Published by CQ Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. www.cqresearcher.com Drinking Water Safety Can the nation’s aging water infrastructure be fixed?

hile water-quality experts deem most of the nation’s drinking water safe, the recent crisis over lead-tainted water in Flint, Mich., W dramatized the problems that plague com - munities nationwide: Lead and other toxic substances continue to pose a threat, and government agencies responsible for monitoring water safety sometimes fail to protect the public. Investigations conducted since the Flint crisis came to light last year have found that thousands of water systems nationwide have failed to meet federal safety standards for lead and other harmful substances. Demonstrators march for clean water in Flint, Mich., on Feb. 19, 2016. After learning the city’s water Moreover, environmentalists warn that tens of thousands of indus - contained dangerous lead levels, local officials waited seven months to tell the public. Lead- contaminated water has been found in trial pollutants and pharmaceutical compounds slip through water- thousands of communities throughout the country. treatment systems without being tested or regulated. The Environ - mental Protection Agency sets water-safety standards, but the sourcing, treatment and distribution of water is left to local utilities, I some dealing with polluted water sources, old pipes or shrinking THIS REPORT N THE ISSUES ...... 579 budgets. Cost estimates to fix the aging U.S. water infrastructure S BACKGROUND ...... 586 include $30 billion to replace lead pipes and $1 trillion to upgrade I CHRONOLOGY ...... 587 water mains. D CURRENT SITUATION ...... 590 E CQ Researcher • July 15, 2016 • www.cqresearcher.com AT ISSUE ...... 593 Volume 26, Number 25 • Pages 577-600 OUTLOOK ...... 595 RECIPIENT OF SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISTS AWARD FOR BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 598 EXCELLENCE N AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION SILVER GAVEL AWARD THE NEXT STEP ...... 599 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

July 15, 2016 THE ISSUES SIDEBARS AND GRAPHICS Volume 26, Number 25 EXECUTIVE EDITOR: Thomas J. Billitteri • Is America’s drinking water 580 Water Infrastructure Costs [email protected] 579 safe? Highest in South ASSISTANT MANAGING EDITORS: Kenneth • Should the federal govern - The South needs the largest Fireman, [email protected], ment help localities upgrade investment to upgrade its Kathy Koch , [email protected], water mains. Chuck McCutcheon , their water infrastructure? [email protected], • Is the Safe Drinking Water Scott Rohrer, [email protected] Act effective at protecting the 581 How Lead Gets Into public? Drinking Water SENIOR CONTRIBUTING EDITOR: In older houses, corrosion in Thomas J. Colin lead pipes causes lead to [email protected] leach into water. BACKGROUND CONTRIBUTING WRITERS: Brian Beary, Marcia Clemmitt, Sarah Glazer, Kenneth Jost, Child Lead-Poisoning Rate Reed Karaim, Peter Katel , Barbara Mantel, 586 Public Waterworks 584 Plummets Tom Price Ancient Rome’s water system The percentage of young set a precedent for public children with lead poisoning SENIOR PROJECT EDITOR: Olu B. Davis drinking water. has fallen steeply in recent FACT CHECKERS: Eva P. Dasher, years. Michelle Harris, Nancie Majkowski, 586 Protecting Water Robin Palmer As cities became crowded, Chronology waste and water often 587 Key events since 1801. comingled . Lead’s Childhood Legacy: Lead Pipes and Health 588 A Lifetime of Problems 586 Despite concerns, lead was “The kids will not be as An Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. long preferred for water pipes. smart and will make less money in their working life.” SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT, 588 Water Safety Laws GLOBAL LEARNING RESOURCES: Laws passed in the 1970s Thousands of Cities Face Karen Phillips regulated chemicals found in 590 Water-Quality Problems EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, ONLINE LIBRARY AND drinking water. Poor communities with slim REFERENCE PUBLISHING: budgets are hardest hit. Todd Baldwin

CURRENT SITUATION At Issue: Copyright © 2016 CQ Press, an Imprint of SAGE Pub - 593 Is the federal government lications, Inc. SAGE reserves all copyright and other 590 Flint Fallout doing enough to keep rights herein, unless pre vi ous ly spec i fied in writing. Despite assurances that Flint’s America’s drinking water safe ? No part of this publication may be reproduced water is safe, residents con - electronically or otherwise, without prior written tinue to report health effects. permission. Un au tho rized re pro duc tion or trans mis - FOR FURTHER RESEARCH sion of SAGE copy right ed material is a violation of Legal Actions federal law car ry ing civil fines of up to $100,000. 592 Several lawsuits have been For More Information CQ Press is a registered trademark of Congressional filed to try to force drinking- 597 Organizations to contact. water improvements. Quarterly Inc. Bibliography CQ Researcher (ISSN 1056-2036) is printed on acid-free 594 Congressional Action 598 Selected sources used. paper. Pub lished weekly, except: (March wk. 4) (May A new law strengthens the wk. 4) (July wks. 1, 2) (Aug. wks. 2, 3) (Nov. wk. 4) Environmental Protection The Next Step and (Dec. wks. 3, 4). Published by SAGE Publications, Agency’s authority. 599 Additional articles . Inc., 2455 Teller Rd., Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Annual full -service subscriptions start at $1,131. For pricing, Citing CQ Researcher call 1-800-818-7243. To purchase a CQ Researcher report OUTLOOK 599 Sample bibliography formats. in print or electronic format (PDF), visit www.cqpress. com or call 866-427-7737. Single reports start at $15. Water and Politics Bulk purchase discounts and electronic-rights licensing 595 The presidential election could reshape U.S. drinking are also available. Periodicals postage paid at Thousand water policy. Oaks, California, and at additional mailing offices . POST - MAST ER: Send ad dress chang es to CQ Re search er , 2600 Virginia Ave., N.W., Suite 600, Wash ing ton, DC 20037. Cover: Getty Images/Bill Pugliano

578 CQ Researcher Drinking Water Safety BY JILL U. ADAMS

federal water safety standards, THE ISSUES the sourcing, treatment and distribution of water is left y the time officials in to thousands of local utilities, Flint, Mich., warned many of which are dealing B residents last October with polluted water sources, to stop drinking city water aging pipes or shrinking bud - because of dangerous lead gets. As the Flint crisis re - contamination, it was too late: vealed, economic distress and The lead levels in children’s poor regulatory oversight can blood had already spiked to endanger the quality of drink - n 1 i e harmful levels. t ing water in many cities. s n

The Centers for Disease Con - r “Maintenance is a chronic e B

trol and Prevention (CDC) found . problem for public water util - P

that the risk of excessive blood n ities,” says Leonard Gilroy, di - o r lead levels among Flint children a rector of government reform A /

under age 6 had risen 50 percent s at the Reason Foundation, a e g

during the months the city used a free-market think tank in Los m I improperly treated Flint River Angeles. “And with govern - y t

2 t

water for drinking. e ment ownership, the process Young children are partic - G is politicized. There’s incen - A sign warns bathers about algae infestation at Maumee ularly sensitive to lead exposure: Bay State Park in Ohio on Aug. 4, 2014. In nearby tive to keep rates low, while Even small doses can lower IQ Toledo, excessive algae in Lake Erie, caused by fertilizer the investment needs con - and cause lifelong learning dis - runoff, forced a temporary ban on drinking water. Drinking tinue to stack up.” abilities, attention disorders and water contaminants include industrial and pharmaceutical What happened in Flint violent behavior . 3 (See sidebar, chemicals as well as lead and other toxins. was “so preventable,” says p. 588. ) Jeffrey Griffiths, a professor Flint’s water contamination likely even worse than in Flint, according to of public health at Tufts University and had begun 18 months before residents two recent investigations. USA Today former chair of the EPA’s Drinking were notified by local officials, who and the Natural Resources Defense Water Committee. He assigns “99.5 per - had learned of the problem in February Council (NRDC), an environmental ad - cent of the blame to the people who but waited seven months to tell the vocacy group, found in separate ex - decided to use river water and decided public. 4 The problem developed after aminations that between 2,000 and not to use [proper] corrosion control the city, to save money, stopped buying 5,000 water systems nationwide — — and lied to the EPA about it.” treated water from Detroit and began serving up to 18 million people — To keep America’s drinking water drawing water from the polluted Flint have failed to meet federal lead safety safe, says Howard Neukrug, who served River. To kill bacteria, Flint had to treat standards. 6 as CEO of Philadelphia’s water utility the river water with more chlorine than “There’s no question we have chal - for 37 years, infrastructure must be up - usual, which corroded the lead pipes. lenges with lead in drinking water graded, creative and efficient treatment Three officials — two from the state across the country [involving] millions systems must be established, and sci - and one from the city — have been of lead service lines in thousands of entific research on the health effects charged with evidence tampering con - systems,” said Joel Beauvais, deputy of toxic chemicals in drinking water cerning the reporting of Flint’s lead assistant administrator for the EPA’s Of - must be beefed up. levels to the Environmental Protection fice of Water. 7 Many older cities still use lead-containing Agency (EPA). 5 And lead contamination is not the water pipes because a 1986 ban on The Flint crisis prompted reporters, only threat to America’s drinking water. leaded water pipes applied only to watchdog organizations and public of - Thousands of industrial pollutants and new construction. Water is lead-free ficials to analyze the effectiveness of pharmaceutical compounds slip when it leaves municipal treatment city, state and federal management of through municipal water treatment, hav - plants, which filter and disinfect water, a key public safety sector. But the ing never been tested or regulated by but lead can leach into the water from water-safety situation in other cities is the EPA. And, while the agency sets lead service lines — pipes that connect

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 579 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

America’s drinking water infrastructure Water Infrastructure Costs Highest in South a grade of D+ and estimated it would cost $1 trillion over the next 25 years The South needs the largest investment — $507 billion — to to replace leaking pipes and keep up upgrade its water mains , followed by the West, at $237 billion , with growth. 10 (See graph, left. ) according to the American Society of Civil Engineers. Most of the In addition, utilities deal with other projected costs in those two regions stem from population growth . contaminants besides lead. Last December, Cost increases projected in the Midwest and Northeast stem Hoosick Falls, N.Y., warned residents not mostly from the need to replace aging pipes. to drink tap water due to dangerous levels of the industrial pollutant perfluo - Cost of Updating Water Mains, rooctanoic acid, a manmade chemical by Region, 2011-35 used in nonstick cookware and stain- 11 (in $ billions) resistant carpeting . And in 2014, res - $600 $507 billion idents in Charleston, W. Va., and Toledo, 500 Ohio, were told not to drink city water. 400 In Charleston a chemical storage tank $237 billion had leaked a coal-washing chemical, 4- 300 $172 billion 200 $109 billion methylcyclohexane methanol, into the Elk 12 100 River, the city’s water source. In Toledo 0 the culprit was a bacterial toxin, micro - South West Midwest Northeast cystin, created from excessive algae in Lake Erie, caused by farmland fertilizer Source: “2013 Report Card for America’s Infrastructure,” New Growth 13 American Society of Civil Engineers, http://tinyurl.com/jpf9e5s Replacement that washed into the lak e. Moreover, in regions near oil and water mains to individual houses — or When corrosion control doesn’t gas drilling operations, some residents sometimes through a building’s plumbing. work, service lines must be replaced, have complained of drinking water con - Lead is more likely to leach if pipes with the cost typically shared with taminated by hydraulic fracturing, or are corroded. homeowners. Some communities, such fracking, in which oil and natural gas While water officials usually know as Madison, Wis., have found creative are extracted from underground shale when they have some lead pipes in ways to pay for replacing pipes. ( See by pumping chemically treated water their systems, they rarely know exactly sidebar, p. 590. ) But most cities must into the rock formations under high where the pipes are. Nor do they know raise water rates, borrow from the state pressure. An EPA study in 2015 con - how many: Estimates of the number of or partner with a private company. cluded that the problem is not systemic lead service lines nationwide range from When cities partner with a private or widespread . 14 However, a panel 3 million to 10 million. The American firm, the company invests in new infra - of scientists recommended that the EPA Water Works Association, a Denver- structure in exchange for the right to review its findings. 15 based organization representing water run the system and collect the fees. Pri - Many water treatment plants are not utility professionals, estimates there are vatization agreements can be an eco - equipped to remove certain pollutants 6.1 million, but that is not based on nomic boon for a struggling municipality, or toxins, and many chemicals found “a hard inventory,” said the association’s especially if the company pays off the in drinking water are not regulated. director for government affairs, Tracy city’s debt, but leasing a critical public The toxins detected in Hoosick Falls Mehan. Using an estimate of $5,000 safety utility such as water treatment to and Toledo are unregulated but are each, the association said replacement a profit-based system is controversial. 9 candidates for EPA evaluation for po - would cost $30 billion. 8 Besides lead, other problems plague tential health effects. The chemical in To control corrosion, water treatment the nation’s 54,000 community drinking Charleston is neither regulated nor listed plants add orthophosphate, a chemical water systems. As pipes age, their failure as a potential contaminant. that coats the inside of the pipes and rates rise. About 650 water mains — Under the Safe Drinking Water Act prevents leaching. “Corrosion control the large pipes that run under city of 1974, the primary federal law gov - works, but it’s not perfect,” says Mae streets — break down each day, and erning the quality of the nation’s drink - Wu, a senior NRDC attorney. “As long utilities must replace 4,000 to 5,000 ing water, the EPA regulates a set of as there are lead service lines, lead miles of mains per year. The American “actionable contaminants,” including will continue to be a problem.” Society of Civil Engineers in 2013 gave lead, arsenic, the herbicides atrazine

580 CQ Researcher and glyphosate (used in Roundup weed killer) and the microbial pathogens How Lead Gets Into Drinking Water 16 Legionella and giardia. Under the Drinking water in homes with old water pipes is more likely to law, the EPA also maintains a list of contain lead than water in newer homes with lead-free pipes. as-yet unregulated substances, known as contaminants “of concern” — chem - When drinking water leaves municipal treatment plants, it is icals or toxins found in rivers and lakes lead-free. But it can be contaminated with lead when corrosion - that are candidates for EPA analysis to control measures fail to determine unsafe levels. 17 keep lead pipes from Suspected contaminants can be leaching lead into added to the list, but too often regu - drinking water. lators don’t have enough data to act, says Rebecca Klaper, an expert on emerging water contaminants at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Plus, the EPA review process can take decades to complete, while American industry is creating and using new chemicals at a rapid clip. Regulators have detected widely used pharma - ceuticals, pesticides and flame retardants at low levels in many rivers and lakes, says Klaper, but water or wastewater treatment systems fail to capture many of these “emerging” contaminants. * Ownership of service lines varies across water systems. “We need more resources in order Source: Clean Water Action, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hvjf2la to determine the long-term impacts of exposure to small concentrations of chemicals,” Klaper says. But “there’s In a rare bipartisan move in a peren - that promotes sustainable water policy. no funding for this.” nially gridlocked Congress, lawmakers Nevertheless, every year, unsafe water is Over the past decade, Congress has in June adopted the first major overhaul found across the country. cut the EPA’s Office of Ground Water of the TSCA since its enactment 40 “By and large, Americans drink safe and Drinking Water budget by 15 percent years ago. 21 water, in that it doesn’t make them and its staff by 10 percent, diminishing Some clean-water advocates also sick,” says Tuft’s Griffiths. “That doesn’t its ability to regulate, monitor and enforce want tougher penalties for those who mean there are not threats.” drinking water regulations, critics say. 18 pollute “source water” — any water In addition to the USA Today and Further, the Safe Drinking Water Act is that flows into a drinking water treat - NRDC findings that thousands of water not the only law governing pollutants ment plant. “You and I are paying to systems have violated federal lead stan - that could end up in drinking water. 19 get stuff out of the water that someone dards, a recent review of EPA enforce - The others are: else puts in,” says the NRDC’s Wu. ment actions by University of Alabama • The Clean Water Act of 1972 au - As cities, residents, environmentalists, law professor William Andreen discovered thorizes setting quality standards for industry officials and lawmakers debate that in 2013 some 10,000 community- lakes and rivers (called “surface wa - what to do about the nation’s aging level water systems had at least one sig - ters”), including those used for drinking water systems, here are some of the nificant violation of federal drinking water water, and allows states to prevent fac - questions they are asking: regulations. One-fourth of those violations tory or farm pollution from being dis - involved health-based standards, while charged into those waters. 20 Is America’s drinking water safe? the rest were monitoring and reporting • The Toxic Substances Control Act Overall, Americans enjoy some of the violations, says Andreen, a former EPA (TSCA) governs the production, use world’s cleanest, safest tap water, says in-house counsel. About 5,000 water sys - and disposal — potentially into waters Neukrug, the former Philadelphia Water tems had been flagged as priorities for used for drinking water — of industrial CEO who is a senior fellow at the U.S. enforcement because of serious or re - chemicals. Water Alliance, a nonprofit organization peated violations, Andreen adds.

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 581 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

“It’s just a snapshot, from 2013,” but tion’s work to develop and defend the says. “Unless we have evidence of harm, it highlights the scope of the problem, Clean Water Rule from attacks that would [new chemicals] are OK,” he says. In he says. weaken safeguards for clean water,” said other words, a contaminant that harms Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, NRDC Director Rhea Suh . 23 human health could get into drinking threats to water are managed in three But opponents, including farmers water and not be identified or managed places: at the source of the water, in and manufacturers, say the rule repre - until government scientists deem the sub - the water treatment plant and in the sents government overreach and that stance harmful. In contrast, he says, Euro pean underground water distribution system. regulations should not cover small wet - countries operate under the “precautionary The law requires states to identify the lands and streams on private property. principle,” in which industry scientists, risk of contamination from water sources “We all want clean water,” said Sen. rather than the government, must prove — such as reservoirs, rivers or mountain Joni Ernst, R-Iowa. “This rule is not that a new chemical is safe before it enters the marketplace. 25 As a result, Griffiths says, “water treatment in America doesn’t protect against the new stuff that might get into water.” And most water treatment uses century-old technolo - gies: filtration and disinfection. In addition, water treatment pro - duces its own contaminants. Chlorine or similar disinfectant compounds, while cheap and efficient, also are “associated with a small risk of [bladder] cancer,” Griffiths says. Water treatment likely contributes to a few thousand of the n e s l 30,000-50,000 cases of bladder cancer r a

C each year, but it also protects millions

t t

e of people from bacterial pathogens, r B

/ he says. “These are the trade-offs.” s e

g Yet no one has analyzed the risks a

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t chemicals, says the University of Wis - e

G consin’s Klaper. A physician draws a child’s blood to test for excessive lead levels in Flint, Mich., Bacteria pose another danger. Water on Jan. 26, 2016. The risk of lead poisoning among Flint children under age 6 rose 50 percent during the months the city used improperly treated Flint River can pick up bacteria or other conta - water for drinking. In young children, even low exposure to lead can lower IQs minants as they pass through the dis - and cause learning disabilities, attention disorders or violent behavior. tribution pipes. “A lot of water pipes are laid next to sewer pipes,” says the snowmelt. Yet, many communities about clean water. Rather, it is about NRDC’s Wu. If pipes are leaking, bac - struggle to control contamination in how much authority the federal gov - terial contamination can enter the clean their source waters. In fact, tributaries ernment and unelected bureaucrats water supply, she says. or wetlands not covered by clean- should have to regulate what is done water laws serve up to one-third of on private land. ” 24 Should the federal government Americans . 22 But environmentalists say the rule help localities upgrade their The Obama administration sought doesn’t deal with one of the biggest water infrastructure? to address these gaps in 2015 by issuing water quality problems: unregulated con - Upgrading the nation’s water systems the Clean Water Rule, expanding the taminants. “There’s a slew of chemicals — a largely underground infrastructure definition of rivers and wetlands covered present in the water,” such as pesticides that is out of sight and sometimes out by the Clean Water Act. Advocates say and pharmaceuticals, Griffiths says, that of mind — is an enormous and under - the protections were overdue because may well be in trace amounts but may appreciated task, said Janet Kavinoky, previous interpretations of protected still have human health effects. executive director of transportation and waters were far too narrow. “We are The U.S. regulatory system works in infrastructure at the U.S. Chamber of enormously grateful for the administra - a reactionary, after-the-fact way, Griffiths Commerce.

582 CQ Researcher “People think water should be free,” cities that get water from a protected tank that advocates less regulation. In - she said. “My response is that, if you’re reservoir, says the NRDC’s Wu. stead, he says, “state and local govern - in Washington, D.C., you can go down The federal government has helped ments can issue debt. It’s the best way to the Potomac with your bucket, carry finance water infrastructure in the past, to fund long-term investments such as the water home, treat it, and when notes Neukrug, of the U.S. Water Al - infrastructure.” you’re done figure out a way to dispose liance. Construction grants for sewage A water infrastructure financing port - of it. It’s hard to convince people that treatment plants and other infrastructure folio should include raising water rates, these things cost money, which is why initially were made available under the writes Gregory Baird, an infrastructure it’s hard to get investment in water in - 1972 Clean Water Act. “It changed the asset management expert. “Everyone frastructure.” 26 game and it made our rivers and streams dislikes the need for higher rates, but Many cities do not have the money much cleaner,” he says. “Now that fund - there are things that are feared more to fix their crumbling water distribution ing is gone.” than a rate battle — sinkholes and the systems. Yet, as the Flint situation shows, The federal government maintains a loss of water services, contamination skimping on utility costs can be dis - loan program, called the Drinking Water and public health issues, unplanned astrous. A cost-conscious decision State Revolving Fund, for states to pro - rate shocks and moratoriums on growth “caused millions of dollars [worth] of vide loans to cities needing to upgrade and development.” 30 problems, including health problems,” water systems. But many experts feel “Rate payers have the primary re - says Tufts professor Griffiths. the program is underfunded. sponsibility and bear most of the cost,” But what if a municipality can’t “Typically, the federal government says Mehan, of the American Water pay for needed improvements? asks appropriates $800 million to $850 million Works Association. “Our rates [for drink - Lynn Broaddus, a nonresident senior per year,” Andreen says. In 2009, that ing water] are half those in Northern fellow at the Brookings Institution, a amount was bumped up to $2 billion Europe and far less than typical cell - centrist think tank in Washington. as part of President Obama’s economic phone data plans, cable television or When a town’s population drops, as stimulus package, adopted in response electric bills.” Moreover, he says, “The in Flint, so do city tax revenues. Then to the recession that began in 2007. federal government has its own fiscal “it becomes a social justice issue,” “That was probably a very wise ex - issues. Its ability is limited.” she says. penditure, but it didn’t continue at that Public-private partnerships are an - For instance, small water utilities — level,” he says. other option. “This has been done for those with fewer than 3,300 customers Over the past two decades, $20 bil - highways, such as the Capital Beltway — that cannot afford upgrades are fre - lion has gone into the state revolving in Virginia,” Edwards says. “A company quently cited for violations. “They can’t funds — one-fifth of the estimated added four lanes for a 15-mile stretch afford the fix,” says the University of $1 trillion experts say is needed for and gets to collect the tolls for a set Alabama’s Andreen, and then “they maintenance and upgrades of drinking period of time. Anything with a user can’t afford the penalty.” water infrastructure. But the amount charge can be privatized — or made And the cost of water treatment varies the federal government spends on mass half private. A local government might by community. Some places, such as transit and roads dwarfs spending on need $1 billion to upgrade. A private Los Angeles and San Francisco, get water utilities. Of 2014 federal infra - company funds this and gets a 50- much of their water from national parks structure spending, 48 percent went year lease on the system. They get a in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 27 “It’s to highways and 16 percent to mass return from rate-payers over time.” low-cost water with no industry around transit and rails, but only 5 percent to About 2,000 municipalities have it,” says Griffiths, so it doesn’t need water utilities, according the Congres - entered public-private partnerships to much treatment. “One could say they’re sional Budget Office. 29 upgrade their water systems. 31 Critics, stealing it from the public.” The NRDC’s Wu argues that funding such as Food and Water Watch, an or - Other communities, such as Orange infrastructure projects not only prevents ganization that promotes safe and sus - County, Calif., and desert communities crises but also creates jobs, a key goal tainable food and water supplies, say in the Southwest, recycle their sewer of Obama’s stimulus package. However, private partners will not put public water. 28 And some customers are pay - not everyone agrees federal funding health and safety above profit. Indeed, ing more for intensive water treatment. is a good idea. the group found that between 2007 Water bills in Washington, D.C., have “The federal government does a lousy and 2011, about 16 percent of privately doubled in the past 10 years because job of funding local issues,” says Chris held water systems reverted to public treating the polluted Potomac River Edwards, director of tax policy studies ownership, with quality a top complaint. water requires more treatment than in at the Cato Institute, a libertarian think And rates typically rise with privatiza -

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 583 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

didate” list, or “chemicals of concern” Child Lead-Poisoning Rate Plummets found in water that may need to be 34 The percentage of children, ages 1 through 5, with lead poisoning regulated. Environmentalists say these amend - has fallen steeply in recent years, from nearly 8 percent in 1997 to ments, while good, are not enough. 0.5 percent in 2014, the most recent year for which data are What’s more, they say, enforcement is available. A child with at least 10 micrograms of lead per deciliter slow or sometimes weak. of blood is considered to have lead poisoning, which can lower For example, progress in identifying IQs and cause attention disorders, violent or other antisocial dangerous new chemicals has been slow, behavior or delinquency. critics say. Five years ago, for example, the EPA determined that perchlorate, Percentage of Children With Lead Poisoning, used in rocket propellants, fireworks and Numbers of Children Tested, and matches, “has an adverse health No. of Children 1997-2014 % of Children impact, especially in fetuses, and that Tested (in millions) confirmed 5 8% millions of Americans are exposed to 7 it,” NRDC’s Wu says. EPA officials “haven’t 4 6 proposed a standard yet. They’ve blown through their deadline. And that’s just 3 5 4 one chemical.” 2 3 Despite having promised to publish 2 a proposed rule on perchlorate in 1 1 2013, the agency is seeking scientific 0 0 experts to convene a panel to deter - 11997997 11998998 11999999 22000000 22001001 22002002 22003003 22004004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 mine at what level perchlorate should 35 Sources: “Lead: Standard Surveillance Definitions and Number tested be regulated. Classifications,” Centers for Disease Control and Preven- Percent confirmed “There are 85,000 chemicals in use tion, http://tinyurl.com/hsfwesd in the U.S., many of them in high vol - ume,” says Laura Orlando, executive tion, which can reflect truer market Does the Safe Drinking Water Act director of the Resource Institute for value but can also have a dispropor - effectively protect the public? Low Entropy Systems, a nonprofit in tionately negative effect on low-income The 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act Boston that advocates for sustainable customers. 32 authorized the EPA to establish quality protection of public health and the Edwards argues that when a re - standards for clean drinking water and environment. “How do we address source is provided too cheaply, it ensure that local utilities’ disinfection and that?” she asks. “Are they in source leads to wastefulness: People use filtering methods met those standards. water? How much can we demand of more than they need and don’t bother Neukrug, the former Philadelphia industry to stop using them? These are investing in the resource’s future. Water CEO, says the act and the Clean political questions.” “Water should be in the marketplace Water Act “are 1970s designs [that] did Given all the new chemicals intro - at market price,” he says. “It ensures an incredible job.” But today’s water en - duced since the Safe Drinking Water efficiency.” vironment “needs new rules,” he says. Act was written, or even since it was As for Mehan’s comparison of water Congress has amended the Safe last amended, the law’s “framework is privatization to highways or cable TV, Drinking Water Act twice. In 1986, it not protective,” she says. safe drinking water seems different, banned the use of lead in water pipes For instance, she says, under the act, say advocates such as Public Citizen, and fittings in new houses and build - the EPA in 1991 established the Lead because society considers it a need — ings. In 1996, lawmakers expanded the and Copper Rule, which required utilities a basic human right. 33 EPA’s regulatory responsibilities to in - to test for those metals in tap water. If But Edwards says that for low-income clude protecting the quality of entire levels exceeded maximum standards, families who cannot afford higher water water systems, including rivers and utilities were required to fix the problem. rates, “it’s better to give them cash, lakes, that supply drinking water. The However, NRDC researchers recently through the Earned Income Tax Credit, amendments also required utilities to found that 5,000 water systems had vi - for instance. But don’t distort the water better inform customers about problems olations or enforcement actions related market.” and established the “contaminant can - to the rule, including poor testing meth -

584 CQ Researcher ods, failure to report contamination and inappropriate corrosion control. And n

Flint was not on the list of violators: i n

Michigan state officials had not officially e d n e

reported the too-high lead contamination l C

36 to the EPA. . L

y

Moreover, newspaper investigations a J /

have found many cities test for lead s e

using procedures that do not detect m i T

problems. In Chicago, for instance, tap s e l water testing is often done in the homes e g of the water utility staff and rarely in n A

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areas where recent water main work, o L /

known to increase the risk of lead s 37 e contamination, has occurred. g a m I

Such practices worry public health y t advocates. “Often, utilities test the same t e homes over and over,” says Tom Neltner, G A geyser erupts from a broken water main in Los Angeles on July 29, 2014. director of Environmental Defense Fund The costs of upgrading the nation’s aging water-distribution system include (EDF) chemicals policies. “If you don’t $30 billion to replace all lead service lines, $500 billion to repair leaking water know where your lead service lines mains and another $500 billion to meet growth demands over the next 25 years. are, you could be testing in the wrong houses.” not exercised very often.” Even when But critics say if the EPA were to pri - Chicago’s water utility said the pro - a literal reading of the safe water act oritize replacement over corrosion control, cedures comply with EPA regulations seems to provide a means for the EPA it would be prohibitively expensive for and that the utility’s management of to swoop in when violations are sus - some local governments. “It’s appropriate the city’s pipes is above reproach. tained or serious, he says, the current for the federal government to set stan - Testing staff homes allows consistency practice is far more deferential to states’ dards, as long as their doing so doesn’t in monitoring lead contamination, the primacy. “I think the EPA should be end up being an unfunded mandate,” department said, adding, “Chicago’s the gorilla in the closet that helps states says Adrian Moore, vice president of corrosion control has been so suc - be on their toes.” policy at the free-market Reason Foun - cessful that the U.S. EPA has placed Some have suggested that rather dation think tank. the city on a reduced monitoring than amending the act, updating the The EPA is not bound to follow the program.” 38 Lead and Copper Rule could fix the advisory group’s advice, but its recom - An investigation by the British news - lead problem. In 2015 an EPA advisory mendations have been endorsed by many paper The Guardian found that some group recommended amending the water-related groups and associations, U.S. cities, such as Detroit and Philadel - rule to make replacement of lead ser - such as the American Water Works As - phia, frequently use testing methods vice lines a priority over continuing sociation, the largest organization of water that underestimate the extent of lead to manage lead levels through corro - utilities and water professionals. contamination. 39 sion control. Tuft’s Griffiths would like to see Tufts’ Griffiths says that under the In most cities, “we only replace lead utilities improve their treatment process - Safe Drinking Water Act’s framework, service lines when something else fails,” es. “If I were the czar, I would do the federal government sets drinking says Neltner, who served on the ad - water treatment more comprehensively” water standards but state governments visory group. Thus, when a water main by requiring activated charcoal and re - usually have oversight. “The state makes breaks, utilities might take advantage verse osmosis, he says. Charcoal “ab - official reports about this stuff,” he says. of a dug-up street to replace adjacent sorbs trace chemicals and is not that “The EPA gets access [to reports] but lead service lines. But the working expensive,” he says, while reverse os - cannot do anything without an invi - group found that approach unaccept - mosis involves “a membrane filter that tation from the state,” unless egregious able because systems fail unpredictably. complex chemicals and metals don’t violations occur, such as in Flint. “Removing them is worth doing,” Nelt - get through.” But reverse osmosis is The University of Alabama’s Andreen ner says. “Not just in emergency situ - “expensive because it’s energy intense,” complains that “federal enforcement is ations. It’s a long-term view.” he says.

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 585 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

disposing of human waste away from Chlorine instilled faith in municipal water sources. But as cities became drinking water as outbreaks of water- BACKGROUND more crowded, waste and water often borne diseases practically vanished. “It comingled, causing repeated disease has been claimed that chlorination of outbreaks. drinking water saved more lives than any Public Waterworks London was a prime example, with other technological advance in the history open sewers lining streets and an ex - of public health,” Salzman wrote . 48 n 312 B.C., Rome built the first stone tremely polluted River Thames. 44 The I aqueduct to carry large volumes of city’s 1854 cholera epidemic initially clean water to the city’s bathhouses. Over was blamed on foul air. But physician Lead Pipes and Health the next 500 years, at least 10 other John Snow proved that the disease’s aqueducts were built, some up to 50 rapid but localized spread occurred n ancient times, water pipes were miles long, providing more than 30 mil - around a particular public water pump. I constructed from stone, hollow logs lion gallons of fresh water daily to the “Snow’s findings supported the germ and clay. Later, concrete, iron, steel, city for fountains, gardens and drinking theory, as did the later realization that copper and lead were used. water. Water in public basins was free, the mother of an infant suffering from In 1767, a British doctor connected but those who piped it into their houses cholera had disposed of the child’s soiled the malady known as Devonshire or baths paid a tax . 40 diaper in a cesspit directly adjacent the colic to lead. He described a “sharp Rome’s water system set a precedent Broad Street Pump just days before the onset and recurrent spasms in which for public drinking water through the cholera outbreak,” wrote Salzman. 45 the patient writhes in pain, retracts his ages: It was “a public good provided In the United States, Chicago’s public legs spasmodically to his abdomen, by right though imperial beneficence works system in the early 1900s kept groans, clenches his hands, grits his on the one hand, and as a private good water and waste separate. It drew teeth, with beads of sweat on his brow.” for domestic consumption, on the other,” water from Lake Michigan for drinking The doctor theorized that lead weights wrote author James Salzman. 41 and piped sewage into the Mississippi used to crush apples for cider conta - In colonial America, Dutch settlers River via a canal. Typhoid fever rates minated the cider . 49 collected rainwater in cisterns and shal - went down in Chicago, but downriver In the 1800s, several individuals in low wells in New York City because in St. Louis disease rates rose. Missouri the United States and Europe suspect - the rivers around Manhattan were too sued Illinois but, with no clear proof ed lead-tainted water was damaging salty. Later, the British dug deeper wells, that Chicago’s waste was the cause, health. A New York City doctor in but they soon became polluted. En - lost the case. 1851 traced four cases of lead poi - terprising businessmen began delivering Even with protected water sources, soning to tap water. In 1889, a British clean water from distant springs or humans used various methods — doctor attributed several miscarriages water pumps. 42 straining, siphoning, aerating and dis - and cases of infertility to lead in drink - Around the time of the Revolutionary tilling — to further clean their drinking ing water, but his reports were gen - War other American cities recognized water. Boiling water was not generally erally dismissed . 50 the need for safe drinking water when used until the germ theory of disease Lead remained a preferred material a yellow fever epidemic — actually was discovered in the 19th century. for water pipes, primarily because it was caused by mosquitoes but blamed at Growing cities often used sand filtra - pliable, less prone to corrosion than other the time on foul water — prompted tion; Glasgow, Scotland, installed sand materials and durable: A 1917 report action. By 1801, Philadelphia had com - filtration in 1827. Some American cities, comparing pipe materials found that lead pleted a public water system that in - however, resisted filtration, fearing it pipes lasted an average of 35 years (and cluded two pumping stations to pull would give their water a bad reputa - up to 100 years), whereas those made water from the Schuylkill River. 43 tion: If it has to be cleaned, it must from steel lasted, on average, for 16 years, be bad water, they reasoned . 46 galvanized iron 20 years and pipes lined Jersey City, N.J., in 1908 became the with cement, 28 years. 51 Long-lived Protecting Water first American city to use chlorine treat - material is preferred for underground ment. The method quickly caught on pipes because of the difficulty of ac - any early civilizations created because it was inexpensive, effective and cessing them for repair or replacement. M rules and rituals for keeping relatively simple to implement. By 1941, By the early1900s most large cities used drinking water supplies safe from con - 85 percent of the country’s water treat - lead piping. 47 tamination, including collecting and ment systems were using chlorine . Continued on p. 588

586 CQ Researcher Chronology

1900 1974 1800s Cities begin ad - Chicago begins using different water Congress passes Safe Drinking dressing need for clean drinking bodies for its water intake and Water Act to protect drinking water. Physicians begin linking sewage output, leading to a decrease water supplies. lead in water to certain health in typhoid fever but an outbreak of conditions. disease further downriver. 1978 U.S. Consumer Product Safety 1801 1902 Commission bans lead from most Philadelphia completes a public Middelkerke, Belgium, installs first consumer paint. water system with two pumping known chlorine disinfection system. stations and a reservoir. 1986 1908 Amendment to Safe Water Drinking 1827 Jersey City, N.J., becomes first U.S. Act bans lead pipes in buildings Glasgow, Scotland, installs a sand- city to use chlorine. served by a public water system. filtration system in its water plant. 1930s 1991 1837 Lead pipes begin losing their appeal, Lead and Copper Rule sets per - New York City begins damming although some cities — including missible levels for drinking water. the Croton River to supply water Boston, Milwaukee, Philadelphia, for the city. Denver and Chicago — continue • to install them. 1854 A London cholera epidemic kills 1950 2000s Cities struggle 616; British doctor John Snow Philadelphia begins building the with water contamination. proves the disease is water-borne. first of three sewage-treatment plants and a sewer system to alle - 2001 1851 viate industrial and domestic waste Washington, D.C., water is found A New York City doctor traces four pollution. to have high lead levels. cases of lead poisoning to tap water. 1960s 2014 1855 Scientists develop a test to detect To save money, Flint, Mich., be - Philadelphia purchases land along lead in human blood and begin gins using Flint River for drinking the Schuylkill River to buffer its monitoring exposure and setting water, without using appropriate clean water supply from pollution. safety thresholds for workers. pipe-corrosion controls.

1889 • 2015 A British doctor attributes miscarriages Flint officials urge residents to stop and infertility to lead in drinking drinking tap water after testing water, but his reports are generally 1970s-1990s shows high lead levels. . . . Con - dismissed. Federal government takes action gress enacts law to allow greater on clean water. funding flexibility for public utili - 1890 ties that accept federal water infra - Massachusetts Board of Health rec - 1970s structure grants. ommends against lead water pipes. U.S. public health officials estimate that 250,000 children are affected 2016 • by lead poisoning each year. Congress adopts landmark over - haul of the Toxic Substances Con - 1970 trol Act, requiring more informa - 1900s Chlorine disin - Environmental Protection Agency tion on health risks from fection programs are established , (EPA) established. chemicals found in drinking water. and Congress passes landmark . . . Studies show thousands of legislation to ensure clean 1972 cities’ water systems have lead drinking water. Congress passes Clean Water Act. problems as bad as Flint’s.

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 587 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

Lead’s Childhood Legacy: A Lifetime of Problems “The kids will not be as smart and will make less money in their working life.”

he tiny town of Sebring, Ohio, issued a water advisory And yet, no amount of lead is safe. Even small exposures this past January after learning that routine testing had — from soil, paint chips or contaminated water — accumulate T found excessive lead in tap water samples. Schools in in the bones and organs, potentially damaging the brain, heart the town, population about 4,400, were closed, and children and kidneys. Exposure can lower children’s IQs and cause be - and pregnant women were told not to drink the water. 1 havioral problems, especially in adolescence, such as attention- The following week, the Ohio Department of Health found deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD), antisocial or violent be - elevated blood lead levels in five Sebring children, three of havior and delinquency. 5 whom lived on the same street. 2 The effects of lead poisoning are most devastating in young In Pennsylvania, several cities this year have reported higher children because their bodies are smaller and their brains still rates of lead poisoning among children than occurred in Flint, developing. Yet exposure is usually highest in young children, the Michigan city notorious for its ongoing lead contamination especially toddlers, who tend to put foreign matter like soil or crisis. Flint’s average exposure rate was 3.2 percent of children paint flakes into their mouths, or infants who ingest formula tested, and its highest rate was 6.3 percent. Seventeen Pennsylvania made with lead-tainted tap water. cities had rates higher than 10 percent, based on 2014 data No quick treatment is available for children with excessive from the state’s health department. 3 blood lead levels. At very high levels, above 45 micrograms About 500,000 American children aged 1 through 5 have per deciliter, lead can be pulled out of the blood by administering excessive lead levels in their blood, according to the Centers for drugs called chelating agents, but such therapies can be dangerous Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). While that may sound for a child. 6 high, the figure is actually considered a great public health success. “A child during chelation needs close monitoring to make The percentage of youngsters in that age range with excessive sure their kidneys are able to handle the lead burden as it’s lead levels fell from nearly 8 percent in 1997 to 0.5 percent in being metabolized in the body, make sure their liver is OK, 2014, the most recent year for which data are available. 4 make sure their white blood cell count is OK,” says nurse prac -

Continued from p. 586 In the late 1960s, scientists devel - Gradually, however, science began oped a blood test to detect lead ex - Water Safety Laws to link lead exposure to a variety of posure. At the time, an adult level ailments — anemia, palsy, joint pain, below 60-80 micrograms per deciliter tarting in the 1970s, the newly cre - encephalopathy, blindness and colic. of blood was considered safe. For many S ated Environmental Protection Women working in industries that years, 10 micrograms was considered Agency began enforcing new laws on used lead knew that it caused mis - the threshold level for safety . 56 But water pollution, including the Clean carriages; in fact, the substance was the CDC, which periodically reassesses Water Act of 1972, which regulated often used to perform illegal abor - the safety level, lowered it to 5 micro - pollution discharges into rivers and tions. 52 As early as 1890 the Mass - grams per deciliter in 2012. 57 lakes that serve as sources of drinking achusetts State Board of Health rec - In the 1970s, U.S. public health water. It also funded the construction ommended that lead piping be officials estimated that 250,000 chil - of sewage treatment plants. abandoned because of health risks. dren developed lead poisoning each As concern over polluted waters grew, New Hampshire took up a similar year, and campaigns aimed to increase so did worries about the health effects cause shortly after that. 53 Efforts also blood monitoring and reduce expo - of chemicals found in drinking water. emerged to prevent workplace ex - sure, mostly from lead paint in old A U.S. Public Health Service survey of posure to lead, especially for those houses. 58 In addition, the federal water systems in 1969 had found that using white lead paint — either paint - government began phasing out leaded only 60 percent of the systems delivered ing with it or scrubbing a painted gasoline in the 1970s. Unleaded gaso - water that met existing safety standards, surface clean . 54 line became the law of the land in set by the service. The survey also found By about 1930 lead pipes began 1996. deficiencies in water treatment facilities losing their appeal, although some cities In 1986, Congress banned further and distribution pipes that led to cloudi - — including Boston, Milwaukee, installation of lead water lines when ness and poor pressure, in addition to Philadelphia, Denver and Chicago — it amended the Safe Drinking Water contamination. 60 continued to install them. 55 Act. 59 In 1974 Congress passed the Safe

588 CQ Researcher titioner Barbara Moore, who runs the lead clinic at Mount Wash - services. The cost of the screw-up is borne by the public.” ington Pediatric Hospital in Baltimore. But Tom Neltner, chemicals policy director at the Environmental However, research has shown that chelation doesn’t work Defense Fund, an environmental advocacy group, says, “Don’t for those with lower blood lead levels. Good nutrition — diets write these kids off.” Even though they are at risk for behavioral rich in iron, calcium and vitamin C — can help, as can early- problems, he says, “You can offset the damage, but it takes a childhood education and regular visits to a pediatrician to lot of effort.” monitor for emerging health problems. 7 Harvard University neurologist David Bellinger has examined — Jill U. Adams studies of American children to assess how damage to IQ caused by lead exposure compares with damage from other 1 “Sebring’s water system has high levels of lead,” CantonRep.com, Jan. 22, childhood stressors, such as preterm birth, Type 1 diabetes and 2016, http://tinyurl.com/h6gdewh. 2 Mark Gillispie and John Seewer, “High lead levels in 5 kids in town with iron deficiency. He found that lead was second only to preterm tainted water,” The Associated Press, Jan. 27, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/z2g37ra. 8 birth in affecting childhood IQ. 3 Sarah Frostenson, “18 cities in Pennsylvania reported higher levels of lead Flint’s children were exposed to lead in their drinking water exposure than Flint,” Vox , Feb. 3, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hj8ecd2. for 18 months after city officials decided to save money by 4 “Lead,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/. switching to the Flint River as a source of drinking water, which 5 T. I. Lidsky and J. S. Schneider, “Lead neurotoxicity in children: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates,” Brain , Jan. 1, 2003, http://tinyurl.com/hu54pp9. caused the lead contamination. That decision will affect Flint’s 6 April Fulton, “Flushing Out Lead, Metals With Chelation Therapy,” NPR, children throughout their lives, says Jeff Griffiths, a professor Jan. 3, 2011, http://tinyurl.com/2at7ohm. of public health and community medicine at Tufts University 7 Lizzie Wade, “Flint’s High Lead Levels Have Doctors Struggling For Answers,” and former chair of the EPA’s Drinking Water Committee. Wired , Jan. 14, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/z3uy9kk. “The kids will not be as smart, will get less schooling, will make 8 David C. Bellinger, “A Strategy for Comparing the Contributions of Environmental Chemicals and Other Risk Factors to Neurodevelopment of Children,” Envi - less money in their working life,” he says. “And they’ll need medical ronmental Health Perspectives , Dec. 19, 2011, http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1104170/.

Drinking Water Act, which focused on and to establish a list of candidate chemicals differed from how drugs and pesticides ensuring the safety of America’s drinking found in water that were suspected of were regulated, in that chemical man - water, as opposed to controlling pol - harming health and potentially needed to ufacturers did not have to show their lution in wetlands, lakes and rivers, as be regulated. 61 It was a list from which products were safe. They needed only covered by the Clean Water Act. The to work out future regulations and stan - to notify the EPA that they have a new drinking water act authorized the EPA dards for drinking water. The amendments compound. The burden of proving harm to set standards for harmful contami - also required water utilities to report to fell on the federal agency. For years, nants in drinking water and established customers on water quality and established critics had seen this provision as a major a federal grant program to help water a revolving fund to provide grants to weakness, because the EPA was unable systems modernize equipment. states for upgrading water systems. to keep up with testing existing and Amendments to the Safe Drinking In 1976, Congress passed the Toxic new chemicals for potential safety prob - Water Act in 1986 required the EPA Substances Control Act, which autho - lems. A widely cited 2006 Government to set maximum levels for 83 conta - rized the EPA to regulate the production, Accountability Office report found that minants, including microbial pathogens importation, use and disposal of chem - 30 years after the law was enacted, and chemicals, and banned lead piping icals to protect the environment from only 200 of the 62,000 chemicals listed for new construction. Under the law, new and potentially toxic chemicals. under the act had been tested. 62 the EPA in 1991 issued its Lead and While the Clean Water Act had protected While complaints about the Toxic Copper Rule, which required cities to against pollutants in rivers and lakes Substances Control Act’s weaknesses con - take remedial action if 15 parts per and the Safe Water Drinking Act focused tinued, calls for updating the Clean Water billion of lead were detected in more on keeping pollutants out of municipal Act emerged in 2015, when the Obama than 10 percent of the taps sampled. drinking water sources, the toxic control administration sought to clarify — and In 1996, lawmakers again amended act aimed to protect against harmful expand — the types of water sources the act, authorizing the EPA to protect substances before they become wide - protected under the act to any water the quality of water in rivers and lakes spread environmental pollutants. that served as a source for public drinking if they were the source of drinking water Controlling chemicals under the act water. The new Clean Water Rule would

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 589 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

Thousands of Cities Face Water-Quality Problems Poor communities with slim budgets are hardest hit.

hen Madison, Wis., found lead concentrations in its ones. 5 Madison raised some of the money by renting space water to be dangerously high in the early 1990s, on city water tanks and towers to cell phone companies to W the city took a radical approach to solving the install their antennas. 6 problem: It spent $20 million to replace all the lead pipes in “It costs the same in Madison to replace the pipes as it town, even paying part of the cost to replace pipes buried in does in Flint,” says Lynn Broaddus, nonresident senior fellow homeowners’ front yards. 1 with the Brookings Institution. “It certainly helped that Madison But as the state capital and home of the University of Wis - is a relatively affluent city with a median household income of consin’s main campus, Madison is more affluent than many lo - $50,000. Homeowners could afford to pay their share.” calities around the country. Some communities such as Bayonne, Most water utilities, when faced with lead-tainted water, N.J., and St. Joseph, La. — both afflicted with water system adjust their corrosion control methods. For Madison, the chemical woes — face sometimes overwhelming circumstances to provide treatment approach — adding orthophosphate to the water to basic services. prevent lead from leaching out of the pipes — posed another As many municipalities struggle to maintain, repair and problem. The city’s sewage treatment plant was under state upgrade water facilities, some experts say it’s a social justice orders to remove phosphates from city water to keep the issue. “It is the nonwhite suburbs that are the poorest places chemicals out of the region’s lakes. Phosphates trigger algae in metro America, with the smallest tax bases,” said Myron blooms, which befoul lakes. 7 So, while chemically treating the Orfield, director of the Institute on Metropolitan Opportunity water would have been cheaper and easier, it would have made at the University of Minnesota Law School. “There are thousands sewage treatment more expensive because the phosphate would of them, and they are all going to have Flint problems.” 2 have to be removed. The city of Flint, Mich., is now notorious for its poorly Madison’s systems approach to water treatment — looking managed public water system, in which a decision to save at drinking water, waste water and storm water as interconnected money ended up corroding old pipes and contaminating the parts of a greater whole — is advocated by experts such as water of thousands of homes with lead. Howard Neukrug, a senior fellow at U.S. Water Alliance, an or - For Madison, replacing the 2,500 pipes owned by the utility ganization that promotes sustainable water systems. In most was the easy part. Getting water customers to replace their cities, these parts are managed and regulated separately. “It’s 5,500 lead service lines was tougher. But it had to be done, critically important to not look at one thing at a time, but at experts said, because partial pipe replacement can worsen lead the overall system,” Neukrug says. contamination: Metal fragments inside service pipes can dislodge Madison is a success story. But, says Broaddus, “they made during replacement work, according to the utility’s water quality their decision when the rules [about using phosphates] were manager, Joe Grande. 3 changing. For communities who have put in the capital investment In Madison, however, financing the massive project was rel - for an orthophosphate treatment program, well, what are they atively manageable. The water utility paid for half the $1,400 going to do now?” cost, on average, for replacing each homeowners’ pipes, and Poor communities face high hurdles. In St. Joseph, a town the city offered loans for the remainder, which could be paid of about 1,200 in northeastern Louisiana, residents are worried back via higher property taxes. 4 about tap water filled with rust sediment, frequent service Over a decade, 8,000 lead pipes were replaced by copper stoppage and frequent advisories to boil their drinking water bring an additional 2 million miles of to its drinking water because of the streams and 20 million acres of wetlands arrival of summer. In warm weather, under the EPA’s protective purview. CURRENT bacteria that cause Legionnaire’s disease The Clean Water Rule also stirred can grow, and the bacteria has been controversy. Industry, farmers, small- SITUATION detected in Flint, especially if chlorine business groups and real estate devel - is not kept consistently at appropriate opers claimed the rule interfered in pri - levels throughout the water distribu - vate landowners’ rights. Congress sought tion system. Correct pH levels, a mea - to block the rule, but President Obama Flint Fallout sure of acidity, must be maintained vetoed the resolution Congress used to throughout the system so corrosion try to block it. Now federal courts will n early June, the EPA warned city control can be effective, the EPA has decide the matter . 63 I officials that Flint faced new risks warned. 64

590 CQ Researcher because of bacterial contamination. The town’s tiny $1.5 million budget leaves little or no money to fix frequent breaks in the 1930s-era water mains. The state allocated $6 million for water

infrastructure repairs three years ago, but it won’t release the funds n a

until the town submits a financial audit, which was due in 2013, m d n but the town has had difficulty securing an audit firm . 8 i H

Meanwhile, the water distribution system continues to de - m o teriorate and about half of the treated water leaks into the T / s

ground. “This is typical of communities probably all over the e g U.S., especially poor communities,” said Davis Cole, a civil a m I 9 y

engineer working to redesign St. Joseph’s system. t t Bayonne, a city of about 66,000 east of Newark, tried another e G route to solve its perennial drinking water and wastewater prob - Chemical storage tanks sit beside the Elk River in lems. The aging water system already had been prone to Charleston, W. Va. In 2014 a tank leaked a coal-washing operating problems and often ran afoul of environmental reg - chemical that is neither regulated nor listed as a ulations even before it was hit hard in 2012 by Hurricane Sandy, contaminant into the river, the city’s water source. which devastated the local energy grid. Once the hurricane crisis was over, the Bayonne Municipal 1 Darryl Fears and Brady Dennis, “One city’s solution to drinking water Utilities Authority started looking for solutions in earnest. The contamination? Get rid of every lead pipe,” The Washington Post , May 10, city’s high debt level made borrowing expensive, so it chose 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zncxk6k. a path that 2,000 other water utilities in the United States have 2 Quoted in Jake Blumgart, “The Next Flint,” Slate , Jan. 28, 2106, http://tiny taken: They entered a partnership with a private company. 10 url.com/gnln2xx. 3 Fears and Dennis, op. cit. The private firm made an initial payment to help the city 4 Adam Rodewald, “Lead pipe replacement: Who pays for it?” Green Bay Press pay off much of its debt, and pledged $157 million to upgrade Gazette , March 25, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hj49aea. both the drinking water and wastewater utilities. Water rates 5 Fears and Dennis, op. cit. initially jumped by 8.5 percent and three years later by another 6 Maya Dukmasova, “To remove lead pipes, Chicago can learn from Madison’s 4 percent, which likely would have happened anyway, according example,” The Chicago Reporter , May 2, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zvtfkw2. 7 to the public half of the partnership. Ibid. 8 Lauren Zanolli, “Water woes: Tap runs brown in Louisiana’s impoverished One analysis estimated that the city will save $35 million northeast,” Al Jazeera, Feb. 7, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/h4m5yfj. 11 over the 40-year contract. 9 Quoted in ibid. “Public-private partnerships are the ideal solution for the 10 Mindy Fettermen, “As Water Infrastructure Crumbles, Many Cities Seek fiscal problems plaguing many American cities,” wrote energy Private Help,” Stateline , March 30, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jgxeqs6; “A Tale of Two Public-Private Partnership Cities,” Knowledge , June 10, 2015 , and infrastructure lawyer Kent Rowey, in a New York Times http://tinyurl.com/ortsldg. 12 opinion column. 11 Ibid. 12 Kent Rowey, “Public-Private Partnerships Could be Lifelines for Cities,” The — Jill Adams New York Times , July 15, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/hyfurpw.

Officials recently told Flint residents, sites. But costs have averaged $7,500 ployees assigned to monitor water qual - who have been using bottled water per line, almost double initial estimates. ity — face criminal charges for the since October, that the city’s tap water The city has received $2 million from city’s water debacle, including miscon - was safe to wash with and to drink, the state of Michigan, and on June 29, duct and tampering with evidence. if filtered first. Obama drank a glass of Gov. Rick Snyder signed a state budget Michigan Attorney General Bill Schuette Flint tap water during a May visit to the bill with $240 million in funds for the said, “These charges are only the be - city. 65 But customers still report problems, Flint water crisis. 67 The city also is ginning. There will be more to come such as burning sensations and rashes, slated to get another $128 million in — that I can guarantee you.” 69 even from very short showers. 66 federal funds if approved in the pending More fallout is highly likely, experts Meanwhile, a pilot program to replace congressional budget deal. 68 say. Some 8,000 Flint children under lead service lines in the city has been Three government workers in April age 6 have been exposed to dangerous completed on 30 of an estimated 10,000 — a Flint employee and two state em - levels of lead for extended periods, a

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 591 DRINKING WATER SAFETY public health disaster that will require “Every parent assumes that someone care centers with their own small water extra health care support for families must have taken care of this problem systems are required to test for lead. Of and additional educational support for decades ago,” said Virginia Tech en - those that do test, 350 detected unsafe schools. 70 gineering professor Marc Edwards, who lead levels in the past three years. 75 The debacle in Flint has prompted documented the first high lead reading An investigation by the Vox online the rest of the country to look for lead- in a Flint resident’s home. “They’re al - media website found that children in tainted water. Parents across the country ways shocked to discover that it hasn’t at least 18 Pennsylvania cities, including are pressuring school districts to check been fixed.” 72 Philadelphia, Allentown and Harrisburg, for lead in the drinking water at their Even Congress is not immune. In were found to have significant lead ex - children’s schools. “Before Flint, we’d late June, drinking water in the Cannon posure — as high as or higher than in get a call maybe once a month from House Office Building was found to Flint. But it is unknown whether the a school,” said Robert Barrett, the chief violate EPA lead standards. Rep. Dennis culprit is tainted water or lead paint. 76 operating officer for Aqua Pro-Tech Lab - Ross, R-Fla., expressed outrage, espe - The latest tainted water discoveries oratories, an environmental testing lab cially on behalf of pregnant staffers add to a long list of lead-contaminated in New Jersey. “Now it’s daily.” 71 working in the building. “Even more drinking water incidents: Washington, D.C., in the early 2000s; Columbia, S.C., in 2005; Durham and Greenville, N.C., in 2006; Brick Township, N.J., in 2011; Jackson, Miss., last July; and Se - bring, Ohio, last August. 77

Legal Actions

everal lawsuits have been filed to S try to force improvements in the regulation, monitoring and treatment l l

o of America’s drinking water. r G

One — filed in January by the e k i NRDC, the American Civil Liberties M

/ Union of Michigan, Concerned Pastors o t o

h for Social Action and Flint resident P

P Melissa Mays — seeks federal inter - A vention to fix Flint’s water situation, Utility workers in Syracuse, N.Y., repair a broken water main on Sept. 21, 2015. including the replacement of all lead The Environmental Protection Agency sets national water-safety standards, but the sourcing, treatment and distribution of water is left to local utilities, service lines. some dealing with polluted water sources, aging pipes or shrinking budgets. “The water in Flint is still not safe to drink because city and state officials In Portland, Oregon’s largest public distressing is the fact the signs posted are violating the federal law that protects school district, parents demanded that due to this matter simply state ‘out of drinking water,” said Dimple Chaudhary, the superintendent resign after officials order,’ with no explanation whatsoever, a senior NRDC attorney. “We are asking failed to promptly notify parents that rather than informing the public as to a federal court to step in because the high lead levels had been detected in the reason,” he said. 73 people of Flint simply cannot rely on school water. In New Jersey, after The USA Today and NRDC investi - the same government agencies that dozens of schools were found to have gations of EPA records found lead con - oversaw the destruction of its infra - lead-tainted water, Republican Gov. tamination of the drinking water in thou - structure and contamination of its water Chris Christie ordered that every school sands of communities in every state. to address this crisis.” 78 in the state test for lead. Schools that Among other findings, the NRDC said In February, three Chicago residents get their water from public water utilities 1,000 water systems serving 4 million sued that city, charging that for years it — about 90 percent of the nation’s people had excessive lead levels. 74 USA failed to warn residents about lead in schools — are not required to test Today reporters found that only about their drinking water — especially when regularly for lead. 10 percent of the 8,225 schools and day Continued on p. 594

592 CQ Researcher At Issue: Is the federal government doing enough to keep America’s driyens king water safe?

ADRIAN MOORE TOM NELTNER VICE PRESIDENT , R EASON FOUNDATION CHEMICALS POLICY DIRECTOR , ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND WRITTEN FOR CQ RESEARCHER , JULY 2016 WRITTEN FOR CQ RESEARCHER , JULY 2016

he federal government is doing enough. It sets minimum mericans expect safe, affordable drinking water deliv - water-quality standards and should play a role in inde - a ered to their homes on demand. But our water infra - t structure suffers from an out-of-sight, out-of-mind problem. We pendently monitoring state and local government compliance with standards. build it, but we all too often fail to maintain it. At every level But the call for more federal funding is wrongheaded. of government, we need smarter investment, stricter oversight, Water infrastructure is entirely local in nature, and problems regular coordination and more public transparency to ensure with safe drinking water are almost entirely local in nature. safe drinking water. People in Maryland don’t benefit from Flint, Mich., improving According to the Environmental Protection Agency’s 2011 its water infrastructure, so they shouldn’t be asked to pay for Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey, the nation’s aging it. The same goes for localities all over the nation. water infrastructure needs about $400 billion in capital im - When Congress starts funding local projects, several bad provements over the next 20 years. That is 12 times more things happen. First, Congress can’t target money to where money than the federal government has invested in water in - it is most needed. Instead, every member thinks his district frastructure since it created the Drinking Water State Revolving should get a fair share of the funds, and the most powerful Loan Fund in 1997. members can earmark big chunks of funds for their districts. While the burden for these upgrades ultimately rests with Second, even if Congress does allocate funds based on the local utility and its customers, Congress needs to do more. need, that approach simply rewards jurisdictions that failed This is particularly important in places where customers likely to invest in their own infrastructure, paid for by taxpayers are unable to cover the costs of infrastructure loans. Congress, whose jurisdictions did make adequate local investments. the Obama administration, states and municipalities must work Finally, the prospect of free federal money is a powerful together to create funding alternatives to help these communi - disincentive for local governments to adequately spend ties make the necessary improvements and have the technical, their own reysources on weater infrastrus cture. It is much more managerial and nfinancial capacity oto run the systems effectively. appealing to lobby for federal funding than to pay for a State oversight agencies that must ensure the work is done project out of the local budget. right are understaffed. In 2013, the Association of State Drinking We have seen all three of these problems play out over Water Administrators estimated that states have an average of and over with federal infrastructure funding programs. 3,100 people inspecting its water utilities. That’s 1,300 fewer Many, many local governments are responsibly managing people than are needed to provide basic oversight. With some their water infrastructure all on their own. Rather than ask for 150,000 public water suppliers operating across the country, in - a federal handout, other local governments should emulate creasing state staffing will prove a costly, if essential, safeguard. them. The responsible localities allocate property taxes, impact Water officials and utilities need a reliable federal partner, fees or other revenues to build new capacity as needed. They too. The Environmental Protection Agency must provide more build into water rates the real costs of maintenance and in - guidance to its state and local partners. And its approach of clude a capital fee to build up a fund to replace major facili - regulating chemicals on an individual basis cannot keep pace ties that reach the end of their lifespan. When there is a need with the thousands of commercial chemicals potentially entering for spending on water infrastructure, they move that to the our drinking water. As a result, too many water systems are top of the budget list, ahead of many “nice to have” spending ill-prepared to address emerging problems. items. Thousands of local governments use public-private part - Finally, we need an honest, open dialogue regarding the state nerships to keep costs down and improve performance, or of our nation’s water infrastructure. Infrastructure improvements even rely on regulated private water utilities to provide safe have been postponed, operating budgets cut and staff sizes re - drinking water. duced, at the risk of safe drinking water. Only by working to - The responsible path is for local water users to pay for the gether, committing to investing additional capital, updating old infrastructure they use, not to ask people far across the nation policies and practices and improving technical and operating procedures can we keep America’s drinking water safe. to fundno it for them.

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 593 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

Continued from p. 592 the first major environmental legislation frastructure. In the Senate, Democrats construction work to fix and replace enacted in more than 20 years. Dick Durbin of Illinois and Ben Cardin water mains was in progress — as doc - The law enhances the EPA’s authority of Maryland introduced legislation to umented in a 2013 EPA study. 79 The to regulate new chemicals found in require expanded testing and reporting residents are asking the court to order everything from consumer products to for lead through an updated Lead and the city to replace lead water pipes. industrial manufacturing. It requires the Copper Rule. 83 “We believe the city of Chicago agency, for the first time, to test all Sen. Cory Booker and Rep. Donald knew well the risks and dangers of chemicals before they go on the market Payne Jr., both New Jersey Democrats, toxic lead contamination associated and to prioritize those chemical studies introduced a bill to require public utilities with these construction projects but based on their health hazard and their to test drinking water in schools as part chose to turn a blind eye to its own, “proximity to drinking water sources.” of their lead testing programs and to notify parents within two days when levels are too high. Sen. Chuck Schumer, D-N.Y., and Rep. Bill Pascrell, D-N.J., introduced measures to establish a grant program to pay for lead testing at schools and day care centers . 84 So far, only Democrats are support - ing the proposals. In New Jersey, Re - publican Gov. Christie — in addition to ordering mandatory testing for lead contamination in all public schools in the state — plans to lower the state’s

n threshold blood-lead level that warrants o s

l 85 i medical attention. W

k Republicans were the primary spon - r a

M sors of a provision, adopted by Con - / s

e gress last December, to allow cities g

a that receive federal stimulus funds under m I

y the Water Infrastructure Finance and t t

e Innovation Act (WIFIA) to supplement G Staffers have access to free bottles of water in the Cannon House Office that money with tax-exempt bonds. 86 Building in Washington, D.C., on July 7, 2016, where drinking water fountains “It’s creative financing that allows mu - are “out of order” due to excessive levels of lead. nicipalities to get more bang for their buck,” says Mehan, of the American allowing this mounting problem to The additional information about dan - Water Works Association, which strongly become a widespread public health gerous chemicals can provide scientific supported the bill. issue across the city of Chicago,” said evidence needed to prompt standard- After praising Congress for freeing Steve Berman, the attorney for the setting under the Safe Drinking Water the federal infrastructure funds to ad - plaintiffs . 80 Act as well. The new chemical bill dress America’s “enormous water in - The NRDC sued the EPA in Feb - had opponents, mostly from industry frastructure challenge,” water association ruary, demanding action on setting a groups that fear increased costs, but CEO David LaFrance said, “We now standard for perchlorate in drinking was passed with bipartisan support in urge Congress to move swiftly to ap - water. 81 Congress and with the support of chem - propriate the necessary funds for WIFIA istry groups such as the American to do its important work.” 87 Chemistry Council. 82 Obama has requested an additional Congressional Action Meanwhile, congressional Democ - $20 million and 12 staff members to rats have introduced several bills aimed expand the water infrastructure funds n June 22, Obama signed into law at helping to fix the drinking water program and $2 billion for the two O the Lautenberg Chemical Safety problem. In the House, Rep. John state revolving funds, which are federal Act, a massive overhaul of the 40-year- Conyers, D-Mich., proposed a dedicated low-interest loan programs to help fund old Toxic Substances Control Act and fund to upgrade the nation’s water in - water infrastructure upgrades. 88

594 CQ Researcher way to solve the problem once and and safe. Lower water levels can mean for all. “There’s a huge problem with higher concentrations of contaminants. OUTLOOK political will,” said Tufts professor Grif - And extreme weather, predicted to in - fiths. “We have neglected our own in - crease in frequency and intensity due frastructure.” 92 to climate change, can overload storm- Water and Politics Crises often spur change, but the water systems, a common path for water water association’s Mehan says educa - contamination. 95 he fall presidential election could tion also is key, because few members Americans are accustomed to turning T set the tone for new drinking water of the public appreciate “the sheer on their taps and getting safe drinking policy. technical expertise, the complexity and water. Indeed, says Lynn Thorp of Presumptive GOP nominee Donald the staggering cost involved in the col - Clean Water Action, “every drop of J. Trump has called the Flint water crisis lecting, treating, delivering and recycling water that comes out of your tap is a “total breakdown in government” or disposing of water.” Water profes - an engineering marvel.” caused by “gross incompetence” and sionals are realizing that they must be But maintaining that level of safety “another example of bad government.” more than good engineers, he says. will require that citizens prioritize water In an interview with a Grand Rapids “They’ve got to be good at strategic safety, says Neukrug, of the U.S. Water TV station on the morning of the Michigan communication, they’ve got to educate Alliance. “Our water is safer than at presidential primary, Trump said, “There the public about the expertise and the any time in history anywhere in the were a lot of mistakes made here from costs behind safe drinking water.” world,” he says “And then there are the city and the state and probably even While new contaminants will continue Flint, Toledo and West Virginia.” Safe the federal government. If I were pres - to be a challenge, the overhauled Toxic water is “too important of an issue not ident, I would be there to help.” 89 Substances Control Act promises to com - to solve,” he says. Trump also has said repeatedly that plement the Safe Drinking Water Act by he would abolish the EPA, in favor of assessing the health hazards of new letting states manage environmental is - chemicals entering the market. That will sues. “Environmental protection — we enable drinking water officials to set Notes waste all of this money,” he said in a standards for more potentially harmful February debate. “We’re going to bring contaminants. “I’ve been working on this 1 Todd Spangler, “CDC confirms kids’ blood- that back to the states.” 90 for 15 years,” said Richard Denison, a lead levels went up in Flint,” Detroit Free Press , Meanwhile, presumptive Democratic senior scientist at the Environmental De - June 24, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/j3hmqk8 . nominee Hillary Clinton, who has visited fense Fund. “It fixes every major problem 2 Ibid. Flint residents and city officials, has with the current law.” 93 3 “Lead poisoning and health fact sheet,” World promised to eliminate lead as a public If upheld by the courts, the Clean Health Organization, updated July 2016, http:// health threat in the next five years. Water Rule will help EPA regulate pol - tinyurl.com/oppuccq . 4 She plans to create a presidential com - luters and industrial and agricultural Monica Davey, “Flint Officials Are No Longer Saying the Water Is Fine,” The New York Times , mission to recommend solutions, and practices that threaten the purity of Oct. 7, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/pfvkbr8 . Todd she has pledged to deliver $5 billion drinking water sources. Obama advo - Spangler and Paul Egan, “E-mails: EPA inde - toward lead abatement from all sources, cated for the rule when he vetoed cision led to inaction in Flint crisis,” Detroit including those most likely to affect congressional action to overturn it. “Too Free Press , May 13, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/ children: water and paint. 91 many of our waters have been left hbr32e9 . The Flint crisis and subsequent in - vulnerable,” Obama said. “Pollution 5 Monica Davey and Richard Pérez-Peña, “Flint vestigations of lead-tainted drinking from upstream sources ends up in the Water Crisis Yields First Criminal Charges,” water have generated plenty of hand- rivers, lakes, reservoirs and coastal wa - The New York Times , April 20, 2016, http://tiny wringing, legal action and condemna - ters near which most Americans live url.com/jdstndw . 6 tion of water mismanagement, but long- and on which they depend for their Alison Young and Mark Nichols, “Beyond Flint: term change is uncertain. drinking water, recreation and eco - Excessive lead levels found in almost 2,000 water systems across all 50 states,” USA Today , March Several challenges remain. The EPA nomic development.” 94 11, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jfv7vlh . Also see estimates that $384 billion is needed Climate change also threatens drink - “What’s in Your Water?” Natural Resources Defense through 2030 to maintain and upgrade ing water. More frequent droughts, es - Council, June 6, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zj4zkoc . water distribution pipes and water treat - pecially in the water-scarce Southwest, 7 Young and Nichols, ibid. ment plants. Replacing lead service pose challenges not only to water sup - 8 John Wisely and Todd Spangler, “Where lines would be costly, but the only plies but also to keeping them clean are the lead pipes? In many cities, we just

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 595 DRINKING WATER SAFETY

don’t know,” Detroit Free Press , Feb. 28, 2016, nearly every product you own,” The Washington Pérez-Peña, op. cit. http://tinyurl.com/hvlfk2b . “Replacing all lead Post , May 19, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zwlu78f . 37 Michael Hawthorne and Jennifer Smith water pipes could cost $30 billion,” Water 22 Wines and Schwartz, op. cit. Richards, “Chicago often tests water for lead Tech Online , March 11, 2016, http://tinyurl. 23 Robert Pore, “Obama vetoes resolution of in homes where risk is low,” Chicago Tribune , com/zdg7kpg . disapproval of WOTUS,” AgNet, Jan. 20, 2016, Feb. 26, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zpfboou . 9 Rachel Dovey, “4 Things to Know Before http://tinyurl.com/htp997j . 38 Ibid. Your Water Is Privatized,” Next City , Jan. 7, 24 Gregory Korte, “Obama vetoes attempt to 39 Oliver Milman, “US authorities distorting test 2015, http://tinyurl.com/jeus9on . kill clean water rule,” USA Today , Jan. 19, to downplay lead content of water,” The Guardian , 10 “Buried No Longer: Confronting America’s 2016, http://tinyurl.com/h72hgz8 . Jan. 22, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/gkqtsl9 . Water Infrastructure Challenge,” American 25 For background, see Jennifer Weeks, “Regulating 40 James Salzman, Drinking Water (2012), pp. Water Works Association, 2011, http://tinyurl. Toxic Chemicals,” CQ Researcher , July 18, 2014, 53-54. com/bou9svq . pp. 601-624. 41 Ibid. , pp. 57-60. 11 Jesse McKinley and Vivian Yee, “Water Pol - 26 “America’s Neglected Water Systems Face 42 Ibid. lution in Hoosick Falls Prompts Action by New a Reckoning,” Knowledge@Wharton, June 10, 43 Michael Wang, “Cool, Clear Water: The York State,” The New York Times , Jan. 27, 2016, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/jlqe6m7 . Fairmount Water Works,” Pennsylvania State http://tinyurl.com/jshursx . 27 Charles Duhigg, “That Tap Water Is Legal University Libraries, Fall 2010, http://tinyurl. 12 Tim Friend, “Water in America: Is It Safe but May Be Unhealthy,” The New York Times , com/hg2lkat . to Drink?” National Geographic News , Feb. 17, Dec. 16, 2009, http://tinyurl.com/japxfz6 . 44 Salzman, op. cit. , pp. 85-87. 2014, http://tinyurl.com/po9nakt . 28 John Schwartz, “Water Flowing From Toilet 45 Ibid. , p. 98. 13 Codi Kozacek, “Toledo Issues Emergency to Tap May Be Hard to Swallow,” The New York 46 Ibid. ‘Do Not Drink Water’ Warning to Residents,” Times , May 8, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/pmq 47 Ibid. , pp. 99-100. Circle of Blue, Aug. 2, 2014, http://tinyurl. caey . 48 Ibid. com/gq38vbk . 29 Danny Vinik, “Is Washington creating more 49 Sven Hernberg, “Lead Poisoning in a Historical 14 Kate Sheppard, “EPA Finds Some Cases Of Flints?” Politico , May 25, 2016, http://tinyurl. Perspective,” American Journal of Industrial Water Contamination Related To Fracking, But com/hbykm6m ; “Public Spending on Trans - Medicine , 2000, http://tinyurl.com/z8quoav . Says It’s Not Widespread,” The Huffington Post , portation and Water Infrastructure, 1956-2014,” 50 Werner Troesken, The Great Lead Water June 4, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/ofn6qs4 . Congressional Budget Office, March 2015, Pipe Disaster (2006), pp. 7, 62-63. 15 Jon Hurdle, “EPA science panel, in new http://tinyurl.com/hlqr47v . 51 Ibid. , pp. 151-152. draft, repeats concerns about fracking report,” 30 Gregory Baird, “A game plan for aging 52 Hernberg, op. cit. NPR, Feb. 17, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jk8rra4 . water infrastructure,” Journal AWWA , April 2010 , 53 Troesken, op. cit. , p. 202. Also see Hernberg, 16 “Table of Regulated Drinking Water Con - http://tinyurl.com/gs83s2u . op. cit. taminants,” Environmental Protection Agency, 31 Mindy Fetterman, “As Water Infrastructure 54 Hernberg, ibid. http://tinyurl.com/gvgnd6q . Crumbles, Many Cities Seek Private Help,” State - 55 Richard Rabin, “The Lead Industry and 17 “Draft Candidate Contaminant List 4,” En - line , March 30, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jgxeqs6 . Lead Water Pipes: A Modest Campaign,” Amer - vironmental Protection Agency, http://tinyurl. 32 Dovey, op. cit. ; “Top 10 Reasons to Oppose ican Journal of Public Health , September 2008, com/hxsmkfd . Water Privatization,” Public Citizen, undated, http://tinyurl.com/h89spn7. 18 Michael Wines and John Schwartz, “Unsafe http://tinyurl.com/ztzlxbz . 56 Hernberg, op. cit. Lead Levels in Tap Water Not Limited to 33 “Top 10 Reasons to Oppose Water Priva - 57 “What do parents need to know to protect Flint,” The New York Times , Feb. 8, 2016, http:// tization,” ibid. their children?” Centers for Disease Control tinyurl.com/hmff3rz . 34 “Safe Water Drinking Act,” Environmental and Prevention, March 15, 2016, http://tinyurl. 19 “Understanding the Safe Drinking Water Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/sdwa . com/j8dlhod . Act,” Environmental Protection Agency, June 35 “Perchlorate,” Environmental Protection 58 Ibid. ; Hernbug, op. cit. 2004, http://tinyurl.com/jgnsuvw . Agency, http://tinyurl.com/h33kl9a . Also see 59 “EPA Takes Final Step in Phaseout of Leaded 20 “A Brief History of the Clean Water Act,” “Perchlorate in Drinking Water Raises Health Gasoline,” press release, Environmental Pro - PBS, undated, http://tinyurl.com/mumj8lz . Concerns,” Scientific American , Dec. 21, 2012, tection Agency, Jan. 29, 1996, http://tinyurl. 21 Juliet Eilperin and Darryl Fears, “Congress http://tinyurl.com/j6uqvq9 . com/zo3bd59 . is overhauling an outdated law that affects 36 “What’s in Your Water?” op. cit. ; Davey and 60 “25 Years of the Safe Drinking Water Act: History and Trends,” Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, http://tinyurl.com/he5svso . About the Author 61 “Safe Water Drinking Act,” Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/sdwa . Jill U. Adams writes a health column for The Washington 62 “Chemical Regulation: Actions Are Needed Post and reports on health, biomedical research and envi - to Improve the Effectiveness of EPA’s Chemical ronmental issues for magazines such as Audubon , Scientific Review Program,” Government Accountability American and Science. She holds a Ph.D. in pharmacology Office, Aug. 2, 2006, http://tinyurl.com/hjjyc4b . from Emory University. 63 Robert Pore, “Obama vetoes resolution of disapproval of WOTUS,” The Grand Island

596 CQ Researcher Independent , Jan. 20, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/ he76o69 ; Todd Neeley, “WOTUS Conflict,” DTN/The Progressive Farmer, June 27, 2016, FOR MORE INFORMATION http://tinyurl.com/jffgv8b. 64 American Society of Civil Engineers , 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA Amanda Emery, “EPA concerned about ‘urgent’ 20191 ; 800-548-2723 ; www.asce.org . Publishes report cards on water and other situation with chlorine levels in Flint water,” aspects of U.S. infrastructure. MLive, June 4, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/grz6vgy . 65 Gregory Korte, “Obama drinks Flint water American Water Works Association , 6666 W. Quincy Ave., Denver, CO 80235 ; as he urges children be tested for lead,” USA 303-794-7711 ; www.awwa.org . Membership association of water utility professionals. Today , May 4, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/huxhrv3 . 66 T. J. Raphael, “After months, the Flint water Cato Institute , 1000 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20001 ; 202-842- 0200 ; www.cato.org . Libertarian think tank advocating greater private oversight of situation is finally getting a little bit better,” drinking water. PRI, June 3, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zlu9cfa . 67 David Eggert, “Michigan Governor Signs Clean Water Action , 1444 I St., N.W., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005 ; 202-895-0420 ; Budget With $165M More for Flint,” The As - www.cleanwateraction.org . Environmental advocacy group focused on clean water. sociated Press, June 29, 2016, http://tinyurl. com/j8xwtyq . Environmental Defense Fund , 275 Park Ave., South, New York, NY 10010 ; 800- 68 Matthew Dolan, “Replacing Flint’s lead pipes 684-3322 ; https://www.edf.org . Environmental group calling for greater oversight of drinking water. is double the estimate,” Detroit Free Press , May 28, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/z53zrq2 . Natural Resources Defense Council , 20 West 20th St., 11th Floor, New York, NY 69 Davey and Pérez-Peña, op. cit. 10011 ; 212-727-2700 ; https://www.nrdc.org . Environmental group that has filed 70 Abby Goodnough, “Flint Weighs Scope of lawsuits seeking to improve drinking water safety. Harm to Children Caused by Lead in Water,” The New York Times , Jan. 29, 2016, http://tiny Reason Foundation , 5737 Mesmer Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90230 ; 310-395-2245 ; url.com/zfs5zdk . http://reason.org . Conservative, free-market think tank advocating less direct federal 71 Brady Dennis, “Schools often lag on lead investment in drinking water. testing,” The Washington Post , July 5, 2016, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , 1200 Pennsylvania Ave., N.W., Mail http://tinyurl.com/heh8kv8 . Code 4606M, Washington, DC 20460 ; 202-272-0167 ; https://www.epa.gov/ground- 72 Ibid. water-and-drinking-water . Federal agency responsible for drinking water standards 73 Quoted in Warren Rojas, “Water in House and regulations. Office Building Too Dangerous to Drink,” Roll Call , June 29, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/ U.S. Water Alliance , 1816 Jefferson Place, N.W., Washington, DC 20036 ; 202-533- h2vf4ew . 1810 ; http://uswateralliance.org /. Nonprofit group that seeks to improving water- 74 Brady Dennis, “More than 5,300 U.S. water system policies. systems violated lead-testing rules last year,” The Washington Post , June 28, 2016, http://tiny 82 Eilperin and Fears, op. cit. ; Richard Denison, release, Environmental Protection Agency, url.com/h7zsgxt . “Why passage of the Lautenberg Act is a Feb. 9, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zzkbwnp . 75 Laura Ungar, “Lead taints drinking water really big deal,” Environmental Defense Fund, 89 “Trump on FOX 17: Flint caused by ‘gross in hundreds of schools, day cares across USA,” June 10, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/h6gk8xg . incompetence,’ mass shootings a mental health USA Today , March 17, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/ 83 Laura Ungar, “With nation at risk, lawmakers issue,” Fox17 News, March 8, 2016, http://tiny hlw7lyg . target lead in drinking water,” USA Today , url.com/jelr4ak . 76 Sarah Frostenson, “18 cities in Pennsylvania April 14, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zm2l8ue ; 90 Oliver Milman, “Republican candidates’ calls reported higher levels of lead exposure than Dolan, op. cit. to scrap EPA met with skepticism by experts,” Flint,” Vox , Feb. 3, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hj8ecd2 . 84 Helena Bottemiller Evich, “Avoiding the next The Guardian , Feb. 26, 2016, http://tinyurl. 77 Wines and Schwartz, op. cit. Flint: Testing school water,” Politico , April 22, com/zowabrr . 78 “Groups File Federal Lawsuit to Secure Safe 2016, http://tinyurl.com/j7mmbtf . 91 Natasha Geiling, “Hillary Clinton Just Re - Drinking Water in Flint,” press release, American 85 David Giambusso, “Christie to require lead leased A Plan To Target This Often-Ignored Civil Liberties Union of Michigan, Jan. 27, 2016, testing in all public schools,” Politico , May 2, Environmental Issue,” ThinkProgress, April 13, http://tinyurl.com/jgzcg2x . 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jf9ch92 . 2016, http://tinyurl.com/gw8pmrr . 79 Michael Hawthorne, “Lawsuit seeks removal 86 “AWWA celebrates Congressional fix to 92 Wisely and Spangler, op. cit. ; Wines and of lead pipes in Chicago,” Chicago Tribune , WIFIA,” issue statement, American Water Schwartz, op. cit. Feb. 18, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hx4ke2q . Works Association, undated, http://tinyurl. 93 Quoted in Eilperin and Fears, op. cit. 80 Ibid. com/9wzc23j . 94 Quoted in Korte, op. cit. , “Obama vetoes 81 “NRDC Sues EPA to Force it to Limit Toxic 87 Ibid. attempt to kill clean water rule,” op. cit . Chemical in Drinking Water,” press release, 88 “EPA’s FY 2017 Budget Request Increases 95 “Adaptation Strategies Guide for Water Utilities,” Natural Resources Defense Council, Feb. 18. Support for Communities to Deliver Core Environmental Protection Agency, February 2015, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hod88lo . Environmental and Health Protection,” press http://tinyurl.com/hyfkybz .

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Friend , Tim , “Water in America: Is It Safe to Drink?” “2013 Report Card for America’s Infrastructure,” American National Geographic News , Feb. 17, 2014 , http://tinyurl. Society of Civil Engineers , 2013 , http://tinyurl.com/c6rxtef . com/po9nakt . An engineers’ organization gives the United States a D-plus A journalist looks at whether a chemical spill in West grade on drinking water quality as part of its comprehensive Virginia that sickened residents reveals broader holes in the assessment of the nation’s roads, bridges, pipelines and other safety net for unregulated pollutants in drinking water. infrastructure.

Hernberg , Sven , “Lead Poisoning in a Historical Perspec - “The State of Public Water in the United States,” Food and tive,” American Journal of Industrial Medicine , 2000 , Water Watch , February 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/h4dcnht . http://tinyurl.com/z8quoav . An environmental advocacy group analyzes forces that keep A Finnish research physician documents lead exposure incidents water utilities in the public sector. and knowledge about lead’s toxicity throughout history. “What’s in Your Water?” Natural Resources Defense Coun - McKinley , Jesse , and Vivian Yee , “Water Pollution in cil , June 6, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/zj4zkoc . Hoosick Falls Prompts Action by New York State,” The Researchers from the environmental advocacy group dug New York Times , Jan. 27, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/jshursx . through the Environmental Protection Agency’s 2015 records A small village in New York scrambles to understand the and found 5,000 water systems, serving 18 million Americans, risks posed by a monitored but unregulated drinking-water with violations or enforcement actions relating to the agency’s contaminant. rule governing lead and copper contaminants in water.

Schwartz , John , “Water Flowing From Toilet to Tap May Curtis , Tom , “Water Infrastructure: The Last and Next Be Hard to Swallow,” The New York Times , May 9, 2015 , 100 years,” Journal AWWA , August 2014 , http://tinyurl. http://tinyurl.com/pmqcaey . com/hhzh6fp . A science journalist take a close look at recycling wastewater A water expert details the history of water infrastructure in into drinking water, a method becoming more common in the U.S. and looks ahead to the challenge of keeping water the drought-stricken Southwest. operations effective.

Vink , Danny , “Is Washington creating more Flints?” Politi - Varghese , Shiney , “Privatizing U.S. Water,” The Institute co , May 25, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/hbykm6m . for Agriculture and Trade Policy , July 2007 , http://tiny A journalist analyzes the government’s response and failures url.com/zjcvr35 . to the threats posed to safe drinking water. The report surveys privatized water utilities in the United States and analyzes the political and economic context in Wines , Michael , and John Schwartz , “Unsafe Lead Levels which privatization occurs.

598 CQ Researcher The Next Step: Additional Articles from Current Periodicals

Flint Phaneuf , Taryn , “IL EPA to issue first loan specifically to replace lead pipes from water system, expects more Carah , Jacob , “Lawmaker criticizes Flint for not taking to come,” Cook County Record , June 2, 2016 , http://tiny plastic pipes,” Detroit News , June 27, 2016 , http://tinyurl. url.com/hfb598z . com/hugrsuv . The western Illinois city of Galesburg is the state’s first A Michigan state representative says Flint should consider community to receive state money to replace privately owned a California-based company’s offer of free plastic water pipes lead service lines connecting properties to the municipal as a humanitarian gesture, though Flint officials say they are water system. concerned the pipes may not be durable enough. Public-Private Partnerships Livengood , Chad , “Schuette seeks approval of extra $3.4M for Flint probe,” Detroit News , June 28, 2016 , http:// “P3 Bills in Play in Two States,” National Council for tinyurl.com/z2vpkvk . Public-Private Partnerships , June 2, 2016 , http://tinyurl. Michigan’s attorney general is asking a state board to approve com/hs6lhqx . an extra $3.4 million to pay private attorneys and investigators Massachusetts and Pennsylvania lawmakers are considering looking into Flint’s water situation. bills to establish public-private partnerships for water and other services. Swift , Jaimee A. , “The media may have stopped talking about it, but the Flint water crisis is far from over,” Salon , Deane , Michael , “Public-private partnerships: a critical piece June 19, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/h88w42s . of the water infrastructure puzzle,” The Hill , May 13, 2016 , A pediatrician who helped draw attention to Flint’s elevated http://tinyurl.com/z7qfgyw . lead levels says she is leading several efforts to help children The National Association of Water Companies’ executive di - affected by the crisis. rector says public-private partnerships on water distribution can provide communities with enhanced expertise and new Infrastructure Funding technologies.

“House committee advances water-infrastructure funding Machi , Sara , “Bossier City approves public-private part - bill,” Transportation Infrastructure News Daily , June 4, nership for water system,” Shreveport Times , June 21, 2016 , 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/hmjf2kk . http://tinyurl.com/jjs3xrj . The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee A city council in northern Louisiana approved a public- passed a bill to address states’ water project funding needs private partnership for water and sewer services, saying it by spelling out how much should be spent for dams, harbors sought to avoid hiking consumer rates. and other marine areas.

Cisneros , Henry , “A National Water Crisis,” U.S. News & World Report , June 29, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/gwhscuc . CITING CQ RESEARCHER A former U.S. Housing and Urban Development Department Sample formats for citing these reports in a bibliography secretary urges consideration of new ways to finance water improvements, such as using private-sector capital. include the ones listed below. Preferred styles and formats vary, so please check with your instructor or professor. Lead Pipes MLA STYLE Bichell , Rae Ellen , et. al. , “Do you have lead pipes in your Jost, Kenneth. “Remembering 9/11.” CQ Researcher 2 Sept. home?” NPR , June 25, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/jtartej . 2011: 701-732. A group of reporters provides a step-by-step explanation of how homeowners can identify lead pipes. APA S TYLE Jost, K. (2011, September 2). Remembering 9/11. CQ Researcher, Maass , Brian , “Denver Water Steps Up Lead Pipe Removal,” CBS Denver , June 13, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/gmkrlbu . 9, 701-732. Denver’s water utility has begun to replace lead service lines from water meters to homes at no cost to property CHICAGO STYLE owners when it finds lead pipes during construction projects Jost, Kenneth. “Remembering 9/11.” CQ Researcher , September or leaks. 2, 2011, 701-32.

www.cqresearcher.com July 15, 2016 599 In-depth Reports on Issues in the News

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