globalisation. The shall not make a mistake if we argue that learners most ap- latter saw off a beautiful vision of the school of composers preciate the school which provides specific knowledge and founded by Gruodis to the history of culture. experience, teaches tangible things, and educates composers – individualities, and “trains in the craft”, as professor Juzeliūnas used to say. The reflection of the school in its Coda pupils’ works does not mean elementary copying. For the sake of culture, the least desirable thing in the pupil’s creative In the evaluation of composition classes or schools activity is the so-called ‘followership’, and the most desirable, giving priority either to the rational and constructive or, the relationships of opposition between teachers and pupils. vice versa, the intuitive and inspirational (“spontaneous”) Probably the greatest achievers are the pupils who “fall out” composing, declaration of the superiority of the former with their teachers in their own way and continue to bravely cannot be absolute and categorical. One can be mistaken, develop an individual transforming relationship with the as creative ideas and lessons are actualized at different times lessons of the schools/classes of composition. Thus, when and in different directions. Similarly to the evaluation of looking for the grounds and facts to discuss a homogene- the representatives of Schönberg’s school before 1953, ous picture of the Lithuanian school of composers, we find when the teacher was put on the pedestal, after 1953, out that it already has a history, traditions of the schools Webern got established, and especially in Darmstadt; after and classes of composition, and a variety of strategies and the discoveries of Schloss and Perle – Berg’s criptography methodologies. The Lithuanian school of composition and and numerology – Perle himself called Berg one of the the creative activity of its teachers and pupils has become three looking the farthest into the future, as far as post- part of world music. modernism.140 Thus, it becomes obvious that Kutavičius’ archaic method of historical reconstructions was hiding under the wing of Račiūnas–Balsys’ schools. Very early, in References the 1960s, banal melodies and “foreign” materials appeared 1 (Latėnas, Bartulis), or cultural resonances were heard and Анна Сергеевна Стрельцова. Педагогическая школа music-excited emotions (Martinaitis). The pluralist multi- синодального училища [Anna S. Strelcova. Pedagogical School of a Synodal Gymnazium], Москва 2013. Код cultural phenomena of inter-texts were unfolding, which cпециальности ВАК: 13.00.02. Научная библиотека at one time were considered as delusions of the “sons” of диссертаций и авторефератов, see online: disserCat http:// Balsys’ composition school. www.dissercat.com/content/pedagogicheskaya-shkola-sino- Even Balakauskas, the founder of a modern school of dalnogo-uchilishcha#ixzz5NklzdoQD [last checked 2018 11 composers, who for some time was in a kind of opposition, 09]. 2 Р. В. Геника. now provokes by admitting that nowadays in composition Из консерваторских воспоминаний 1871–1879 годов [R.V.Genika. From the Conservatoire Memories of it is much more contemporary to promise “to do nothing 1871–1879], http://tchaikov.ru/memuar031.html [last the other way round” than to shake the world with ever checked 2018 11 09]. Quoted after: Бабенко О. В. “Образ

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П. И. Чайковского в воспоминаниях его учеников” [O.V. 19 More see: Ivan Florjanc. “Übernationales und nationales in der Babenko. The Image of Tchaikovsky in the Memories of his Musik”, In: Musikalische Identität Mitteleuropas. Musicological Pupils]. In: Молодой ученый, 2015, No. 23, p. 803–806, Anual, XL, Vol. 1–2, Ljubljana, 2004, p. 77. https://moluch.ru/archive/103/23711/ [last checked 2018 20 Vlasov defines “free schools” (the concept of Ofelia Tuisk) or, 11 09]. as he calls them, “artistic schools” in the following way: 3 И. Стравинский. Публицист и собеседник [I. Stravinsky. Pu- This is the commonality or affinity of the worldviews of a blicist and Companion], Москва: Советский композитор, certain circle of artists linked by common ideas, spiritual 1988, p. 72. aspirations, and a creative method. That is why, by its content, 4 More see: Taruskin 1997: 457; Berger 2002: 246; Faucett “an artistic school” is deeper than the concept of style and 2016; Tobin 2014. closer to an “artistic direction”. 5 When in 1927 George Gershwin, another pioneer of music in Quoted after Виктор Григорьевич Власов, Стили в the USA, asked Boulanger for lessons of composition, after a искусстве [V.G. Vlasov. Styles in Art], Словарь в 3-х тт., т. half an hour talk, as testified by him, the professor admitted: 1, Санкт-Петербург: Кольна, 1995, p. 599. “I can teach you nothing.” That was a compliment. (Quoted 21 Ibid. after: Léonie Rosenstiel. Nadia Boulanger: A Life in Music. 22 The concept ofNeudeutsche Schule was proposed by the then W.W. Norton & Co, 1982, p. 216.) publisher of the journal Neue Zeitschrift für Musik Franz 6 Quoted after: Aaron Copland. On Music. New York: Pyramid, Bredel in 1859. In 1858, he called symphonic poems by Liszt 1963, p. 70–77. the most wonderful ideal of instrumental music of the time 7 Quoted after: Ludmila Korabelnikova. Alexander Tcherepnin. and of progressive art. However, he regarded symphonies by The Saga of a Russian Emigré Composer, translated by Anna Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Schumann as the compositions Winestein, edited by Sue Ellen Hershman-Tcherepnin, Bloo- of Beethoven’s epigones. See: Franz Brendel. “F. Liszt’s sym- mington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2008, p. phonische Dichtungen”, In: Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, No. 67. 49, 1858, p. 111. 8 Ibid., p. 68. 23 More see: Hermann Danuser. “Gibt es eine Darmstädter 9 Ibid. Schule”? In: Musikkultur in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. 10 More see: Амбразас 1991. Rudolf Stephan & Wsewolod Saderatzkij (ed.). Kassel: Gustav 11 А. Амбразас. Вопросы музыкального наследия Юозаса Bosse GmbH & Co. KG, 1994, p. 149–157. Груодиса, дисс. кандидата искусствоведения, Ленинград, 24 Ibid., p. 160. 1969. The main text of the dissertation (504 pages) consists of 25 Ibid., p. 165. 2 parts and 13 chapters with appendices. Additional materials 26 More see: Амбразас 1991; Algirdas Ambrazas. “Lietuvių are provided by collections of texts of Gruodis and Juzeliūnas tautinės kompozitorių mokyklos raida” [The Development of edited by Ambrazas, a monograph on Gruodis, and articles the Lithuanian National School of Composers], In: Algirdas in the press and presentations on the issues of the nationality Ambrazas: Muzikos tradicijos ir dabartis [The Traditions and of music and the national school of composers (see the bibli- the Present of Music], Gražina Daunoravičienė (ed.), Vilnius: ography of the paper). Lietuvos kompozitorių sąjunga, 2007, p. 73–74. 12 Ludwig von Bertalanffi. “Zu einer allgerneinen Systemlehre”, 27 More see: Susana Stanford Friedman, “Cultural Parataxis and In: Biologia Generalis, Vol. 19. 1949, p. 114–129; “An Outline Transnational Landscapes of Reading: Toward a Locational of General System Theory”, In:British Journal for the Philo- Modernist Studies”, In: Modernism, Vol. 1, Ástráður Eys- sophy of Science 1, 1950, p. 134–165; General System Theory. teinsson and Vivian Liska (eds.), Amsterdam, Philadelphia: New York: George Braziller, 1969. John Benjamins Publishing Company, p. 2007, p. 35–52; 13 That was covered in Ambrazas’ papers “Muzikos nacionalinis Modernism and Empire: Writing and British Coloniality, stilius” [The National Style of Music] and “Lietuvių tautinės 1890–1940, Howard J. Booth and Nigel Rigby (eds.), Man- kompozitorių mokyklos raida” [The Development of the chester University Press, 2000; Modernism, Inc.: Body, Memo- Lithuanian National School of Composers], published in: ry, Capital, Jani Scandura and Michael Thurston (eds.), New Algirdas Ambrazas: Muzikos tradicijos ir dabartis [Music York: New York University Press, 2001; Modernism, Inc.: Traditions and the Present], Gražina Daunoravičienė (ed.), Essays on American Modernity, Jani Scandura and Michael Vilnius: Lietuvos kompozitorių sąjunga, 2007, p. 59–78. Thurston (eds.), New York: New York University Press, 2002. 14 For more details see Амбразас 1991: 10–11. 28 The establishment and activity of the Klaipėda Music School 15 More see: Heinrich W. Schwab. “Zur kontroverse um Welt- (Conservatoire) was thoroughly analysed in the monograph musik und Nordischen Ton”, In: Weltgeltung und Regionalität of Danutė Petrauskaitė, see: Klaipėdos muzikos mokykla Nordeuropa um 1900, R. Bohn & M. Engelbrecht (eds.), (1923–1939) [Klaipėda Music School], Klaipėda: Klaipėdos Frankfurt am Main, 1992, p. 197. universiteto leidykla, 1998. 16 More see: Carl Dahlhaus. “Nationalism und Musik”, In: 29 A sketch of the guidelines for the 4-year composition (“free Between Romanticism and Modernism: Four Studies in the composing”) teaching curriculum, developed by Juozas Gruo- Music of the late Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of dis for the Composition Class at the Kaunas Conservatoire California Press, 1980, p. 85. see in the Lithuanian Archives of Literature and Art, Fund 17 Quoted after: Carl Dahlhaus. “Die Musik des 19. Jahrhun- 84, schedule/inventory 1, file 25, p. 136–139. derts”, In: Neues Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, Band 6, 30 See: Ernst Gellner. Tautos ir nacionalizmas [Nations and Laaber, 2004, p. 30. Nationalism], Vilnius: Pradai, 1996. 18 More see: Octavian Lazăr Cosma. “Romanian Music”. In: 31 Туйск 1982: 95. Nationale Musik im 20. Jahrhundert, H. Loos & S. Keym 32 Both of the most important of Gruodis’ teachers of compo- (eds.), Leipzig: Gudrun Schröder Verlag, 2004, p. 71. sition (Rebikov and Graener) did not complete the academic

154 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

studies of composition. At the Leipzig Conservatoire, Gruodis Ритмодекламации”, In: Музыка, 1915, No. 238, p. 51. “For- was strongly influenced by the polaristic harmony conception malist” creations of Rebikov were criticised by Asafiev in his of Sigfrid Karg-Elert (for more details, see: Daunoravičienė- book Русская музыка от начала XIX столетия [Russian Žuklytė 2016: 523–535). Music from the Early 19th Century] (Москва, Ленинград: 33 More see: Март Хумал. О местных предпосылках прорыва Academia, 1930, 1968). «новой музыки» в Прибалтике [Mart Humal. On Local 43 Quoted after: Наталия Ковальчук. Особенности преломления Prerequisites for the Breakthrough of the “New Music” in некоторых тенденций музыкального искусства начала XX the Baltic Countries] In: Прибалтийский музыковедческий века в творчестве В. И. Ребикова [Natalia Kovalchuk. Cha- сборник, No. 2, Таллин: Ээсти Раамат, 1985, p. 27. racteristics of Breaking of Some Trends of the Art of Music in 34 On the composition of Jānis Zālītis (1884–1943), student of the Early 20th Century in the Works of V.I Rebikov], http:// Jāzeps Vītols at the St. Petersburg Conservatoire, and Latvian www.amumgk.ru/main/07projects/creative/02conf_muzlit/ modernism, see: Jūlija Jonāme. “View on Vocal Composi- news/materials-conf-muzlit-2012-2013_1155.html [last tions by Jānis Zālītis as a Phenomenon of New Modernistic checked 2018 11 09]. Demands within Latvian Music Culture”, In: Lietuvos muzi- 44 Ger. sich auf die Hosen zu setzen und tüchtig zu lernen; In: kologija, Vol. 16, Vilnius: LMTA, 2015, p. 46. Der Zwinger, 1918.09.02, p. 365; http://www.bmlo.lmu.de/ 35 See: Jānis Kudiņš. “Modernism as a Marginal Phenomenon g0001/A1#S3.5 [last checked 2018 11 09]. in the Context of National Musical Culture”. In: Lietuvos 45 At the time, traditional specialties of music there were studied muzikologija, Vol. 16, Vilnius:LMTA, 2015, p. 46. by 254 pupils. 36 Туйск 1982: 98. 46 The article “Music and “Modernism” in it”, written in 1924– 37 There Eller educated the following composers: Eduard Tubin, 1925, was recorded in the diary of Gruodis My Thoughts Eduard Oja, Olav Roots, Alfred Karindi, Johannes Bleive. and published only in 1965 (see LLMA (Archives of Li- 38 On the system of octatonicism employed by Oja, see Aare thuanian Literature and Music), f. 46, ap. 1, b. 116; and also Tool. “Aspects of Octatonicism in the Music of Eduard Oja”. Juozas Gruodis... 1965: 157–169). The lecture “The Issues of In: Lietuvos muzikologija, Vol. 16, Vilnius: LMTA, 2015, p. Contemporary Music” was given at the Kaunas Music School 24–31. on 16 February 1928 (ibid.: 176–189). “How the Lithuanian 39 The latter’s meeting with Zoltan Kodály in Hungary in 1938 Nation has to Cultivate its Music”, an article where the creative stimulated his interest in Estonian folklore. In the same year, programme of Juozas Gruodis was laid out, see: Naujoji Ro- Tubin collected Estonian folk songs on Hiiumaa Island, muva, 1933, No. 1 (106), p. 25–27; Juozas Gruodis... 1965: however, later he emigrated to Sweden. On the significance 216–224. On the day of death of Juozas Gruodis (16 April of Oja and Tubin’s modernist creations, see: Март Хумал. 1948), the paper Tiesa published his last public speech “Music “О местных предпосылках прорыва “новой музыки” в must Come from Folk to Folk”. Прибалтике” [Mart Humal. On Local Prerequisites of the 47 A letter to Juozas Bieliūnas, 27 July 1922 (Juozas Gruodis... Breakthrough of the “New Music” in the Baltic Countries]. 1965: 61). In: Прибалтийский музыковедческий сборник, No. 2, 1955, 48 Juozas Gruodis... 1965: 216. p. 27–28; on Eduard Tubin’s Symphony No. 2, see Kerri 49 Ibid.: 41. Kotta. “Eduard Tubin: Symphony No. 2. The Legendary as 50 Ibid.: 221. Two-Dimensional Cycle”, In: Lietuvos muzikologija, Vol. 16, 51 Tomaszewski 2000: 103–105. Vilnius: LMTA, 2015, p. 32–39. 52 Амбразас 1991: 70. 40 Based on data from the Estonian Music Information Centre 53 Ibid.: 67–68. (EMIC), https://www.emic.ee/?sisu=heliloojad&mid=58& 54 Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis. Apie muziką ir dailę: id=11&lang=eng&action=view&method=biograafia [last Laiškai, užrašai ir straipsniai [On Music and Art. Letters, checked 2018 11 09]. Notes, and Articles], Valerija Čiurlionytė-Karužienė (ed.), 41 More see: Leta E. Miller. “Henry Cowell and John Cage: Vilnius: Valstybinė grožinės literatūros leidykla, 1960, p. 297. Intersections and Influences, 1933–1941”, In: Journal of the 55 Ibid.: 299. American Musicological Society, Vol. 59, No. 1, Spring 2006, 56 Ibid.: 303. p. 47–11; Christopher Shultis. “Silencing the Sounded 57 Ibid.: 315–316. Self: John Cage and the Intentionality of Nonintention”, 58 More see: Stevan Hristič. “O nacionalnoi muzici” [On Na- In: The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 79, No. 2, Summer, 1995, p. tional Music], In: Zvezda, No. 5, 1912, p. 316–317. 312–350. 59 Амбразас 1991: 127. 42 The radicalism of Rebikov’s creative search, and simultane- 60 More see: Jeronimas Kačinskas. “Tautiškos lietuvių muzikos ously a lack of professionalism, were expressed by controversial kūrybos klausimai” [Issues of National Lithuanian Music epithets: “the father of Russian modernism” (Manfred Füll- Composition]. In: Muzikos barai, 1933, No. 2, p. 22–23. sack), “a long-awaited prophet” (Alexander Scriabin), “un- 61 Ibid.: 23. doubtedly talented, albeit an extremely eccentric composer” 62 Juozas Gruodis... 1965: 220. (César Cui), and, on the contrary, “a barren flower of Russian 63 Juozas Gruodis... 1965: 152. Involved in active discussions modernism”, as he was defined by Boris Asafiev. See Manfred with Gruodis, Jeronimas Kačinskas (1907–2005) never Füllsack. “Versagte Anerkennung oder fatale Selbsüberschät- questioned his compositions. On the contrary, in Prague, zung? Zu Leben und Werk des russischen Komponisten Vla- Kačinskas introduced them to Alois Hába, and more than dimir Ivanovič Rebikov”, In: Acta Musicologica, Bd. LXX (70), once conducted them in Lithuania and the USA. in 2 Heften, Heft 2, Basel: Bärenreiter Verlag, 1998, p. 1–21; 64 More see: Juozas Gruodis. “Kaip lietuvių tauta privalo ugdyti see also Jindřich Pihert, Vladimir Ivanovič Rebikov, Smetana savo muziką” [How the Lithuanian Nation has to Cultivate 1, 1906, p. 158–159. Борис Асафьев. “Владимир Ребиков. its Music], In: Naujoji Romuva, 1933, No. 1 (106), p. 26.

155 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ

65 More see: Vytautas Bacevičius. “Apie tautišką muziką” [On published (see: Jean-Jacques Nattiez (ed.), The Boulez-Cage National Music]. In: Naujoji Romuva, 1938, No. 9 (671), Correspondence, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 216. 1993). 66 Juozas Gruodis, LLMA, f. 46, ap. 1. b. 106. Also see: Juozas 76 For more details, see: Rūta Stanevičiūtė. Modernumo lygtys Gruodis... 1965: 184. Vytautas Bacevičius did not hesitate to [Equations of Modernism], Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės akademi- agree that “the number of folk songs included in the com- jos leidykla, 2015, p. 362. position is not a proof of Lithuanianness, as the work may 77 More see: Jadvyga Čiurlionytė (ed.), Tautosakos darbai, t. 5: not have any folk themes, but be Lithuanian” (quoted after Lietuvių liaudis melodijos, [Folklore Works, Vol. 5. Lithuanian Vytautas Bacevičius. “Apie tautišką muziką”, op. cit., p. 216). Folk Melodies]. Kaunas: Lituanistikos instituto Lietuvių 67 Juozas Gruodis, LLMA, f. 46, ap. 1. b. 106. Also see: Juozas tautosakos archyvo leidinys, 1938. Later Čiurlionytė edited Gruodis... 1965: 184. a collection Lietuvių liaudies dainos: Rinktinė [Lithuanian 68 More see: Andreas Knut. Zwischen Musik und Politik: Der Folk Songs: Selected Works], Vilnius: Valstybinė grožins Komponist Paul Graener (1872–1944), Berlin: Frank & literatūros leidykla, 1955. Timme, 2008; Joseph Wulf. Musik im Dritten Reich. Reinbek, 78 From the talk of Gražina Daunoravičienė and Vytautas Bar- 1966. kauskas on 27 October 2004. 69 In his habilitation paper, Ambrazas marked the main stages of 79 Balsys’ report-presentation in the shorthand record of the 6th the so-called “composers’ folklorism” in Lithuanian music in Congress of the Lithuanian Composers’ Union, LLMA, f. 21, the following way: the first, the continuation of the Gruodis’ ap. 1, b. 396. tradition by simplifying the features of his style (Račiūnas, 80 Narbutienė, op. cit., p. 174–175; quoted after: Jūratė Vyliūtė. Dvarionas); second, the development of the national music “Mano siela! Ar išausi tu svarbiausią mintį?” [My soul! Will tradition of Gruodis through including new means and you Weave the Core Idea?]. In: Muzika 2, Vilnius; Vaga, 1980. integrating folklore elements into the parameters of the mu- 81 Narbutienė 1999: 175; quoted after: Eduardas Balsys. “Meni- sical texture (Juzeliūnas, Balsys); and thirdly, giving another ninko sąžinė – jo teisėja” [Artist’s Consciousness is his Judge], meaning to the principles of Gruodis – the folklore was no In: Kultūros barai, 1973, No. 4. longer the constructional material, but rather a spiritual 82 From Balsys report-presentation in the shorthand recording impulse, a symbol, a cultural sign (Kutavičius, Bajoras). See: of the 6th Congress of the Lithuanian Composers’ Union, op. Амбразас1991: 195–284. cit. 70 Quoted after Taruskin 2000: 104. Taruskin argued (Ibid.: 83 Quoted after: Narbutienė 1999: 102; quoted after Eduardas 101): Balsys. “Norisi prabilti naujai” [Desire to Speak in a New The ‘semiotic’ or signalling aspect, a traditional characteristic Way]. In: Kultūros barai, 1980, No. 6. As early as in 1967, in of Russian music, is what makes Schnittke’s music so “easily the presentation given during the plenum of the Composer’s read” – or rather, so easily paraphrased on whatever terms Union, Balsys said: (ethnical, spiritual, autobiographical, or political the listener The music of any epoch is characterised by a complex of may prefer. typical means of expression. Being confined to the set of the 71 That was Cage’s first lecture in 1958, and the second one, same established and unchanging expressive means and the “Indeterminacy: New Aspect of Form in Instrumental refusal of further search also negatively affects the growth of and Electronic Music”, took place in Brussels. Stockhausen composers. (Balsys’ family archives, Narbutienė 1999: 76) participated in both and immediately discussed the issue 84 See the list of Eduardas Balsys’ compositions in: http://www. of publication which appeared in Die Reihe journal (No. 5, mic.lt/lt/baze/klasikine-siuolaikine/kompozitoriai/balsys/. 1959). 85 Narbutienė 1999: 102. 72 More see: Gianmario Borio. Musikalische Avantgarde um 86 Quotation from: “Spalis ir kūryba” [October and Art: Ques- 1960. Entwurf einer Theorie der informellen Musik, Freiburger tions are Answered by Julius Juzeliūnas, Composer, PhD in Beiträge zur Musikwissenschaft 1, Laaber: Laaber Verlag, Arts], In: Literatūra ir menas, 19 November 1977; quoted 1993. after the bookJulius Juzeliūnas: gyvenimo ir veiklos.., op. cit., 73 More see: John Cage. Composition as Process, in: Silence: Lectu- p. 122–123. res and Writings, Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University 87 More see: А. Юсфин. “Коротко о книгах” [A. Yusphin. Press, 1961, p. 20. Briefly on Books], In: Советсая музыка, 1974, No. 3, p. 99. 74 Through the deepening and differentiation of the meanings of 88 See Dmitriev’s letters to Juzeliūnas, transfered to the LLMA. the term, ‘indeterminacy of composition’ and ‘indeterminacy 89 More see: Ambrazas 2015: 473–499. of performance’ were distinguished, etc. See: Bryan R. Simms. 90 Ibid.: 483–484. Music of the Twentieth Century: Style and Structure. New York: 91 The concepts of “Webern’s group”, “Webern’s chord/structure” Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan Publishers, were proposed by Yury Kholopov. They were used in the 1996, p. 357. book Anton Webern. Life and Creative Activity (1984), where 75 As early as in 1957, Boulez in his lecture “Aléa” in Darmstadt the structures d – c-sharp – b-flat; a-flat – f – e(p. 211) or considered alternatives to strict determinacy and rationalisa- a-flat – b – g (p. 254) were presented in the examples. That tion of a composition; simultaneously he proposed an “open was a hemichord in whose consonance (a cluster form) minor form” and promoted the ideas of aleatory music (see: Pierre second and minor third were included; that melodic form Boulez. “Alea”, In: Darmstädter Beiträge zur Neuen Musik 4, was more frequently referred to as Webern’s group. Webern’s Wolfgang Steinecke (ed.), Mainz:Schott, 1958, p. 44–56). In group and Webern’s chord were also used in other books of the same year, he started composing his Sonata No. 3 for piano Kholopov: Музыка Веберна [Music of Webern], Москва, (1957–1962), and Stockhausen composed Zeitmasse (1957) 1999, p. 156; and Гармония. Теоретический курс [Harmony. for wind quintet. The correspondence of Cage and Boulez was A Theory Course], Москва, 1988, p. 157. Kholopov wrote

156 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

that Webern’s chord or Webern’s group is structure 3.1 (num- 108 Quoted after the shorthand report of the 6th Congress of the bers of semitones). When characterising the series in Webern’s Lithuanian Composers Union, LLMA, f. 21, ap. 1, b. 396. Concerto, Op. 24, Kholopov claimed it consisted merely of 109 From Daunoravičienė’s talk with Vidmantas Bartulis, 26 the Webern’s groups. It was the conception of that structure February 2008. that allowed him to see it in a number of series in Webern’s 110 Quoted after Rūta Gaidamavičiūtė. Vidmantas Bartulis: Tarp compositions. tylos ir garso [Between Silence and Sound]. Vilnius: LMTA, 92 A list of Juzeliūnas’ compositions can be found on the website 2007, p. 209. of the Music Information Centre, see http://www.mic.lt/en/ 111 From Daunoravičienė’s talk with Vidmantas Bartulis, 26 database/classical/composers/juzeliunas/. February 2008. 93 Juzeliūnas 1972: 122. 112 Ibid. 94 Ibid.: 130. 113 Ibid. See Rasa Vilimaitė. “Lietuviškumas su ispanišku pries- 95 Balakauskas claimed that, in the composing of the 20th century, koniu: Pokalbis su Eduardo Balsio mokiniu kompozitoriumi there were “two directions: forward to the unknown or back Jonu Tamulioniu, skirtas LMTA 75-mečiui” [Lithuanianness to the unknown”. Quoted after LLMA, f. 21, ap. 1, b. 605, l. with Spanish Flavouring: a talk with composer Jonas Tamulio- 23. nis, pupil of Eduardas Balsys, dedicated to the 75th anniversary 96 Ambrazas 2015: 256. of the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre]. In: 7 meno 97 More see: Osvaldas Balakauskas. “Dodekatonika”, In: W kręgu dienos, 04 April 2008, No. 796, p. 3. muzyki litewskiej; Rozprawy, szkice i materiały, Krzysztof 114 Quoted after: Narbutienė 1999: 393–394. Droba (ed.), Kraków: Academia muzyczna w Krakowie, 1997, 115 Ibid. p. 119–159. Translated into Lithuanian, the Dodecatonics by 116 Eduardas Balsys. “Mūsų darbai ir rūpesčiai” [Our Works and Balakauskas was published in Vilnius in 2002. See: Balakaus- Concerns]. In: Literatūra ir menas, 15 May 1971. kas 2000: 169–206. 117 From Daunoravičienė’s talk with Vidmantas Bartulis, 26 98 The Twelve-Tone Equal Temperament System (12-TET) has February 2008. been the most common tuning system of European profes- 118 Balsys was admitted to the Kaunas Conservatoire in 1945, sional music in the last three centuries. when Gruodis was on a creative leave of absence. Therefore, he 99 Balakauskas 2000: 171. studied specialty under the beginning teacher of composition 100 Schemes are presented following the schemes in the Dodeca- Račiūnas, who was not particularly demanding and was quite tonics of Balakauskas (2000: 175–192). philosophical. 101 See: Balakauskas 2000: 178–179. 119 From Daunoravičienės talk with Vidmantas Bartulis, 26 102 More see: George Perle. Twelve-Tone Tonality, 2nd ed., Ber- February 2008. keley: University of California Press, 1996, p. 21–23. Also 120 Juzeliūnas studied composition in 1949–1952, during his see George Perle. Serial Composition and Atonality: An doctoral studies (class of prof. Voloshinov) at the N. Rims- Introduction to the Music of Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern, ky-Korsakov Leningrad State Conservatoire. In two years, University of California Press, 1962; George Perle. “Serial he defended the dissertation of the Candidate of Sciences Composition and Atonality”, In: Journal of the American Lithuanian Folk Song in the Symphonic Compositions of Some Musicological Society XVI/3, Fall 1963, p. 413–418. Soviet Lithuanian Composers (1954), and in 1972, the doc- 103 More see: Mirka 1997: 161–165. toral (habilitation) dissertation (see: Juzeliūnas 1972). 104 The said quality was inherent in the all-interval series (Allin- 121 Gruodis argued that Lithuanian folk music better matched tervallreihe) of Fritz Klein in Variations for piano, Op. 14 with non-traditional compositional means, while archaic (24); in the retrograde (crab-wise) – palindromic series of polyphonic part-time songs, with the contemporary means Symphony, Op. 21(1928) by Webern; in the series Il canto of music. sospeso (1956) by Luigi Nono, consisting of all progressively 122 Quoted after Ambrazas 2002: 328. increasing intervals, as well as in the series of Nocturne No. 2 123 Ibid.: 335. from the opera The Soldiers (1965) by Bernd Alois Zimmer- 124 Ibid.: 338. mann. The tritone “umbrella”, or a structure of symmetrical 125 Ibid.: 343. tritones, was also a regularity of the “magic symmetrical row”, 126 Quoted after: “Julius Juzeliūnas’ talk with Lithuanian compo- or row Rγ, which formed the basis of Symphony No. 2 (1979) sers and musicologists, prepared by Gražina Daunoravičienė”. by Balakauskas. In: Šiaurės Atėnai, 22 June 1996. See also: Ambrazas 2002: 105 For the list, see http://www.mic.lt/lt/baze/klasikine-siuolai- 347. kine/kompozitoriai/balakauskas/. 127 Quoted after: Ambrazas 2002: 475. 106 Balakauskas: By music you cannot say anything. Music consists 128 More see: Bruno Monsaingeon. Mademoiselle: Conversations of sound signs, and each individual translates them in his own with Nadia Boulanger. Carcanet Press, 1985, p. 55–56. way. It is impossible to explain the content of music, as was 129 Documents of the 6th Plenum of the Board of the Lithuanian done in the Soviet times [...] In my opinion, from the aesthetic Composers’ Union, 26 February 1979, LLMA, f. 21, ap. 1, b. viewpoint, music is as abstract as a tree or a sunset. They do not 512, l. 44. tell us anything more, just fascinate by themselves. The same 130 Quoted after: Ambrazas 2002: 271. is with music - either it fascinates you or not. No science or 131 In the hearing of 8 September 1987, colleague, composer research can help here. (Quoted after Jūratė Katinaitė. “Ne- Vytautas Jurgutis, seldom seen in gatherings and even more sel- paaiškinami tie keliai, kuriais mene į kažką ateini – Osvaldas dom speaking in public, formulated his comment euphorically Balakauskas” [Inexplicable are the Ways by Which in Art you and aptly: “one can feel a good school, intense work without Come to Something]. In: Muzikos barai, 2008, No. 1–2) graphomania”. See Discussions of Hearings of the Lithuanian 107 Narbutienė 1999: 182. Composers’ Union, LLMA, f. 21, ap. 1, b. 657, l. 21.

157 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ

132 From Daunoravičienė’s talk with Osvaldas Balakauskas, 19 Daunoravičienė, Gražina. Juozo Gruodžio kompozitorių mokykla February 2008. ir jos šakos, in: Juozas Gruodis epochų sankirtose. Straipsniai, 133 Ibid. atsiminimai, dokumentai [Juozas Gruodis in the Crossroads 134 Ibid. of Epochs. Articles, Memories, Documents]. Algirdas Jonas 135 In 1988–1992 and 1994–2006, Osvaldas Balakauskas was the Ambrazas (ed.). Vilnius: LMTA, 2009, p. 226–253. head of the Department of Composition in the Lithuanian Daunoravičienė, Gražina (ed.). Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas: Muzi- Academy of Music and Theatre. kos tradicijos ir dabartis [Music Traditions and the Present]. 136 From Daunoravičienė’s talk with Justė Janulytė, 17 March Vilnius: Lietuvos kompozitorių sąjunga, 2007. 2008. Faucett, Bill F. Music in Boston: Composers, Events, and Ideas, 137 Some time ago, in the time of his studies, Auletics for two 1852–1918, Lexington Books, 2016. flutes (1966) performed in Kiev during its discussion was Jakubėnas, Vladas. Lietuvių muzikos plėtros perspektyvos [Pers- defined as a “beautiful, but cold” composition. Later Bala- pectives of Lithuanian Music Development]. In: Naujoji kauskas admitted: “I liked it. Probably I am subconsciously Romuva, 1935, Nr. 10–11 p. 218–219. striving for that.” See: “Ar mene viskas galima? [Is all possible Juozas Gruodis: Straipsniai, laiškai, užrašai. Amžininkų atsimini- in art?] Musicologist Rūta Gaidamavičiūtė talks to Osvaldas mai [Articles, Letters, and Notes. Memoirs of Contempora- Balakauskas”. In: Literatūra ir menas, 19 December 1987. ries], Algirdas Ambrazas (ed.), Vilnius: Vaga, 1965. 138 From Daunoravičienė’s talk with Justė Janulytė, 17 March Juzeliūnas, Julius. Akordo sudarymo klausimu [On the Issue of the 2008. Chord Structure], Kaunas: Šviesa, 1972. 139 From Daunoravičienė’s talk with Osvaldas Balakauskas, 19 Knut, Andreas. Zwischen Musik und Politik: Der Komponist Paul February 2008. Graener (1872–1944), Berlin: Frank & Timme, 2008 140 See: George Perle. “The Secret Program of the Lyric Suite”. In: Korabelnikova, Ludmila. Alexander Tcherepnin. The Saga of a International Alban Berg Newsletter 5 (June),1977; George Per- Russian Emigré Composer, translated by Anna Winestein, le. The Listening Composer, California: University of California edited by Sue Ellen Hershman – Tcherepnin, Bloomington Press, 1990; George Perle. Style and Idea in the “Lyric Suite” of and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2008. Alban Berg, New York: Pendragon Press, Stuyvesant, 1995. Kudiņš, Jānis. Modernism as a Marginal Phenomenon in the 141 Based on the statements from the interview “Balakauskas: Context of National Musical Culture, In: Lietuvos muziko- It is not Normal for Artist to Despise the Audience. A talk logija, t. XVI, Vilnius: LMTA, 2015, p. 40–51. with Rūta Gaidamavičiūtė”, http://www.delfi.lt/news/rin- Landsbergis Vytautas. Das Königliche Konsrvatorium zum gas/lit/obalakauskas-nenormalu-kad-menininkas-niekina- Leipzig mit den Augen eines Studenten. Briefe von M.K. publika.d?id=60468819 [last checked 9 November 2018]. Čiurlionis, In: Beiträge zur Musikwissenschaft. Berlin, 1979. 142 Ibid. Heft 1, p. 42–69. 143 From Daunoravičienė’s talk with Osvaldas Balakauskas, 19 Lietuvos muzikos istorija. I knyga: Tautinio atgimimo metai 1883– February 2008. 1918 [Lithuanian Music History. Book 1: Years of National Revival]. Danutė Palionytė (ed.). Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos akademija, Kultūros, filosofijos ir meno institutas, 2002. Mirka, Danuta. Postscriptum: Piękno “Dodekatoniki“, in: Bibliography | Bibliography W kręgu muzyki litewskiej, Krsysztof Droba (ed.), Kraków: Akademia Muzycna w Krakowie, 1997, p. 161–165. Ambrazas, Algirdas Jonas. 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Irving Fine: An American Composer in His Time, Creation of Juozas Gruodis]. Vilnius: Vaga, 1981. Pendragon Press, 2005, p. 49–50. Balakauskas, Osvaldas. Dodekatonika, in: W kręgu muzyki li- Stenevičiūtė, Rūta. Modernumo lygtys: Tarptautinė šiuolaikinės tewskiej; Rozprawy, szkice i materiały, Krzysztof Droba (ed.), muzikos draugija ir muzikinio modernizmo sklaida Lietuvoje Kraków: Academia muzyczna w Krakowie, 1997, p. 119–159. [Equations of Modernism], Vilnius: Vilniaus dailės akade- Balakauskas, Osvaldas. Dodekatonika. In: Osvaldas Balakauskas: mijos leidykla, 2015. Muzika ir mintys [Music and Thoughts], Rūta Gaidamavičiūtė Taruskin Richard. Defining Russia Musically: Historical and Her- (ed.), Vilnius: Baltos lankos, 2000, p. 169–206. meneutical Essays, Princeton University Press, 2000. Berger, Arthur. Reflections of an American Composer. Berkeley, Tobin, James R. Neoclassical music in America: Voices of Clarity and Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 2002. Restraint, Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Plymouth Čiurlionis, Mikalojus Konstantinas. Apie muziką ir dailę. Laiškai, UK: Rowan & Littlefield, 2014. užrašai ir straipsniai [On Music and Art. Letters, Notes, and Tomaszewski, Mieczysław. Interpretacja integralna dziela mu- Articles]. J. Čiurlionytė-Karužienė (ed.). Vilnius: Valstybinė zycznego, Krakow: Akademia muzyczna, 2000. grožinė leidykla, 1960. Daunoravičienė-Žuklytė, Gražina. Lietuvių muzikos modernistinės Амбразас, Aльгирдас. Юозас Груодис и формирование ли- tapatybės žvalgymas [Overview of the Modernist Identity of товской композиторской школы [Juozas Gruodis and the Lithuanian Music], Vilnius: LMTA 2016. Development of the Lithuanian School of Composers].

158 Classes and Schools of Lithuanian Composers: A Genealogical Discourse

Автореферат диссертации на соискание ученой степени Kauno konservatorijoje, nuo 1949 m. – Vilniuje įsteigtoje доктора искусствоведения. Москва, 1991. Valstybinėje konservatorijoje (dabar Lietuvos muzikos ir Туйск, Офелия. Роль школы Артура Каппа и Хейно Еллера в teatro akademija). Šiose Lietuvos institucijose XX a. buvo развитии эстонской симфонической музыки [The Role of Artur Kapp and Heino Eller in the Development of Estonian įsteigtos J. Gruodžio, J. Juzeliūno ir O. Balakausko pedago- Symphonic Music], In: Прибалтийский музыковедческий ginės kompozicijos mokyklos. сборник, Vilnius: Vaga, 1982, p. 92–105. „Kamienine“ pedagogine mokykla tenka pripažinti Холопова, В. Н.; Холопов, Ю. Н. Антон Веберн: Жизнь и Leipcigo konservatorijos absolvento Juozo Gruodžio творчество [Anton Webern. Life and Creative Activity], (1884–1948) Kauno muzikos mokykloje sukurtą kompo- Москва: Советский композитор, 1984. zitorių mokyklos sistemą. Daugelis vėlesnių kartų lietuvių kompozitorių buvo dviejų jo mokinių – Juliaus Juzeliūno (1916–2001) ir Antano Račiūno (1905–1984) mokiniai. Santrauka Antrąjį lietuvių kompozitorių mokyklos genealogijos „medį“ įprasmina Kijevo konservatorijos absolvento ir 7–9‑ojo Studijoje diskutuojama apie sąvokos „kompozicijos dešimtmečio lietuvių muzikos modernizmo centrinės figū- mokykla“ reikšmes ir pristatoma XX a. lietuviškų kom- ros – Osvaldo Balakausko (g. 1937) – kompozicijos klasė. pozitorių mokyklų ir klasių raida. Dalijamasi įžvalga, kad Tyrimas atskleidžia, kad abiejų medžių / mokyklų „ša- daugelyje muzikologijos tekstų šios sąvokos funkcionuoja knyse“ per institucijas (Sankt Peterburgo, Maskvos, Kijevo kaip bendrinio, nediferencijuoto turinio žodžiai. Kompo- konservatorijos) ir mokytojus (V. Rebikovas, R. Glieras, zitorių mokyklos sąvokos prasminis potencialas dažniausiai B. Liatošynskis) buvo įsipynusios rusų (iš dalies – ukrai- taikomas nacionalinės kūrybos diskurso retrospektyvai. niečių) muzikinės kultūros ir jų pedagogikos tradicijos. Stokojama naujo požiūrio ir fundamentinių tyrimų, ta- Jas esmingai papildė vakarietiškos muzikos kultūros čiau sąvoka nepraranda aktualumo. Šiame darbe taikoma ir pedagogikos įtaka. Ją į Lietuvą iš Vokietijos parvežė sąvokos identiteto ir struktūrinės talpos argumentacija, S. Šimkus ir J. Gruodis po studijų Leipcigo konservatori- siūloma Algirdo Ambrazo 1991 m. apgintame habilitacijos joje (1920–1924), P. Graenerio, S. Karg-Elerto, S. Krehlio darbe „Juozas Gruodis ir lietuvių kompozitorių mokyklos klasėse. Vokišką tradiciją S. Šimkaus studijose papildė dar formavimasis“. A. Ambrazo išplėtota hierarchinė trinarė ir fragmentiškos studijos Berlyno konservatorijoje (M. von kompozitorių mokyklų koncepcija išskiria: Schillingo kompozicijos klasėje). XX a. muzikos avangardo a) pedagogines kompozitorių mokyklas; kompozicijos pažinimą O. Balakauskas parsivežė iš 1968– b) laisvąsias kompozitorių mokyklas (Ofelios Tuisk sąvo- 1972 m. bendrų studijų ir diskusijų „Kijevo avangardo“ ka) – savanoriškas bendraminčių menininkų draugijas; bendraminčių I. Blažkovo – V. Silvestrovo būrelyje. c) nacionalines kompozitorių mokyklas – kompozitorių Studijoje išsamiau pristatoma Lietuvoje įtakingų profesionalų kūrybą, kuriai būdingas susiformavęs kompozicijos klasių bei mokyklų mokytojų (J. Gruodžio, nacionalinis stilius. J. Juzeliūno, E. Balsio ir O. Balakausko) kūrybos pozicija Kiekvieno šių lygmenų turinys kupinas ginčų ir ne- ir kompozicijos dėstymo metodai. Apibendrinant dau- išspręstų problemų, kurios trumpai apžvelgiamos šiame giau kaip 9 dešimtmečių lietuvių kompozicijos klasių tyrime. bei mokyklų darbą, daroma išvada: lietuvių pedagogines Ko gero, mažiausia diskusijų kelia pedagoginės kom- kompozitorių mokyklas (J. Gruodžio, J. Juzeliūno ir O. Ba- pozitorių mokyklos samprata bei struktūriniai parametrai. lakausko kompozicijos klases) susiejo bendra modernistinė Lietuvių pedagoginių kompozitorių mokyklų formavimosi orientacija, tačiau ji reiškėsi nesutampančiomis kūrybinėmis istorija yra svarbiausioji šio tyrimo dalis. Šią istoriją užrašė orientacijomis ir individualiomis kompozicijos dėstymo ir tebekuria 16 lietuviškų kompozicijos klasių bei dviejų praktikomis. Akivaizdu, kad esant kompozitorių profesorių „kamieninių“ kompozicijos mokyklų darbas. Šiame tyri- estetinių nuostatų įvairovei ir jų pedagogikos sistemose me lietuvių muzikinės kultūros pagrindą – kompozitorių būta racionalaus ir intuityvaus komponavimo pirmumo mokyklas – pristato formalizuoti kompozitorių mokyklų / priešpriešos. Būta ir asmenybinių, meno filosofijos bei klasių „genealogijos medžiai“. Jų dizainas diferencijuoja du sukauptos patirties kontrastų. Taigi, lietuvių pedagoginių netapačius fenomenus bei sąvokas – kompozicijos klasė ir kompozitorių mokyklų profesorių (mokytojų) kūryboje ir kompozicijos mokykla. Kompozitorių ugdymas Lietuvoje jų pedagogikoje modernios muzikos kūrimo idėja realizavosi buvo pradėtas 1923 m. S. Šimkaus įsteigtoje Klaipėdos skirtingais būdais. Išskirsiu keturias svarbiausių Lietuvių muzikos mokykloje (konservatorijoje – Memeler Kon- kompozicijos klasių ir mokyklų mokytojų kūrybos nuostatų servatorium für Musik). Trečiojo dešimtmečio pabaigoje bei pedagogikos metodikos opozicijas: iniciatyvą perėmė laikinoji sostinė (Kaunas), kur J. Gruo- •• tautinis modernizmas (J. Gruodis, J. Juzeliūnas) versus džio iniciatyva Kauno muzikos mokykloje 1927 m. buvo kosmopolitinis, universalus modernizmas (O. Bala- pradėta rengti kompozitorius. Vėliau šis darbas pratęstas kauskas);

159 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Gražina DAUNORAVIČIENĖ

•• romantiškas, „socrealistinis“ santykis su liaudies muzika pagrindu argumentuojami jų studentiškos kūrybos vertini- (J. Gruodis, A. Račiūnas, E. Balsys) versus jos konceptu- mai. Neatsitiktinai jie plūdo studijuoti pas šiuos mokytojus. alizavimas, struktūrinis interpretavimas individualioje Tačiau tvirtinimas, kad racionalų, konstruktyvų kompo- komponavimo sistemoje (J. Juzeliūnas); navimą puoselėjančios kompozicijos klasės / mokyklos yra •• įkvėpimu grindžiamas empirinis komponavimas pranašesnės už intuityvistines praktines, būtų paviršutiniš- (J. Gruodis, A. Račiūnas, E. Balsys) versus racionali, kas. Nes kūrybinės idėjos ir pamokos muzikos pasaulyje individualia komponavimo sistema grindžiama kūryba aktualizuojasi nevienodu metu, stiprumu ir skirtingomis (J. Juzeliūno „Akordo sandaros klausimu“, 1972; O. Ba- kryptimis. Taip XX a. antroje pusėje keitėsi ir Naujosios lakausko „Dodekatonika“, 1997); Vienos trijulės lyderystė: iki 6-ojo dešimtmečio pradžios •• subjektyviu įspūdžiu grindžiami tradiciniai, konservaty- buvo garbinamas mokytojas (A. Schönbergas), nuo 1953 m. vūs komentarai (A. Račiūnas, E. Balsys) versus teoriškai Darmštate įsigalėjo A. Webernas, o J. Schlosso ir G. Perle’o pagrindžiami, sistemos pagrindu argumentuojami atradimai išaukštino A. Bergą, kaip žvelgusį toliausiai – į komentarai (J. Juzeliūnas, O. Balakauskas). postmodernizmą. Panašu, kad reaktualizuojasi ir lietuviškų kompozicijos klasių / mokyklų tradicijos: tai, kas buvo Lietuviškose kompozitorių ugdymo klasėse tradicinis, „teisinga“ joms steigiantis, ilgainiui transformuosis arba konservatyvus mokymas (E. Balsys: „pagal visas muzikinio neteks vertės. Mąstysenos virsmas, perkeitimas, pokyčiai kūrinio rašymo taisykles“, remiantis „turtingomis muzikos („naujasis mąstymas“) ir XXI a. stiprėjantis kompozicijos tradicijomis“; J. Gruodis, A. Račiūnas, E. Balsys) buvo konceptualizmas arba dar stipresnis intuicijos išlaisvinimas priešpriešinamas „šenbergiškam“ požiūriui į medžiagą ir perkeis ir įsigalėjusius edukacinius modelius. Besikristali- jos generatyvumą (J. Juzeliūnas, O. Balakauskas). Vis dėlto zuojančios lietuviškos kompozicijos klasės ar mokyklos dar mokiniams imponavo teoriškai pagrindžiami, sistemos rašo savo istoriją.

160 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Aušra ŽIČKIENĖ Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija Once more about Friedrich Getkant’s Entry in the 17th c. Friendship Album: Study of Contexts

Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, Antakalnio g. 6, LT-10308, Vilnius, Lietuva El. paštas [email protected]

Anotacija Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašas Christiano Ottero atminimų albume, pasirašytas 1634 m. birželio 1 d. data. Atminimų albumas saugomas Lietuvos mokslų akademijos Vrublevskių bibliotekoje, ten pateko baigiantis Antrajam pasauliniam karui iš Karaliaučiaus. B. Gedkanto įrašas šiame albume ypatingas tuo, jog užrašytas lietuviškai, o jame yra melodija, kurią linkstama laikyti pirmuoju rašytiniu lietuvių liaudies dainos fragmentu. Vis dėlto iki šiol tarp liaudies dainų užrašymų nėra aptikta jokio konkretaus atitikmens, kuris tokią versiją patikimai patvirtintų. Šio straipsnio tikslas yra, analizuojant ir interpretuojant istorinius šaltinius bei nagrinėjant susijusią literatūrą, mėginti apibendrinti kuo daugiau kontekstinių žinių apie šį įrašą ir taip dar kartą kelti klausimą, ar tai lietuvių liaudies dainos fragmentas, taip pat ir daugybę kitų. Tyrimo rezultatus vargu ar galima vadinti atsakymais – tai tik svarstymų rato išplėtimas, tačiau turint galvoje, jog jokių naujų istorinių dokumentų ar faktų apie B. Gedkanto įrašą ir jį patį senokai nėra atrasta, toks veiksmas taip pat yra būdas pasistūmėti ieškant atsakymų. Reikšminiai žodžiai: Bridžius (Frydrichas) Gedkantas, Christianas Otteras, atminimų albumas, Karaliaučius, liaudies daina, religinė giesmė, melodija, rankraštis, XVII amžius.

Abstract The article examines Friedrich Getkant’s entry in Christian Otter’s friendship album (also known as an autograph book or Lat. album amicorum, Ger. das Stammbuch), signed on the date of 1st June 1634. The friendship album is kept at the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, which it came to from Königsberg at the end of WWII. Getkant’s entry in this album is significant because it was written in Lithuanian, and it includes a melody that is considered the first written fragment of a Lithuanian folk song. Nevertheless, to this day, there is no other Lithuanian folk song that could be a specific match to this fragment, thus reliably confirming this version of the song. The goal of this article is, through analysis and interpretation of historical sources, as well as by examining related literature, to attempt to summarise as much contextual knowledge as possible on this entry and in this way once again pose the question whether this is a fragment of a Lithuanian folk song, as well as other questions. The results of the study can hardly be considered as answers – they are merely an exten- sion of the discourse. And, keeping in mind that there are no newly discovered historical documents or facts about Getkant’s entry or about himself, such further discourse could also be a way to move forward in the search for answers. Keywords: Friedrich (Fryderyk, Frederick) Getkant (Gedkant), Christian Otter, Book of friendship (Album amicorum, das Stammbuch), Königsberg, folksong, religious song, melody, manuscript, 17th century.

Įvadas B. Gedkanto įrašas, pasirašytas 1634 m. birželio 1 d. data, seniai yra lituanistikos tyrimų objektas. Tai vienas iš Lietuvos mokslų akademijos Vrublevskių bibliotekoje ankstesniųjų lietuvių rašytinės kalbos faktų, dominantis (LMAVB) saugomų atminimų albumų parodoje 2013 m. kalbininkus (Gerullis, Müller-Blattau 1936; Šinkūnas 2014; nuskambėjo žymaus Lenkijos rankraštinės albumistikos 2015)1, taip pat žinomas ir kaip pirmas lietuvių liaudies dai- tyrėjo Stanisławo Wasylewskio mintis: „mažame albume nos melodijos fragmentas (Gerullis, Müller-Blattau 1936; dažnai būna užrakinta visa epocha“ (Wasylewski 1921: 1; Čiurlionytė 1969:13–14; Trilupaitienė 1984; 1998: 23–24; Paškevičiūtė-Kundrotienė 2013; Griškaitė 2013). Ji ypač [Trilupaitienė] 2003–2005; Palionytė 2009; Jurginis, Luk- tinka ir mūsų atveju: iš vieno tokio mažučio, vos 13 cm šaitė 1981: 281–282; Petrošienė 2007: 12–13; Albrechtas ilgio lapelio turinio kylančios sąsajos iš tiesų veria ištisą 2008: 34 ir kt.). Tiesa, įrašas visuomet komentuojamas kaip epochą. Kalbame apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą Christiano iki galo neišaiškintas. Reikėtų pasakyti, jog abi asmenybės – Ottero atminimų albume, saugomame LMAVB (LMAVB B. Gedkantas ir Ch. Otteras – nėra eiliniai žmogeliai, RS F15-303, 130r). Albumas, žymėtas Karaliaučiaus vals- atsitiktinai patekę į istoriją. Tai buvo dideli eruditai, savojo tybinės bibliotekos antspaudu, iš šio miesto į Vilnių pateko laiko įžymybės. Deja, jų abiejų gyvenimo istorijos gana baigiantis Antrajam pasauliniam karui. miglotos. Įvairios nedėkingos aplinkybės ir didelis laiko

161 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Aušra ŽIČKIENĖ tarpsnis, skiriantis mūsų amžių nuo septynioliktojo, lėmė Kas buvo B. Gedkantas ir Ch. Otteras? daugelio žinių, faktų, dokumentų praradimus. Vis dėlto panūdo mėginti surankioti visa, kas šiuo metu Sprendžiant iš to, jog vienas įrãšo, o kitas geba perskai- yra žinoma ir prieinama, ir atsakyti į klausimus, kylančius tyti muzikinį fragmentą, abu jie buvo pakankamai išprusę žvelgiant į Ch. Ottero atminimų albumo lapelį, pasirašytą muzikos srityje, nors, ko gero, tai nebuvo neįprastas dalykas B. Gedkanto. Pirmiausia, žinoma, rūpi, kokia tai melodija tarp to meto intelektualų3. Albumo lapelyje nupiešta pen- ir ką ji reiškia? Kokiame objekte pavaizduota penklinė su klinė ir įrašytas muzikinis tekstas yra pirmasis ir svarbiausias natomis? Ar tikrai frazė įrašo viršuje yra dainos teksto frag pretekstas manyti, jog ir žinutės adresantas, ir adresatas mentas? Tuomet norisi sužinoti ir kas siejo Ch. Otterą su muzikinį raštą geba skaityti ir suprasti. Antraip simboli- B. Gedkantu, kas juodu buvo ir kaip albumo įrašas atsirado. nė komunikacija neįvyktų ir, šiek tiek užbėgant į priekį, Iš čia natūraliai kyla ir klausimas, kas įrašyta albumo lapelyje galima būtų manyti, jog albumo įrašo kanonas pažeistas ir ką šis įrašas reiškia kaip atminimas bičiuliui ir kaip kanoni- (žr. šio straipsnio skyrelį „Atminimo įrašas kaip kultūros nis mandagumo gestas. Be abejonės, apie melodijos prasmę tradicijos dalis“). nieko nauja nesužinosime, nesulyginę šio ir kitų muzikinių Kas juos abu siejo? Abu studijavo Karaliaučiaus univer- intarpų XVII a. atminimų albumų įrašuose. Tuojau pat kyla sitete (kad ir ne vienu metu) ir abu pasižymėjo kaip karo ir klausimas, ar B. Gedkanto įrašas atitinka albumo įrašų įtvirtinimų inžinieriai. 1634 m. Bridžiui buvo apytikriai 32 tradiciją, ar jis yra tipiškas. Tad tenka aiškintis, koks apskritai metai, studijas jis buvo baigęs ir jau intensyviai dirbo karo in- yra albumo įrašo kanonas XVII amžiuje. Apie įrašą galima žinieriumi, o Ch. Otteras tuo metu jau senokai buvo baigęs būtų sužinoti daugiau, jei paieškotume kitų B. Gedkanto studijas Karaliaučiuje ir studijavo Neimegeno universitete. ranka rašytų tekstų ar jo piešinių. Abu nuolatos keliavo po Europą, 1934 m. susitiko trumpam Daugelį suminėtų klausimų vienaip ar kitaip jau kėlė ir vėl tuojau pat išsiskyrė. atskiri autoriai, besigilinantys į artimesnes ir tolimesnes Tyrėjų žiniomis, B. Gedkantas (~1602–1666) buvo sritis (tokias kaip kalbotyra, muzikologija, albumistika, Tomo Gedkanto4 anūkas, Jono Gedkanto5 sūnus (Biržiška kariuomenės ir karų, karo įtvirtinimų, artilerijos, karto- 1960: 295–298; t. p. žr. Jurginis, Lukšaitė 1981: 281–282; grafijos istorija). B. Gedkantas minimas kaip atminimo Matulevičius 2004b: 37). Panašu, kad Bridžius buvo jau tre- albumo įrašo lietuvių kalba autorius, melodijos užrašytojas, čios kartos šviesuolis ir eruditas, susijęs su protestantiškąja kartografas, karo įtvirtinimų projektuotojas ir inžinierius, šviesuomenės, ne su valstiečių žemdirbių kultūra. Lietuviški artilerijos įrangos inžinierius ir išradėjas. Bet visos informa- šaltiniai (Biržiška 1960: 295; Matulevičius 2004a: 479; cijos niekada nebuvo bandoma sieti į vieną grandį, niekada Jurginis, Lukšaitė 1981: 281–282) nurodo B. Gedkantą nemėginta pažvelgti, kaip vienos srities faktai ir įžvalgos kilus iš Ragainės, tačiau lenkiški (paskui šiuos – ir rusiški, papildo ir paaiškina kitus, sukurdami ar atkurdami trūks- ukrainietiški, angliški) ir vokiški – iš Pareinės dabartinėje tamas reikšmių sąsajas. Tai ir bus bandoma padaryti šiame Vokietijoje (pvz., Herbst 1958; Wereszczyński 1967; Bzin- straipsnyje. Visas „tirštasis aprašymas“2 mūsų atveju skirtas kowska 1992; Nowak 2007: 72–76 ir kt.). Vis dėlto neteko aiškintis B. Gedkanto atminimo įrašo muzikinio intarpo aptikti jokių patikimų duomenų, patvirtinančių pastarąją turinio klausimui, reikšmėms bei prasmėms. versiją. Greičiausiai B. Gedkantas buvo gimęs Ragainėje,

1 pav. B. Gedkanto įrašas Ch. Ottero atminimų albume (Trilupaitienė 1998: 23)

162 Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija nes universiteto studentų sąraše įrašytas kaip Fridericus Gedkanth Ragnetensis Borussus (Fryderikas Gedkantas, ra- gainiškis iš Prūsijos) (Erler 1910: 256; Biržiška 1960: 295). Manoma, jog B. Gedkanto autobiografiniai užrašai kartu su kitais svarbiais jo rankraščiais pražuvo 1622 m. Lvove, kur jis tuomet gyveno, kilus gaisrui, todėl daugelis jo gyvenimo faktų tik spėtini. Kilmė iš Pareinės galbūt galėjo „atsirasti“ tyrinėtojų darbuose, nes apie B. Gedkantą atsiranda įvairių žinių jam grįžus iš kelionių po Europą (galbūt iš Pareinės ar Olandijos, kaip mano V. Biržiška), kai savo tarnyboje ATR valdovui Vladislovui IV Vazai jis pritaikė naujausias karo 2 pav. B. Gedkanto sudaryto Karaliaučiaus žemėlapio meno žinias, padėjusias pasiekti nemenkų karinių proveržių, fragmentas (žemėlapis saugomas Švedijos nacionalinio archyvo ir taip tapo žinomas žmogus (Biržiška 1960: 295–296). Karo istorijos padalinyje, SE/KrA/0414/0028/0004) Karaliaučiaus universitete B. Gedkantas imatrikuliuo tas 1621 m. (Erler 1910: 256; Gerullis, Müller-Blattau atskiro tyrimo objektu ir galbūt dar labiau papildyti žinias 1936: 106; Jurginis, Lukšaitė 1980: 281). Vos po ketverių apie B. Gedkanto asmenybę, jo laiką ir aplinką. metų (1625) jau labai profesionaliai sudaro Piliavos (dabar Christianas Otteras9, g. 1598 m. Ragainėje, miręs Baltijskas) žemėlapį. Tais pačiais metais, kai įrašė atminimą, 1660 m. Neimegene (Olandijoje), buvo žymus matematikas, 1634, B. Gedkantas jau žinomas kaip Piliavos, tuomet garsus olandų fortifikacijos įrenginių inžinierius, gynybinių užimtos švedų armijos, žemėlapio tikslintojas, slapta pa- tvirtovių sistemos kūrėjas. Studijavo Albertinoje (Karaliau- tekęs į miestelį persirengęs žveju. Kartu su dar dviem karo čiaus universitete), 1627–1636 m. – matematiką Leideno inžinieriais jis paskiriamas gynybos nuo švedų antpuolio universitete. Daug keliavo po Europą, 1647–1658 m. tar- bei kontratakų rengimo dalyviu, parengia Pucko (vok. navo Šventosios Romos imperijos kurfiursto, Brandenburgo Putzig), Tčevo (lenk. Tc z ew, vok. Dirchau), Grudziondzo markgrafo ir Prūsijos hercogo Friedricho Willhelmo rūmų (vok. Graudenz, lot. Graudentum), Gnievo (lenk. Gniew, matematiku. Vėliau profesoriavo Neimegeno universitete Wońsk, Gmew, vok. Mewe) ir kitų miestų ir vietovių že- (Waard 1927; Бобынин 1897). mėlapius, planus, brėžinius (Biržiška 1960: 296; Herbst Ch. Otteras savo albumo tituliniame lape pats prisistato 1958; Nowak 2007: 72–76). Kitaip tariant, jis jau dirba kaip Ragnitensis (iš Ragainės, ragainiškis), taip pat imatri- Abiejų Tautų Respublikoje, vykdo Vladislovo IV Vazos kuliuojamas ir Karaliaučiaus universitete (Erler 1910: 187). užsakymus kaip kartografas, karo įtvirtinimų ir artilerijos Jo biografiją bene pirmasis parašęs ir 1764 m. paskelbęs inžinierius, daug keliauja po visą Respubliką. Dar po ke- Friedrichas Johannas Buckas daugelį gyvenimo faktų atku- tverių metų (1638) parengiamas svarbiausias B. Gedkanto ria ar patvirtina, daugelį su juo bendravusių asmenų mini darbas, pasak tyrinėtojų, gana tikslus 15 didelių Abiejų remdamasis būtent Karaliaučiaus valstybinėje bibliotekoje Tautų Respublikos tvirtovių bei įtvirtinimų rankraštinis saugotu atminimų albumu (Buck 1764: 208–270). Matyt, atlasas „Praktiškoji topografija, surašyta ir ištirta inžinieriaus vaikystėje Ch. Ottero turėta neeilinių gabumų. Vos prakutęs Fr. Gedkanto“ („Topographia practica conscripta et reco- vaikinukas jau 1610 m. išleidžiamas į Karaliaučių mokytis gnita per Fr. Gedkant mechanicum“, 1638 m.), šiuo metu universitete ir ten praleidžia 10 metų (Ibid. 202, 209; Erler saugomas Švedijos Nacionaliniame archyve6. B. Gedkanto 1910: 187), taigi, tikriausiai iki 1619-ųjų. išrastą sprogmenų svaidyklę, turinčią uždelsto paleidimo Pasak F. J. Bucko, 1934 m. balandžio pradžioje Ch. Ot- mechanizmą, 1650 m. aptarė Gedkanto amžininkas ir teras po ilgų kelionių atvyko į Karaliaučių iš Olandijos ir, bičiulis, karo inžinierius Kazimieras Semenavičius savo be kitų, susitiko ir su geru bičiuliu Frydrichu Gedkantu įžymiajame veikale „Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima“ (Buck 1764: 234). Jau tais pačiais metais jis ir vėl ilgam (Semenavičius 1650: 168; žr. t. p. Varvounis 2016: 53; palieka Karaliaučių – vėl išvyksta į Olandiją (Ibid. 235, Nowak 2007: 72–76), vėliau ir kiti ginkluotės specialistai 246). Vienas Ch. Ottero biografijos faktas liudija jo, kaip ir karo istorikai (žr. Nowak 2007: 72–76). B. Gedkanto gabaus inžinieriaus ir sykiu žmogaus, išmanančio muziką, atvaizdų nėra išlikę, bet galima spėti, kad viena iš trijų jo polinkius. 1643 m. jis sukuria instrumentą, kurį pavadina sudaryto Karaliaučiaus plano apačioje nupieštų figūrėlių „tuba harcotectonica“ (Tuba harcotectonicus, Ibid. 253). (dviejų topografų-matininkų, besidarbuojančių matavimo F. J. Buckas sako, jog bibliotekoje šalia kitų Ch. Ottero instrumentais, ir vieno vyriškio, jiems kažin ką autorite- daiktų aptikęs keistą labai ilgą metalinę triūbą (ruporą), tingai nurodinėjančio), – bene jis pats7 (žr. 2 pav.). Ir kiti sutvirtintą skardiniais vamzdeliais, ir svarstęs, ar tai galėtų jo sudaryti žemėlapiai8 dažnai puošti piešiniais – mielais būti toji „tuba“ (Ibid. 270). Biografas mini, jog šį muzikinį gyvulėlių, pastatų, augalų vaizdeliais ir labai išraiškingomis, instrumentą Ch. Otteras pardavė ar dovanojo Kristijonui dinamiškomis vyrų figūrėlėmis. Šie piešiniai galėtų tapti IV, Danijos ir Norvegijos karaliui (Ibid.; Waard 1927). Visgi

163 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Aušra ŽIČKIENĖ tokiu atveju Ch. Ottero archyve tarp asmeninių daiktų ins- Vis dėlto taip ir lieka du žodžiai, kurių įskaityti ir tiksliai trumento neturėtų būti, tad galimas dalykas, jog Ch. Otteras perrašyti, juolab suprasti ir paaiškinti nepavyksta, ir dar vie- originalių instrumentų buvo sukūręs ir daugiau. nas, kurio prasmė neaiški. Šių laikų kalba užrašytas albumo įrašas, ko gero, atrodytų taip:

Kas parašyta ir pavaizduota albumo lapelyje? „Ne visi medžiai artojams priduoti. Įrašo turinys ir jo interpretacijos Šį mažumą13 susiedui14 <...> [?] <...> [?] mūsų [?] pridėjo Perskaitytas ir išsiaiškintas visas įrašo turinys galėtų ant atminimo Bridžius padėti suvokti daugelį kilusių klausimų – ne tik įrašo auto- Getkants. 1634 m. riaus ir albumo savininko santykius, bet galbūt ir melodijos 1 birželio, Karaliaučius.“ prasmę įrašo kompozicijoje. Deja, iki pat šiandien taip ir nėra iki galo aišku, kas tame lapelyje parašyta. Tikriausiai dar lieka galimybė aiškintis teksto prasmę Bene pirmasis albumo įrašą bandė perskaityti F. J. Buc- mėginant lyginti šį įrašą ir kitus B. Gedkanto rašysenos pa- kas, kaip jau minėta, betyrinėdamas Ch. Ottero gyvenimą vyzdžius, o galbūt ir kitais būdais. Užmetus akį į žemėlapiuo- sklaidęs šio iškilaus asmens dokumentų fondą Karaliaučiaus se išlikusius jo ranka darytus įrašus, akivaizdu, kad atminimo bibliotekoje ir naudojęsis jo atminimų albumo medžiaga. albumo lapelyje B. Gedkantas rašė gan paprastai, galbūt net Jis pacituoja B. Gedkanto atminimo įrašo pirmąją frazę ir atsainokai ar skubotai (data ir vieta įrašo pabaigoje atrodo pabaigą, tačiau netiksliai, greičiausiai nesuprasdamas teksto arba prirašytos kita ranka, arba itin paskubomis). Taip, ko prasmės: „Nowiʃʃi medici Artgenis priduti. Bridius Getk- gero, galima elgtis tik su geru bičiuliu, santykiai su kuriuo ants. Anno 1637. 1 Jun. Regiomonti“ (Buck 1764: 245). išties neformalūs. Palyginus jo rašyseną žemėlapiuose, šioji 1936 m. pasirodė 5-asis Rytų Europos instituto Romoje kitokia (nors aiškiai atpažįstama) – itin lygi, taisyklinga, žurnalo „Studi Baltici“ numeris. Jame kalbininkas Jurgis Ge- parenkami ir išlaikomi skirtingi šriftai. Niekur daugiau rulis10 ir muzikologas Josephas Mülleris-Blattau11 publikavo neteko aptikti B. Gedkantą rašius lietuviškai. nedidelį straipsnelį (straipsnio parašymo vietą jie nurodo Neatskiriama lapelio turinio dalis yra melodija sykiu su Karaliaučių), kuriame paskelbė dalinę lapelio faksimilę piešiniu. J. Mülleris-Blattau jau minėtoje 1936 m. publika- (lapelio viršutinę dalį, be dedikacijos ir autografo) ir aptarė cijoje B. Gedkanto melodiją palygino su Christiano Barčo Ch. Ottero albumo įrašą kiekvienas pagal savo kompetenciją dainų leidinio „Dainu Balsai“ (1886/89) melodijomis (Nr. (Gerull, Müller-Blattau 1936). J. Gerulis pasidomėjo įrašo 55, 182, 228, 253, 307, 308, 316 a/b, 320), jokių konkrečių autoriumi Bridžiumi Gedkantu, aptiko jo pavardę 1621 m. atitikmenų nerado, tačiau įžvelgė principinių bendrumų Karaliaučiaus universiteto studentų imatrikuliacijos sąraše, (ritmo, intervalų slinkčių) ir manė šią melodiją esant tipiška trumpai suminėjo ir aptarė Bridžiaus vardo variantus. Viso (Gerull, Müller-Blattau 1936: 108). Vienas šio muzikologo įrašo jam ir šįkart perskaityti nepavyko: „...ant atminima: žengtas žingsnis nulėmė visą tolesnį šios melodijos vertini- Bridzus Getkants: Anno 1634 1 Junij Regiomonti“. Apie mą. Straipsnelyje jis paskelbė B. Gedkanto melodiją (Ibid. puslapio viršuje esantį sakinį „Ne visi medžiai...“ J. Gerulis 107), perrašytą į įprastą smuiko rakto poziciją ir dabartine sako, jog visų žodžių reikšmės jam suprantamos, tačiau ritmine išraiška. Po melodija jis užrašė lietuvišką frazę, ori- sakinio prasmė nėra aiški. ginale buvusią puslapio viršuje, per vidurį (žr. 4 pav.). Dėl Kalbininkas, baltistas dr. Mindaugas Šinkūnas – XVI– kūrybiško teksto pritaikymo melodijoje atsirado nebuvusių XVII a. rašytinės lietuvių kalbos žinovas –parengė viso lygų. Kaip tik šis J. Müllerio-Blattau sukurtas B. Gedkanto albumo lapelio teksto perrašą12 (3 pav.). melodijos pavidalas, atrodo, ir „nugulė“ mūsų muzikos istorijoje ir folkloristikoje – įsitvirtinęs teiginys, kad Bridžius Gedkantas pirmasis užrašė lietuvių liaudies dainos melodiją, kartojamas iki šiol.

4 pav. Gerull, Müller-Blattau 1936: 107

J. Gerulio perrašą savo monografijoje 1969 m. paskelbė 3 pav. Frydricho Gedkanto įrašas su natomis Ch. Ottero Jadvyga Čiurlionytė (14). Jos manymu, vargu ar galima albume, Karaliaučius, 1634. Skaitmeninis tekstas, parengė sutikti su nuomone, kad tai esanti tipiška lietuvių liaudies Mindaugas Šinkūnas pagal LMAVB RS F15-303, 130r. dainų melodija (Ibid.), bet platesnių svarstymų profesorė Spėtinai iššifruoti du žodžiai pažymėti klaustukais nesiėmė.

164 Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija

Kur kas daugiau dėmesio lapelio melodijai skyrė, ją ne Atminimo įrašas kaip kultūros tradicijos dalis sykį komentavo muzikologė Jūratė Trilupaitienė. 1986 m. ji publikavo atskirą straipsnį šia tema, jame paskelbė lapelio XVI–XVII a. susiklosčiusį atminimų albumo įrašo faksimilę (Trilupaitienė 1986: 49) ir perrašą (Ibid. 50). Jame kanoną apibūdina Reda Griškaitė išsamioje studijoje (Griš- autorė vėlgi perkėlė tekstą po melodija ir savaip priderino kaitė 2016). Pasak šios mokslininkės, „atminimo albumo lygas (žr. 5 pav.). kanonas, ypač XVI–XVII a., buvo gana griežtas“ (Ibid. 89). Tradicinė albumo įrašo (lapelio) forma susideda iš tokių dalių: moto, t. y. sentencijos (dažniausiai lotyniškos) arba savo kūrybos eilių (viršuje, per visą lapą), symbolum, t. y. trumpo devizo, žemiau, kairėje ar per vidurį, įrašo vietos ir 5 pav. Trilupaitienė 1986: 49 datos (dažniausiai apačioje, kairėje), dedikacijos albumo savininkui – paprastai negailint retoriškų žodžių jam apibū- J. Trilupaitienė ėmėsi interpretuoti teksto eilutės ir me- dinti – ir (apačioje dešinėje) rašančiojo vardo ir pavardės, lodijos kilmę bei prasmę. Frazę „Ne visi medžiai artojams priduoti“ ji galimai susiejo su krikščionių – M. Mažvydo, dažnai nurodant ir pareigas (Ibid.). M. Daukšos ir daugelio kitų XVI–XVII a. – autorių mini- Svarbiausia atminimo įrašo dalis, pasak R. Griškaitės, mais ikikrikščioniškų laikų medžių garbinimo papročiais yra moto, „kurio paskirtis – suteikti galimybę įrašo autoriui (Ibid. 49–50), taip pat ir su lietuvių valstiečių teisių siaurini- sužibėti erudicija, klasikinėmis ir šiuolaikinėmis žiniomis, mu, baudžiavinio lažo didinimu XVI–XVII amžiuje. „Tylų, pagaliau – ir savo paties kūrybiniu talentu“ (Ibid. 90). giliai paslėptą protestą kaip tik ir rodo pirmosios užrašytos Dažnai moto būdavo pasirenkamas lotyniškas ar vokiškas, lietuvių liaudies dainos tekstas“, – sako autorė (Ibid. 50). Ji rečiau kitomis kalbomis užrašytas posakis, sentencija, taip pat pasvarsto, ar nebus B. Gedkantas nusiklausęs šios Biblijos ar kita krikščioniškojo tikėjimo išmintis, antikos melodijos švedų užimtoje Piliavoje, kai, persirengęs žveju, autorių citata. Tačiau cituojama ne visada tiksliai, dažnai tikslino ankstesnį savo paties žemėlapį (Ibid. 48)15. nenurodoma, kieno mintis perteikiama. Neretai cituojama Albumo lapelio, paskelbto LMAVB skaitmeninėje ir amžininkų kūryba, kartais įrašomos ir savos kūrybos eilės, duomenų bazėje „Musicalia“, melodijos komentare sakoma, retas dalykas – pamokymai, moralizuojantis įrašo tonas, daž- jog fragmentas „susideda iš dviejų vienodos struktūros hek- nai reflektuojama draugystės tema. Moto reiškiamą mintį sakordų, kuriuose laipsniškos diatoninių garsaeilių slinktys mėgstama įvairiai užšifruoti, perteikti ne vien tekstu, bet ir perimtos iš liuteroniškų giesmių. Žodinis tekstas „Ne visi muzika, piešiniu, religine kovencine santrumpa ar įvairiais medžiai artojams priduoti“ artimas lietuvių liaudies dai- šių būdų deriniais (Ibid. 90–95). noms ir nesutinkamas lietuviškuose liuteroniškuose giesmy- Priešingai nei moto, atminimo albumuose įrašomi nuose, kurie buvo pradėti spausdinti XVI a. viduryje. Tokia devizai (symbolum) – ne tokie rafinuoti, nors ne mažiau liuteroniškos giesmės melodijos ir lietuvių liaudies dainai svarbūs albumo kanone (Ibid. 96). „Devizu vel šūkiu vel artimo literatūrinio teksto amalgama atspindi tuo metu lozungu turėjo būti trumpai ir apibendrintai išreikštas koks Mažojoje Lietuvoje evoliucionavusią liaudies tradicinės ir nors svarbiausias atminimų albumo savininko žmonių rato institucinės (bažnytinės) kultūrų sąveiką ([Trilupaitienė] gyvenimo ir veiklos principas, siekis, ambicija, moralinė 2003–2005). nuostata“ (Ibid.). Kitaip tariant, tai įrašo dalis, kuria išreiš- Muzikologė Dana Palionytė 2009 m. nedidelėje kiamas albumo savininko ir įrašančiojo asmens bendrumas, publikacijoje dar sykį perskelbia originalo faksimilę bei parodomi juos jungiantys saitai. Devizai vėlgi išmoningai J. Müllerio-Blattau perrašą, glaustai perteikia jo ir J. Gerulio koduojami, reiškiami gaidomis, piešiniais, skaičiais, meta- straipsnelio turinį ir labai trumpai nuo savęs priduria, jog foromis, alegorijomis, rašomi įvairiomis kalbomis, kartais „senojoje melodijoje nesunku įžvelgti vėlyvojo Renesanso aukštą padėtį užimančių kilmingų žmonių pateikiami herbo epochos muzikinės retorikos atšvaitų“ (Palionytė 2009). pavidalu (Ibid. 96–97). Deja, šios minties autorė neišplėtoja. Vartant albumus galima pastebėti, jog itin reikšmingą Taigi, albumo įrašo melodija siejama su lietuvių liaudies vaidmenį įrašų turinyje vaidina religija. Panašu, jog religinis dainomis, protestantų giesmėmis ir renesanso muzikos reto- dėmuo – taip pat svarbi albumo kanono dalis, kurios daž- rika, nors visuomet minima kaip pirmasis lietuvių liaudies niausiai paisoma. Kita vertus, sklaidant albumus matyti, kad dainos užrašymas. kanonas gerokai varijuoja. Pasitaiko visiškai minimalistinių Vis dėlto galima drąsiai kelti klausimą, ar pagrįstai įrašų, kuriuose tėra vienas simbolinis posakis ir dedikacija, viršutinis įrašo tekstas buvo perkeltas po melodija ir su ja arba vien tik piešinys su įkomponuotu posakiu, be dedi- sutapatintas. Abejonė, ar frazė „Ne visi medžiai artojams pri- kacijos ir autografo. Bet pasitaiko ir itin įmantrių, net per duoti“ yra dainos eilutė, sustiprėjo peržvelgus kitus XVII a. kelis albumo lapus nusidriekiančių įrašų, įvairių kitokių albumų įrašus, taip pat ir tuos, kuriuose užrašyta muzika. atminimo ženklų.

165 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Aušra ŽIČKIENĖ

Atsižvelgiant į anksčiau apibūdintą albumo įrašo ka- Užslėptą, koduotą mintį, itin dažnai mėgtą perteikti noną, B. Gedkanto įrašo svarbiausia dalis, moto, ir būtų atminimų albumų įrašuose, labai paranku reikšti gaidomis. viršuje įrašyta frazė „Ne visi medžiai...“. Žemiau esantis Verta atidžiau pasidairyti po albumų muzikinius pavyzdžius piešinys su įkomponuota melodija atitiktų devizo, šūkio, ir kai kuriuos jų aptarti, siekiant palyginti B. Gedkanto siekio, ambicijos, nuostatos (symbolum) funkciją ir turėtų melodiją su kitais muzikiniais intarpėliais, nors, ko gero, išreikšti bendrystės, jungties su albumo savininku mintį. daugelio įrašų prasmė taip ir liks iki galo suprantama tik Žemiau, kaip ir dera, pateikta dedikacija, autografas, data, albumo savininkui ir jo bičiuliui – įrašo autoriui. vieta. Taigi šis įrašas savo forma yra visiškai tipiškas. Georgo Meiero iš Duderštato, Jėnos universiteto Filo- sofijos adjunkto (asistento, profesoriaus padėjėjo), albume, pildytame nuo 1609 m. (LMAVB RS F15-302; Cicėnienė, Muzikos intarpai XVII a. atminimų albumuose Griškaitė 2016: 632), yra du įrašai su natomis, abu įrašyti muzikų. Vienas – itin paslaptingas (LMAVB RS F15-302, B. Gedkanto melodijos užrašymas byloja apie tai, jog 290r.), užrašytas neatpažinta notacija (6 pav.). Ja Georgas įrašo autorius tikrai nėra muzikos profesionalas ir nėra Quittschreiberis užrašė tribalsės fugos (greičiausiai – kano- įgudęs dažnai rašyti gaidas. Jos užrašytos ne itin tvarkingai, no) fragmentą su religinio šlovinimo tekstu. Šis žmogus17 viena gaida užbraukta – suklysta berašant arba suabejota, 1598–1616 m. buvo Jėnos universiteto Muzikos kolegijos kaip rašyti, jei melodija užrašyta iš atminties. kantorius, kūręs nesudėtingas giesmes, parengęs porą gie- Daugiau muzikinių intarpų Ch. Ottero atminimų albu- dojimo mokymui skirtų leidinių, kurie, atrodo, neišliko me nėra, bet anuomet jie nebuvo retenybė (16-oje MAVB (Bauer, Müller, Pester 2012: 1012). saugomų XVII a. atminimo albumų yra 11 natų įrašų). Tai Kitas įrašas (7 pav.) yra kompozitoriaus, kapelmeisterio, fugų, kanonų fragmentai, daugiausia religinės tematikos muzikos teoretiko ir pedagogo Andreaso Herbsto18 įrašytas vokaliniai vėlyvojo renesanso stilistikos kūrinėliai, galbūt keturbalsis kanonas – gana tipiškas vėlyvojo renesanso mu- reiškiantys kokią nors tiesiogiai ar netiesiogiai perteikiamą zikos fragmentas (LMAVB RS F15-302, 296r). Pagrindine mintį. Dažniausia natas atminimo albumuose įrašo muzikai įrašo dalimi – moto – pasirinktas lotyniškas posakis, kuriuo profesionalai arba kunigai. B. Gedkanto melodijos atkarpėlė reiškiama religinė mintis: „Ubi deficit auxilium humanum išskirtinė ne vien tuo, jog įrašyta ne muziko ir skirta ne ibi incipit divinum“ („Kur trūksta žmogiškosios, prasideda muzikui, bet ir savo nuosekliu lietuvišku prierašu16. dieviškoji pagalba“). To meto spaudiniuose galima aptikti

6 pav. Georgo Quittschreiberio įrašas Georgo Meiero albume 7 pav. Johano Andreaso Herbsto įrašas Georgo Meiero albume (Cicėnienė, Griškaitė 2016: 104–105) (Cicėnienė, Griškaitė 2016: 105)

166 Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija daugybę jo variacijų. Žemiau – symbolum funkciją turinti Ar gali frazė „Ne visi medžiai...“ būti paremija? melodija, keturbalsis kanonas. Keista ir neįprasta yra tai, jog O patarlė? po melodija esantis tekstas – tai populiari vokiška paremi- ja19: „Was sein sol schickt sich wol“ („Kas turi įvykti, įvyks“). Frazė „Ne visi medžiai artojams priduoti“ pasižymi tam Toks junginys kuriamas žaismingai, nutrūkus (pasibaigus) tikru kalbos ritmingumu, kuris gali išduoti, kad ji gan ilgai paremijai tarsi netiesiogiai raginama susikurti jos tęsinį, gludinta, vartota, gal tai net gali būti patarlė21? nes melodija rutuliojasi toliau. Taip, ko gero, sukuriamas Tame pačiame Ch. Ottero albume Mauritius (Moritzas) koduotas pranešimas, mįslė – melodija tikriausiai taip Jerichau 1626 m. lapkričio 1 d. įrašė lietuvišką patarlę „Dews pat pati savaime kažką byloja. Tačiau teksto ir melodijos Dawe Dantis. Dews Duos Donos“ (LMAVB RS F15-303, junginys neatrodo organiškas – padainuota paremija vis 261r; Cicėnienė, Griškaitė 2016: 199, 639). Ji, taip pat dėlto nevirsta dainos tekstu. Šio albumo įrašo struktūra ir kaip ir B. Gedkanto įrašyta frazė, pateikta puslapio viršuje kuriama žinutė atrodo itin artima B. Gedkanto įrašui. Abu ir atitinka moto funkciją, o žemiau užrašytas lotyniškas įrašai yra gan lakoniški, kompaktiški, abu kuria muzikinę posakis „Natura perficitur arte“ („Gamtą tobulina me- mįslę, abiejuose atsiranda pakylėto muzikinio ir utilitaraus, nas“ – tai XVI–XVII a. knygose dažnai įvairiais variantais kasdienio, artimo žodinio teksto santykis, išlaikoma religinė pasitaikantis priežodis) – devizas – primena komentarą, dar dimensija. Tačiau abiejuose įrašuose išlieka juntamas teksto žemiau dešinėje įrašyta išsami dedikacija. ir muzikos kontrastas – jie „nesulimpa“ (prisiminkime, kad Ch. Ottero albume, 92r puslapyje, auksiniu rašalu pusla- ir B. Gedkanto įrašas tyrėjų komentuojamas kaip nei daina, pio viršuje įrašyta „Altri tempi, Altre cure“ (itališkai – „Kiti nei giesmė). laikai, kiti reikalai“). Apačioje – dedikacija, data – 1631 m. Andreaso Messerschmidto (filosofijos ir teologijos gegužės 7 d., vieta – Königsbergas (Karaliaučius). studento) iš Košalino (lenk. Koszalin, vok. Köslin, lot. Lietuvišką patarlę „Diewas dawe dantis...“ kaip simbolinį Cussalin) albume, pildytame 1663–1681 (LMAVB RS šūkį Constantino Henningo (kunigavusio Eichhorne, netoli F15-314, Cicėnienė, Griškaitė 2016: 674), yra vienas trijų Gdansko) albume 1663 m. rugsėjo 22 d. įrašė ir Rumels- natų motyvas (156v.) ir, rodos, visai nederanti dešiniau burgo kunigas, kompozitorius Peteris Eckhardas (LMAVB užrašyta lotyniška eilutė cat aurea Virtus (jo reikšmė nėra RS F15-315, 113r; Cicėnienė, Griškaitė 2016: 187, 664). visai aiški). Šio įrašo autorius – Johannes Pracht, pasirašęs Įrašo vieta tekste ta pati – dešinėje viršuje. Ščecine 1669 01 03. Muzikinis motyvas ir lotyniškos frazės To paties albumo 204r puslapyje nepaprastai dailiai fragmentas atitiktų moto ir symbolum funkciją albumo išvingiuota: „Discue vacans studio quasi numquam sis mo- įrašo kompozicijoje, žemiau dešinėje užrašyta įmantri riturus / Vive vacans vitio quaʃi oras moriturus“ („Mokykis, išaukštinanti dedikacija. lyg ketintum gyventi amžinai, gyvenk, lyg ketintum rytoj Karinio pulko sekretoriaus Johanno Kleffmano al- mirti“). Įrašas darytas 1630 m. rugsėjo 1 dieną. bumo, pildyto 1629–1633 m. (LMAVB RS F15-306; 219v lapo viršuje parašyta „Tandem fit ʃurculus arbor“ Cicėnienė, Griškaitė 2016: 646), įrašai, susiję su muzika, („Galiausiai daigas virs medžiu“), 1627 m. gegužės 17 d. itin ryškūs. Trečiame puslapyje yra per abi puslapio dalis Šis posakis – tai Olandijos princo Mauritso van Nassau nupiešta spalvota alegorija su įvairiais renesansiniais ins- (arba Mauritso van Oranje, 1567–1625) devizas, itin trumentais iš gaidų muzikuojančiomis moterimis. Viršuje dažnai įkomponuojamas jo portretuose22, vis dėlto netapęs auksinėmis raidėmis užrašytas moto VIRTVTI CEDIT oficialiu heraldiniu šūkiu. Populiari paremija, matyt, buvo INVIDIA (virtus – dorybė, cedo – paklusti, nusileisti, tam tikras laikotarpio ženklas, aktualija, susijusi su to meto invidens – pavydas, neapykanta). Be šio raiškaus piešinio, istoriniais įvykiais. albume yra dar trys natų įrašai, tačiau jiems čia daugiau Visi išvardinti pavyzdžiai rodytų, jog paremijos gy- dėmesio neskirsime. vuoja kultūroje – tikriausiai ne vien rašto, bet ir žodinėje: Jakobo Zetzkes, būsimo mokyklos Gdanske rektoriaus įvairūs posakiai, sentencijos, patarlės cituojami įvairiais (Cicėnaitė, Griškaitė 2016: 642), albume (LMAVB RS variantais, jie sutinkami įvairiausio pobūdžio spaudiniuose F15-305) esama net keturių natų įrašų. Pavyzdžiui, 180r ir rankraščiuose, jais žaidžiama siekiant papuošti tekstą, lape užrašyta giesmė „Deus in ore mel est, Jesus in aure pašmaikštauti. melos“ („Jėzus kaip medus burnoje, Jėzus kaip giesmė Bandant išsiaiškinti klausimą, ar B. Gedkantas galėjo ausyse“), kurios tekstas kildinamas iš viduramžių himno. užrašyti lietuvišką patarlę, buvo kreiptasi į paremiologę Atminimą pasirašė Johanas Stadenas, Niurnbergo Šv. Sebal- dr. Liliją Kudirkienę, kuri išsyk ėmėsi nedidelio tyrimo do bažnyčios vargonininkas20, 1628 m. gegužės 23 dieną. Jo ir parengė pranešimą jo pagrindu23. Jos manymu, „Ne atminimo įrašas atrodo labai rimtas, be jokio šmaikštavimo visi medžiai artojams priduoti“, ko gero, nėra klasikinė ir, ko gero, tai – originalios kūrybos ištraukėlė, atliepianti patarlė: jokių atitikmenų nei lietuvių, nei vokiečių kalbo- nuoširdžius tikėjimo jausmus. mis nebuvo aptikta. Tačiau tai iš tiesų gali būti tradicinis

167 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Aušra ŽIČKIENĖ posakis (paremija), neturintis perkeltinės prasmės, loginio apibendrinimo galios, kokia pasižymi patarlės, o turintis realų praktinį pagrindą. Antai 1960 m. išleistas faksimilinis Prūsijos valdžios priesakų lietuvių kalba (specialiai valdžios į lietuvių kalbą išverstų) valstiečiams rinkinys, taip pat šių tekstų anotacijos (Pakarklis 1960). Pavyzdžiui, 1722 m. išleistas įsakas, draudžiąs kirsti jaunus ąžuolėlius. 1739 m. šis įsakas Prūsijos karaliaus išleidžiamas pakartotinai. Juo draudžiama kirsti jaunus ąžuolėlius, o už draudimo nesilaikymą numatytos baudos, net iki kalėjimo. 1770 m. įsakas dar sykį atnaujinamas ir ypač plačiai skleidžiamas pakabinant raštą miestuose, „kiemuose“ (kaimuose), prie karčemų, ant bažnyčių vartų, skelbiant bažnyčiose po mišių 8 pav. B. Gedkanto 1638 m. sudaryto Lvovo žemėlapio puošybos fragmentas. Švedijos nacionalinis archyvas, karo ir pan. Įsakai gerokai vėlesni, negu įrašas albume, tačiau jie istorijos padalinys: Kriksarkivet, Handritade Kartverk, Band rodo, kad iš tiesų gali būti sąsajų tarp pasikartojančio ir vis 28: Topographica practica (Getkant, 1634–1639), SE/ griežtėjančio draudimo kirsti vertingus medžius (vadinasi, KrA/0414/0028/0005 nesiliaujama juos kirsti, tai įsisenėjęs įprotis) ir tautosakos kūrinėlio. Jei B. Gedkanto užrašyta frazė yra tik paremijos (gal net patarlės) fragmentas, tokiu atveju visas tekstas turėjo būti labai gerai žinomas ir užteko tik užsiminti, kad skaitantysis mintyse atkurtų jį visą ir taip būtų sužaidžiama su juo susijusiomis reikšmėmis. L. Kudirkienės nuomone, mintys, jog tai kažkaip susiję su buvusiu medžių (ąžuolų) garbinimu, rodos, neturi pagrindo – B. Gedkanto užrašytos paremijos teksto leksika ir pateikimas rodo, jog posakis yra tam tikras realaus gyvenimo atspindys. Išnykus realioms sąlygoms, kurių buvo įkvėptas, jis taip pat turėjo išnykti.

9 pav. B. Gedkanto 1635 m. sudaryto Gnievo (Mewe) žemėlapio puošybos fragmentas. Švedijos nacionalinis archyvas, Apie piešinius karo istorijos padalinys: Kriksarkivet, Handritade Kartverk, Band 28: Topographica practica (Getkant, 1634–1639), SE/ Koks objektas (jame įkomponuota atminimo įrašo me- KrA/0414/0028/0007 lodija) – padargas, užtvaro segmentas ar dar kas – remiasi į dvikamienio medžio kelmą? Visas piešinėlis atrodo tipiškas „gedkantiško“ stiliaus fragmentas. B. Gedkantas išties pa- sižymėjo daugybe įvairių talentų, vienas jų – piešimo. Kai kurie jo sudaryti žemėlapiai yra itin asketiški, tačiau dauguma jų, kaip tais laikais įprasta, ne tik dalykiškai pildomi piešiamais schematizuotais pastatais, įtvirtinimais, miniatiū- riniais miškais, krūmynais, bet ir puošiami medžių, laukinių pievų, gėlių paveikslėliais. Ne sykį jis naudojo puošybai ir nukirsto, nupjauto ar nulūžusio medžio įvaizdį, suteikiantį 10 pav. B. Gedkanto sudaryto Vyslos atragio tvirtovės piešiniui ypatingos nuotaikos (8–10 pav.). Kaip jau minėta, Montauer Spitz žemėlapio puošybos fragmentas. Švedijos nepaprastos gyvybės sudėtingiems kartografijos kūriniams nacionalinis archyvas, karo istorijos padalinys: Kriksarkivet, suteikia ir miniatiūrinės gyvūnų bei žmonių gyvenimo Handritade Kartverk, Band 28: Topographica practica (Getkant, 1634–1639), SE/KrA/0414/0028/0008 scenelės, o Gdansko žemėlapio jūroje net „apgyvendina- mas“ mitinis vandens gyvis – žuvis pelėdos galva. Vis dėlto nieko panašaus į melodiją „laikantį“ objektą B. Gedkantas daugiau nenupiešė, tad nei palyginti, nei identifikuoti šio daikto nepavyko.

168 Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija

Dar sykį melodijos kilmės klausimu pavidalų ir tampa vietinio folkloro dalimi. B. Gedkanto melodijos fragmentas taip pat greičiausiai užrašytas iš at- Apsvarsčius atminimo įrašo kontekstą, gana drąsiai gali- minties, tikriausiai tai buvo Bridžiui ir Christianui žinoma, ma suabejoti, ar B. Gedkantas iš tiesų užrašė lietuvių liaudies įprasta melodija. Katalikiška melodija XVII a. Karaliaučiuje dainos fragmentą. Lapelio viršuje esanti ritminga frazė ir ar Ragainėje neturėtų stebinti. Protestantiškųjų giesmių žemiau pateiktas melodijos fragmentas, ko gero, nepriklauso repertuaras labai pamažu formavosi pirmiausia panaudo- tam pačiam kūriniui. Didžiausia tikimybė, kad melodija – jant katalikišką giesmių aruodą, prisitaikant jo giesmių tai bažnytinės giesmės pradžia, o tekstas – paremija (nors ir melodijas, kurios jau buvo įprastos. „Sveika Karalyčia“ savo ne klasikinė patarlė). Giesmės pradžios pacitavimą nulėmė giesmynėlyje paskelbė ir Martynas Mažvydas, tai buvo savojo meto kultūrinė tradicija bei siekis tinkamai paisyti pirmasis žinomas lietuviškas šios giesmės vertimas iš lotynų atminimo albumo įrašo kanone priimto religinio dėmens. kalbos, tiesa, ši giesmė neprigijo. Albinas Jovaišas pažymi: Tačiau kiek netikėta buvo aptikti, kad melodija primena ne „[Mažvydo] Katekizmo giesmynėlyje, nors jis nedidelis, liuteronišką, o seną katalikišką giesmę. išryškėja du Reformacijos pradinio etapo procesai. Vienas Melodija nepaprastai artima katalikiškos iš XI a. kildina- jų – ryšys su katalikiškaisiais Viduramžiais. Nuo katalikiškos mos giesmės, antifonos „Salve Regina mater misericodiae“ tradicijos reformatai ryžtingai atsiribojo tik XVI a. pabaigo- lenkiškos versijos „Witaj Królowa nieba i Matko litości“ je“ (Jovaišas 2009: 102). Vis dėlto gyvosios kultūros procesų, melodijos variantams, skelbtiems Žygimanto Liauksmino keičiantis konfesijai, paskubinti neįmanoma, juolab neįma- 1667 m. Vilniuje išleistame giesmyne (čia naudotasi vėles- noma greitai keisti bendruomeninių muzikavimo įpročių ir niu leidimu – Lauxmin 1693: [be paginacijos]); giesmė yra tradicijų. Tad ir katalikiškų giesmių melodijos dar ilgai turėjo skyrelyje ROTVŁY ADENTOWE, pažymėta V numeriu) aidėti toliau nuo progresyviųjų centrų, kol įsigalėjo naujo- ir daug vėliau – Michało Mioduszewskio giesmyne (Mio- sios. Lygiai taip pat pamažu nyko ir Marijos kulto apraiškos. duszewski 1838: 186) (11, 12 pav.). Melodija Lietuvoje Štai Juozo Vaišnoros žiniomis, „Tuose kraštuose, kur įsigalėjo tebežinoma liaudiškojo pamaldumo tradicijoje – gyvai, liuteronizmas, nauji Marijos paveikslai nebuvo gaminami, labai nedaug nutolusiomis variacijomis laidotuvėse giedama tačiau senieji daugiausia liko savo vietose (bažnyčiose). Todėl ir šiandien, tiesa, dabar ji nėra itin populiari, ją „nurungė“ net šiandien, ne vienoje Vokietijos protestantų liuteronų kitos melodijos. bažnyčioje, atimtoje kitados iš katalikų, galime rasti Marijos paveikslus altoriuose ir langų vitražuose. Panašiai atsitiko ir su Marijos šventėmis. Liuteris paliko švęsti Apaštalų, šv. Mykolo ir kai kurias Marijos šventes (bent 5). Nenuostabu tad, kad Brandenburgo kurfiursto kapelmeisterių J. Eccardo 11 pav. Giesmės fragmentas (Lauxmin 1693: Rotvły (†1611) ir J. Strobaeuso (1580–1646) sustatytame giesmyne adwentowe V) ir 1642 bei 1644 m. išleistame Karaliaučiuje yra giesmės Ma- rijos Apreiškimo, Grabnyčių ir Dangun Ėmimo šventėms“ (Vaišnora 1958: 26–27).

12 pav. Giesmės fragmentas (Mioduszevski 1838: 186) Išvados

Verta pasakyti, kad šios giesmės tekstai (be melodijų) B. Gedkantas ir Ch. Otteras kartu Karaliaučiaus uni- skelbiami Vilniuje ir kitur leistuose giesmynuose nuo versitete nestudijavo, jų studijas skyrė gerokas laiko tarpas. pat XVI a. pabaigos (Bartoszewski 1613: [62] Nr. 28; B. Gedkantas universiteto imatrikuliacijos sąraše nu- Jagodyński 1635: 11; lietuviški vertimai „Sweyka dangaus rodomas kaip kilęs iš Ragainės, o Ch. Otteras pats taip Wieɮpati motina meylinga“, „Swéika karalîcʒe“ – Daukša prisistato, vadinasi, jie buvo žemiečiai. 1595: 62–63; [Anoniminis katekizmas] 1605: 51–52; Sla- B. Gedkantas albumo įraše vadina Ch. Otterą susie- vočinskis 1646/1958: 80 ir kt.). Gali būti, kad ir minimos du, tad veikiausiai jie pažįstami (ar draugai) iš vaikystės melodijos variantai mūsų kraštuose giedami jau nuo XVI a. Ragainėje laikų. Gyvenime juos siejo ir bendri profesiniai vidurio24. Sulyginus matyti, kad B. Gedkanto melodijos interesai – abu pasižymėjo kaip karo inžinieriai. fragmentas turi ir Ž. Liauksmino, ir M. Mioduševskio pa- Atminimo albumo įrašas padarytas B. Gedkantui bai- skelbtų melodijų požymių, tačiau skiriasi derme ir ritmika. gus studijas ir jau turint rimtos profesinės patirties, abiem Tai gali būti ir netobulo melodijos užrašymo pasekmė, ir bičiuliams susitikus tik trumpam. Po to jie ir vėl išsiskyrė. intensyvaus kūrinio gyvavimo tikinčiųjų bendruomenėse B. Gedkanto įrašas, žvelgiant į jį to meto albumų tra- ženklas: gyvai plintančios ir nuolat giedamos giesmės me- dicijos kontekste, yra tipiškos formos, tačiau išsiskiria tuo, lodija greitai ima varijuoti, ilgainiui įgyja daugybę skirtingų jog yra išimtinai lietuviškas.

169 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Aušra ŽIČKIENĖ

Įrašo piešinys, kuriame įkomponuota melodija, gan nors esama ir kitų vardo bei pavardės rašybos variantų. Šiame tipiškas B. Gedkanto rankai – panašūs nupjauti, nukirsti, straipsnyje nuosekliai naudojame lietuviškąjį asmenvardžio nulūžę medžiai vaizduojami jo sudarytuose rankraštiniuose variantą. 2 Sutelktinis šaltinių ir susijusios literatūros analizės būdas iš žemėlapiuose. Vis dėlto pavaizduotas atremtas į dvišakį tiesų kiek primena postmoderniosios antropologijos pradi- medžio kelmą objektas, kuriame užrašyta melodija, lieka ninku laikomo Cliffordo Geertzo (1926–2006) imtą naudoti neaiškus, nieko panašaus žemėlapiuose nepasitaiko. metodą, kurio esmė – siekis suprasti tiriamos kultūros atstovų Labai tikėtina, kad viršutinė albumo įrašo teksto frazė mąstymą (simbolinių reikšmių kūrimo būdus ir formas, nėra dainos žodžiai, t. y. melodija nėra tiesiogiai susijusi su simbolines praktikas, sudarančias visuomenės komunikacijos pagrindą) interpretuojant didelį kiekį įvairiopų duomenų. virš jos įrašyta teksto eilute. Išmoningai perteikta sąsaja, Mūsų atveju „tirštąjį aprašymą“, surinkus kuo daugiau įvairių pastebima tarp teksto frazės ir melodijos grafinio apipa- duomenų, susijusių su vieno mažo albumo lapelio įrašu, vidalinimo (medžio įvaizdis tekste ir piešinyje, kuriame imamės interpretuoti stengdamiesi įsiskverbti į gana tolimą įkomponuota melodija), greičiausiai suprantama tik abiem istorinį kultūros laikotarpį ir norėdami atskleisti, paaiškinti asmenims, ji gali būti grįsta kokios nors bendros patirties tam tikrus simbolinius veiksmus to laiko žmonių bendravime. 3 užuomina. Tokia forma pateikiamas atminimo įrašo turinys Muzikiniam švietimui Prūsijos karalystės mokyklose buvo skiriama nemažai dėmesio, juolab kad tvirtinant protestantų taip pat gali būti albumo tradicijos, kanono paisymo ženklas. konfesiją viena kertinių nuostatų buvo bendruomeninio Įrašo moto „Ne visi medžiai artojams priduoti“ gali būti giedojimo diegimas bei giesmių mokymas gimtąja kalba (Ja- paremija, tačiau greičiausiai, kaip mano dr. L. Kudirkienė, reckaitė 2001: 23–25). Karaliaučiaus universitete, tapusiame nėra klasikinė patarlė – jos kilmė gali būti susijusi su realiais pagrindiniu Prūsijos kunigų rengimo centru, XVI–XVII a. Prūsijos valdžios draudimais lietuviams valstiečiams kirsti dirbta ne vieno žymaus muziko, palikusio meninės kūrybos ar solidžių teorinių veikalų (Kšanienė 2003: 33–39; Trilupai- ąžuolus. tienė 2014: 78). Melodija, tikėtina, yra religinės giesmės fragmentas: tai 4 Tomas Gedkantas – Martyno Mažvydo bendradarbis, padėjęs būtų dar vienas įrašo tipiškumo ženklas, nes religinis dėmuo jam rengti lietuvišką giesmyną, g. 1525 m. Žemaitijoje, galbūt įvairiomis formomis žymus daugumoje to meto atminimo Varniuose, gal netoli Tauragės ar Raseinių, smulkių bajorų albumų įrašų turinyje. šeimoje. 1550–1553 m. mokėsi Karaliaučiaus universtitete. Melodijos fragmentas, tyrinėtojų nuomone, primena Nuo 1553 ėjo pastoriaus pareigas Širvintos mieste. Mirė po 1566 m. (Biržiška 1960: 115–119; Pociūtė 2000; Erler 1910: protestantų giesmes, bet jis stebėtinai artimas katalikiškos 11). viduramžiais kilusios giesmės „Sveika, Karaliene“, „Salve 5 Jonas Gedkantas (1556–1619) buvo gimęs Širvintoje (dabar Regina“ melodijų, skelbtų Ž. Liauksmino (1667), vėliau Kutuzovas). 1580–1618 m. jis kunigavo savo tėviškės lietu- M. Mioduševskio (1838) giesmynuose ir iki šiol aptinka- viškoje parapijoje, baigęs Karaliaučiaus universitetą (1578 m. mų Lietuvoje liaudiškojo pamaldumo praktikose, pradžios imatrikuliuotas kaip Johannes Gedkantus Schirwintensis) dirbo lietuvių raštijos labui, dalyvavo rengiant Bretkūno Bibliją fragmentams. (Biržiška 1960: 208; Matulevičius 2004: 37; Erler 1910: 65; Tai, ką savo įrašu nori pasakyti B. Gedkantas, nėra su- Zinkevičius 2000; Lukšaitė 2017: 94). reikšminta, patetiška ar didaktiška – pasak jo paties, tai tik 6 Nuo 2018 m. vasario 1 dienos šio archyvo skaitmeniniai „mažmožis“. Lietuviškas tekstas, ko gero, nesuprantamas dokumentai laisvai pasiekiami interntete. Skaitmenintas daugeliui aplinkinių, taip pat ir tuomečių albumo skaitytojų B. Gedkanto atlasas: [žiūrėta taip, B. Gedkantas pateikė išmoningą, išskirtinį bendros 2018.05.14]. patirties priminimą, išreikšdamas jį tradicine, kanonine 7 [Regiomontum (Königsberg/Kaliningrad) 1634–1639], atminimo įrašo forma. Topographia Practica. Conscripta Et Recognita Per Fridericum Getkant Mechanicum. Anno 1638. Žr. skaitmenintą dokumen- tą Švedijos Nacionaliniame archyve: https://sok.riksarkivet. Nuorodos se/bildvisning/K0024426_00001?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=0 #?cv=0&z=-1551.3681%2C-298.2222%2C10646.7362% 1 Straipsnio autorė reiškia nuoširdžią padėką kalbininkui dr. 2C5964.4444 [žiūrėta 2018.05.14] 8 Mindaugui Šinkūnui, pasidalinusiam savo įžvalgomis dėl B. Gedkanto žemėlapiams iki šiol yra tekę itin mažai lietuvių B. Gedkanto rankraštinio teksto turinio ir lietuviškos rašybos tyrinėtojų dėmesio. Skelbtas ir šiek tiek aptartas tėra bene pats bei konsultavusiam dėl šio autoriaus pavardės formos rašymo. lakoniškiausias, nepasižymintis puošyba Vilniaus priemiesčio Atminimų albumo lapelyje pasirašyta Bridžius Getkants, Lukiškių planas, sudarytas 1648 m. (Bieliūnienė [at al.] 2002: tačiau, remiantis kalbininkų Kazimiero Būgos (1958: 226) 50–51). Ne sykį skelbtos ir Vilniaus gynybinės sienos plano, ir Zigmo Zinkevičiaus (2008: 90, 203–204, 282, 327) argu- taip pat sudaryto 1648 m., gerokai vėlesnės kopijos (pvz., mentais, pavardė turėtų būti rašoma Gedkantas. Dar reikėtų Bielinis [at al.] 1988: 40). Švedijoje saugomo žemėlapių rin- pridurti, kad vokiška vardo forma yra Frydrichas (Friedrich), kinio neaptaria, neskelbia, kartais net ir nepamini dauguma tokia dažniausiai naudojama kalbant apie šį asmenį, kitomis mokslininkų, besidominčių Lietuvos kartografijos istorija kalbomis priimta vartoti fonetinę jo pavardės formą Getkant, (pvz., Vasiliauskas, Zabiela 2013; Čelkis, Karpova-Čelkienė

170 Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija

2015; Girkus, Lukoševičius 2004). Visas rinkinys natūralaus pradžios, kada imta labiau laikytis Romos Ritualo, kur „Salve dydžio formatu paskelbtas Lenkijos mokslininkų (Łopatecki, Regina“ nevartojama ir nežinoma. 1909 m. Seinų vyskupijos Walczak 2011: 62–198). valdytojas prel. J. Antanavičius į paklausimą, ar „Salve Regi- 9 Vok. Christian Otter, lot. Christianus Otterus. na“ turi būti apleidžiama tik per ekzekvijas bažnyčioje, ar ir 10 Georg Gerullis, g. 1888 m. Jogauduose, Tilžės apskrityje, ant kapų numirėlį laidojant, atsakė: „Tos pačios racijos dėliai miręs 1945 m. Rygoje. „Salve Regina“ neturi būti giedama ne tik per ekzekvijas, bet 11 Gimęs 1895 m. Kolmare (Colmar), Prancūzijoje, miręs ir numirėlį laidojant.“ Taip „Sveika Karaliene“ pamažu iš baž- 1976 m. Sarbriukene (Saarbrücken), Vokietijoje. nyčių ir kapų išnyko, nors žmonių šiaipjau budynėse buvo dar 12 Perrašas neskelbtas, čia skelbiamas dr. M. Šinkūnui leidus. mielai giedama“ (Vaišnora 1958: 159). Reikėtų pridurti, jog 13 Mažmožį – A. Ž. pirmieji protestantai, pakeitę giesmės „Salve Regina Mater Mi- 14 Kaimynui – A. Ž. sericordiae“ (Gegrüßet seist du Königin Mutter der Barmher- 15 Reikia darsyk priminti, kad tai įvyko 1634 – tais pačiais metais, zigkeit) tekstą, išdėstę jį lotyniškai ir vokiškai, buvo Sebaldas kai buvo įrašytas ir atminimas. Šiek tiek užbėgant į priekį, Heydenas (Heyden 1524: [1])) ir Johannas Freyslebenas reikėtų pasakyti, kad J. Trilupaitienės pasvarstymas neatrodo (Freysleben [1523]: [11]): „Salue Jesu Christe misericordie tikėtinas. Atidžiau panagrinėjus abiejų bičiulių gyvenimo rex / Vita dulcedo et spes nostra Salue <...> Gegruͤsset seistu faktus (žr. tolesnius šio straipsnio skirsnius), aiškėja, jog jie Jesu Christe / der koͤnig der barmhertzigkait <...>“ (Žr. t. p. abu kilę iš Ragainės, jų amžiaus skirtumas – penkeri metai, Wegener (et al.) 2017: 433–434). Tačiau giesmės melodijų Bridžius vadina Christianą susiedu, nors studijuodami jie kartu istorijos tyrimo darbų, kuriuose būtų plačiau nagrinėjama ir negyveno, taip pat kartu nedirbo, nors abu buvo įgiję tą pačią mūsų minima melodija, nesama. specialybę. Tad veikiausiai jie pažįstami iš vaikystės ir vargu, ar atminimo albume pateikta daina galėtų sieti (tokia turėtų būti jos funkcija pagal nusistovėjusį įrašo kanoną) du vaikystės Literatūra draugus, jei būtų žinoma tik vienam iš jų. 16 Lietuviškai užrašytų fragmentų XVI–XVII a. atminimo Albrechtas Juozas (sud.), Prūsijos milžinai: enciklopedinis žinynas, albumuose esama ir daugiau, tačiau daugiau nėra nė vieno Klaipėda: Socialinių mokslų kolegija, 2008. įrašo vien tik lietuvių kalba. [Anoniminis katekizmas], Jokūbas Ledesma, Katechizmas arba 17 Georg Quit(t)schreiber, g. 1569 Kranichfelde (Tiuringijoje), Pamokimas wienam kvriamgi krikscionivy reykiamas, Wilnvy: miręs 1638 netoli Jėnos (Tenhaef 2000: 35). Drukarnioy Academios Societatis Iesu, 1605. 18 Johan Andreas Herbst / Autumnus (1588–1666), žr. Klötzer Bartoszewski Walenty, Parthenomelica Albo Pienia nabożne 1994. o Pannie naświętszey, przez Walentego Bartoszewskiego, 19 Paremija – tai priežodis, patarlė, sentencija, turinti savo vartoji- Wilno, 1613. mo kalboje tradiciją ir laikoma folkloro žanru, t. y. varijuojanti, Bauer Joachim; Müller Gerhard; Pester Thomas. Jena, in: atsirandanti anonimiškai arba ilgainiui prarandanti autorystę. Handbuch kultureller Zentren der Frühen Neuzeit – Städte Paremijos žanras nuolat kūrybiškai praplečiamas įvairios und Residenzen im alten deutschen Sprachraum, Bd. 1: Augs- kilmės posakiais ar jų perdirbiniais, apvertiniais, parodijomis burg–Gottorf, Wolfgang Adam & Siegrid Westphal (eds.), ir pan., tokie procesai vyksta nuolat (plačiau žr. Zaikauskienė Berlin: Alter de Gruyter GmbH, 2012, p. 981–1036. 2012). Bielinis Jonas [at al.] (sud.), Lietuvos TSR istorijos ir kultūros pa- 20 Apie šį vokiečių kompozitorių (1581–1634), vargonininką minklų sąvadas, Vilnius: Vyriausioji enciklopedijų redakcija, ir pedagogą, 1618–1634 m. užėmusį Šv. Sebaldo bažnyčios 1988, t. 1. vargonininko pareigas, žr. Fuller 1908: 665. Bieliūnienė Aldona; Kulnytė Birutė; Subatniekienė Rūta (sud.), 21 Patarlės yra viena iš paremijų žanro dalių. Tai pastovūs api- Lietuva žemėlapiuose, Vilnius: LNM, 2002. bendrinamojo pobūdžio posakiai, gyvuojantys per tradiciją. Biržiška Vaclovas, Aleksandrynas, t. 1 (XVI–XVII amžiai. Se- Patarlė dažnai pasižymi eilėdaros pradais. Ji visuomet sudaro nųjų lietuvių rašytojų, rašiusių prieš 1865 m., biografijos, sintaksiniu atžvilgiu išbaigtą sakinį, pasižymintį aforistiniu bibliografijos ir biobibliografijos), Čikaga: JAV LB Kultūros talpumu, ir kalboje atlieka apibendrinimo paskirtį (Zaikaus- fondas, 1960. kienė 2012: 17). Buck Friedrich Johann, Lebens-Beschreibungen derer verstorbenen 22 Portretuose devizą dažnai lydi nukirsto medžio kelmo ir iš jo Preußischen Mathematiker überhaupt und des vor mehr denn tįstančių dviejų atžalų simbolinis vaizdas, reiškiantis valdovų hundert Jahren verstorbenen großen Preußischen Mathemati- dinastijos galios tęstinumą, nepaisant mirties, žūčių, maištų, kers P. Christian Otters insbesondere, Königsberg und Leipzig: karų ir kitų negandų (Steen 2014: 125–126). Verlag Hartung und Zeise, 1764. 23 Bendras pranešimas kartu su šio straipsnio autore 2017 10 18 Būga Kazimieras, Rinktiniai raštai, t. 1, Z. Zinkevičius (ed.), buvo perskaitytas XXIII folkloro konferencijoje „Sakytinė Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla, tradicija ir rašto kultūra: nuo sankirtų iki tyrimų trajektori- 1958. jų. Reformacijos 500 metų sukakčiai pažymėti“, įvykusioje Bzinkowska Jadwiga, The Most Valuable Cartographic Items Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institute. 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Čelkis Tomas; Karpova-Čelkienė Valentina (sud.), Žvilgsnis plans of the Polish Commonwealth of the 17th c. in Archives in į Lietuvos Didžiąją Kunigaikštystę iš paukščio skrydžio: Stockholm, Warszawa: Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa XVI–XIX amžiaus kartografijos šaltiniai. Vilnius: Vilniaus Narodowego, 2011, t. 1. universitetas, 2016. Matulevičius Algirdas, Gedkantas, Getkantas, Friedrichas, in: Ma- Čiurlionytė Jadvyga, Lietuvių liaudies dainų melodikos bruožai, žosios Lietuvos enciklopedija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų Vilnius: Vaga, 1969. leidybos institutas, 2000, t. 1 [A–Kar], p. 438. Daukša Mikalojus, Kathechismas, arba Mokslas kiekwienam Matulevičius Algirdas (a), Frydrichas Gedkantas, in: Visuotinė lie- krikszczionii priwalvs, paraszitas per d. Iakvba Ledesma theo- tuvių enciklopedija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos loga Societatis Iesv, Vilnius, 1595. institutas, 2004, t. 6 [Fau-Goris], p. 479. Erler Georg (sud.), Die Matrikel und die Promotionsverzeichnisse Matulevičius Algirdas (b), Lietuviai studentai Karaliaučiaus der Albertus-Universität zu Königsberg i Pr. 1544–1829, Bd. 1: universitete XVI a.–XIX a. pradžioje, in: Istorija: Lietuvos Die Immatrikulationen von 1544–1656, Leipzig: Verlag von aukštųjų mokyklų mokslo darbai: Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginis Duncker & Humblot, 1910. universtitetas, 2004, t. 62, p. 33–42. Freysleben Johann, Das Salve Regina nach dem richtscheyt, das Mioduszewski Michał Marcin, Śpiewnik kościelny, Kraków: Sta- da hayst Graphi theopneustos ermessen und abgericht, [Re- nisław Gieszkowski, 1838. gensburg], [1523]. Nowak Tadeusz Marian, O mówiących armatach, trzystopnio- Fuller J. A. (ed.), Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. 4, wych rakietach i polskich inżynierach XVII wieku, Warszawa: [Q–S], London: Macmillan & Co, 1908. Raphael, 2007. Gerullis Georg; Müller-Blattau Joseph, Eine littauische Melodie Palionytė Dana, Lietuvių dainos publikacija, in: Literatūra ir von 1634, in: Studi Baltici: Pubblicazioni dell instituto per menas, 2009-09-18, Nr. 3251. l’Europa orientale, 1936, Vol. 5, p. 106–108. Paškevičiūtė-Kundrotienė Eglė, Parodos „Noriu būti Tavo knygo- Girkus Romualdas; Lukoševičius Viktoras, Pieštiniai žemėlapiai ir je... “ atidarymas, 2013 m. balandis, http://www.mab.lt/lt/ žemėlapiai su piešiniais, in: Geodezija ir kartografija, Vilniaus archyvas/1380/983 [ žiūrėta 2018 05 15]. Gedimino technikos universitetas, 2004, t. 30, Nr. 2, p. 1–9. Pakarklis Povilas (sud.), Prūsijos valdžios gromatos, pagraudeni- Griškaitė Reda, Paroda „Noriu būti Tavo knygoje... XVII–XXI a. mai ir apsakymai lietuviams valstiečiams, Vilnius: Valstybine atminimų albumai iš Lietuvos mokslų akademijos Vrublevskių politines ir mokslines literaturos leidyka, 1960. , 2013 m. balandis, http://www.mab.lt/ bibliotekos rinkinių“ Pociūtė Dainora, Gedkantas, Tomas, in: Mažosios Lietuvos enci- lt/archyvas/1380/973 [žiūrėta 2018 04 11]. klopedija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, Griškaitė Reda, Albumistikos etiudai, in: Atminimų sodai: al- 2000, t. 1 [A–Kar], p. 438. bumistikos etiudai, Lietuvos mokslų akademijos Vrublevskių Semenavičius Kazimieras, Artis magnae artilleriae pars prima, auc- bibliotekos album amicorum katalogas, Rima Cicėnienė ir tore Casimiro Siemienowicz equite Lituano olim artil[leriae] Reda Griškaitė (sud.), Vilnius: Lietuvos mokslų akademijos Amsterodami: apud Ioannem Vrublevskių biblioteka, 2016, p. 85–591. reg[ni] Polon[iae] propraefecto, Ianssonium, 1650. Herbst Stanisław, Fryderyk Getkant, in: Polski Słownik Biogra- Slavočinskis Saliamonas Mozerka, Giesmės tikėjimui katalickam ficzny, t. 7, z. 35 [Firlej Jan – Girdwoyń Kazimierz], Kraków, , fotografuotinis leidimas, par. Jurgis Le- Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Zakładu Narodowego im. Osso- priderančios. 1646 bedys, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros lińskich, 1958, p. 412. leidykla, 1958. Heyden Sebald. Adversus Hypocritas Calumniatores, super falso Šinkūnas Mindaugas, Mažosios Lietuvos raštų ortografijos sibi inustam haereseos nota[m], de inversa cantilena, quae reforma XVII amžiuje. I. pučiamųjų priebalsių ir afrikatų Salve regina incipit, Sebaldi Heiden defensio, Norenbergae: Petreius, 1524. žymėjimas, in: Archivum Lithuanicum, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2014, Nr. 16, p. 9–58. Jagodyński Stanisław Serafim,Pieśni Katholickie nowo reformowa- ne, z Polskich na Łacińskie a z Łacińskich na Polskie przełożone, Šinkūnas Mindaugas, Lietuvių ortografijos skirtumai katalikų ir [be vietos] [be leidėjo], ~1635. evangelikų reformatų raštuose (XVI–XVII a.): priebalsio /j/ Jareckaitė Stanislava, Muzikinis ugdymas Didžiosios ir Mažosios ir diftongų /ai/, /ei/ rašyba, in: Baltistica, Vilnius: Vilniaus Lietuvos mokykloje: bendrybės ir skirtumai, in: Tiltai, priedas universitetas, 2015, L(2), p. 197–244. Nr. 5 „Lietuviai ir lietuvininkai. Etninė kultūra“, Klaipėda: Steen Jasper Andreas van der, Memory wars in the Low Countries, Klaipėdos universtitetas, 2001, p. 23–30. 1566–1700, daktaro disertacija, Leidenas: Leideno univer- Jovaišas Albinas, Jie parašė pirmąsias lietuviškas knygas, Vilnius: sitetas, 2014, https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/ Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2009. handle/1887/26493/proefschrift_Jasper_van_der_Steen1. 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172 Dar kartą apie Bridžiaus Gedkanto įrašą XVII a. atminimų albume: kontekstų studija

Trilupaitienė Jūratė, Protestantiška muzika Mažojoje Lietuvoje portrays the stave with notes, is the phrase above the entry ir Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje (XVI–XVII a.), in: actually a fragment of a song, what did Otter and Getkant XVI–XIX a. Lietuvos muzikinio gyvenimo atodangos, sud. have in common, how this album entry came to be, what Vida Bakutytė, Vilnius: Lietuvos kultūros tyrimų institutas, 2014, p. 69–116. is written on this album page, is the entry in line with the Vaišnoras Juozas, Marijos garbinimas Lietuvoje, Roma: Katalikų tradition of album entries, is it a typical kind of entry? Other mokslo akademija, 1958. musical inserts in albums from the 17th c., are compared to Varvounis Miltiades, Made in Poland: The Women and Men Who this entry and the general canon for album entries in the 17th Changed the World, Exliblis UK, 2016. c. are examined. Also, other texts (and drawings) written in Vasiliauskas Ernestas; Zabiela Gintautas (sud.), Lietuvos XVII– Getkant’s hand were searched for and the melody’s possible XIX a. pradžios ikonografijos ir kartografijos šaltiniai Švedijoje, Kaunas: KTU leidykla, 2013. origin in Catholic hymns was analysed. Waard Cornelis de, Otterus, Christiaan, in: Nieuw Nederlandsch Many of the aforementioned questions were in one way Biografisch Woordenboek, P. J. Blok & P. C. Molhuysen (eds.), or another posed by the different authors who delved into Leiden: A. W. Sijthoffs Utgevers-Maatschappij, 1927, t. 7, related or very distant fields (such as linguistics, musicol- p. 935–936. ogy, the study of memory albums, military, war, military Wasylewski Stanisław, Sztambuch. Skarbnica romantyzmu, Lwów: A. Altenberg i J. Mortkowicz, 1921. fortification, artillery history). Getkant is mentioned as the Wegener, Lydia; Lallinger, Franziska; Cano Martín-Lara, Arrate, author of a friendship album entry in Lithuanian and having Transformation und Destruktion – Formen der folkssprach- written down a related melody; he was also a cartographer, lichen Aneingnung des Salve regina in fünfzehnten und designer and engineer of military fortifications, artillery sechzehnten Jarhundert, in: Maria in Hymnus und Sequenz – equipment engineer and inventor. However, it was never , Eva Rothenber- Interdisziplinäre mediävistische Perspektiven attempted to link all of this information together, no one ger & Lydia Wegener (eds.), De Gruyter, 2017, p. 395–450. Wereszczyński Jan, Studia nad mapami morskimi Fryderyka tried to look into how the facts and insights from different Getkanta, in: Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Łódzkiej, 1967, fields complement and explain one another, creating and Nr. 86, z. (specjalny) 5, p. 5–48. recreating links between the missing values. This is the goal Zaikauskienė Dalia, Lietuvių paremijos XX–XXI a. sandūroje: of the article and the following conclusions were reached: tradicija ir inovacija, daktaro disertacija, Vilnius: Lietuvių • Getkant and Otter both studied at Königsberg Univer- literatūros ir tautosakos institutas, 2012. • sity, but not at the same time – when Otter completed Zinkevičius Zigmas, Lietuvių asmenvardžiai, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008. his studies, Getkant only began them several years later; Zinkevičius Zigmas, Gedkantas, Jonas, in: Mažosios Lietuvos enci- •• In the university’s matriculation list Getkant is listed as klopedija, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, originating from Ragainė (Germ. Ragnit, Pol. Ragneta, 2000, t. 1 [A–Kar], p. 438. Rus. Neman) while Otter introduces himself as being from there as well, thus both were from the same place; Бобынин Виктор Викторович, Оттеръ, Христiанъ, in: Энциклопедическiий словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона, С.- •• In his album entry, Getkant calls Otter his neighbour, Петербургъ: Типо-Литографiя И. А. Ефрона, 1897, т. 22 which might mean that they knew each other from their [Опека — Оутсайдер], p. 466. childhoods in Ragainė. In later life, they had related professional interests – both were notable as military engineers; Summary •• The entry in Otter’s friendship album was signed when Getkant had already completed his studies and gained Friedrich Getkant’s entry in Christian Otter’s friend- serious professional experience; both friends met only ship album (also known as an autograph book or Lat. briefly. Later their paths once again diverged; album amicorum, Ger. das Stammbuch), signed in 1634 in •• Getkant’s entry, taking it into account in the context Königsberg, is significant because it is written in Lithuanian, of the period’s album traditions, is typical in form, yet and it includes a melody that is considered the first written unique in the fact that it is entirely in Lithuanian; fragment of a Lithuanian folk song. Nevertheless, to this •• The drawing that makes up the entry, and how it in- day, there is no other Lithuanian folk song that could be corporated the melody, is typical of Getkant – similar a specific match to this fragment, thus reliably confirming chopped down, fallen trees are also depicted in hand- this version of the song. The goal of this article is, through drawn maps that he created. Nevertheless, the object analysis and interpretation of historical sources, as well as that is drawn as leaning against a double-pronged by examining related literature, to attempt to summarise as tree stump and which incorporated the stave with the much contextual knowledge as possible on this entry. And melody, remains unclear, as nothing similar has been in this way once again pose the question whether this is a found in any maps; fragment of a Lithuanian folk song, as well as other ques- •• It is very likely that the textual phrase written at the top tions: what melody this is and what it means, what object of the album entry is not actually the lyrics to a song,

173 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Aušra ŽIČKIENĖ

i.e. the melody is not directly related to the text written government prohibiting Lithuanian peasants from above it. The cleverly imparted link, visible between chopping down oak trees; the textual phrase’s and the melody’s graphic depiction •• The melody is likely a fragment of a religious hymn: (the image of the tree in the text and the drawing that possibly a sign of the entry’s typical form, as the religious incorporated the melody), could likely be understood dimension is commonly visible in the contents of many only by the two persons themselves and hint to some entries in friendship albums from this period. sort of common experience known only to them. Such an album entry, presented in the form of a riddle, might This melody fragment, in the opinion of researchers, is be a sign of the author following the tradition, canon of similar to Protestant hymns, but is also surprisingly close to signing friendship albums; fragments of the beginnings of the melodies of the Catholic •• The phrase at the top of the entry is the motto ‘Ne hymn Salve Regina (Hail Holy Queen, originating in the visi medžiai artojams priduoti’ [Not all trees belong Middle Ages), which were published in 1667 and later in to the ploughman], which might be a proverb, but hymnals from 1838, as well as still occurring in Lithuanian mostly likely is not a classic adage with a clearly trans- practices of folk piety. However, in order to find out more ferred meaning or generalisation. The origin of the about the history of these melodies, it is necessary to per- saying might be related to actual laws by the Prussian form more in-depth musical research.

174 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Priedas Supplement

Giedrius ALKAUSKAS “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science (Works by Mathematicians), and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by Rima Povilionienė) Muzikos ir matematikos tarpusavio sąveika: mokslinis traktavimas (matematikų darbai) ir meninis traktavimas (Rimos Povilionienės „Musica mathematica“)

Vilnius University, Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics, Institute of Informatics, Naugarduko g. 24, LT-03225, Vilnius, Lithuania Email [email protected] Abstract The interactions between music and mathematics stretch back to the classical Antiquity, and beyond. These relations can be classified into several groups: intrinsic relations (those coming from mathematical physics of musical instruments, Fourier analysis needed to describe the nature of a single sound, resonance phenomena, damped vibrations); cultural, or related to local cultural tradition of harmony (mathematics of tuning, conundrum of consonance-dissonance); sound technologies (digital music, synthesis); technologies of composition (form, symmetry, constructive tools: semantic-symbolic, formal-constructive); and so on. Yet, the majority of studies about the relation itself were written by mathematicians, who, as a rule, adhered to an evolutionary point of view. The latter attitude is apt in natural and physical sciences. It is not a universal paradigm though, especially dealing with conscience, spirituality, Arts, society. Music develops in a non-evolutionary way, at least its essence, not the technology itself (craftsmanship of instruments, advancement of musical theory, diversification of social stimuli, and so on). Additionally, literature on the last item of the classification (technologies of composition) was sparse. The study Musica Mathematica: Traditions and Innovations in Contemporary Music (Peter Lang Academic Research, 2016) by Rima Povilionienė presents the basics of the theory from an artistic standpoint. Moreover, it is written in a way to provide a useful tool for composers and musical theorists. Therefore, the aim of this paper is twofold. Firstly, aiming at those musicologists who have no mathematical training at university level, I describe several cross-sections of music where mathematics does intrinsically manifest, putting a particular emphasis on subjects relevant to composers. The second aim is to review the aforementioned monograph. The explanation of the role ofMusica Mathematica in the context of the whole related literature might be most useful to composers and those wishing to seek connections between music and mathematics, having in mind fundamental similarities of these two subjects, but also being aware of their fundamental differences. Keywords: scales, temperament, tuning, commas, wave equation, instruments, digital music, synthesis, combinatorics, algorithmic composing, numerology, constructive composing, semantics. Anotacija Muzikos ir matematikos tarpusavio ryšiai siekia antiką ir dar giliau. Šie ryšiai gali būti klasifikuojami į keletą grupių: savybingi (kylantys iš matematinės fizikos, kuri aprašo muzikos instrumentus, iš Furjė analizės, aprašančios vieno garso prigimtį, iš rezonanso reiškinio, slopinamos vibracijos); kultūriniai, arba susiję su lokaliąja harmonijos tradicija (derinimų matematika, konsonanso–disonanso problematika); garso technologijos (skaitmeninė muzika, sintezė); komponavimo technologijos (forma, simetrija, konstruktyvusis komponavimas: semantinis simbolinis, formalusis konstruktyvusis) ir taip toliau. Visgi didžioji dalis monografijų, skirtų šiai sąveikai, buvo parašyta pačių matematikų, kurie dažniau- siai laikėsi evoliucinio požiūrio taško. Tokia prieiga yra tinkama gamtos ir fizikiniuose moksluose. Bet tai nėra universali paradigma, ypač jei tyrinėjama sąmonė, dvasingumas, menai, visuomenė. Muzika vystosi neevoliuciniu būdu, jei kalbėtume apie pačią esmę, o ne technologijas (instrumentų gamybos meistrystė, muzikos teorijos vystymasis, visuomenės sukeliamų stimulų diversifikacija ir t. t.). Rimos Povilionienės monografija „Musica Mathematica: Traditions and Innovations in Contemporary Music“ (Peter Lang Academic Research, 2016) atskleidžia teorijos pagrindus būtent iš šio meninio požiūrio taško. Be to, monografija parašyta taip, kad būtų naudingas įrankis kompozitoriams ir muzikos teoretikams. Taigi, šio straipsnio tikslas yra dvejopas. Pirma, orientuojantis į muzikologus, kurie neturi universitetinio lygio matematinio pasi- ruošimo, aprašyti keletą muzikos pjūvių, kur matematika esmingai pasireiškia, ypač akcentuojant vietas, naudingas kompozitoriams. Antrasis tikslas yra apžvelgti minėtą monografiją. Apibūdinti vaidmenį, kurį „Musica Mathematica“ vaidina susijusios literatūros kontekste, turėtų būti naudingiausia kompozitoriams ir tiems, kurie ieško pamatinių ryšių tarp muzikos ir matematikos, turint galvoje esminius panašumus, bet gerai suvokiant ir esminius skirtumus. Reikšminiai žodžiai: gamos, temperacija, derinimas, komos, bangos lygtis, instrumentai, skaitmeninė muzika, sintezė, kombinatorika, algoritminis muzikos kūrimas, numerologija, konstruktyvus muzikos kūrimas, semantika. 175 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Giedrius ALKAUSKAS

and mathematical background, and artistic training. Myself, though trained as a professional mathematician who spe- cializes in pure mathematics, I have devoted a substantial amount of time to study music, poetry, literature, history, language, religion, and mythology. Therefore, there are certain issues related to each of the aforementioned author’s worldview. This is the right point to indulge the reader in a brief explanation of the precise goals of this survey. Surely, many cross-sections unite music and mathematics. The majority of these are very well known, so I will mention only a few current topics. Namely, those where musicians and people unfamiliar with routines in physical sciences tend to oversimplify or, most commonly, even misjudge. The very roles of creativity, imagination, intuition, erudition, memory, scholarship, discipline, inspiration, are not that distinct in Arts and in Sciences. Of course, there are certain issues concerning individuality, emotionality, psychology, influence, and outreach zones. For example, this happens due to linguistic, religious, cultural, or geographical barriers. A standard mistake and deep misapprehension of the nature Rima Povilionienė, Musica Mathematica: Traditions and of mathematics is to claim that mathematics amounts to Innovations in Contemporary Music, [Series Methodology of Music Research,] Vol. 9, ed. Nico Schuler. Frankfurt am Main, finding algorithms, and the derivation of theorems from New York: PL Academic Research (Peter Lang), 2016, 288 p. a set of given axioms. Quite the contrary is true! As a ISBN 978-3-631-71381-5, ISSN 1618-842X. groundbreaking and pivotal contribution to mathematics and philosophy, Kurt Gödel (1906–1978) proved his immensely consequential Incompleteness Theorem.1 One 1. Music and mathematics: two attitudes of the corollaries of this result is that mathematics needs insights, or intuition, or an understanding of the Platonic The issue of identifying the time period (from the reality of the mathematical world, to advance further. Me- anthropologic point of view) when interactions between chanical applications of axioms amount to only a small frac- scientific disciplines and Arts first occurred is meaningless. tion of mathematical knowledge. Another step forward was Even if we limit ourselves to the physical Science of Math- made by Alan Turing (1912–1954), who, building on the ematics and the Art of Music, the very first interactions work of Gödel, proved his celebrated Halting Problem. This cannot be dated. Truly, this symbiosis is said to be the oldest explains, in essence, that algorithmic mathematics is quite symbiosis between two fields of knowledge and creativity. limited in its scope due to inner reasons. Roger Penrose The connection stretches beyond classical Antiquity, up (b. 1931), who investigated problems of the human mind to civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt. If compared as opposed to the mind of computers, wrote an excellent to other physical and natural sciences, like physics, biol- account on Turing’s machines.2 Thus, it is not the creative ogy, chemistry, astronomy, Earth sciences, mathematics in process itself that distinguishes music from mathematics. its scope, the task and aesthetic view is much closer (and There is, of course, the issue ofmusical mistakes (har- sometimes can be classified, at least informally) as one of mony, voice leading, instrumentation, false authorship – the Humanities, having special proximity to philosophy, the so called pseudepigrapha, tuning, etc., the majority of religion, linguistics, visual and performing arts. On the which are subject to individual perception and standards other hand, music is the branch of Art with the deepest of a particular musical epoch) vs. mathematical mistakes and most intrinsic mathematical roots. (logical, therefore objective) which play essentially different It is therefore not surprising that an impressive amount roles in both subjects. Yet, to my mind, it is a dichotomy, or of books and monographs appeared with both names “Mu- principal differences in historic development of these two sic” and “Mathematics” in their title. In recent decades, we subjects which severely divorces them. have witnessed a substantial increase in the interest of these The development of mathematics is evolutionary (in connections. It is out of the scope of this paper to describe fact, evolution is blind, and some mutations can impair all items in the bibliography list individually. Each author(s) certain abilities; it is better to use the term progress here. have their own personal view, inclinations, insights, musical In this paper, I mean “progress” when saying “evolution”).

176 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science, and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by R. Povilionienė)

The development of music is mythological, or creationistic. for Mathematics and Computation in Music (founded in Though this terminology may not seem very accurate (I 2006), to be convinced of this status quo. chose the terms rather arbitrarily), this distinction is very The time was ripe for a scholar, trained foremostly in well familiar to those working in the Sciences as well as the Humanities and Arts, to make a necessary contribution to Arts. Let us draw a few examples. From the point of view the subject of “Music and Mathematics”. In the terminol- of mathematician Leopold Kronecker (1823–1891), the ogy of this section, a scholar which offers a study from a scientific works of Pierre de Fermat (1607–1665) are just creationistic perspective. This implies an endeavor to analyze embryonic forms of number theory, judging from its state the same subject, but from an a priori perspective, infused in the 19th century. If a comparison with the evolution of with an attitude which is compatible with the philosophy, biological species is debatable for many reasons, then a com- aesthetics, and history of development of music. parison with an evolution of computer programs or tech- As a first approach, this does not require sophisticated nology is apt. Likewise, the geometry of Tullio Levi-Civita mathematical machinery. Arithmetic, geometry, basic (1873–1941) is far more sophisticated than the geometry number theory, combinatorics, rudimentary aspects of of Euclid (300 B.C.), and encompasses the latter as a germ. dynamical systems, cryptography, algorithmic analysis, are Meanwhile one cannot indulge in making any compari- more than sufficient. Such approach should incorporate sons between the religious music of Guillaume de Machaut also philosophy, linguistics, religion, architecture, poetry, (c. 1300–1377) and Pavel G. Chesnokov (1877–1944), or history, alchemy, and semiotics. A common reoccurring the instrumental music of John Dowland (1563–1626) and phenomena to explain the existence of religion is to present Béla Bartók (1881–1945). Even the emotional effect of it as an artifact of the complicated human conscience. As- the first known examples of notated music (the clay tablets suming the latter is getting more and more elaborate with dated c. 1400 B.C., excavated in the city of Ugarit, written time. However, such an outlook is also a reincarnation of an in Hurrian, with musical instructions written in Akkadian)3 evolutionary approach. Therefore, topics of esoteric, occult, cannot be compared to evocations caused by, say, minimal- or mystic origin should also not be aliened to investigations istic music. Analysis of technological sophistication, as far of the interconnections of music and mathematics. as compositional, theoretical, and physical technologies The monographMusica Mathematica. Traditions and are concerned, is legitimate. Nevertheless, “evolution” is a Innovations in Contemporary Music by Rima Povilionienė meaningless concept if the issues of irrationality, worldview, (Peter Lang Academic Research, 2016) is an important step and psyche are included.4 In the same vein, alchemy can be in this direction. The author is equipped with a scientific viewed as a pseudo-science, which had its own successes worldview, which is compatible with development in the (in discovering new chemical elements, like phosphorus, Arts. It is written by a professional musician and musicolo- for example), but which was flawed in its essentials, and gist. Minding the dichotomy “scientific evolution – artistic which later evolved into the sound science of chemistry. But creationism”, this monograph is crucial in giving the right this attitude is greatly misleading. It leaves aside all issues of basis for musical theorists and musicologists to get ac- religion, magic, spirituality, poetry, imagination, mysticism, quainted with the concept of musica mathematica. I would psychology, and many others, aside.5 like to stress that monographs written by mathematicians The incarnation of this phenomenon is the main are not nullified, quite the contrary. Their role is significant deficit in all books on music and mathematics, written and, hopefully, will increase with time, attracting attention by professional mathematicians. This cannot be called a from composers and musical theorists. But one should be drawback, though. The topics discussed in monographs clear which attitude is being followed, and what are the are fundamental. Yet, during the course of many years, it consequences of this knowledge to compositional processes was mathematicians who showed the greatest interest in and esthetics. music, not the other way round.6 Many, if not all of the Summarizing, the goal of this paper is twofold. Sections authors, had professional training in musical theory, even 2–6 are written from a view point of mathematical theory in a performing art. It is meaningful though, to pose the of music (in a simplified from), as it stands now in the 21st following question: what is the target audience of these century. Since this text is intended for musicologists, some books? Should composers be interested in the theory, is it of the mathematical formulas can prove to be unintelligible useful as a tool for composition? In some cases, a few – yes, or obscure for those without mathematical training at a for example, as the music of Michael Harrison shows (see university level. This especially concerns formulas which the next Section). In many other cases – no. Moreover, it is involve calculus or derivatives. Yet, one can ignore the latter undeniable that it is the evolutionary attitude towards the completely without any harm. The rest of the formulas and subject which overwhelmingly dominates. It is enough to illustrations in this paper, which involve only arithmetic go through the articles of the Journal of Mathematics and and geometry, should be clear enough to grasp the variety Music (Taylor & Francis), or the activities of the Society of ways in which mathematics and music are connected.

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The second goal of this paper (in Section 7), is to describe Mathematics 2003: 85). Note that odd harmonics dominate the content of the monograph Musica Mathematica in in the spectrum of clarinet (Benson 2006; Section 3.5). A greater detail. posteriori, such theoretical predictions for two spectrally different instruments should not come as a surprise. The theory of Helmholtz is still being refined, with 2. Scales and temperaments such crucial ingredients as understanding a critical bandwidth, physiological and neurological mechanisms of a The current section deals with Western music. How- basilar membrane in a cochlea, and also a central nerve ever, the music of India, Southeast Asia (Balinese and system. But it is generally agreed that the phenomenon Javanese Gamelan, Thailand), and so on, all have important of consonance-dissonance encompasses both timbral mathematical cross-sections, but are topics too wide to be (composition of spectra of two or more instruments) and included in this review. arithmetic (arithmetic-algebraic relations among various The hegemony of an octave-based (frequency ratio 2:1) fundamental frequencies) qualities. These investigations temperament with exactly 12 notes in a scale is a conse- have the following strong consequence (to be clear, we quence of several mathematical facts, and a posteriori few deal with two violins, but the conclusion remains intact coincidences, which, minding that a reasonable scale should for all instruments with harmonic spectrum; that is, for have a number of notes in the range, say, from 8 to 30, is not aerophones and chordophones): statistically that implausible, as might be expected, but still Potentially acceptable tuning should necessarily encompass an event whose occurrence has a relatively small probabil- a perfect octave, and an extremely good fifth. ity. 8–30 notes are needed in order to have scales, modes, functions and a functional hierarchy which have more Of course, one cannot achieve all perfect fifths due to or less moderate complexity, so that these complications the comma of Pythagoras: and interrelations are compatible with human short-term 312 memory capacity. All kinds of memory – iconic, short-term, 219 = 1.01364 ... ≠ 1, long-term, semantic, and procedural – have effects on com- the difference between the presented fraction and 1 being prehension of music, language and sounds, but short-term approx. 23 cents. memory is extremely important to make melodic, harmonic A question whether major thirds or minor thirds are 7 and form connections. consonant enough in a tuning, turns out to be of a second- We start from the assumption that we wish our musical ary significance: even if one can achieve that major thirds scale to be based on an octave, which is a frequency ratio or minor thirds are just in the majority of tonalities (fre- 2:1. There are experimental tunings based on a tritave 3:1; quency rations 5:4 and 6:5, respectively; for example, there for example, Bohlen-Pierce (BP)-Pythagorean, BP-just, and are 8 just major thirds in the standard ¼-comma meantone BP-equal temperament scales, but we will leave these aside temperament), these just major thirds are already dissonant (Benson 2006: Section 6.7). to some degree, and their mistuning does not sharply The notion of consonance-dissonance is a very old increase a dissonance. Based on a few premises, one can subject. One can mention contributions by Johannes Ke- draw a dissonance curve for any pair of instruments. The pler, Simon Stevin, Roger Bacon, René Descartes, Pierre first (objective) ingredient which is needed is a spectral Gassendi, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Galileo Galilei, Marin composition of each of the instruments. Of course, whether Mersenne, Leonhard Euler, Giuseppe Tartini, Jean le Rond one considers resonant frequencies, or the initial transient d’Alembert, Georg Andreas Sorge (Music and Mathematics part, is a completely different matter. The latter is notori- 2003: 84; Benson 2006: Chapter 4). ously difficult do describe mathematically (Fletcher, Rossing However, it was Hermann von Helmholtz who gave 2008). The second (to some degree, subjective) ingredient the first scientifically sound explanation of the consonance- in drawing a dissonance curve is the sharpness curve for two dissonance phenomenon, with qualifications that all sinusoidal sounds. The initial assumption of Helmholtz substantial scientific theories should fulfill (Helmholtz (he postulated that the sharpness is maximal at around 30 1954): to explain the facts already known to science, and beats per second, independently of the frequency range) also to theoretically predict new phenomena, which should is debatable, and was refined many times afterwards with be confirmed experimentally afterwards. For example, in the help of psycho-acoustic studies. But the main premises a celebrated prediction, Helmholtz asserted that a major remain valid. The phenomenon of beats is a consequence third (M3) D–F♯ played by a clarinet and oboe sounds of a simple, nonetheless, remarkable addition formula for much better when the clarinet takes the lower note, while trigonometric functions: the fourth (perfect fourth, P4) or a minor third (m3) will sin υ + sin ν = 2sinυ + ν . cosυ – ν . sound better when the oboe takes the lower note (Music and 2 2

178 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science, and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by R. Povilionienė)

This formula has the utmost importance in the theory of 81 80 = 1.0125. harmony, as well as in deriving equations for an oscillating spring or a pendulum. Summarizing, the most important The difference between the Pythagorean comma and consequence of the dissonance curve technique, and thus the syntonic comma is called the schisma, and it is equal to the prime goal of any octave-based tuning, is to get fifths about 1.93 cents. See Benson (2006: Section 5.8) for more (a frequency ratio 3:2) as good as possible. information on diaschisma, the great diesis, the septimal Now, assume we divide an octave into equal parts. comma. Historically, an important fact is that: n 12 Suppose, steps is the closest we can get to the fifth. In 81 11 m (80) mathematical terms, we need to find a rational number m , n is almost equal to the Pythagorean comma. This was em- such that: m ployed by Johann Philipp Kirnberger who gave a recipe to n 3 8 2 ≈ 2, tune an instrument in equal temperament. Thus, we need as accurately as possible. In other words, we need to find a to divide each of the intervals into two parts, except the two rational number, such that: smaller intervals remain intact. This gives totally 12 notes in an octave, because 2 x (3 x 3 – 2) – 2 = 12. There is no need log 3 ≈ m . 2 2 n to plumb deeper into this subject of just intonation; the This is a standard problem in Diophantine approximation variety of these is huge (Benson 2006: Section 5.5). These (Benson 2006: Section 6.2), and it is solved using continued two extractions of a number “12” are completely independ- 3 fraction expansion of an irrational number log22. This con- ent: the second construction incorporates a fifth overtone tinued fraction starts as: into the theory, while the first one does not. [0; 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 5, 2, 23, 2, 2, 1, …]. The final a posteriori opportune fact is that this number 12 (whose arithmetic properties are not considered or The corresponding sequence of convergents starts from: required in advance in the previous two examples) turns 1 3 7 24 31 179 389 9126 1, 2, 5, 12, 41, 53, 306, 665, 15601, ... out to be a composite number, and even its Euler function The only fraction which gives more than 8 and less value is small: φ(12) = 4. In other words, out of all natural than 30 notes (as mentioned, to have more notes is of no numbers smaller than 12, only the numbers 1, 5, 7, 11 are use due to memory issues, complications of the theory, relatively prime to 12. This gives a circle of semitones (1), a and JND-related (just noticeable difference) limitations of circle of fourths (5), a circle of fifths (7), and a circle of major sevenths (11). The fact that one of these circles is related to the auditory system), is 12 notes in the octave, 7 of which a number 7, which appears in the fraction 7 , follows from give a fifth. It is an extremely good approximation to a just 12 basic results about continued fractions, meaning that this fifth, giving a deviation of only 1.95 cents. This is the first particular circle coincides with the circle in which tonalities reason for the appearance of a number “12”. It is a purely are arranged in order of harmonic proximity. a mathematical fact, with no structure behind it – just a Starting from this point, cultural, aesthetic, technical, particular term in the series of denominators associated social, artistic factors enter the scene, and questions of a with a particular irrational number. very different a nature (albeit, still highly mathematical) Surprisingly, the number 12 appears from a completely emerge – how to distribute these 12 notes in an octave. A different standpoint, and this coincidence seals the he- classes of just, meantone, irregular temperaments each split gemony of a 12-part scale, leaving all other theories in the into a plethora of examples, while classes of Pythagorean periphery. There is yet another additional auspi- a posteriori and equal temperament consist of a single tuning each. cious consequence which makes 12 even more dominant. These questions are dealt with in great detail in Benson The second source for 12 notes arises from functional con- (2006: Chapter 5). In the majority of cases, the precise siderations. In contrast to the previous case, where we cared tuning is a matter of theory rather than an artistic appeal. only about the second (a just octave) and the third (a just But in few cases – and this point needs a particularly con- fifth) overtones, now we will accommodate a fifth overtone vincing emphasis, since this highly motivates the study of (a major third) into the theory. And so, the setup starts from temperaments solely due to artistic reasons – a scrupulous the tonic (1:1), the dominant (3:2), and the subdominant pre-tuning of an instrument gives static chords which carry (4:3). Each of these is assigned their major triads (frequency meaningful emotional information. For example, American ratios 6:5:4). We have therefore 3 x 3 notes in total. But composer Michael Harrison released two CDs From Ancient two notes are repeated twice; hence in fact 3 x 3 – 2 notes Worlds (1992) and Revelation (2007). Music is played on a in total. Now, 2 of the obtained intervals turn out to be 24 tone 7-limt just scale (denominators of rational numbers 16 “semitones” , and five of the obtained intervals turn out appearing in tuning have only prime numbers 2, 3, 5, and 15 10 9 to be “full tones”, either 9 , or 8 . The ratio of the last two 7 as factors). The booklet of the first CD contains the fol- is, of course, the syntonic comma: lowing explanation made by the author:

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∞ Beginning in 1986, I spent two years extensively modifying 1 a seven-foot Schimmel grand piano to create the Harmonic f(x) = 2 a0 + (an cos(nπx) + bn sin (nπx)). nΣ = 1 Piano. It is the first piano tuned in Just Intonation with the flexibility to modulate to multiple key centers at the press of a The level of smoothness is directly related to the order of pedal. With its unique pedal mechanism, the Harmonic Piano vanishing of the coefficients. In musical terms, a discontinu- can differentiate between notes usually shared by the same ous signal (like a sawtooth wave) has a very rich spectrum, piano key (for example, C-sharp and D-flat). As a result, the and the weight of each component falls-off very slowly. Such Harmonic Piano is capable of playing 24 notes per octave. In signals are useful in a subtractive synthesis. A very smooth contrast to the three unison strings per note of the standard piano, the Harmonic Piano uses only single strings, giving it sound, on the other hand, has only a few strong initial (or a “harp-like” timbre. Special muting systems are employed further) harmonics. This is a relative observation, since a to dampen unwanted resonances and to enhance the instru- rate of decay of amplitudes of harmonics minds only an ment’s clarity of sound.9 asymptotic behavior, while in practice, due to frequency range hearing limitations (20-20.000 Hz for young adults), All other tunings (Bohlen-Pierce scales, scales of Wendy only a finite amount of overtones do matter. Carlos, Harry Partch scales, and so on), can hit close to one Two important topics which are adjacent to the one just of these three requirements (most commonly, achieve a described, and which are crucial in understanding sound, are good fifth), but not two of them, not to mention all three damped harmonic motion (there is an additional frictional at once: force proportional to a velocity; see Benson 2006: Section 1) a good fifth; 1.10), and resonance (Benson 2006: Section 1.11). The 2) accommodation of a fifth harmonic into a theory; first problem amounts to solving homogeneous second 3) numerology – a number of notes in a scale being highly order ordinary differential equation with constant terms. composite, or at least with several divisors. The second problem asks to find and analyze a solution of And so, experimental tunings remain interesting musical a differential equation: adventures, attractive and important for mathematical in- d2y dy m 2 + μ + ky = f(x). vestigations, but limited in their aesthetic or artistic appeal. dx dx Here m is a mass, μ is a friction coefficient,k is a coefficient in Hooke’s law, and f(x) is an external excitation. The 3. Mathematics of a single sound most interesting case arises when a spring is given a periodic external stimulus f(x) = sin (αx), for some real number α. A Harmonic motion of a spring is a consequence of group of soldiers marching on top of a bridge is an example. Hooke’s law (a mathematical fact which states that a force, A thorough analysis can be carried out in this case, leading subject to the condition that a displacement is small, is a to such crucial notions as resonant frequency and (critical) smooth function), and Newton’s second law (force equals bandwidth. Of course, a resonance on basilar membrane mass times an acceleration). Combining these both, one is in a cochlea is a far more complicated phenomenon, but led to a problem of finding a function which satisfies: nevertheless tools from differential equations allow us to 2 deal with it in a rigorous way. d f = – dx2 f . The latter differential equation is satisfied both by functions sin x and cos x. Whence the importance of 4. Instruments trigonometric functions in acoustics comes from. This also shows that the main building blocks of a sound wave are The basic application of mathematics in the study of sinusoidal sounds. musical instruments is the derivation of wave equations. Fourier analysis in general is a vast generalization of The simplest case is a spring, giving an ordinary differential Euclidean geometry and the coordinate method. Many basic equation (ODE). However, this does not give rise to music. results in Fourier analysis arise from analogous results in a Wave equations are partial differential equations (PDE). 2-dimensional Euclidean geometry. For example, Parseval’s For a vibrating string, it was first derived and solved by identity in its simplest form is just a Pythagorean theorem: d’Alembert in his study Recherches sur la courbe que forme for two sides a and b and a hypotenuse c of the right triangle, une corde tendue mise en vibration (Berlin, 1747). The same one has a2 + b2 = c2. Fourier analysis deals with many differ- equation applies equally to chordophones and aerophones. ent mathematical spaces and functions, but as far as sound is Differences for various instruments arise in statinginitial concerned, it tells that a sufficiently “nice” periodic function conditions. In case of chordophones, one set of initial condi- f(x) (say, a function with a smooth derivative, and a period tions is given by the fact that a string is attached at both ends 1) can be expressed as a converging trigonometric series: (whence comes the harmonic vibration), and the second

180 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science, and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by R. Povilionienė) set of initial conditions depends on the way the string is and greater appreciation of the very nature of musical played: struck, plucked, or bowed. In case of aerophones, instruments. the wave equation describes the displacement of a single The equations for idiophones are much more com- cross-section of an air tube, and also the acoustic pressure plicated. For a xylophone, tubular bells and mbira (a (the difference of the factual pressure with an ambient lamellophone from Zimbabwe) the equation is a fourth atmospheric pressure). The initial conditions depend on degree in two variables. For a gong it is fourth degree in the pipe shape and whether the tube is open or closed at three variables. One can give equations for bells, singing one of the two ends (Benson 2006: Section 3.5). This gives bowls, and so on. A crucial attribute of a sound can be different initial conditions for a flute (a cylinder, both ends achieved by a process of formation of a shape of a wooden are open), a clarinet (a cylinder, only one end is open), and or metal bar, by the means of cutting an arc. For example, an oboe (a cone, one end is open). a set of harmonic frequencies 1:4:10 can be achieved in For a membranophone, the wave equation is 2-dimen- case of a marimba, and a set of frequencies 1:3:6 in case sional, and it reads like: of a xylophone. Tuning of idiophones, consequently, is an ∂2z 2 ∂2z ∂2z interplay among mathematics and mathematical physics, 2 = c 2 + 2 . ∂t ( ∂x ∂y ) material science, mathematical theory of a temperament, Here z = z(x, y, t) is a vertical displacement of a mem- and instrument producing craftsmanship facilitated by an brane, x, y are two coordinates along the membrane, t is ages-long experience. a time variable, and the constant c depends on physical The topic which is allied with a theory of wave equa- characteristics of a membrane (tension and mass density). tions, is the formation of Chladni patterns on the surface of The initial conditions depend on the form of the membrane. membranes or metal plates (Ashton 2003: 46). For example, The spectrum of such a vibration is no longer harmonic, a stadium plate, 70 cm across, 3215 Hz:13 but is given by eigenvalues of a Laplace operator. This set of frequencies is subject to a few conditions concerning asymptotic behavior, but quite deprived of a structure otherwise. What music instrument manufacturers factually do, is that they control the first few eigenvalues in order to get a feeling of a pitch. For example, musical qualities of timpani, and how it produces a nearly harmonic spectra, is an extensive research topic in itself.10 A curious question asked in this context was posed by Mark Kac, and it reads as “can one hear the shape of a drum”?11 In other words, does the Laplace Figure 2. Chladni pattern on a metal plate spectrum uniquely determines the membrane shape? The answer is “no”, and it is given by the following example:12 This, too, has substantial musicological applicability. Moreover, it gives a graphic interpretation and an analytic decomposition of a sound, which musically is without any distinguishable pitch. It is important to emphasize that the topic of Chladni patters is pure mathematics, and it has an important application in the manufacturing of musical instruments. An area of research, highly related to the investigation of aerophones, is the science of acoustics. This is applied to a construction of music halls, studios, and practice rooms. This science, too, has a firm foundation in mathematical Figure 1. Drumheads which sound the same (mathematically: physics. Like metal plates, closed spaces have their own set isospectral bounded domains) of resonant frequencies. Finally, we wish to emphasize that this section describes Such drumheads will sound identically. Of course, this only the latter, resonant frequencies of instruments. As is a deep mathematical phenomenon in a plethora of analo- mentioned, the quality and timbre of a sound as perceived gous phenomena. Yet, as far as musicology is concerned, this by a listener, much more substantially depends on the initial oddity has a limited applicability, not to mention music transient part. Without it, the sound of a piano does not itself, where this is of no noticeable importance. Neverthe- differ a lot from the sound of a flute. The transient part needs less, it seems to me that the very knowledge of this field a very sophisticated form of mathematics to be described. of research gives to musicologists a deeper understanding This part of instrument science is far too technical for

181 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Giedrius ALKAUSKAS musicologists (Fletcher, Rossing 2008). It is only important experimentation. The simplest frequency modulation (FM) to know about these complications. Practically one relies synthesis with two oscillators requires the knowledge of on specific experiences of professional instrumentalists and Fourier series of a function sin(φ + zϑ), given by: manufacturers. ∞ sin(φ + zϑ) = Jn(z) sin(φ + nϑ). nΣ =–∞

Here Jn(z) are the so called Bessel functions: they are 5. Digital music, synthesis crucial not only in FM synthesis, but also in the study of membranophones with a circular drumhead. In fact, two The process of digitizing sound involves two unrelated oscillators can produce only a limited variety of sounds. procedures. The first is called bit depth, or resolution, pre- Yamaha DX7 synthesizers employ 6 oscillators to produce scribed for each sample. Namely, all possible amplitudes a sound, including various parallel and feedback (self- are encoded in a discrete set of values determined by bit modulation) connections (Benson 2006: Chapter 8). One information (for example, “16 bits” mean 216 = 65536 pos- of the configurations (“algorithms”) of six oscillators is sible values). Certain information is necessarily lost in this shown in the figure 3 (an additive synthesis of a single os- process – for example, a very low-level sound is reported as cillator, a frequency modulated oscillator, and an oscillator a null sound. The second process is called sampling, which whose frequency is modulated by another oscillator with amounts to dividing one second into M equal parts, the so an additional feedback). called spc (samples per second), and taking an amplitude value at each of the measured instances. As an aside, though many curves in an Euclidean plane can pass through three given points, if one limits the geometry of curves allowed, the set of all possibilities reduces. For instance, only one circle passes through three non-collinear points. Returning to signal processing, if one reduces the geometry of sound signals allowed, all sample values can be sufficient to recon- Figure 3. One of the arrangements of oscillators (an struct the initial signal uniquely. In particular, one has the “algorithm”) in Yamaha DX7 synthesizer following theorem of an utmost importance: Moreover, each of these oscillators comes with their own Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem . If a function x(t) envelope. Such configurations are too complicated to be contains no frequencies higher than M hertz, it is completely described mathematically, though it can be done (Bessel determined by giving its ordinates at a series of points spaced functions yet again are crucial). Therefore, all meaning- 1/(2M) seconds apart. (Benson 2006: Section 7) ful sounds and soundscapes are a matter of practice and Of course, the applicability of this theorem is not limited experimentation rather than a thorough mathematical to music; it is crucial in telecommunications, radars, sonars, pre-calculation. Concerning other synthesis algorithms (but seismology, image processing, and many other fields. The not going into detail), one can mention granular synthesis, proof of this theorem relies on basic applications of a Fou- Karplus-Strong algorithm to generate plucked strings and rier transform. A signal has its Fourier transform, and the drums14 (Benson 2006: Section 8.5), phase vocoder, pitch latter determines (a sufficiently “nice”) signal uniquely via envelopes, and so on. an inverse Fourier transform. Now, for a sampled signal, the Fourier transform is periodic with a period (∆t)–1 = M. If the initial signal satisfies the Nyquist condition, this periodic 6. Other appearances of mathematics in music function can be truncated, no overlapping over a duration of one period occurs, and the inverse Fourier transform gives In this section, we briefly list a few other regions in the the initial signal. Carrying out this in practice is a different intersection of music and mathematics. This list is far from matter, and it requires analogue filters of a high fidelity. being exhaustive. Dithering, lossless encoding (WAV files), encoding with compression (MP3 encoding requires mathematics, 6.1. Euclidean geometry acoustics, psychoacoustics, and much more), MIDI, z- In 1747, a Swedish organ maker Daniel Stråhle (1700– transform, digital filters, discrete Fourier transform, fast 1746) proposed a geometric method to produce frets on a Fourier transform – these are just a few topics related to fingerboard of a fretted string instrument, in order to give digital sound processing. a practical method to approximate equal temperament Sound synthesis is another huge topic, whose success de- (Music and Mathematics 2003: Section 4). This method was pends on mathematics, musical background, and extensive dismissed by Jacob Faggot, a secretary of the Royal Swedish

182 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science, and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by R. Povilionienė)

Academy of Sciences. However, as was discovered by James Recall that the continued fraction algorithm is the main ap- Murray Barbour in 1957, Faggot greatly miscalculated the paratus which allows a build-up of a tuning system, which accuracy of Stråhle method.15 The latter gives in fact a devia- gives close approximation to a set of pre-selected intervals tion of at most 3 cents in equal temperament. The essence (most commonly, fifths). of Stråhle approach is the mathematical formula: 6.3. Combination tones 2x ≈ 24 + 10x, x [0,1]. 24 – 7x ∈ When two loud sounds of frequencies f and g are played This approximation involves both approximation of simultaneously, one can perceive a sound corresponding functions, as well as approximation of real numbers (Dio- to the frequency f – g. This phenomenon was discovered phantine approximation). by German organist Georg Andreas Sorge (1744), French The construction itself is very elegant: the segmentQR physicist-lawyer Jean-Baptiste Romieu (1753), and a fa- is divided into 12 equal parts of unit length, while OQ and mous Italian violinist and composer Giuseppe Tartini (who OR have lengths 24, and QP has length 7 (see the figure claimed to have discovered these sounds as early as 1714). 4 below). The point P is the middle of a string MR, and Hermann von Helmholtz (1856) revealed that the sound the positions of intersections with lines going from O to corresponding to the frequency f + g also can be heard, but equally spaced points on QR give the position of frets on much less distinctively. As it turned out later, this happens a string MR. due to the masking effect. The latter phenomenon occurs because of asymmetry in the excitation of the basilar membrane, where pure tones can mask tones of higher frequencies more effectively than tones of lower frequencies (Auditory demonstrations 1987: Demonstration 9). These extra sounds are called combination tomes. The ones corresponding to the difference of frequencies are sometimes called Tartini’s tones. Differently from the phenomenon of beats which arise from a summation formula for trigonometric functions, combination tones are a more complicated matter, related to the so called quadratic non-linearity nascent in the auditory system. Combination tones are proved to exist employing tools from the theory of differential equations. Additionally, cubic non-linearities produce sounds with frequencies 2f – g and 2g – f. Quadratic non-linearities involve an asymmetry in the vibrating system, while cubic do not. This implies that cubic combination tones can be perceived even at low volumes, while high volumes are needed to experience sum and difference tones. This is what does occur in practice.

6.4. Archicembalo Archicembalo is a harpsichord-type musical instrument, Figure 4. An illustration of Stråhle’s method described by Vicentino in 1555 (Benson 2006: Section 6.5).16 Vicentino also coined the term itself. This instru- 6.2. Euclidean algorithm ment had two manuals. The second one was not for timbral In essence, this arises from the division formula with differences, but rather to provide extra pitches. One of the the remainder: for every pair of natural numbers a, b tunings of archicembalo is almost identical to equal 31-part , there exists c (natural numbers with 0), and ∈ ℕ ∈ ℕ0 tuning (31-tet). The main interest of this tuning arises from r, 0 ≤ r ≤ b – 1, such that a = b·c + r. This guarantees that the fact that its 18th note gives a very good approximation the unique factorization into prime numbers holds (the to the meantone fifth: fundamental theorem of arithmetic). In musical terms, in 18 31 4 a very rudimentary form, the latter tells us that there does 2 ≈ √¯¯5, not exist a tuning with all perfect fifths, or a tuning with the difference being only 0.19 cents. Another tuning of all perfect major thirds, and so on. Compromises must be archicembalo was proposed by Vicentino, giving some made. Also, the division with the reminder is the main tool pure fifths and a limited number of triads in just intona- allowing continued fraction expansion of rational numbers. tion (6:5:4).

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they produce a harmonious sound. Each of the bells, consequently, can be swung independently, its period depends on bells’ weight, and the whole collection produces music of diverse, complicated melodic and harmonic pattern. In the English tradition, a different approach has been historically followed, which allows even a larger number of bells to be used. At the moment, there are over 5400 sets of bells in England and British isles. These sets have from 5 to 12 bells. Additionally, there are two towers with 14 and 16 bells, respectively. All bells in a set have small weight differences. The task is to achieve a full circle ringing. Due to a huge mass and slowness, each bell can only be slightly accelerated or Figure 5. Reproduction of the archicembalo slowed down at one swing, so that strikes of two adjacent bells can be interchanged in time, but not strikes of more 6.5. Golomb ruler and Costa arrays remote bells.19 For example, changes in four bell ringing These are important in designing effective sonars.17 might look like this (the real scheme has many repetitions; Costa arrays and Golomb ruler were used by Scott Rickard the fourth bell always sounds last): to compose a piece of piano music called The Perfect Ping. It 1234 → 2134 → 2314 → 3214 → 3124 → 1324 → 1234. is a monophonic music amounting to 88 notes, one for each Now it is obvious that in order to produce all possible per- key of the piano. The notes are played in such a succession mutations, one needs to employ knowledge of the group that the permutation of notes obtained (the initial set is ar- theory. In particular: symmetric groups, cosets, graphs, ranged in the standard way, the lowest key A0 being the first) combinatorial group theory. Musical theory is needed as gives rise to a Costas permutation. That is, in this particular well. The problem of change-ringing was solved by English case, numbers (1, 2, …, 88) are permuted, say, as (i1, i2, …, i88), bell-ringers more than two centuries ago. But roughly a so that numbers |i1 – i2|, | i2 – i3|, …, |i87 – i88| are all distinct; hundred years ago mathematicians began developing the numbers |i1 – i3|, | i2 – i4|, …, |i86 – i88| are all distinct; and so concepts and terminology that facilitated elucidating all on. Moreover, a rhythmical pattern is arranged according the theory in a group-theoretic language. to a Golob ruler. The latter depends on an integer n (in our case, n = 88), and consists of a set of marks at integer posi- 6.7. More examples tions along an imaginary ruler so that no two pairs of marks We finish this section by briefly listing several other are the same distance apart. For example, one unit of a mark topics in the intersection of music and mathematics. Now can be made equal to a sixteenth note. This is a rather exotic it should be clear that it is virtually impossible to provide an application of mathematics to music, and yet with a certain exhaustive list. The variety of mathematical tools employed substance. Comparisons to Tom Johnson’s composition Mu- in the study of these interactions amounts to only a small sic for 88 are enlightening (Povilionienė 2016: 131). fraction of machinery developed in mathematics. Nonethe- less, this variety is highly impressive and manifold. 6.6. Change-ringing (Music and Mathematics •• Algorithmic or computer assisted composition. To compose 2003: Section 7) music, one writes an algorithm and uses numerical (or The ringing of a bell is a model of a pendulum. If an am- symbolic) data of various origins. Data can arise from plitude is small, then one uses the approximation sin x ≈ x, dynamical systems, Markov chains, chaos, Turing ma- and the process is harmonic. In reality though, bells need chines, graphics, and so on. One of the most convenient to produce intense sounds. Thus, amplitudes ought to be tools to implement such composing is the programming large, the simple model sin x ≈ x does not apply anymore, language Csound (The Csound book 2000). An exam- and the process turns out to be rather slow: if a mathematical ple of graphical data is a fractal (Music and Mathematics pendulum swings in such that way that it barely reaches a 2003: 163). The main aesthetic and artistic problems of vertical position at its extreme, the time it takes to get there composing with fractals arise from the lack (or presence is infinite (for a simplified harmonic motion, it is finite). In of only a rudimentary) long term memory and musical fact, the true mathematical model of a pendulum depends form. To overcome these issues is a difficult artistic on the so-called elliptic integrals.18 and programming task. Section 2.1 in Part 3 of the There is an essential difference in approach how the bells monograph Musica mathematica (Povilionienė 2016) are rung in continental Europe (mainly Germany) and The is a neat description of many scenarios for human- United Kingdom. In Germany, there are up to 5 bells in a computer interactions, and balances of contribution, belfry. Their pitches are such that, even if hit simultaneously, in the composition process. For example, one makes

184 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science, and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by R. Povilionienė)

distinction between CAC (computer-assisted) and AC still highly relevant. The false Ptolemaic system (geocentric (algorithmic) composition. Also, section 2.3 presents model) was replaced by the Heliocentrism. Seven known some examples and a few more thorough analysis of moving bodies of the Sky were postulated as being an eternal musical pieces related to fractals, a priori or a posteriori quantity, and yet this changed after Galilei Galileo discov- (Ziqquratu (1998) by Šarūnas Nakas, Fractals (1999) ered four moons of Jupiter (1610), and William Herschel by Vytautas J. Jurgutis, among others). discovered Uranus (1781). Mathematicians of Antiquity •• Microtonality (Jedrzejewski 2004). Relation of micro- developed a remarkable mathematical theory of Statics, but tonal music to projective geometry (Music and Mathe- had a vague understanding of Dynamics. One can name matics 2003: 149). topics in medicine (epidemiology), Biblical scholarship •• Statistics (Beran 2003). The application of statistical (Kabbalah), astronomy (flat Earth), chemistry (philoso- methods in musicology is a subject far too broad to be pher’s stone), where misleading, unjustified or directly false even superficially portrayed. The following are being theories were replaced by “SUPERB” ones afterwards. used: algebraic methods, various probabilistic distribu- Yet, as mentioned in Section 1, this attitude is not tions and tools from probability theory, data mining, always uncontestably relevant. Even in linguistics one ob- time series, Markov chains, cluster analysis. serves typical reflections of this dichotomy: some synthetic •• Riemannian and neo-Riemannian theory (Jedrzejewski languages turn into more analytic, acquiring new lexical 2006: Chapter 4). This collection of ideas in musical and syntactic tools, but losing certain morphological and theory are bound by and characterized by relating har- grammatical features on the way. monies (triads and dissonant chords) directly to one This is exactly the attitude which makesPart 1 of the another, without reference to the tonic. Putting aside monograph, called “A retrospective of the Tradition of issues of melody and phraseology, also applications of Musica Mathematica”, not obsolete, not merely a historic the theory in the study of late Romantic music (Ferenc overview, but an inspiring and useful summary, even for Liszt, Anton Bruckner, and others, also the works of the contemporary composers and scholars, of the interaction late Renaissance composer Carlo Gesualdo), the theory between music and mathematics. This part covers periods of also needs tools from group theory: group actions, cen- Antiquity, the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Baroque. The tralizers, dihedral groups, combinatorial group theory, author exhibits a very broad erudition, presenting examples modular arithmetic, commutants, and so on. Naturally, found in the Classical Antiquity (Aristotle, Zeno of Elea, the groups having a musical meaning are of a very special Euclid, Vitruvius, Plato, Nicomachus), Christian Middle kind: for example, the dihedral groups 픻12 and 픻24. Ages (St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas), and Renaissance Thus, the mathematical machinery needed is more of an (a plethora of authors). This is done without any cultural exercise in nature. Yet, the main motivation comes from or religious bias: the list of religions concerned includes the richness and diversity of musical material. Hellenistic, Roman religions, Judaism, Christianity, various •• Emotional dichotomy of an effect of a minor–major triads. gnostic traditions. The author shows how mathematical Emotional differences evoked by playing a just minor facts taken from astronomy (“orbits of planets are circular”, (frequency ratio 15:12:10) and a just major (6:5:4) tria- “there are seven moving bodies in the Sky”), linguistics (“sev- ds are in part a consequence of mathematical calculation en vowels in Greek alphabet”), cosmology and cosmogony (the greatest common divisor, the smallest common (“four elements in various proportions make up Cosmos”), multiple, reinforcement of overtones), psycho-acoustics mythology (Greek deities, goddesses, and Pantheon), were (the missing fundamental principle), and complicated all interpreted in musical terms: ancient Greek musical evolutionary mechanisms which developed over time modes, sound frequency ratios, note durations, other aspects in humanoids (and other mammals) in the process of of vertical or horizontal musical structure. The advance- reaction to and extraction of vital information from ment of material is not chronologic, but rather logical and low-pitched and high-pitched sounds. structural. It is a pity that the mention of Islamic Golden Age (8th c.–14th c.), highly relevant to the topic, is only fragmentary. For example, Ibn Sīnā (c. 980–1037) is mentioned 7. “Musica Mathematica” once on p. 17, and Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (c. 780–c. 850) is mentioned on p. 223. Also, there is no information regard- Roger Penrose classifies physical theories (by diminish- ing music - mathematics relations in East Asia. For instance, ing level of maturity and relevance related to describing our He Chengtian (370–447) described an approximation to physical world) as “SUPERB”, “USEFUL”, “TENTATIVE”, equal 12-part temperament in 400 A.D.,21 while Zhu Zaiyu and “MISLEADING”.20 (1536–1611) solved a problem of exact equal temperament Yet, as far as an imagination and worldview are con- in 1584. The last method itself was very likely brought back cerned, falsifications, mystifications, or pseudo-sciences are to the West afterwards. This is mathematics, but it is needless

185 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Giedrius ALKAUSKAS to say that the amount of work done in China in the spirit square, and so on), therefore gaining the name of “espe- of Chapter 1 of the monograph is far more abundant than cially magical”, “pan-magical” or “devilish” magic square. purely technological-mathematical-musical investigations. Smirnov translated this configuration of 16 numbers into Yet surely, such an expansion of geographic-cultural cover- a collection of 16 musical chords (p. 174). There are a few age is beyond scope of any reasonably sized study. There are more peculiarities of the “devilish” square. The conjunction few mathematical topics touched upon in Part 1, including of numbers 15 and 14 seen on the bottom-row is the year Fibonacci and Fibonacci-type sequences, the Golden Ra- “1514” when the work was made. Moreover, though the tio, various means (arithmetic, geometric and harmonic), fact that S(n) = 34 in case n = 4 is a mathematical corol- combinatorics. lary, yet, if we attach to the decimal system, then 3 x 4 = 12 The title of Section 2 of Part 1, namely, “Semantic gives the number of notes in the tuning, and 3 + 4 = 7 gives Interpretation of the Interaction between Music and the number of notes in a diatonic scale. More complicated Mathematics: Mystic Ages and the Sacral Baroque”, is magical squares on p. 55 (where n ranges from 3 to 9) are almost self-explanatory. It deals with numerology, Kab- being related to 7 moving bodies of the Sky, as taken from balah, magic squares and hexagons (a purely mathematical Agrippa (1533). topic with exterior symbolic-mystic interpretations, which The second part of the monograph, titled “The Renewal is the most interesting part of the subject), alphabetic of Mathematical Techniques in Musical Compositions of numerology. the 20th and 21st Centuries”, though no new mathematical A magic square of dimension n is a n × n grid of unit means are being introduced (the latter endeavor is the topic squares, filled with numbers {1, 2, …, n2} in such a way that of Chapter 3), digresses from Part 1 significantly. Part 1 all rows and columns sum up to the same number, neces- already has a coverage in mathematical-musical literature sarily equal to: to a certain extent, while Part 2 mostly represents original 2 research by the author. As we will see, many of the struc- S(n) = n(n + 1). 2 tural relations are implicit in titles or descriptions made by For example, if n = 4, the magic square present in the composers themselves, while some are hidden. In fact, going celebrated engraving Melencolia I (1514) by Albrecht Dürer through the pages of Part 2, it is obvious that the balance is as follows: of music and mathematics has shifted in the direction of music even more significantly. The author divides the spread of traditions ofmusica mathematica of earlier epochs into two categories: formal- constructive, and semantic-symbolic. These two trends can go separately, or as a synthetic interaction. In cases where intentions of composers were encrypted, vague, or even deliberately withheld, it is very difficult to find the right key to “unlock” the piece. Part 2 presents many examples of such score analysis. It should be true that a high percentage of attempts to analyze musical scores failed to reveal features of this kind, whether the first or the second category were minded. Such compositions, naturally, were not included in the book. This further deepens the appreciation of the work executed by the author. Examples of scores are presented where some musical parameters (rhythm, organization of pitches, bar structure, and so on) are tied to or are based upon standard sequences in mathematics: prime numbers, geometric progressions, and Mersenne numbers. The latter is the sequence of natu- Figure 6. A close-up of the 4x4 magic square in Albrecht n ral numbers {2 – 1 : n ∈ ℕ}. One sometimes deals with a Dürer’s Melencolia I subsequence of the latter consisting solely of prime numbers. These should necessarily be of the form: The engraving itself is analyzed on p. 172–174. This 2p – 1, is done in relation to Dmitri Smirnov’s cycle of pieces for where p itself must be prime. Such numbers can still be com- piano Two Magic Squares (1971). The presented magic posite. For example, 211 – 1 = 2047 = 23·89. It is believed square has even more symmetries than required (mind (this is still unknown) that there are infinitely many prime sums of numbers in all 4 corner 2 x 2 squares of the large numbers among the Mersenne numbers.

186 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science, and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by R. Povilionienė)

A special treatment in the monograph is given to binary (1975), Steve Reich’s Clapping Music (1972), Karlheinz linear recurrence sequences, and especially to the most Stockhausen’s Klavierstück IX (1961), and mentions exten- famous of them, the Fibonacci sequence (also to closely sive research done by other authors previously: analysis of related Lucas sequence, and Serie Évangeliqué). Fibonacci Béla Bartók’s Music for strings, percussion and celesta (1936), numbers are defined from the seed valuesF 1 = 1, F2 = 1, György Ligeti’s Volumina (1961–1962), and others. and the recurrence relation Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn. This sequence It should be noted, however, that artificial attempts to is fundamentally related to the Golden section, given by: tighten up certain musical data to obtain the golden sec- ¯¯ tion relation were also noted, like in the quotation by Leon φ = √5 + 1 = 1.618033 ... 2 Harkleroad (Harkleroad 2006): Sometimes one deals with the number φ – 1 = φ–1 = 0.618… instead. The relation is established with the help of the de Some of the most misguided attempts to link music and Moivre formula: mathematics have involved Fibonacci numbers and the related golden ratio. φn – (–φ)–n Fn = . √¯¯5 Part of the appearances of φ are truly unconscious, This immediately shows that the ratio Fn + 1 tends to φ, Fn another part of them are just an accident. Needless to say, as n tends to infinity. Rima Povilionienė understands these ramifications per- In music, the paradigm of Fibonacci-golden section can fectly. Once more: this book is about the Art, not Science. be dealt with in a discrete way, via the Fibonacci sequence Many other mathematical tools for formal-constructive itself (or transformations of this sequence), or in a con- musical purposes are available – like symmetry, geometry, tinuous way, by approximating a ratio of specific musical combinatorics, transformations – and these are discussed in parameters with the golden ratio. The topic “music and the book. One also encounters some deeper mathematical the golden ratio” is an old and prolific subject, yet it can- objects, like formal grammars (L-systems). For example, not be called artificial, at least in relation to the majority of L‑systems appear in the analysis of Tom Johnson’s Mersenne examples presented in the book. numbers (p. 136). L-systems are intricately related to finite To understand where the golden ratio stands, we need automata, and hit close to the orbit of Turing’s machines, al- a short explanation. First, it should be noted that out of gorithms, uncomputability, and complexity. This profound the continuum of mathematical constants, the majority of part of mathematics in musical composition is touched them are uncomputable – no Turing machine can generate upon only slightly in the book. Yet the amount of examples their digits algorithmically. Some are highly arithmetic yet is sufficient to inspire a thoughtful reader to proceed further quite rare (the so called “periods”, and also special values with his/her own research. of important functions, like Bessel functions discussed in this paper already). Yet some mathematical constants are Section 2 of Part 2, titled “Semantic Aspects of Mu- ubiquitous, they are definitely at the very entrance of the sic Compositions”, is no less exciting, and points back to mathematical Platonic reality: the natural logarithm basis Part 1. A new feature which was not explicit (or even non- e = 2.7182… (mentioned on p. 235 in relation to Conlon existent) in earlier epochs, is the so-called “Personalized e Nancarrow’s Cannon π , also in the same page in formula Semantics in Music”. The year 1514 in Dürer’s engraving, describing probabilities for Poisson distribution), the Ar- or many well-known alphabetic-numeric-musical manipu- chimedes constant π = 3.1415… (mentioned on the same lations of Johann Sebastian Bach (p. 65–67) can be taken page, too, and also on p. 16), Euler-Mascheroni constant as personal information, yet not as personal as number 22 γ = 0.5772…, Catalan’s constant G = 0.9159…, and few for Alban Berg (p. 184), telephone numbers of relatives for others. Out of algebraic numbers, the most ubiquitous are Balys Dvarionas (p. 185), or Vietnam-war related dates for √¯¯2 (mentioned also on p. 235 in relation to another canon 3 George Crumb (p. 186). by Nancarrow), √¯¯2, and the golden ratio φ. While dealing If the previous part of the monograph dealt with mathe- with tuning, we mentioned the fundamental role continued matical techniques which were re-actualized, yet not alien to fractions play in the theory of temperament. It is a classical epochs of the Middle Ages, Renaissance and Baroque, Part fact that the majority of asymptotic phenomena in this field 3 of the study, “Innovations of Mathematical techniques are dominated by the constant φ: this is an irrational number in 20th and 21st Century Music”, as is a tautological way to whose Diophantine properties are extreme (the poorest state it, deals with innovations, new mathematical tools in approximation properties). This gives another, albeit quite musical composition. Part 3 is the shortest of all three, only a collateral relation between the golden section and music. 49 pages long, but it is closest in spirit to Section 1–6 of the Among φ or Fibonacci-related pieces, the author analy- current review. The author does not, as before, divide the ses, accompanying this with a careful graphical presentation material into formal-constructive and semantic-symbolic of scores, Derek Bourgeois’ Symphony for Organ, Op. 48 parts. Truly, the number of ways to look at the problem

187 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Giedrius ALKAUSKAS is so manifold, the amount of examples is so abundant, reasons. In the English translation, mathematical terminol- that Part 3, hopefully, is just a seed for future research, a ogy is professional, only few typos have slipped into the text, pursuit for professional musicologists and mathematicians due to miscommunication between mathematical editor to collaborate on equal footing. The distinctions now (myself ), and graphical editors; or just by an unfortunate arise whether innovations in composition are outcomes of accident. For example (p. 125), the use of “multiplication” technological advancement (manipulations with sounds, (a process) instead of mathematically correct “product” (a algorithms, digital world), pure mathematical advancement result), or the phrase “scholastic music” instead of the cor- (L-systems, group theory), or both. For example, fractals rect “stochastic music” (p. 203, while on p. 204 the same were discovered long ago (like Julia and Fatou sets, and expression is correct). There are few places with quite a even long before that, like the Thue-Morse sequence), but vague mathematical phrasing, especially concerning topics only computers allowed us to delve into the astounding related to asymptotic phenomena, like an infinite sequence, complexity of these structures. The topics discussed in Part or a summation of an infinite series. Of course, this is not 3 also include: graph theory, curves similar to space-filling a drawback, since for musicologists without training in curves (the Hilbert curve), chaos theory, tilings (a topic also calculus standard mathematical routines may fail to be hitting close to the “dark side of mathematics”, that is, un- informative. computability and Turing machines), stochastics, Markov One tiny critique of the whole text concerns the chains. For example, Section 2.2 lists some processes (many interpretation of musical data and relating it to various of which are non-integrable, in other words, they have no mathematical objects in cases where a professional math- inner structure apart from, possibly, few invariants) that ematician will fail to ascertain a relation. This concerns, have relevance to music. however, only few examples. For instance, while analyzing A curious anachronism, presented in Part 3, is Bach’s Derek Bourgeois’ Passacaglia di Fibonacci and its measure celebrated canon cancrizans from Musikalisches Opfer, structure, the author explains it employing not only the BWV 1079. The design of this canon is analogous to the Fibonacci sequence {Fn : n ∈ ℕ } itself, but also the sequence geometry of Möbius strip, defined by mathematician August {12 – Fn : n ∈ ℕ}, and also the set made of all Fn + Fm. This Ferdinand Möbius in the 19th century: seems to be rather arbitrary and forced. As an indulgence to the author, the very title of the Bourgeois’ piece (which is the third part of the Symphony for Organ) prescribes to look for interpretation in terms of the Fibonacci sequence. The most unfortunate omissions, if one compares the Lithuanian text with the English translation, are two appendices. The first one is a short summary of mathematical facts and ideas. Though (as now must be clear from this Sec- tion and Section 1), this is not the most important aspect of the research by Povilionienė, hopefully there will be a second edition, which will include an even larger summary of necessary mathematical topics and notions. The second Figure 7. Möbius strip omission is a compendium of symbolic meanings of natural numbers, starting from 1, and going up to 1746 (internet Of course, this strip is not merely a graphical trifle. search reveals that one of the interpretations of the latter Among other applications in topology, it is an essential number, in the tradition of Freemasonry, is that 1746 is the ingredient in classifying all 2-dimensional compact smooth sum of the lunar number 666 and the solar number 1080). manifolds. The emergence of the name “Bach” in this con- Curiously, the first omission in the sequence of natural text is especially pleasing. numbers is n = 32. Interpretations vary from mathemati- If we compare the Lithuanian original (Povilionienė cal (prime numbers, perfect numbers), Christian (Biblical 2013) with the English translation, then we can notice that references of extremely diverse origin: number of strings in the monograph was considerably revised, many parts of the David’s harp, number of Christ’s wounds, etc.), geometric, narrative were expanded and clarified. Some diagrams, true, psychological, linguistic (alphabets and counting, Greek, were left out. For example, graphic symbols for illustrations Hebrew, Latin, the tower of Babel), astronomical, alchemi- of George Crumb’s cycle Makrokosmos. Part 1 (Povilionienė cal, to simply historical, and so on. Hopefully, this Appendix 2013: 112), and illustration of Iannis Xenakis’ Nomos alpha will find its way into future works, especially the part of it initial composing plan (Povilionienė 2013: 166), are missing which is related to music. in the English translation. All this may be due to copyright

188 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science, and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by R. Povilionienė)

References 13 More about Chladni patterns see the information presented by the Experimental Nonlinear Physics Group from the De- 1 More about incompleteness theorem by Gödel see: Francesco partment of Physics at the University of Toronto: https:// Berto, There’s Something about Gödel: The Complete Guide to www.physics.utoronto.ca/~nonlin/chladni.html [last chec- the Incompleteness Theorem, John Wiley and Sons, 2010. ked 2018 11 03]. 2 See a book by Roger Penrose, The Emperor’s New Mind: Con- 14 On Karplus-Strong algorithm see: Kevin Karplus, Alex cerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics (Oxford Strong, Digital synthesis of plucked-string and drum timbres, University Press, 1989). Computer Music Journal, Vol. 7(2), 1983, p. 43–55. 3 More about the clay tablets see the article “The Babylonian 15 See an article “A Geometrical approximation to the Roots Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts” by Martin of Numbers” by J. Murray Barbour (American Mathematical L. West, published in Music and Letters, Vol. 75(2), May 1994, Monthly, Vol. 64, 1957, p. 1–9). p. 161–79. 16 More about Vicentino’s experiments see: Henry W. Kauf- 4 In literature: mann, More on the tuning of the Archicembalo, in: Journal Poetry changes with time, gets further away from its initial of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 23(1), 1970, p. forms, and gets back again, but does not improve. Who 84–94. would dare to say that the poetry of ancient Egypt, with its 17 Sonars – acronym for SOund Navigation And Ranging. More captivating comparisons, is worse than poems in the end of see: Konstantinos Drakakis; Scott Rickard; James K. Beard; this collection (i.e., modern ones – G.A.)? Rodrigo Caballero; Francesco Iorio; Gareth O’Brien; John (Quotation taken from Skiriama M. Pasaulio meilės lyrika Walsh. Results of the Enumeration of Costas Arrays of Order [Devoted to L. World Lyrics about Love], Kornelijus Platelis 27, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol. 54(10), (compilation and afterward), Vilnius: Tyto Alba, 2015) 2008, p. 4684–4687. 5 See, for example, an interview to Prof. Dr. Algirdas Burkštus 18 Baker, Gregory L.; Blackburn, James. The Pendulum: A Case on the alchemy discipline at the Vilnius University: https:// Study in Physics, Oxford University Press, 2005. www.tv3.lt/naujiena/269278/algirdas-brukstus-alchemija- 19 The first two books on this subject where written by Fabian zmogaus-vidaus-ir-isores-vienoves-atstatymas [last checked Stedmann in 1668 and 1677: Tintinnalogia: or the art of 2018 11 03]. change ringing, 1668; Campanalogia: or the art of ringing 6 Compare to mathematical linguistics: improved, 1677. However, the debt of mathematical linguistics to mathematics 20 See Reference 2. is chiefly the attitude and the way of thinking rather than any 21 More about He Chengtian’s temperament ideas see: Provine, particular result. It is perhaps no accident that most graduate Robert C.; Witzleben, J. Lawrence; Tokumaru Yosihiko. East students in this field come from mathematics or logic rather Asia: China, Japan, and Korea, Garland Encyclopedia of World than from linguistics. Music, Vol. 7, Routledge, 2001. (Quotation taken from Zellig Harris, “Mathematical linguistics”, in: The Mathematical Sciences. A Collection of Essays, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969, p. 190–196) Bibliography 7 See an article “Memory for Musical Attributes” by Daniel J. Levitin, in 1999: Music, Cognition, and Computerized Sound (The following list also includes books, directly related to inter- 2010. connections of music and mathematics.) 8 Kirnberger wrote on equal temperament in the 2nd part 3rd Auditory demonstrations (CD ROM with a booklet), ASA (Acous- division of his book Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik tic Society of America), 1989. (Berlin, 1779). Ashton Anthony, Harmonograph: A Visual Guide to the Mathe- 9 I myself wrote reviews for the first and the second CD, matics of Music, Bloomsbury USA, 2003. emphasizing questions “what mathematics gives to aes- Agustín-Aquino Octavio Alberto, Junod Julien, Mazzola Guerino, thetics” directly: a review for CD From Ancient Worlds Computational Counterpoint Worlds: Mathematical Theory, For Harmonic Piano see https://www.amazon.com/gp/ Software, and Experiments, Springer, 2015. customer-reviews/R2IF7HFJPTF30L/ref=cm_cr_dp_d_ Benson Dave, Music: A Mathematical Offering, Cambridge Uni- rvw_ttl?ie=UTF8&ASIN=B000QZRLHO; for CD versity Press, 2006. Revelation see https://www.amazon.com/gp/customer- Beran Jan, Statistics in musicology, Chapman & Hall/SRC, 2003. reviews/R2RH3VPPE14ICN/ref=cm_cr_dp_d_rvw_ Fletcher Neville H., Rossing Thomas D., The Physics of Musical ttl?ie=UTF8&ASIN=B004FX8L1S [last checked 2018 11 Instruments, Springer; 2nd ed., 2008. 01]. Garland Trudi H., Kahn Charity V., Math and Music. Harmonious 10 Davis, Robert E. Mathematical Modeling of the Orchestral Connections, Dale Seymour Publications, 1995. Timpani, Ph.D. thesis, Physics Department, Purdue Univer- Harkleroad Leon, The Math Behind the Music,Cambridge Uni- sity, 1988. versity Press, Pap/Cdr edition, 2006. 11 More see an article “Can One Hear the Shape of a Drum?” by Helmholtz Hermann von, On the Sensations of Tone, Dover books Mark Kac, published in The American Mathematical Monthly on music, Dover Publications; 2nd ed., 1954. (Vol. 73(4), 1966, p. 1–23). Hollos Stefan, Hollos J. Richard, Creating Rhythms, Abrazol 12 The figure published in the article “One cannot hear the shape Publishing, 2014. of a drum” by Carolyn Gordon, David L. Webb, and Scott Jedrzejewski Franck, Mathematical theory of music, Delatour Wolpert ( , Vol. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society France; Musique/Sciences, 2006. 27(1), 1992, p. 134–138). Jedrzejewski Franck, Dictionnaire des musiques microtonales, Editions L’Harmattan, 2004.

189 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 Giedrius ALKAUSKAS

Johnson Tom, Self-Similar Melodies, Two Eighteen Press; 2nd point in the Extended Common Practice, Oxford University ed., 1996. Press, 2011. Journal of Mathematics and Music: Mathematical and Computa- Tymoczko Dmitri, The Generalized Tonnetz, Journal of Music tional Approaches to Music Theory, Analysis, Composition and Theory, Vol. 56:1, Spring 2012, p. 1–52. Performance, Taylor & Francis, print ISSN: 1745-9737, online Wright David, Mathematics and Music, American Mathematical ISSN: 1745-9745, 3 issues per year. Society, 2009. Loy Gareth, Musimathics: The Mathematical Foundations of Music (Book 1), MIT Press, 2004. Loy Gareth, Musimathics: The Mathematical Foundations of Music Santrauka (Book 2), MIT Press, 2011. Maor Eli, Music by the Numbers: From Pythagoras to Schoenberg, Princeton University Press, 2018. Nustatyti, kada matematika ir muzika, kaip žmogiško- Mannone Maria, Mazzola Guerino, Cool Math for Hot Music: sios kūrybos sferos, pradėjo veikti vieną kitą, yra neįmano- A First Introduction to Mathematics for Music Theorists, ma. Viena vertus, matematika galbūt vienintelė iš gamtos Springer, 2016. ir fizikinių mokslų kartais gali būti klasifikuojama kaip Mathematics and Computation in Music, Timour Klouche and Thomas Noll (eds.), Revised Selected Papers from the 1st humanitarinė disciplina. Kita vertus, muzika – tai menas, International Conference MCM 2007, Berlin, Germany, May arčiausiai ir esmingiausiai iš visų menų susijęs su matema- 18-20, 2007. Springer, 2009. tika. Tad šie įvairialypiai ryšiai tikrai nestebina. Mathematics and Computation in Music, Elaine Chew, Adrian Pastaraisiais dešimtmečiais pasirodė daugybė knygų ir Childs, and Ching-Hua Chuan (eds.), Proceedings for the monografijų, kurių pavadinimuose figūruoja abu žodžiai 2nd International Conference MCM 2009, New Haven, CT, USA, June 19-22, 2009. Springer, 2009. „muzika“ ir „matematika“. Knygų autoriai – profesionalūs Mazzola Guerino, The Topos of Music I: Theory: Geometric Logic, matematikai. Didelė dalis jų turi (tam tikro lygio) muzikinį Classification, Harmony, Counterpoint, Motives, Rhythm, išsilavinimą kaip teoretikai, kartais – kaip profesionalūs Springer, 2nd ed., 2017. atlikėjai. Nežiūrint to, tenka pasakyti, kad, pirma, didžioji Mazzola Guerino, The Topos of Music II: Performance: Theory, dalis autorių (ir tai yra natūralu) neturi itin gilių muzikos nd Software, and Case Studies, Springer, 2 ed., 2017. istorijos, literatūros, teorijos žinių ir nėra meistriškai įvaldę Mazzola Guerino, Mannone Maria, Thalmann Florian, Rahaim Matt, Lubet Alex, Guitart René, Ho Jocelyn, The Topos of kompozicinių technikų. Antra, tekstuose dominuoja gam- Music III: Gestures: Musical Multiverse Ontologies, Springer, tamokslinis požiūris, kurį straipsnyje pavadinau evoliuciniu. 2nd ed., 2017. Kitaip sakant, tai yra paradigma, jog tam tikra pažinimo Mazzola Guerino, The Topos of Music IV: Roots: Appendices, sritis ilgainiui vis tobulėja, augdama ant ankstesnių žinių nd Springer, 2 ed., 2017. dirvos. Tai, be abejo, tinka gamtos ir fizikiniams mokslams, Mazzola Guerino, The Topos of Music: Geometric Logic of Concepts, bet visiškai netinka kalbant apie menus. Kita problema – Theory, and Performance,Birkhäuser, 2002. Mazzola Guerino, Musical Performance: A Comprehensive Appro- kokia yra šių monografijų tikslinė auditorija? Ar tos žinios ach: Theory, Analytical Tools, and Case Studies, Springer, 2011. naudingos kompozitoriams, muzikos teoretikams, akty- Music and Mathematics: From Pythagoras to Fractals, John Fauvel, viems muzikos klausytojams? Kartais – tikrai taip. Bet jei Raymond Flood, and Robin Wilson (eds.), Oxford University kalbėsime apie didžiąją dalį teorinės medžiagos, tuomet Press, 2003. tenka atsakyti – ne. Music, Cognition, and Computerized Sound. An Introduction to Psychoacoustics, Perry R. Cook (ed.), MIT Press, 1999. Rimos Povilionienės monografija „Musica Mathema- Povilionienė Rima, Musica mathematica: tradicijos ir inovacijos tica: Traditions and Innovations in Contemporary Music“ šiuolaikinėje muzikoje, Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro (Peter Lang Academic Research, 2016, 288 p.) šiame akademija, 2013. kontekste yra svarbus darbas. Tai knyga, parašyta muzi- Povilionienė Rima, Musica Mathematica: Traditions and Innova- kologės, humanitarių mokslų daktarės, turinčios magistro tions in Contemporary Music Peter Lang Academic Publishing, 2016. lygio instrumentalisto (solinio fortepijono) išsilavinimą ir Schoenberg Arnold, Theory of Harmony, University of California, besilaikančios kreacionistinio požiūrio į meno reiškinius. 2010 (reprint of the 1922 ed.). Pastaruoju vardu straipsnyje vadinu paradigmą, jog sąmonės Sethares William A., Tuning, Timbre, Spectrum, Scale, Springer, skaidrėjimas ir tamsėjimas, mokslinis pažinimas ir dvasinės nd 2 ed., 2004. atvertys, vertybių ir atskaitos taškų kitimas (ne progresas), Sethares William A., Rhythm and Transforms, Springer, 2007. tobulėjimas ir degeneracija, racija ir iracionalybė – viskas Temperley David, Music and Probability, MIT Press 2010. The Csound Book. Perspectives in software sythesis, sound design, vyksta vienu metu. Savaime suprantama, šių skirtingų po- signal processing, and programming, Richard Boulanger (ed.), žiūrio taškų – evoliucinio ir kreacionistinio – problematiką MIT Press, 2000. gerokai supaprastinu. Pavyzdžiui, kiek reikia tekstologijos, Toussaint Godfried T., The Geometry of Musical Rhythm: What kriminalistikos, chemijos, istorijos, kultūros, logikos ir kt. Makes a “Good” Rhythm Good?, Chapman and Hall/CRC, žinių, nustatant muzikos rankraščių autorystę, iš kitos pusės, 2013. galima prisiminti platų kultūrinį, filosofinį, religinį Rene- Tymoczko Dmitri, A Geometry of Music: Harmony and Counter- sanso laikų matematikų išsilavinimą. Vis dėlto konfliktas,

190 “Music–Mathematics” Interconnections: An Approach through Science, and an Approach through the Arts (Musica mathematica by R. Povilionienė) kylantis (skaitant matematikų darbus) iš muzikos esmės ir Išsamus ir gilus visos šios naudojamos matematikos su- dėstomos teorijos prigimčių fundamentalių skirtumų, yra vokimas nėra būtinas nei kompozitoriams, nei teoretikams. itin ryškus. Vis dėlto (mano tvirtu įsitikinimu), bent paviršinis dalies Tad šio straipsnio tikslai yra du. Pirma, orientuojantis į reiškinių (kaip kad izospektrinių būgnų ar grandininių tuos muzikologus, kurie neturėjo universitetinio matemati- trupmenų) suvokimas nepaprastai naudingas tiek kuriant nio išsilavinimo, aprašyti daugybę pjūvių, kur matematikos (netiesioginės inspiracijos), tiek analizuojant muziką. ir muzikos kūrybos sritys kertasi – tai: Antrasis tikslas yra apžvelgti R. Povilionienės monogra- - derinimai ir temperacija (kokios priežastys lemia 12 fijos turinį ir parodyti, kaip šis turinys papildo ankstesniuose dalių derinimo dominavimą, taip pat konsonanso–di- skyriuose minėtas muzikos ir matematikos sąsajas. Dalis sonanso problematika); knygos temų tikrai yra plačiai nagrinėjamos literatūroje. Bet - vieno muzikos garso matematika (harmoniniai svyra- svarbiausios monografijos dalys, ypač tos, liečiančios seman- vimai, Furjė analizė, slopinami svyravimai, rezonanso tinius simbolinius musica mathematica aspektus, sąryšius su reiškinys); viduramžių, Renesanso ir baroko pasauliais, numerologija, - instrumentų matematinė fizika (bangos lygtys, pradinės taip pat įvairių laikotarpių partitūrų analizės, yra mažai sąlygos, Chladni raštai, pritaikymai instrumentų gamy- nagrinėtos temos, ypač (pasikartosiu) mokslininko, kuriam boje); pirmasis ir dominuojantis tikslas yra muzika. Trečioji R. Po- - skaitmeninė muzika ir sintezė (sampling’o teorema, vilionienės monografijos dalis yra pati trumpiausia, tai lyg dažninė moduliacija, sintezės algoritmai); sąvadas, branduolys tolesniam moksliniam darbui, bet jau - taip pat keli kiti pasirinkti pjūviai (styginių instrumentų kartu profesionaliai jungiant tiek tiksliuosius mokslus, tiek su skirsniais gamyba, kombinaciniai tonai, Archicem- XX–XXI amžių muzikos studijų sferas. balo, Costa masyvai ir Golombo liniuotė, varpų skam- binimas Anglijoje ir t. t.).

191 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Apie autorius

Vyr. redaktorė Straipsnių autoriai Gražina Daunoravičienė (g. 1955) – muzikologijos Giedrius Alkauskas (g. 1978) – kompozitorius, matemati- daktarė (1990), nuo 2008 m. habilituota, Lietuvos muzikos kas. 1996–2004 m. Vilniaus universitete studijavo matematiką. ir teatro akademijos profesorė (2008), Lietuvos mokslo tary- Matematikos mokslų daktaras (Notingemo universitetas, bos narė, Humanitarinių ir socialinių mokslų komiteto narė 2008, disertacija „Minkovskio „klaustuko“ funkcijos integra- (2008–2013). Nuo 1979 m. dėsto Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro linės transformacijos“). Nuo 2013 m. – Vilniaus universiteto akademijoje, 1998–2003 m. – Muzikos teorijos katedros vedė- Informatikos instituto vyresnysis mokslo darbuotojas, nuo ja. Stažavosi Maskvos valstybinėje P. Čaikovskio konservatori- 2018 m. – Kauno technologijos universiteto Matematikos joje (Rusija), Zalcburgo Mozarteume (Austrija). Apdovanota ir gamtos mokslų fakulteto profesorius, 2018 m. pavasario Saksonijos žemių kultūros ir mokslo ministerijos stipendija semestrą dėstė LMTA. Makso Planko matematikos institu- moksliniam darbui Vokietijoje, gavo DAAD stipendiją, buvo to (Bona, 2009 ir 2012), Klaustalio technikos universiteto pakviesta į Oksfordo universitetą pagal programą „Oxford (2012), Vienos „Bodenkultur“ universiteto (2009–2010) Colleges Hospitality“. Skaitė pranešimų ir publikavo darbų podoktarantūrinis mokslininkas-stažuotojas. Nuo 2013 m. Lietuvoje, Latvijoje, Lenkijoje, Estijoje, Vokietijoje, Rusijoje, Vilniaus universitete skaito bendrųjų universitetinių studijų Didžiojoje Britanijoje, Belgijoje, Šveicarijoje, Slovėnijoje, Če- kursą „Muzika ir matematika“. Daugiau kaip 20 matematinių kijoje, Serbijoje, Suomijoje, JAV, Kinijoje, Austrijoje, Italijoje mokslinių straipsnių (ISI Web of Science) autorius. Lietuvos ir kt. Išleido tris sudarytas monografijas (2002, 2007, 2013) matematikų draugijos valdybos narys. ir mokslo monografiją „Lietuvių muzikos modernistinės Kaip kompozitorius, išleido 2 kompaktines plokšteles: „Į tapatybės žvalgymas“ (2016), už pastarąją jai paskirta prof. sapnų ir burtų lauką...“ (2011) ir „Užburtas laikas“ (2014). Skai- V. Landsbergio fondo premija. Įsteigė ir rengia tęstinį mokslo to viešas paskaitas muzikos ir matematikos temomis (daugiau žurnalą „Lietuvos muzikologija“, rengia ir leidžia 5 tomų kaip 10 paskaitų), taip pat skaito paskaitas, rašo straipsnius studijų vadovą „Muzikos kalba“ (1–2 tomai išleisti 2003 ir apie vėlyvojo romantizmo kūrėjus (Louis Glass, Granville 2006). Moksliniai interesai: muzikos žanro ir muzikos formos Bantock, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, danų romantizmą). Da- problematika, istoriniai kompozicinių technikų modeliai, lyvavo tarptautinėje konferencijoje „Muzika ir technologijos“ XX a. lietuvių muzikos kompozicinės tendencijos. (2011, Kaunas). Straipsnis įteiktas 2017 06 01 Moksliniai (muzikologiniai) interesai: vėlyvasis rusų, danų, britų romantizmas, matematiniai ir gamtamoksliniai Vyr. redaktorės asistentė muzikologijos aspektai. Rima Povilionienė (g. 1975) – humanitarinių mokslų Straipsnis įteiktas 2018 10 01 (menotyra / muzikologija) daktarė, Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos Muzikos teorijos katedros docentė, Lietuvos nacio- Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas (1934–2016), dr. habil. (1992, nalinės filharmonijos redaktorė, parengė ir išleido daugiau kaip muzikologija), nuo 2005 m. buvo LMTA profesorius emeritas. 15 straipsnių rinktinių, išleido mokslinę monografiją „Musica Apie Lietuvos muziką pranešimus skaitė konferencijose ir mathematica. Traditions and Innovations in Contemporary paskaitose Sankt Peterburge, Maskvoje, Leipcige, Paryžiuje, Music“ (Peter Lang, 2016, 288 p.), yra mokslo rinktinės Stokholme, Helsinkyje, Varšuvoje ir kt. A. Ambrazas parengė „Of Essence and Context. Between Music and Philosophy“ spaudai ir parašė daugiau kaip dešimt knygų apie muzikos redaktorė (kartu su Nicku Zangwillu ir Rūta Stanevičiūte, istoriją ir teoriją, paskelbė daugiau kaip 200 straipsnių Lietuvos 2019 m. planuojama išleisti prestižinėje leidykloje „Springer“). ir užsienio spaudoje. 2000–2007 m. jis buvo vyriausiasis Mu- R. Povilionienė buvo Kauno technologijos universiteto Tarp- zikos enciklopedijos redaktorius (3 tomai), sudarė ir redagavo tautinio semiotikos instituto bei LMTA Mokslo centro mokslo Lietuvos muzikos istorijos antrąją knygą „Nepriklausomybės darbuotoja. Pelniusi stipendijas, stažavosi Leipcigo universiteto metai 1918–1940“ (2009). A. Ambrazo paskutinis darbas – tai Muzikologijos institute (2004) ir IRCAM Paryžiuje (2012). monumentali monografija „Julius Juzeliūnas: gyvenimo ir vei- Paskelbė apie 30 mokslo straipsnių ir daugiau kaip 150 mu- klos panorama. Kūrybos įžvalgos“ (2015). Jis yra apdovanotas zikos kritikos tekstų. Kaip kviestinė dėstytoja skaitė paskaitas Lietuvos didžiojo kunigaikščio Gedimino ordino Riterio kry- Leipcigo universitete, Tbilisio konservatorijoje, Belgrado menų žiumi (2007), Lietuvos Vyriausybės kultūros ir meno premija universitete, Latvijos J. Vītolio muzikos akademijoje, Vilniaus (2008) bei Nacionaline kultūros ir meno premija (2015). universitete, Kauno technologijos universitete ir kt. Jos mono- Konferencijai rengtas pranešimas, 2016 04 07 grafija „Musica Mathematica“ (lietuvių k. išleista 2013 m.) pelnė prof. V. Landsbergio fondo premiją geriausių muzikologų darbų Patrickas Beckeris Humboldto universitete Berlyne konkurse. Yra dviejų mokslo rinktinių (2017, 2019), kurias studijavo muzikologiją, vokiečių literatūrą, filosofiją ir eko- leidžia leidykla „Springer“, redaktorė ir sudarytoja. nomiką. 2018 m. jis baigė studijas ir apgynė mokslo darbą

192 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 apie folkloristines tendencijas bulgarų avangarde Šaltojo karo Be to, nuo 2001 m. dėsto Rygos katedros choro mokykloje, metais, šiuo metu rengia daktaro disertaciją. 2017 m. jis pelnė nuo 2003 m. vargonuoja Šv. Jokūbo katedroje. 2016 m. ji tapo Vokiečių tautos studijų fondo (Studienstiftung des deutschen Latvijos mokslų akademijos tarptautine eksperte. J. Jonānes Vol kes ) stipendiją. Mokslinimas tyrimams Sofijoje (Bulgarija) mokslinių interesų sritys: sakralinės muzikos žanrai ir kūrėjai, vykdyti jam 2017 ir 2018 m. buvo paskirtos šio fondo bei sakralinės muzikos procesų analizė. Skaitė pranešimus bei Alfriedo Kruppo von Bohleno ir Halbacho fondo stipendi- paskelbė straipsnių Austrijoje, Baltarusijoje, Airijoje, Suo- jos. Skaitė pranešimų konferencijose Europos ir Azijos šalyse. mijoje, Latvijoje, Lietuvoje, Lenkijoje, Rumunijoje, Rusijoje, Humboldto universitete Berlyne dirba moksliniu asistentu ir Slovėnijoje ir Anglijoje. lektoriumi. Straipsnis įteiktas 2017 09 30 Straipsnis įteiktas 2018 06 04 Margarita Katunyan – humanitarinių mokslų daktarė, Levonas Hakobianas (Akopyanas, g. 1953 Jerevane, Maskvos valstybinės P. Čaikovskio konservatorijos Muzikos Armėnijoje) – humanitarinių mokslų daktaras, Rusijos vals- teorijos katedros bei V. Popovo chorinių menų akademijos tybinio menų instituto Muzikos teorijos katedros vedėjas, Muzikos istorijos ir teorijos katedros docentė (nuo 1993), elektroninio žurnalo „Muzikos menas: teorija ir istorija“ Rusijos valstybinio humanitarinio universiteto Filologijos redaktorius (http://sias.ru/publications/magazines/musik/), katedros lektorė (nuo 2009). Paskelbė apie 200 straipsnių apie D. Šostakovičiaus kūrinių rinktinės redaktorių kolegijos narys muziką ir šiuolaikinius kompozitorius, rusų enciklopedijos (Maskva, leidykla „DSCH“). Tarp svarbiausių publikacijų – straipsnių autorė, publikavo recenzijų, atsiliepimų apie muzi- knygos rusų kalba apie muzikos teksto struktūrinę analizę kos festivalius, interviu su kompozitoriais ir atlikėjais. Orga- (Maskva, 1995), esė apie D. Šostakovčiaus kūrybos fenome- nizavo ir koordinavo keletą tarptautinių konferencijų, sudarė nologiją (Sankt Peterburgas, 2004), W. A. Mozarto vadovas ir redagavo mokslinių straipsnių rinktines. Pranešimus skaitė (2006), apie XX a. muziką (Maskva, 2010), „Šostakovičius: Pro tarptautinėse konferencijose Rusijoje, Ukrainoje, Lietuvoje, et Contra“ (Sankt Peterburgas, 2016), enciklopedijos „Grove“ Vokietijoje, Austrijoje, Belgijoje, JAV ir kt. versija rusų k. (Maskva, 2001, 2/2007); knygos anglų kalba – Straipsnis įteiktas 2018 06 02 „Music of the Soviet Age, 1917–1987“ (Stokholmas, 1998), „Music of the Soviet Era, 1917–1991“ (Londonas, Niujorkas, Viktorija Kolarovska-Gmirja (g. 1963) studijavo Sankt 2017), taip pat knygos „Šarakanas. Armėnų bažnyčios kanonai Peterburgo valstybinės N. Rimskio-Korsakovo konservato- ir himnai“ vertimas į rusų k. (Jerevanas, 2017). L. Hakobianas rijos Muzikologijos katedroje. Nuo 1989 m. gyvena ir dirba paskelbė straipsnių rusų, armėnų, anglų, lenkų, vokiečių ir Makedonijoje, yra Šventųjų Kirilo ir Metodijaus universiteto prancūzų kalbomis apie armėnų viduramžių sakralines giesmes, Skopjėje Menų fakulteto profesorė. Šiame fakultete ji baigė muzikos mokslo problemas, sovietų muzikos istoriją ar mažai fortepijono magistro studijas ir įgijo daktaro laipsnį. Rašo žinomus XX a. kompozitorius. straipsnius apie Makedonijos šiuolaikinę muziką ir muzikinę Straipsnis įteiktas 2018 01 18 edukaciją, dalyvauja tarptautinėse konferencijose ir seminaruose. Yra Makedonijos kompozitorių sąjungos leidžiamo žurnalo Baiba Jaunslaviete (g. 1964) – humanitarinių mokslų dak- „Музика“ redakcinės kolegijos narė. Rengia pasirodymus kaip tarė, 1983–1988 m. studijavo muzikologiją, 1993 m. Latvijos koncertmeisterė ir kamerinių ansamblių narė, koncertuoja J. Vītolio muzikos akademijoje apgynė daktaro disertaciją apie festivaliuose Makedonijoje ir svetur. šiuolaikinės muzikos komponavimo aspektus Latvijos kame- Straipsnis įteiktas 2018 11 19 rinėje muzikoje. Šioje akademijoje nuo 1992 m. yra mokslo darbuotoja, nuo 1994 m. – lektorė, nuo 2014 m. – docentė. Jānis Kudiņš – humanitarinių mokslų (muzikologija) Jos tyrimai apima įvairius Latvijos muzikos aspektus, stilistinius daktaras, Latvijos J. Vītolio muzikos akademijos Muzikologi- ir istorinius kontekstus. B. Jaunslaviete skaitė pranešimų tarp- jos katedros profesorius, Latvijos mokslų tarybos tarptautinis tautinėse muzikologų konferencijose Rygoje, Taline, Vilniuje, ekspertas, Tarptautinės muzikologų draugijos (IMS) narys. Leipcige, Bonoje, Lodzėje, Sofijoje, Riminyje ir kt. Parengė 2008 m. įgijo daktaro laipsnį (disertacija apie neoromantizmo knygą apie Latvijos muziką vokiečių ir rusų muzikos kritikoje tendencijas latvių simfoninėje muzikoje XX a. paskutiniais (2004), apie programines Maijos Einfeldes kompozicijas dešimtmečiais). Jo pagrindiniai muzikologiniai interesai susiję orkestrui (2006) bei paskelbė straipsnių apie įvairius latvių su Latvijos ir Baltijos šalių muzikos istorija XX a., estetinėmis kompozitorius (Pēteris Plakidis, Albertas Jērumas, Romual- muzikos problemomis (modernizmo ir postmodernizmo das Kalsonas ir kt.). Ji yra kolektyvinės monografijos „Maija kategorijos), muzikos stiliumi (tarpdalykinė prieiga) ir po- Einfelde gyvenime ir muzikoje“ redaktorė (2016). puliariąja muzika XX a. pirmosios pusės Europoje. Parašė Straipsnis įteiktas 2017 11 02 dvi monografijas apie Latvijos šiuolaikinę muziką, paskelbė straipsnių savo šalies muzikos istorijos ir stiliaus klausimais. Su Jūlija Jonāne Latvijos J. Vītolio muzikos akademijos moksliniais pranešimais dalyvauja tarptautinėse konferencijose Muzikologijos katedroje 2000 m. baigė bakalauro, 2002 m. – ir seminaruose įvairiose Europos ir Azijos šalyse. magistro studijas. 2003–2006 m. ji studijavo doktorantūroje, Straipsnis įteiktas 2018 06 03 2009 m. apgynė mokslų daktaro disertaciją „Sakraliniai Latvi- jos žanrai“. Nuo 2016 m. yra Muzikologijos katedros docentė.

193 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Melita Milin (g. 1953) – humanitarinių mokslų daktarė, Iryna Tukova (g. 1975) – humanitarinių mokslų daktarė, Muzikologijos instituto Belgrade (Serbija) vyriausioji mokslo Ukrainos nacionalinės P. Čaikovskio muzikos akademijos Mu- darbuotoja. Muzikologijos studijas baigė Belgrado universiteto zikos teorijos katedros docentė. Muzikologijos studijas baigė Muzikos fakultete, daktaro laipsnį įgijo Liublianos universitete. Donecko valstybinėje muzikos akademijoje, 2003 m. Ukrainos 2001–2003 m. ir 2007–2008 m. dalyvavo tarptautiniuose nacionalinėje akademijoje įgijo daktaro laipsnį, jos disertacija projektuose, skirtuose muzikantų korespondencijos tyrimams buvo skirta muzikos žanro teorijos problemoms. Pranešimų ir muzikantų migracijos klausimams, kuriuos organizavo prof. skaitė konferencijose Ukrainoje, Rusijoje, Vokietijoje ir Lietu- Helmutas Loosas ir Leipcigo universitetas; 2005–2007 m. voje. Mokslinių interesų sritys: muzikos žanrų teorija, muzikos vadovavo Serbijos mokslininkų grupei dvišaliame projekte teorijos istorija, šiuolaikinės muzikos komponavimo technikos, apie serbų ir graikų muziką. 2001–2005 m. M. Milin buvo muzikos ir mokslo sąveikos problemos. I. Tukova buvo Kijeve tarptautinio žurnalo „Muzikologija“ viena įkūrėjų ir pirmų vykusių tarptautinių konferencijų ir simpoziumų organizacinio penkių tomų vyriausioji redaktorė. Savo tyrimuose XX a. Ser- komiteto narė, kaip redaktorė parengė iš išleido straipsnių bijos muziką nagrinėja Europos šiuolaikinės muzikos pokyčių rinktines. I. Tukova paskelbė daugiau kaip 30 straipsnių. kontekste, ypač daug dėmesio skiria kompozitorės Ljubicos Straipsnis įteiktas 2017 09 15 Marić kūrybai, gilinasi į Serbijos muziką tarpukariu bei nau- jausių kūrinių tendencijas. Taip pat tyrinėja tokių ideologinių Aušra Žičkienė – Lietuvių literatūros ir tautosakos institu- tendencijų kaip nacionalumas ir politika įtaką kompozitorių to vyresnioji mokslo darbuotoja. 1987 m. ji įgijo muzikologės kūrybai ir pan. kvalifikaciją Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijoje. 2001 m. Straipsnis įteiktas 2017 09 01 apgynė etnologijos krypties daktaro disertaciją. A. Žičkienė yra daugiau nei 40 mokslinių ir populiarių straipsnių, esė, recenzijų Danutė Petrauskaitė – muzikologė, socialinių moks- autorė, daugelio lietuvių liaudies dainų istorinių šaltinių pa- lų (muzikos edukologija) daktarė, 1995–2018 m. dirbo rengėja ir bendraautorė. Jos mokslinių interesų sritys – lietuvių Klaipėdos universitete, 2000–2015 m. vadovavo Klaipėdos liaudies dainos ir dainavimas plačiame istoriniame ir kultūri- universiteto Menų fakulteto Muzikologijos institutui, nuo niame kontekste, religinės lokalių bendruomenių muzikinės 2018 m. – Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademijos Mokslo praktikos, dainavimas kaip vietinis reiškinys potradicinėje centro vyriausioji mokslo darbuotoja. 1978 m. baigė Lietuvos visuomenėje. valstybinę konservatoriją, 1993 m. – Vilniaus universiteto dok- Straipsnis įteiktas 2017 05 22 torantūrą. Mokslinių tyrimų sritys: lietuvių muzika ir muzikos pedagogikos istorija, lietuvių išeivijos muzikinė kultūra JAV, Audronė Žiūraitytė – Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademi- Lietuvos ir kitų šalių muzikinės sąsajos, muzika ir politika. jos Muzikos teorijos katedros profesorė, humanitarinių mokslų Publikavo 4 knygas ir paskelbė apie 70 mokslinių straipsnių daktarė. 1987 m. apsigynė humanitarinių mokslų daktaro Lietuvos ir užsienio spaudoje. Dalyvavo daugelyje konferen- disertaciją „Lietuvių baletas. Žanro formavimasis ir raida“. cijų Lietuvoje ir užsienyje, kaip vizituojanti profesorė skaitė Tyrinėjimų sritys – muzikinis teatras, šiuolaikinė lietuvių mu- paskaitas Vokietijos, Olandijos, Šveicarijos, Ispanijos, Čekijos, zika, Onutės Narbutaitės kūryba. Išleido knygas: „Skiautinys Austrijos, Turkijos, Norvegijos, Prancūzijos universitetuose ir mano miestui. Monografija apie Onutės Narbutaitės kūrybą“ konservatorijose, stažavosi JAV. (2006), „Ne vien apie baletą. Recenzijų ir straipsnių rinkinys“ Straipsnis įteiktas 2017 12 22 (2009), „Algis Žiūraitis“ (1996, interviu su Maskvos Didžiojo teatro dirigentu ir jo kolegomis), „Algis Žiūraitis. Laiškai, pri- Joanna Schiller-Rydzewska 1997 m. Gdansko muzikos siminimai“ (2005); sudarė muzikologinių straipsnių rinkinius akademijoje su pagyrimu baigė kompozicijos ir teorijos studi- lietuvių ir užsienio kalbomis. jas. Jai buvo paskirtos Lenkijos kultūros ir menų ministerijos, Straipsnis įteiktas 2018 05 03 Gdansko ir Gdynės savivaldybių stipendijos. 1998 m. J. Schil- ler-Rydzewska pelnė trečią premiją magistro darbų konkurse už savo mokslinį darbą apie P. Boulezo fortepijonines sonatas. 2008 m. F. Chopino muzikos akademijoje Varšuvoje ji apgynė daktaro disertaciją „Augustyno Blocho gyvenimas ir kūryba“. Paskelbė recenzijų vietos spaudoje bei mokslo straipsnių, 2016 m. išleido knygą apie A. Blochą. Nuo 1997 m. dirba Varmijos ir Mozūrijos universitete Olštyne, 2008–2010 m. darbavosi Gdansko muzikos akademijoje. 2014–2016 m. buvo mokslinio žurnalo „Ars inter Culturas“, kurį leidžia Pomera- nijos universitetas Slupske, redaktorė. Pastaraisiais metais moksliniai interesai orientuoti į Gdansko regiono šiuolaikinių kompozitorių kūrybą, konkrečių autorių asmenybes bei pokario menininkus. Straipsnis įteiktas 2018 05 30

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About the authors

Editor-in-chief Authors Gražina Daunoravičienė (b. 1955), PhD, Dr Habil in Giedrius Alkauskas (b. 1978) – composer, mathemati- musicology (2008), full time Professor. She has been teaching cian. Studied mathematics at Vilnius University (1996–2004) at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre since 1979 and holds a PhD from the University of Nottingham (2008, and shad been the Head of the Department of Music Theory thesis Integral transforms of the Minkowski question mark func- in 1998–2003s. She received scientific scholarships and grants tion). Since 2013 he is a senior researcher at the Institute of to study and do research at the Moscow State P. Tchaikovsky Informatics of Vilnius University, since 2018 – a professor at Conservatory, Salzburg Mozarteum, Oxford University; was the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of Kaunas awarded a scholarship from the Ministry of Culture and Educa- University of Technology, in the spring semester of 2018 he tion of Saxon Lands and DAAD grant (Germany). She present- was an assistant professor at the Lithuanian Academy of Music ed reports and published scientific articles in Lithuania, Latvia, and Theatre. He implemented a postdoctoral research at the Poland, Germany, Russia, Great Britain, Belgium, Switzerland, Max Planck Institute of Mathematics (Bonn, 2009 and 2012), Slovenia, Yugoslavia, Finland, United States, China, Austria, Clausthal Technical University (2012), and Universtät Boden- Italy etc. On her initiative a series of monographs dedicated kultur Wien (2009–2010). Since 2013, he teaches a general to the most outstanding Lithuanian composers (Balakauskas, university education (GUE) course “Music and Mathematics” Bajoras, Kutavičius) was started. Daunoravičienė was the editor at the Vilnius University. An author of more than 20 math- of three collections (2002, 2007, and 2013). In 2016 she pub- ematical scientific papers (ISI Web of Science). A member of lished a monograph Exploration of Modernistic Identity in the the Board of the Lithuanian Mathematical Society. Lithuanian Music and was awarded Prof. Vytautas Landsbergis As a composer, Alkauskas released 2 CDs: Into the dream Foundation Prize. She is the founder and compiler of the scien- and magic-sphere... (2011) and Enchanted Time (2014). He has tific journalLithuanian Musicology, a compiler and author of given over 10 public lectures on music and mathematics; he the five books study guideThe Language of Music (two volumes gives lectures and writes articles on late Romantic composers were published in 2003 and 2006); in 2008–2013, a member Louis Glass, Granville Bantock, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and of the Research Council of Lithuania, a representative of the Danish Romanticism. In 2011, he presented a paper at the 1st Committee of Humanities and Social Sciences. International conference Music and Technologies in Kaunas. Delivered 2017 06 01 His scientific (musicological) interests: late Russian, Danish, British Romanticism, mathematical and natural-scientific Assistant editor-in-chief aspects of music. Rima Povilionienė (b. 1975), PhD in musicology, As- Delivered 2018 10 01 sociate Professor at the Department of Music Theory of the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre, Assistant Editor- Algirdas Jonas Ambrazas (1934–2016), Dr Habil in in-chief of the scientific yearly Lithuanian Musicology, Senior humanities (musicology) (1991), from 2005, a Professor Editor at the Lithuanian National Philharmonic, editor of Emeritus at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre. over 15 collections, as well as the author of the monograph He conducted research and read papers on Lithuanian music Musica mathematica. Traditions and Innovations in Contem- in St Petersburg, Moscow, Leipzig, Paris, Stockholm, Helsinki, porary Music (Peter Lang, 2016, 288 p.) and co-editor (with Warsaw, and elsewhere. Ambrazas prepared for publication and Nick Zangwill and Rūta Stanevičiūtė) of Of Essence and authored over ten books on the history and theory of music Context. Between Music and Philosophy collection for Springer and published nearly 200 articles in the Lithuanian and foreign (forthcoming in 2019). She held a researcher position at the press. He was editor-in-chief of Encyclopaedia of Music (in International Semiotics Institute (ISI) at Kaunas University of Lithuanian, vols. 1–3, 2000–2007), compiled the second book Technology and at the Centre for Science at the Lithuanian the history of Lithuanian music (Nepriklausomybės metai / Academy of Music and Theatre. Rima was on internships The Years of Independence 1918–1940, 2009) and was its at the Institute of Musicology at Leipzig University (2004) executive editor. Ambrazas’ last work was the monumental and IRCAM (2012). She has published nearly 30 scientific monograph Julius Juzeliūnas: A Panorama of His Life and articles and more than 150 critical reviews. She was a guest Work. Insights into His Legacy (2015). He was awarded the lecturer at the Leipzig University, Tbilisi Conservatoire, Bel- Cross of Officer of the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke grade University of Arts, J. Vitols Latvian Academy of Music, Gediminas (2007), the Culture and Art Prize of the Govern- Vilnius University, Kaunas University of Technology etc. Her ment of Lithuania (2008), and the National Culture and Art monograph Musica Mathematica (in Lithuanian, 2013) was Prize of the Republic of Lithuania (2015). awarded Prof. Vytautas Landsbergis Foundation Prize for the Paper prepared for the conference 2016 04 07 best musicological work. She is an editor of two collections for Springer (2017 and forthcoming in 2019).

195 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018

Patrick Becker studied musicology, German literature, Jūlija Jonāne studied at the Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy philosophy, and economics at Humboldt University of Berlin. of Music, and graduated the Department of Musicology with In 2018, he finished his studies with a thesis on folkloristic her bachelor’s degree in 2000, and master’s degree in 2002. tendencies in the Bulgarian avant-garde during the Cold During 2003–2006, she was a doctoral student and in 2009 War and is currently preparing his PhD. He was accepted defended her doctoral thesis Latvian Sacred Genres and was into the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes in 2017. He awarded the Doctor of Art degree in Musicology. Since 2016, conducted research in Sofia, Bulgaria, with a research grant she is an Associate Professor at the Department of Musicol- from the Studienstiftung and the Alfried Krupp von Bohlen ogy of the Academy. Since 2001, she teaches music theory at und Halbach-Stiftung, in 2017 and 2018. He presented the Riga Cathedral Choir School; and since 2003, she is an his research on several conferences in Europe and Asia and organist at the St. James’s/Jacob’s Roman Catholic Cathedral. works as a researcher and teaching assistant at the Humboldt In 2016 she was elected an international expert at the Latvian University of Berlin. Academy of Science. Her scientific interests: sacred music gen- Delivered 2018 06 04 res and composers, analysis of development processes of sacred music. Her papers and articles were presented and printed in Levon Hakobian (Akopyan, b. 1953 in Yerevan, Armenia), Austria, Belarus, Ireland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, PhD, Head of the Department of Music Theory at the Rus- Romania, Russia, Slovenia and the United Kingdom. sian State Institute for Art Studies in Moscow, Editor of the Delivered 2017 09 30 electronic journal Art of Music: Theory and History (http://sias. ru/publications/magazines/musik/), Member of the Editorial Margarita Katunyan, PhD, Associate Professor at the De- Board of the New Collected Works by Shostakovich (Moscow, partment of Music Theory of the Moscow State P. Tchaikovsky DSCH Publishers). His major publications (in Russian, unless Conservatory and at the Department of Music History and Theory of the V. Popov Academy of Choral Arts (from 1993), otherwise stated) include The Analysis of Profound Structure Lecturer at the Department of Philology of the Russian State in Musical Texts (Moscow, 1995), Music of the Soviet Age, University of the Humanities (from 2009). Published nearly 1917–1987 (Stockholm, 1998, in English), the Russian version 200 articles on various topics of music, reviews, reports on of Grove’s Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Moscow, music festivals, articles for the Russian Encyclopaedia, as well 2001, 2/2007), Shostakovich: an Essay in the Phenomenology of as interviews with composers and performers. She was an the his Work (St Petersburg, 2004), Mozart: a Guide-Book (2006), organizer and curator of several international conferences. Music of the 20th Century. A Concise Encyclopaedia (Moscow, Katunyan compiled and edited some international collections 2010), Shostakovich: Pro et Contra (St Petersburg, 2016), of research papers. She has delivered reports at the international Music of the Soviet Era, 1917–1991 (London and New York, conferences in Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania, Germany, Austria, 2017, in English), Šarakan. Canons and Hymns of Armenian Belgium, USA, and other countries. (full translation from Classical Armenian into Rus- Church Delivered 2018 06 02 sian, Yerevan, 2017), as well as a number of texts in Russian, Armenian, English, Polish, German and French, dedicated to Viktorija Kolarovska-Gmirja (b. 1963) graduated from the medieval Armenian sacred chant, to topical problems of the Musicology Department at St Petersburg State N. A. musical science, to the history of Soviet music and to lesser th Rimsky-Korsakov Conservatory. Since 1989, she has lived and known 20 century composers. worked in Macedonia as a professor at the Faculty of Music Art Delivered 2018 01 18 of Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje. At the same Faculty, she graduated from the Piano Department and earned Baiba Jaunslaviete (b. 1964), PhD. In 1983–1988 she her MA and PhD degrees. She writes papers on contemporary studied musicology, and in 1993 she defended her doctoral Macedonian music and music education and takes part in the thesis on contemporary musical composition on the basis of international conferences and seminars. She is a member of the Latvian chamber music at the Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Academy Editorial Board of the journal Музика (Music) published by of Music. She is a researcher (from 1992), lecturer (from 1994) Association of the Composers of Macedonia. She also performs and associate professor (from 2014) at the Academy. Her as a piano accompanist and member of chamber ensembles at research includes various aspects of Latvian music, its stylistic the musical festivals in Macedonia and abroad. and historical context. She has given presentations at several Delivered 2018 11 19 international musicological conferences in Riga, Vilnius, Tal- linn, Leipzig, Bonn, Lodz, Sofia, Rimini etc. and has published Jānis Kudiņš, PhD in Musicology, full time Professor at the books on Latvian music from the perspective of German the Musicology Department of Jāzeps Vītols Latvian Acad- and Russian music criticism (2004), programmatic orchestral emy of Music, International expert of the Latvian Council of compositions by Maija Einfelde (2006) and various articles on Science; Member of the International Musicological Society. Latvian composers Pēteris Plakidis, Alberts Jērums, Romualds He obtained the doctoral degree in 2008 (doctoral thesis The Kalsons etc. She is an editor of the collective monograph Tendencies of Neoromanticism in the Stylistic Development of Maija Einfelde in Her Life and Music (Mūzikas akadēmijas Latvian Symphonic Music in the Last Third of the 20th Century). raksti XIII, 2016). His major interests in musicology are linked with Latvian Delivered 2017 11 02 and Baltic music history in the 20th century, musical aesthetic

196 Lietuvos muzikologija, t. 19, 2018 problems (the concepts of modernism and post-modernism), in Warsaw. She is an author of numerous reviews in the local musical style notion (interdisciplinary approach), and Eu- press, as well as scientific publications; in 2016 she published ropean popular music of the 1st half of the 20th century. He her book on Augustyn Bloch. Since 1997, she works with the is an author of two monographs about the issues of Latvian University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, in 2008–2010 contemporary music style and published several articles on has also collaborated with the Academy of Music in Gdańsk. Latvian music history and music style problems. He actively In 2014–2016 she was the editor of scientific journal Ars inter participates in various international seminars and conferences Culturas published by the Pomeranian University in Słupsk. in different European and Asian countries. Her academic research interests are currently focused on Delivered 2018 06 03 the pieces of modern composers of Gdańsk region, works of individual composers, as well as the whole milieu of artists. Melita Milin (b. 1953), PhD, Senior Fellow at the Institute Delivered 2018 05 30 of Musicology in Belgrade, Serbia. She studied musicology at the Faculty of Music in Belgrade University and later obtained Iryna Tukova (b. 1975), PhD, Associate Professor at her doctoral degree at the University of Ljubljana. She was a the Department of Music Theory of Ukrainian National P. member of international projects on musicians’ correspond- Tchaikovsky Academy of Music (Kyiv, Ukraine). She studied ences (2001–2003) and migrating musicians (2007–2008), musicology at the Donetsk State Music Academy, in 2003 both organized by Prof. Helmut Loos, University of Leipzig. gained her PhD from the Ukrainian National Academy. Her She was a leader of the Serbian team on the bilateral project doctoral thesis was devoted to the problems of musical genre on Serbian and Greek art music (2005–2007). Milin was one theory. She has presented papers at conferences in Ukraine, of the founders and editor-in-chief of the first five issues of the Russia, Germany, and Lithuania. Her areas of scientific inter- international journal Muzikologija (2001–2005). Her research est include theory of music genre, history of music theory, is focused on 20th-century Serbian music in the context of composition techniques of modern music, and problems of contemporary musical developments in Europe. Special atten- the interaction of science and musical art in modern time. tion is devoted to the oeuvre of Ljubica Marić, then to Serbian Tukova took part in organizing committees of international music between the two world wars, and also to the most recent musicological conferences and symposiums in Kyiv. She was art music production. Her investigations include the study of an editor and co-editor of numerous collections. Tukova has influences of dominant ideologies (national and political) on published more than 30 articles. composers’ works and their relations to aesthetical programs Delivered 2017 09 15 and practices elsewhere in the world. Delivered 2017 09 01 Aušra Žičkienė is a senior research fellow at the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore in Vilnius. She qualified Danutė Petrauskaitė, musicologist, PhD in social sciences as a musicologist at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and (music education). She was professor and researcher at Klaipėda Theatre in 1987. In 2001 she defended her doctoral disserta- University in 1995–2018; director of the Institute of Musico- tion in Ethnology. She is an author of more than 40 scientific logy at the Faculty of Arts in 2000–2015; at present works at and popular articles, essays and reviews, editor and co-editor the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre. In 1978, she of numerous historical sources of Lithuanian folksongs. Her graduated from the Lithuanian State Conservatoire with a scientific interests include Lithuanian folk songs and singing diploma in musicology studies; in 1993, she completed her post- in a broad historical and cultural context, religious-related graduate studies at Vilnius University. The principal area of her musical practices of local community, singing as vernacular interest is Lithuanian music, history of music pedagogy, music phenomenon of post-traditional society. culture of Lithuanian émigrés in the USA, musical connections Delivered 2018 05 22 between Lithuania and other countries, music and politics. She published 4 books and about 70 articles in Lithuania and Audronė Žiūraitytė, PhD, professor at the Department abroad, made numerous presentations at local and international of Music Theory of the Lithuanian Academy of Music and conferences. As a guest lecturer, she has visited universities and Theatre. She has written and published numerous articles conservatoires in Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Spain, on various topics, mostly related to music theatre and Lithu- the Czech Republic, Austria, Turkey, Norway, and France. She anian contemporary music. She has edited the monographs: has conducted research at libraries and archives in the USA. Patchwork for my City. A Monograph on the Music of Onutė Delivered 2017 12 22 Narbutaitė (2006); Not Only on the Ballet, selected articles and reviews (2009); Algis Žiūraitis. Interviews with the Conductor of Joanna Schiller-Rydzewska in 1997 graduated with hon- Bolshoi Theatre and His Collegues(1996); Algis Žiūraitis. Cor- ours in Composition and Theory of Music from the Academy respondence, Recollections (2005). She also edited proceedings of Music in Gdańsk. She was a scholarship holder of the Minis- for various international conferences, co-edited Constructing try of Culture and Arts and Gdańsk and Gdynia cities. In 1998 Modernity and Reconstructing Nationality. Lithuanian Music Schiller-Rydzewska was awarded the 3rd prize at the Master in the 20th Century (2004) and Litauische Musik. Idee und Thesis Competition for her thesisPierre Boulez’s Piano Sonatas. Geschichte einer musikalischen Nationalbewegung in ihrem In 2008 she defended her doctoral thesis Augustyn Bloch, His europäischen Kontext (2010). Life and Works at the Fryderyk Chopin Academy of Music Delivered 2018 05 03

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Atmintinė autoriams

Teikiamų publikuoti straipsnių reikalavimai, jų recenzavimo tvarka

Į žurnalą priimami tokios arba analogiškos struktūros moksliniai straipsniai: įvadas, tyrimų tikslas, objektas, metodas ir metodikos, gauti rezultatai, išvados arba apibendrinimas, nuorodos, naudotos literatūros sąrašas. Prieš pagrindinį tekstą turi būti anotacija, kurioje nurodoma: tyrinėjimo objektas, metodas (metodikos), tikslas, išdės- tomi tyrimo rezultatai. Paskui išvardijami reikšminiai žodžiai. Anotacija turi būti pateikiama lietuvių ir anglų kalbomis. Straipsnio pabaigoje turi būti pateikiamos nuorodos ir literatūros sąrašas. Po literatūros sąrašo pateikiama santrauka. Jei straipsnis lietuvių kalba, santrauka rašoma anglų kalba; užsienio kalba teikiamo straipsnio santrauka turi būti lietuvių kalba. Santraukos apimtis – 0,5–1 puslapis. Straipsnio iliustracinė medžiaga (nuotraukos, grafikai, schemos, lentelės ir kt.) turi būti nespalvota, geros kokybės ir tinkama reprodukuoti. Natų pavyzdžiai turi būti parengti kompiuteriu. Straipsnius galima teikti lietuvių ir pagrindinėmis užsienio kalbomis. Apimtis neturėtų viršyti vieno autorinio lanko. Didesnės apimties straipsnio spausdinimo galimybė aptariama su vyriausiuoju redaktoriumi. Straipsnio autorius atskirame lape lietuvių ir anglų kalbomis turi pateikti trumpą savo mokslinę biografiją – nurodyti mokslinį laipsnį ir vardą, svarbiausius darbus, mokslinius interesus, darbovietę, pareigas ir adresą. Redakcijai pagal nurodytus reikalavimus parengtą straipsnį autorius turi pateikti kompiuterinėje laikmenoje arba elektroniniu paštu. Pateiktą straipsnį recenzuoja du redakcinės kolegijos paskirti mokslininkai. Laikomasi nuostatos, kad kiekvienas straipsnis turi turėti dvi recenzijas – vidinę ir išorinę. Jeigu pateikto straipsnio problematika tarpdisciplininė, privaloma gretutinės mokslo srities ar krypties mokslininko rekomendacija. Straipsnis spausdinamas gavus dviejų mokslininkų rekomendacijas.

Bibliografinių nuorodų sistemos reikalavimai

„Lietuvos muzikologijai“ teikiamuose straipsniuose turi būti laikomasi citavimo tvarkos ir bibliografinių nuorodų sąrašo sudarymo metodikos. Nuorodose ir literatūros sąraše bibliografiniai duomenys pateikiami originalo rašyba. Dokumentai kirilica nelotyni- nami (netransliteruojami). Kinų, japonų, arabų ir kitų kalbų šaltiniai nurodomi naudojantis atitinkamais transliteravimo standartais. Sulotyninti duomenys gali pakeisti vartotuosius originaliame dokumente arba papildyti – tuo atveju suskliausti laužtiniais skliaustais. Didžiųjų raidžių rašyba turi atitikti nurodomo dokumento kalboje susiklosčiusią praktiką. Tekstinės išnašos įterpiamos į straipsnio tekstą lenktiniuose skliaustuose arba teikiamos kaip pastaba nuorodose darbo gale. Į tekstą įterptose išnašose nurodomas cituojamo teksto autorius arba antraštė, išleidimo metai ir – jei reikia – puslapis, pavyzdžiui, (Čiurlionis 1973: 51). Kelių autorių leidinio nuoroda gali būti trumpinama nurodant pirmojo autoriaus pavardę ir prirašant „et al.“ Nuorodose teikiami bibliografiniai duomenys nurodomi laikantis citavimo tvarkos ir literatūros sąrašo sudarymo metodikos. Literatūros sąrašas turi būti išdėstytas autorių arba antraščių abėcėlės tvarka. To paties autoriaus darbai rašomi išlei- dimo chronologine tvarka. Bibliografinės nuorodos sudaromos laikantis šių reikalavimų: a) po autoriaus pavardės ir vardo dedamas kablelis; po kiekvieno asmenvardžio dedamas kabliataškis; b) jei autorius nežinomas, nurodoma antraštė (pavadinimas); c) jei antraštės nėra, ji keičiama pirmaisiais žodžiais, reiškiančiais baigtinę mintį; po jų dedamas daugtaškis; d) toliau eina antraštė – straipsnio arba knygos pavadinimas (kursyvu) originalo kalba; e) prieš šaltinį, kuriame išspausdintas straipsnis, rašoma „in:“; šaltinio antraštė išryškinama kursyvu. f) jei esama antraštės, t. y. antraštę paaiškinančių duomenų (informacija apie leidinio tipą, žanrą, paskirtį, rengėjus), jie teikiami po antraštės; prieš paantraštę dedamas dvitaškis; g) leidinio rengėjų (redaktorių, vertėjų ir pan.) nurodyti neprivalu, tačiau jie gali būti nurodomi po antraštės;

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h) būtini bibliografijos elementai yra išleidimo duomenys – originalo kalba rašomi duomenys: vieta, leidėjas, metai; i) po leidinio išleidimo vietos nuorodos dedamas dvitaškis (kai leidėjas nenurodomas, dedamas kablelis); po dvitaškio toliau rašomas leidėjas, esant keliems leidėjams – išryškintasis arba pirmasis leidėjas; po leidėjo įvardijimo dedamas kablelis; j) toliau nurodomi leidinio metai; esant tęstinių ar periodinių leidinių numerių, tomų ir pan. nuorodoms, po leidinio metų dedamas kablelis; nesant šių duomenų, po leidinio metų dedamas taškas, pavyzdžiui: Landsbergis Vytautas, Geresnės muzikos troškimas, Vilnius: Vaga, 1990. ISBN 5-415-00635-4. Račiūnaitė-Vyčinienė Daiva, Vienbalsumas šiaurės rytų Aukštaitijoje: vėlesnės monofoninės dainos, in: Lietuvos muzikologija, Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, 2005, t. 6, p. 150–160. k) toliau nurodomi leidinio dalies (pvz., straipsnio) puslapiai, pavyzdžiui: Kramer Lawrence, Perspektyvos: postmodernizmas ir muzikologija, in: Goštautienė, Rūta (sud.), Muzika kaip kultūros tekstas, Vilnius: Apostrofa, 2007, p. 124–160. l) toliau įrašomas knygą, daugiatomius arba serialinius leidinius identifikuojantis standartinis numeris – ISBN, ISMN ar ISSN; po jų nuorodos dedamas taškas; standartinis numeris neprivalomas nurodant knygų, daugiatomių arba serialinių leidinių dalis (straipsnius ir pan.); m) cituojant arba nurodant elektroninius dokumentus, būtina nurodyti leidinio autorių, antraštę, elektroninį adresą ir elektroninio leidinio žiūrėjimo datą, pavyzdžiui: Paulauskis Linas, Bronius Kutavičius: jeigu nėra paslapties – nėra ir muzikos, in: Lietuvos muzikos link [interaktyvus], 2005–2006, Nr. 11, [žiūrėta 2007 11 05].

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SL 1695. 30 aut. l. Tiražas 200 egz. Maketavo Rokas Gelažius Muzikos pavyzdžius parengė Gecentas Rakutis Vertėjos Jurgita Tūrienė, Laūra Karnavičiūtė Išleido Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija, Gedimino pr. 42, LT-01110 Vilnius Spausdino Vilniaus dailės akademijos leidykla ir spaustuvė, Dominikonų g. 15, LT-01013 Vilnius