AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY

Published Quarterly by the Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney

Editor: F. H. TALBOT, Ph.D., F.L.S. Annual sub cription, $2.20 posted Assistant Editor: P. F. COLLIS Single copy, 50c (55c posted)

\'OL. 16, 0. 9 MARCH 15, 1970

CONTENTS

PAGE

CAN WE APPRECIATE ABORIGINAL MUSIC-Catherine J. £/lis 289

MUSEUM'S MUSICAL INSTRUME 'TS ON PAPUA A D EW GUINEA STAMPS-}. P. White.. 294

FARMING TilE SEA-J. M. Tlwmson 295

THE CABBAGE WHITE BUTTERFLY-}. V. Peters 300

AUSTRALIAN CRABS-D. J. G. Griffin 304

COLLECTING REPTILES A 'D AMPHIIJIA S IN EW Gut EA-Fred Parker 309

THE PRODUCTI0:-1 OF HORIZO, TAL HIGH-TIDAL SHORE PLATFORMS-Normal/ K. Sanders 31 5

BOOK REVIEWS .. 293, 308, 314, 319

MEET OuR Co TRIBUTOR 320

e FRO 'T COVER: The Eastern Brown Snake ( Demansia textilis) attains a length of up to 7 feet, and is one of our deadliest snakes. It is found in a wide variety of habitats in eastern and southeastern Australia, generally preferring open, drier country to the wetter sclerophyl forests. lt is a fas t-moving, timid snake which will normally avoid contact with humans but which may become very aggressive if provoked, adopting the attitude shown in the photo. The sen itive tongue, which is an important sense organ in snakes, is always active when a nake is alarmed and may be extended, quivering, for long periods. The Eastern Brown nake is usually some shade of grey or brown above, though occasional specimens are almost black. The belly is usually cream with irregular orange spots and blotrhes. BACK COVER: A radiogr2ph of a Butterfly Fish (Citaetodon ltawensis), trawled in 70 fathoms off Wollongong, New South Wales. X-rays are used in the study of fish to examine the bones of the skull, ''ertebrae, and caudal skeleton in particular; vertebral counts can be made and counts of unpaired fins verified. Occasionally a fish in the stomach contents will show up in an X-ray. [Photos: C. V. Turner] Can We Appreciate Aboriginal Music?

By CATHERINE J. ELLIS Lecturer, Department of Music, University of Adelaide, South Australia

MPATHY with a singer and his song is the only means by which we may learn toE appreciate the music of a tribal people. The listener who takes the trouble to achieve this experience will find it a rewarding one. It may seem a strange possibility that a study of music can make clear for us the changes that are occurring in the society of which that music is an expression. Music is a very personal experience, but also one which is shared by society. Through song the noblest aspirations or the greatest fears may find individual expression, and may, at the same time, be shared by all. The history that music recounts is not a collection of coldly­ observed facts, but a portrayal of the emotional struggles of those involved in events of consequence to them. J t does not, however, become available to us until we have learned how to appreciate the music through which this history is recorded. Despite the subjective account it supplies, the importance of artistic expression, par­ ticularly in song, must not be overlooked in the understanding of any people. lt is possible, by listening carefully and sympa­ Europ�anization in music: Douglas Carter. of thetically to the songs performed by any Murray Bridge. South Australia particular group of people, to achieve an intimate understanding of the thoughts of these people. ot only do the musical problems. They range from the pathetic fo rms in use indicate areas of thought not utterances of a despondent Aborigine: necessarily manifest in any other activity of Every nation has a flag, except the old black coon. the group, but the texts of the songs can l wish l was a white man. instead of an old black prove most enlightening. One of the reasons coon for this is pointed out by Merriam (1964): to the cynical comments: " ...in song the individual or the group can apparently express deep-seated feelings White fella put the fences across the country, Jacky sits and laughs all day. not permissibly verbalized in other contexts"', He don't care what become of the country, and again: " ... one of the outstanding Rut Jacky like to take it that way. features [of song texts] is the fact that they provide a vehicle for the expression of ideas These Europeanized songs are conveying and emotions not revealed in ordinary dis­ inside thoughts on the pressing problems course". that confront the detribalized Aborigine. The music of these songs has nothing about it which is new to us. The songs themselves, Europeanized songs however, cannot be appreciated unless time There are many Europeanized songs in the and trouble are taken to be a sympathetic current repertoire of detribalized part­ listener, and to share with the singer his Aborigine performers which highlight social feelings and thoughts.

Ausrralian Narural Hisr01·y Page 289 Men at Oonadalla, South Australia, singing their section of a history song

Thi is equally so with the fully tribal to do so. When we are confronted with music of the Australian Aborigines. The Aboriginal music, which often uses musical difficulty here is greater for us; we face an forms quite alien to our ears, we cannot unfamiliar musical system which conveys initially appreciate the beauty of sound unfamiliar concepts. Those musical intervals which is obviously experienced by the which do not coincide with any used in our participants; if we also lack an understanding own musical system will initially be regarded of the significance of the performance. then by us as "out of tune". This problem may it is necessary to say that we cannot appre­ bother the more musical a great deal: before ciate the music at all. they can understand the tonal language in History songs use in a musical system. they find it very Tribal music conveys at least two quite difficult to understand what is taking place in the musical communications ari ing from the different type of history. One is spoken about by the performers, and forms the basis system. In the case of the tribal music from of the religious beliefs. The other i less Central and South Australia (the area to obvious, and can be found only after careful which this discussion will be restricted) the cientific evaluation of the distribution of element of the music most familiar to the non-Aboriginal is rhythm. musical forms used in diffe rent areas. Of the latter it need only be said here that in ot many people have the opportunity of South Australia at least two distinct musical hearing or seeing an Aboriginal performance cultures have been found. one in the south­ in its natural setting. Of those who do have east of the State, the other strongest in the this opportunity, few understand what is northwest. For detailed discussion of this, taking place. The performers themselve see Catherine J. Ellis' "Aboriginal Songs of find it difficult to convey anything at all of South Australia", Miscellanea Musico/ogica. the significance of 1 he occasion. particularly Vol. I (Adelaide. 1966). pp. 137-190. or the as they mu t u e a fo reign language. Engli h. ame author's "Folk Song Migration in

Psge 290 March. 1970 Aboriginal South Australia", Journal of the observer may well fa il to recognize extreme International Folk Music Council, Vol. XIX sections of the one song-line as conforming (1967), pp. 11-16. The firsttype of history to the same musical pattern, but that they contains those songs performers themselves do conform has been repeatedly stressed by call "history songs''. performers and shown by a number of History songs recount events in the lives detailed analyses. The concept differs from of the totemic ancestors, in their journeys, our experience of melodic sameness; it their meetings with other totemic ancestors, consists of repetitions of sections of melody their good fortunes or their misfortunes at fo r a set proportion of the time the total various places. There are different forms of verse takes to perform. For example, the any one history; it may be told as an melodically unifying element of a particular explanation of the life of the ancestor, or it bandicoot song-line from the north of South may be sung in a series comprising many Australia consists of a division of each verse short verses, each of which tells about a into five segments, the exact notes of which particular event or place associated with the are not clearly defined, but rather the ancestor; or the performance may be a full particular range which must be covered, and ceremonial one which includes portrayal of whether it is covered in ascending or des­ relevant events in the performance of dances cending progressions, are clearly defined. accompanied by the singing of the appro­ Each verse lasts for approximately 30 seconds, priate verses. The song associated with any and this total duration is divided between the one totemic "line" will have the one melodic segments so that the proportions remain in form throughout. This means, in the case the ratio of 4: I : 2: I : 2. (The exact of very long "lines'' of song, where the duration of each segment is actually con­ ancestor is reputed to have crossed thousands trolled by the structure of the rhythm, of miles of territory, that the characteristic which changes continually from verse to melodic fo rm will be found in areas with verse. Nevertheless, the proportional du­ differing languages and musical techniques. ration suffices as a non-technical explanation Because of the latter differences, an outside of the process.)

Preparatory dancing while other women are away being painted for a main dance, the designs of which . are secret. The smgers prov1dmg the accompaniment are facing the dancer.

Australian Natural History Page 291 Coober Pedy (South Australia) people talking to research team members. Contact with European conditions leads to changes in musical form.

Totemic line yet others for the dances themselves. These changes in form concern the rhythm of the Because this technique allows flexibility in verses, or the forms of vocal ornamentation, those areas of musical expression which tend or again, whether or not the verse will be to change from one tribe to another, the accompanied by some form of rhythmic basic information can be kept intact even beating. They in no way alter the established though the total history may be retained, melodic procedure. In such a setting the section b) section, in many different tribal various facets that comprise the whole are areas. This means that, even when a visitor unintelligible to the performers if separated from afar is unable to understand the out : the painted designs on the bodies of language that the locals are using in a song, the dancers are meaningless without the he can determine. from the musical structure, correct accompanying song; the melodic to which totemic line the song belongs. form is meaningless without the words; the And, because his own totemic song has been rhythm is meaningless without the dance; a very strong conditioning agent in the total the act is meaningless without the knowledge processes of his education to adult status in of the site at which the original events took the community, the recognition of his own place; the site is not fully represented song in another area will have very deep without the correct melodic progressions. significance. The history songs link the In fa ct, in the total ceremonial form all time long past with the present; the singer is facets are very tightly integrated. The part of a continuum; he is reliving events of performance itself, as well as being a re­ another era, and is yet part of them. enactment of events, can be an expression of In the total ceremonial setting, only a kinship ties. of ties to territory, or of group short section of the history is performed, coherence. under the strict control of the most know­ Whether we wish to understand the music ledgeable elder of the area. Jn this situation of the tribal people, or the songs of those we find special musical forms for songs used seeking a place within the white community, to accompany body painting, others again it is certain that we can gain no real appre­ for preliminary dancing while the painters ciation only by listening: this applies are away preparing for the main dances, and particularly to recordings, which inevitably

Page 292 March, 1970 dissociate music from it environment. Our REFERE�CES appreciation will become a vital process Di c with additional information: when we come to an understanding of the Jones, Trevor, The Art of the Didjeridu (Wattle significance each song has for its singer. Ethnic Series). One 12-inch LP disc. [The photos in this article are by R. B. Moylc, A lice M., So11gs from the Northern Territory Buck fey.] (Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies). Five 12-inch LP di c and companion booklet. Acknowledgments: The information on which Tapes: this article is based has been collected and analysed Moylc, Alice M., 11 Ha11dlist of Field Collectio11s of as a result of grants from the Uni\ersity of Ade­ Recorded Mwic ill Australia a11d Tarres Strait laide. the Australian In titute of Aboriginal Studies. (Occasional Pap::rs in Aboriginal Studies, o. 6. and the Australian Research Grant Committee. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Can­ The photographs were taken during group fieldwork berra, 1966). among Andagarinja women on a grant from the Published material on Aboriginal music: Au tralian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, the total cope of which is described in Grouo ProjeCI 011 Ellis, Catherine J., Aborigi11al Music Ma/..i11g: A A11dagari11ja Wome11 (two volumes) compiled by the Study of Ce11tral Australia// Music (Adelaide. researchers, Buckley, Ellis, Hercus, Penny, and 1964). White. Copies are held in the Universities of Strchlow, T.G.H .. "Aboriginal Australia: Langu­ Adelaide and Monash. and the Australian Institute age and Literature", Hemisphere, Vol. 6. o. 8. of Aboriginal Studies. (Sydney. August. 1962) pp. 2-7.

BOO/( REVIEW

KA "GAROOS. by H .•1. Frith and .1. H. Calab\. interests and extermination of the specie� would F. W. Cheshire, 1clbourne. Price 12: 209 pages: both be obviated. Since the degree of competition At a time when the exploitation of kangaroo between kangaroos and domestic stock may be populations is being hotly debated with more less than has formerly been suggested, it should be emotion than knowledge, it is gratifying to find a possible for properties to run both sheep and publication in which an objective and informed kangaroos imultaneously. The laller could ihen assessment of the situation is presented. Both be culled on a controlled basis so that a reasonable authors are members of the Division of Wildlife population level could be maintained. The meat Research of CSI RO and have had considerable and skins so produced would provide a considerable experience in studies of many aspects of the biology financial return to the gra7ier, without involving of kangaroos. the destruction and waste which are characteristic of the pre ent uncontrolled kangaroo meat industry. The book, which i-. well produced. deals succes­ �ivcly with the history of discovery and �ystematics Although the Red Kangaroo was described b� of the kangaroo-like macropods as a whole. and ncsmarest in 1822, it is only during the present then proceeds to a detailed discussion of the distri­ decade that the major features of its life-history bution, behaviour. ecology, reproduction. and ecology have been determined, mainly by population dynamics, and economics of the larger biologists of CSI RO. kangaroo<, with particular emphasis on the Red Kangaroo. The results of the c investigations are contained in the book under review and, in consequence. this The fine photograph by Fdcric Slater, with i� a most valuable compilation of our present which the book is well illustrated, do much to knowledge of the biology of the larl!e macropods. enhance its general appearance. The line drawings by Frank Knight. which are distributed throughout This fine and auracthe book. which is unfor­ the text, are also plea ant and help greatly to tunately very expensive, is strongly recommended indicate the di,ersity of appearance of macropods not only to professional biologists bu: also to all in general and to illustrate important aspects 0f the members of the community who are interested in biology of these animals. On the other hand, the and have a feeling for the continued survival of the coloured plates of the large kangaroos leave ntuch Australian fauna. lt is to be fervently hoped that to be desired. The animals arc presented in rigid the recommendations of the authors regarding the posture and arc ill proportioned and lacking in strict control of kangaroo harvesting on game­ detail. management principles will be implemented immed­ A well balanced altitude to the conservation of diately by the responsible authorities. The greatest kangaroos is given by the author , who maintain compliment that could be paid to the author that there should be trictcr control of harvesting would be the realization that their unbia ed and and utilintion of stocks by the "application of objective treatment of the subject had been res­ correct game management principles". In this way. posible for the survival of kangaroos in Australia.- over-abundance which would interfere with pastoral 8. J. Marlow, Australia// Museum.

A ustralia11 Natural History Page 293 Museum's Musical Instruments on Papua and New Guinea Stamps

Four stamps featuring musical instruments from Territory. ormall) they are made of grass or the Au tralian 1useum collections were issued by bamboo stems of varying lengths bound together the Territory of Papua and New Guinea on 29th o that one end is level. They are played by blowing October, 1969. across the top of The level end. Although pan­ The 5-cent denomination features a eed pod pipes are u ed occasionally in ceremonial activities. rattle (wreko) from the Gulf of Papua. Bunche of they are most commonly played casually for eed pods are attached to a band of pandanus fibre enjo) ment. painted with a typical design of the area. These The 30-cent stamp shows an hourglass drum rattles are commonly used in dances. (kundu) from the Sepik River district. A great deal The lit gong (garamllf) shown on the 10-cent of artistic care i often lavished on these drums. stamp is on display in the Mu eum·s Gallery of To make them a log is hollowed out by fire and a Melancsian Art. The gong is from the Admiralty piece of reptile or mar upial skin stretched over Islands and stands 3 feet high. A carved head one end. The pitch of the drum is regulated by projects from one end, and panels carved in tra­ applying small lumps of wax to the membrane. ditional style decorate the ides. Garamurs are This example, also on display in the Museum' played by beating on the side with a stick and may Melanesian Gallery, feature a curvilinear motif on be used in dances or for sending messages. This the lower part of the body and handles on each example was collected in the 1880's by a daughter­ side representing a crocodile and a bird. possibly a in-law of "Queen Emma" Farrell, an historic horn bill. Territory personality. The stamp were designed by Mr G. Hamori, of Pan-pipe (ivili/..o). which are displayed on the Sydney, on the basi of photo taken in the Australian 25-ccnt stamp. occur in almost e'ery area of the M useum.-1. P. White, Au11ralian Mu.�eum.

GARAMUT

-i )> ll m A 0 PAPUA AND NEW GUINEA PAPUA AND NEW GUINEA

A < c r z A 0 0 c PAPUA AND NEW GUINEA PAPUA AND NEW GUINEA

Page 294 March, 1970 Wire-bottomed trays raise oysters above the mud, where predators are abundant. The trays also . permit bulk-handling of the live oysters. [Photo by courtesy of . The Telegraph'·, Brisbane.]

FARMING THE SEA

By J. M. THOMSO Professor of Zoology, Unh•ersity of Queensland, Brisbane

e live in a hungry world, though for us, of research have indicated that the sea is by Wliving in Australia, it is difficultto realize no means inexhaustible and that, under the abject misery that perpetual hunger present conditions of exploitation, the take brings. The United Nations, through its of marine food products can increase only instrumentality the Food and Agricultural to something between two and four times Organization (FAO), is attempting to the present total. The greater part of the ameliorate the situation. Perhaps too much fishing industry is only a hunting activity. attention is being given to increasing con­ When Man the Hunter metamorphosed ventional crops and not enough to exploiting on land into Man the Farmer, the population new sources of food production. Certainly that a given area of land could support this is true in Australia, whose contribution increased. Is there any hope, then, in to the world's food larder has scarcely turning to aquaculture? produced any novelties, unless it is kangaroo­ In the present state of knowledge there is tail soup, which seldom appears on the little hope of controlling the production shelves of the starving in Asia, Africa, or cycle of the open sea. But by closing off South America. portions of coastal waters, the aquaculturist Popular articles about the future fo od can control and influence the conditions supplies of the world frequently talk about under which fish crops can be raised. There "the inexhaustible sea". The last 20 years has been some sea farming for many years.

Australian Natural History Page 295 The Romans used to impound various sea ponds with the tide by opening sluice gates at fish, particularly the Red Mullet or Surmullet times when either traditional knowledge or (also known as Goatfish), which had, to the sampling suggested they should be about in Roman epicure, the reputation that barra­ quantity. This is obviously an undependable mundi has for his Australian counterpart. means of "planting" a fish fa rm and in some The Romans were also oyster farmers; places, particularly in the Aegean Sea and in unlike the Surmullet fa rming, the oyster southern India, fishing for small fish with fa rming survived and today flourishes in fine-mesh nets and other devices has France, Holland, the United States, Japan, augmented the self-delivery system. and Australia, as well as on a smaller scale elsewhere. Australian oyster fa rmers (at Experimental work least in 'ew South Wales) can hold their In the beginning natural ponds and back­ own with anyone in the world fo r technical waters that could be shut off easily by achievements and enterprise. constructing sluice-gates and short walls provided the necessary ponds. Later Centuries-old fish farming artificial ponds were dug out of estuarine Some brackish-water (estuarine) .fish mudftats, as in the extensive tambaks of fa rming has been going on in the tropical Indonesia. A great deal of experimental and subtropical I ndo-Pacific and in the work on brackish water fish fa rming has Mediterranean for several centuries. The gone on over the past 20 years, but, except number of species involved has been few in Japan, little of this work has got beyond and the methods have been traditional. In the experimental stage. The rearing of the great Po River delta-Venetian Lagoon larval sea fishes such as plaice has been area in Italy the prime produce is eels, achieved in hatcheries both in England and which fetch a high price on the European orway, but this is not aimed at fa rming market. Mullet are also abundant in these in ponds; instead, it is fo r the liberation fish farms. They are placed there to provide of the young fish into the sea to increase the food fo r the more valuable eels, but the stocks, a procedure akin to releases from surplus mullet that reach marketable size trout hatcheries. are sold also. That fa rming on a catch-and-grow basis Up to 15 years ago eels were the most can succeed outside the areas where it is important fish fa rmed in Japan; mullet are already practised has been demonstrated fa rmed there in separate ponds for their own in both Australia and the U.S.A. But sake. In an arc around southeast Asia, in both countries the fa rming has yet to be from the Philippines and Hong Kong to proved economic. The great advances India, various sea fish have been fa rmed in establishing fish fa rming on a scientific basis the last I 00 years or more. have been achieved in Japan. By 1966 the Mullet fa rming is perhaps the most wide­ produce of fish farms provided 6 per cent spread of brackish water aquacultural of the fish production of Japan. This practices. Other species farmed in local percentage may sound small, but when the areas include the fish marketed in Australia world-wide fishing activities of the Japanese as the Barramundi (really the Giant Perch, are considered it is quite a large amount. Lates calcarifer, known in India as the In fact, in 1966, Japanese fish farms produced behkti). Others are the Milkfish (Chanos 440,000 tons of fish, valued at $250 million. chanos), the Pearl Spot (Etroplus suratensis), The traditional eel and mullet farms of the Ox-eye Herring or Tarpon (Megalops Japan continue, and there have been exciting cyprinoides) and the Ten Pounder (£lops developments. For instance, there are I ,300 machinata). Besides these scaled fish, prawns hamachi farms. Perhaps "farm" is too have been fa rmed in some localities. grandiose a title, for many of the rearing The culture practices in the farming of these areas are simply netting enclosures hung brackish water fish have not, until recently, from rafts. The hamachi is a species of embraced the whole life-cycle of the fish. Re­ Yellowtail Kingfish, very similar to the cent work in Japan has changed this picture. species that is caught off eastern Australia. Traditional practice was to let the young larval The hamachi are bred in captivity. With or post-larval fish or prawns enter the fa rm typical ingenuity, the Japanese hamachi

Page 296 March, 1970 The Yellowtail Kingfish ( Regificola grandis). [Frorn T. C. Roughley's Fish and Fisheries of Au.\/ra/ia.]

breeders have a current of water running tank . But in the post-larval stages the through the pond where the parents are prawns are liberated into outdoor tanks and placed for spawning, so that the eggs are fed on crushed clam meat. The final catch wafted straight to another pond on being in Dr Fujinaga's fa rm numbers some 10,000 shed and do not remain behind to provide prawn from the 400,000 eggs per fe male instant caviar fo r their own parents. Thirty­ originally produced. eight thou and tons of hamachi are sold Another "fishery" product that is fa rmed every year. Besides being a good spawner in Japan i a kind of seaweed, known as nori. in captivity, thi Yellowtail Kingfish species The cultivation of this red alga extends back is popular with fa rmers because it grows fa st. to at least the 17th century. Seaweed is In I year it reaches 16 inches, and in 2 years not on the normal diet of Australians; even 25 inches. lt matures in I year. in Japan only small amounts are eaten fresh, as the popular use of nori is in a sun-dried Prawn-breeding in Japan form which is used to flavour soups and Perhaps the most exciting development­ sauces. The traditional way to catch nori exciting both because an invertebrate is was by planting out bundles of brush, on involved and because the product fetches which the spores settled. This method is such a good price-is the establishment of now largely replaced by the use of a heavy­ prawn breeding in Japan. Prawns grow gauge netting hung horizontally at what is rapidly, reaching marketable size in less than believed to be the optimum height for nori a year. The old farming methods were settlement. uncertain becau e they depended entirely on Kelp i al o farmed in Japan, at least to the entry of prawn larvae to the ponds. the extent that newly-cleaned stones of the Dr Moto aka Fujinaga studied the life-cycle right size are set out by the seaweeders at the of Penaeus japonicus and experimented with right time of year fo r the spores to catch. the rearing of larval prawns for more than 20 years before he reached the stage of Australian experiments commercial rearing and farming. Here in Australia a few desultory experi­ The great difficulty in prawn rearing is the ments in bracki h water fish fa rming have variation in food requirements at different been carried out. Mullet have been the growth stage . However, years of patient fish widely used, though whiting were also research revealed the necessary secrets and ucce fu lly kept in a pond at Woy Woy, Dr Fujinaga' enterprise is now well ew South Wales, some years ago. In establi hed. The pond-reared stock produce We tern Australia a number of fa rm dams fewer eggs than do their wild "cousins", have been uccessfully stocked with mullet, indicating perhaps that there is something and this same species was reared for some lacking in their diet, but the growth rate of years in an enclosed piece of the mudflat at the cultivated prawns seems normal. About Oyster Point, .S. W., where the George 400,000 larvae per female are produced. River nears its discharge point into Botany During the early larval stages they feed on a Bay. variety of microscopic foods and, during But the only type of saltwater farming this stage, they are held indoors in tiled that fo rms an established industry in Australia

Aus/ralian Na111ra/ Hislory Page 297 is oyster fa rming. Even this is confined to Tests with molluscs a few hundred miles of the coastline of ew With experience and increasing knowledge. South Wales. Suitable country in Queens­ other species will undoubtedly be added to land is only slightly exploited. The industr)' the list of fa rmable fish. Dr I mai in Japan i threatened from time to time by the is experimenting with various clam . abalones. encroachments of civilisation. Future dock and callops. In western Europe mu sels area may destroy some of the prime oyster are fa rmed by techniques similar to those fa rms. E tuarine pollution i potentially u ed for oysters. Undoubtedly Australian dangerou , menacing the health of oyster mus els would be amenable to similar eaters. But the industry has weathered fa rming. There are probably no in uperable many crises : when mud-worm threatened, difficulties in fa rming sand crab . In cultivation wa raised above the bottom; America a similar species has been reared in when the favoured stands of black mangrove ponds on an experimental cale. The mud were cut out, the oystermen turned to fibro­ crab might be more troublesome, owing to cement slates and tarred, sawn timber fo r its burrowing habits. One day crayfish clutch material. Pollution has been rearing may also be an everyday affair in the surmounted by quarantining the oysters in life of the ea farmer. irradiated water before marketing. There is no danger in eating oysters from polluted Variou blue mackerel and herring specie have been reared in laboratory aquaria. estuaries if they are treated in this way first. European oysters have been treated in less The ba ic techniques are known; they need refinement, and they need examination to ophi ticated ways for many year to fit a certain the likely economic of aquaculture. them fo r market. The most advanced aquaculture is perhap We have a number of species of fish and where agriculture was 200 years ago. Certain invertebrates suitable for fa rming. Mullet practices are carried out. But often no one and barramundi are already fa rmed el e­ knows why they work, and no one knows where; the kingfish is fa rmed in Japan. what to do or even what has happened The most likely prawn fo r fa rming, if when things go wrong. There is much work breeding is to be attempted, is the Greasy­ to be done before aquaculture becomes truly back or Greentail Prawn (MelCipenaeus scientific. We need pond trials of the effects mastersii), which will breed in coastal lakes. of fertilizers, comparable to plot-trials in Most of the other species require some depth agriculture. Some native farmers prefer of water at sea for spawning, though the organic manures in the ponds, other wear School Prawn (Metapenaeus macleayi)spawns by inorganic fertilizers. Almo t no work fairly well inshore. ha been done to examine what real ly happens

Stick cultivation of oyster , as carried out in e" South Wales. [Photo: Author.]

Paf!e :!98 \larch. 1970 to pond production when various fe rtilizer system. Above all, there is the worth of the combinations are tried. In parts of the product. Prawns fetch a luxury price, so Philippines the regular practice is to let the they are probably high in desirability. But pond drain to dry the bottom in the sun every the capital expenditure on spawning and 2 years, and the bottom is harrowed. growing ponds will be high. Fish such as Whether this is better than adding fe rtilizer, mullet are proven pond fish, but their prices or better than digging a few inches of the old are fairly low. On the other hand, the beauty soil out, as is done elsewhere, has never of pond farming is that the shrewd farmer been studied. There are a host of such can market his fish when the natural catch is cultivation techniques that require objective scarce because of bad weather or other assessment. causes, thus gaining high prices. I believe we in Australia will come to fish Possible diseases farming over the next 25 years. We should Almost nothing is known of the diseases be gaining the basic technical knowledge now to which brackish water fish may be liable instead of waiting fo r a crash programme or of the means of treatment. Various when the matter becomes urgent. One parasites have been identified from fish by matter we can attend to now. Undoubtedly zoologists. But in few cases has the incidence our fish farming will start along the shores of parasites per fish or percentage of fish of estuaries. And all our estuaries are infected been ascertained. Nor is much becoming increasingly polluted. It is known about what level of infestation is probably true that increasing pollution, and debilitating or fatal to the fish. hence lack of fish resources in estuaries, helped force Japan into fish farming. But Nothing is known of optimum stocking if we allow a similar fate for our estuaries rates. Present indigenous practices are very it will complicate our farming problems by wasteful; less than I per cent of the fry making it difficult to obtain unpolluted pl aced in the ponds reach maturity in most water for the farms. Most pollutants are cases. There are indications that water at harmful because, as they decay, oxygen is least 4 feet deep is desirable in the tropics taken from the water and so no life can fo r the fish to escape the direct heat of the survive in it ; others, such as industrial sun, but the heat budget of fish ponds and wastes, are poisons. We have become aware its effects on fish directly and indirectly are of the dangers from insecticides and unknown. There are suggestions from fungicides which are widely used in both observations made elsewhere that muddy agriculture and home gardening. Run-off areas with a clay substrate provide the richest from farms and gardens finds its way to the ponds. Whether this is really true and rivers and takes with it the soluble pesticides, what it might mean in quantitative terms are some of which are long-lasting. unknown. Fish farming is already rewarding many There will be social problems involved in people. It holds challenge, and the pioneers brackish water farming. The suitable areas may find it slow to provide ample rewards. will be competed for by real estate developers But it must come as one of the few ways in and others. The value of fish farming will which the world may exploit essentially new have to be established and asserted. Many methods of producing food to maintain our ponds will be open to thieving and may ever-increasing population. require costly fe ncing for protection, thus adding- to the establishment costs. The whole economics of fish farming require FURTHER READING careful consideration. The cost of pond Ivcrsen, E. S., 1968: Farming the Edge of the Sea. Fishing News (Books) Lld, London. fo rmation and of its maintenance, costs of Pillai, T. G .. 1962: Fish Farming Methods in the fe rtilizers, food and wages for employees, Philippines, Indonesia, and Hong Kong. FAO the rate of growth of the fish to marketable Fisheries Biology Technical Paper o. 18. size, survival rates of the fish-all these and Joncs, J. R. E., 1964: Fish and River Pollution· many other factors will make or break the Buucrworths, London.

Aus,.alian Natural History Page 299 The two butterflies on the left are a male (above) and female of the spring form of the Cabbage White Butterfly. The two on the right are a male (above) and fe male of the summer form. They are white with black markings. and are slightly smaller than shown in the photo. having a wing-span of about 2 inches.

The Cabbage White Butterfly

By J. V. PETERS Entomology Dep&rtment, Australian Museum

HE appearance of the Cabbage White Mexico, and in 1883 to California. TButterfly (Pieris rapae) in Australia was From the United States it spread to Mexico an unfortunate occurrence. as its larvae cause and Hawaii, reaching the latter islands by considerable damage to such vegetable crops 1898. In 1930 the butterflywas first observed as cabbages and cauliflowers. in ew Zealand, at apier, Hawke's Bay, Originally. this butterfly was distributed and by 1935-36 its invasion of ew Zealand throughout Europe, northern Asia, and was complete. It is thought that the species Africa, and first appeared in orth America then reached Australia from ew Zealand. about 1860. The first specimens were Although P. rapae is known to migrate collected there in Quebec, Canada, but it in Europe, its spread to the orth American has been suggested that the butterfly may continent, Hawaii, ew Zealand, and Aus­ have been present in the vicinity of Quebec tralia was, no doubt, through the agency of as early as 1859. In 1865 it first appeared man. Cabbages and cauliflowers for use in the United States, at Maine, and by 1868 on board ship bring larvae and pupae, and it had reached ew York. By 1880 it had when the resulting butterflies emerge some spread to the States bordering the Gulf of fly ashore when the ship is in port.

Page 300 March, 1970 N 1 O'ld t

S.A IN.S.W ? �•fo,d 1oPerlh Jon.l943 DO< 19<2 ��•Y Jon.l941 <:!- �- '"'----

\�' "----' NEW ZEALAND ,J ,-1 " • Nop.er 19JO rJ (/

This map shows the spread of the Cabbage White Butterfly in Australia and New Zealand

Reports of the butterfly"s establishment places by the dates shown in parentheses: and subsequent spread in Australia (see Canberra, A.C.T. (16th July, 1941), Coota­ map) are scattered through the publications mundra (6th April, 1941), Wagga (22nd of the Departments of Agriculture of the April, 1942), and Gosford (31st December, various States and are more detailed in some 1942). lt was recorded in Queensland instances than in others. before October, 1943. The first specimens reported m Australia The westward movement of the butterfly were two captured in March, 1939, in the was just as phenomenal as its spread north­ grounds of the University of Melbourne and wards. By 1940 it was recorded in the at Canterbury, Victoria. During the first southeast of South Australia, at M urray week of October, 1939, the butterfly was first Bridge, and had reached Lobethal in the seen on the eastern side of Port Phillip Bay, Adelaide Hills by 1942 ; in the same year it and by April, 1940, was seen as far away as was recorded in Western Australia. By Orbost in eastern Victoria and Nhill in January, 1943, the butterfly had been seen at western Victoria. Mundaring and Perth in southwestern On I st January, 1940, the first specimens Western Australia. were captured in Tasmania, at Ulverstone The establishment and spread of this on the northwest coast, and the butterfly butterfly over the whole of North America reached Hobart by October of the same year. and ew Zealand were remarkable, and it is By 1942 it had spread all over the island. not surprising that within 4 years it was In May, 1940, the butterfly was first distributed from southern Queensland south recorded in ew South Wales-at Albury, to Tasmania and west to Western Australia. on the .S. W.-Victorian border-and on lt has been shown that, apart from the 23rd January, 1941, the first specimens were prerequisite of food supply, temperature captured in Sydney. Specimens in the range appears to be a very important factor Australian Museum collection indicate that affecting distribution. Large areas of Aus­ the butterfly had reached the fo llowing tralia are no doubt beyond its range because

AusTralian Narural Hisrory Page 301 natural enemies are parasitic wasps; one is a chalcid, Pteromalus puparum, while the other two are braconids, Apameles glomera/us and Apanreles rubecula. Preroma/us puparum is a pupal parasite and only attacks the pupal stage of the host. The grubs feed and pupate within the pupa of the butterfly. Apanreles glomera/us and A. rubecula are larval parasites. A. g/omerarus lays up to 100 eggs in each young butterfly larva, the grubs feeding within the ho t until it has spun the silken pad for the attachment of the pupa. The butterfly larva then dies, for at this time the grubs eat their way out of its body. They then pupate, and the mass of yellow cocoons which they spin surrounds the dead larva. A. rubecu/a, however, lays only a single egg in each larva, and the wasp grub emerges and pupates when its host is only half grown.

The egg of the Cabbage White Butterfly. Its eThirdly, the climate throughout the natural size is about one-sixteenth of an inch high butterfly's range in Australia appears to be ideal for the development of eggs, larvae, of extremes of heat and the arid nature of and pupae. In the regions of the orthern much of the country. However, where Hemisphere where winters are long, P. rapae conditions were suitable the rapid spread of usually has two broods, sometimes three. the butterfly was aided by the fo llowing The two broods are quite distinct and are three factors: known as spring and summer forms. How­ eFirstly, the larval food plants-of the ever, in Sydney, where winters are short and families Cruciferae (cabbages, cauliflowers, mild, the butterfly has at least eight broods. turnips, radish, etc.), Tropaeolaceae (nas­ As a result it is on the wing throughout the turtium), and Resedaceae (mignonette)­ year, although during June and July speci­ were already well established as vegetables or mens are only seen on the warmer days. lt weeds. has been recorded that breeding is continuous eSecondly, the natural enemies of the throughout the summer in Tasmania and the butterfly did not occur in Australia. Three broods, of which there are four or fiveeach of them have since been introduced and year, overlap each other. In the coastal liberated at many places, and it is reported areas of northern ew South Wales and that they rapidly became established and southern Queensland breeding is probably have a marked beneficial effect. These continuous throughout the year.

A caterpillar of the Cabbage White Butterfly, on a cabbage leaf. These caterpillars are about three-quarters of an inch long and pale green in colour

Page 302 Marrlt, 1970 A pupa of the Cabbage White Butterfly

Due to this large number of broods in appropriate backgrounds they are heavily Sydney there is no distinct seasonal variation. eliminated by insectiverous birds. Larvae Instead, a gradual increase in the size and resembling their backgrounds are successful intensity of the markings occurs from spring in escaping predation, although movement through to late summer. The butterflies destroys their background's protective value. that emerge in spring have small, light lt has been noticed that it is the moving markings; during early summer these mark­ insect which first attracts the attention of the ings become larger and darker until mid and predator. late summer, when the markings reach their The colour of the pupae also provides maximum size and intensity of colour. some protection from birds, as the pupae are Although the early stages of the life­ thought to be affected by their environment. history are well known, it is interesting to It is said that those found on a green back­ compare the lengths of each stage of meta­ ground are more often green than dark­ morphosis in Sydney with the recorded coloured, and those found on a dark back­ lengths for each stage in Europe (British ground, such as fences, walls, and trees, are Isles). The average length of each stage, more often dark in colour than green. for the months of February and March, The story of the spread of the Cabbage in Sydney are: egg, 4-5 days; larva, 13 White in Australia parallels that of other days; and pupa, 9 days. For the British introduced animals-animals introduced into Isles they are: egg, 5 days; larva, 20 days; a suitable environment and one without and pupa, 21 days. These differences are effective predators and competitors. The accounted fo r by the different climates and Cabbage White is here to stay ; it is now a day-lengths of each area. part of the Australian ecosystem. A research worker in the U.S. has suggested [The pho1os in 1his article are by C. V. that seasonal variation in the markings of the Turner. The map is by 1he aulhor.] adult butterflies may be due to factors such as length of day, rate of development, and FURTHER READI G temperature during the larval stage, and Evans. J. W. ( 1940): ''The Cabbage Butterfly'·. length of time spent in the pupal stage. Ta smanian Journal of Agriculrure, 11 (4), 202-204. Although these factors may play a role in Ford, E. B. ( 1945): Bull er/lies. Coli ins, London. nature. it is not known to what extent each Kolyer, J. M. (1969): "Effects of Environmental may determine vanatton, as experiments Factors on the Markings of Pieris rapae (Pieri­ with larvae and pupae have not been con­ dae)... Joumal of rite Lepidop rerisrs· Sociery, 13 clusive. (2): 77-94. Experiments have been conducted on the M uggeridge, J. ( 1942): "The White Butterny ( Pieris rapae L.)... New Zealand Joumal of protective adaptions in the larvae of P. rapae. Science (Tech. A.) 24 (3), 107-129. They are cryptically coloured, for they Pescott, R. T. M. (1940): "Those White Butter­ are green and match the leaves on which they f1ies... Wild Ltfe, Melbourne 2 ( 11). 12-1 3, feed. When the larvae are placed on in- 22-73, 46.

Ausrralian Na111ral Hisrory Page 303 Hypothala1sia armata (left), a quarter na1ural size, and Ranina ranina. a lhird nalural si7e

AUS TRALIAN CRABS

By D. J. G. GRIFFJ Curator of Crustaceans and Coelenterates, Australian Museum

HE true crabs, or Brachyura, form one pairs are present), but in the fe male are of the three major groups of Reptant or very hairy and hold the developing eggs. Twalking Decapod (ten-legged) Crustacea. the Male crabs usually have longer nipper limbs others being the crayfish and lobster and a narrower abdomen than the fe males. (Macrura) and the half crabs and hermit Like all arthropods, crab grow by a erie crabs (Anomura). There are about 1.200 of moults. The moult cycle. the develop­ pecie of Decapod Crustacea in Australia, ment of econdary sexual characteristics. and the Brachyura include more than half colour change, and a number of other pro­ of the e, about 670 species, grouped into 23 ce ses are controlled by hormones usually fa milies. ecreted by the central nervous y tern. Crab (the name Brachyura means short­ The life-cycle includes a number of larval tailed) have the short. flattened abdomen stage , zoeae, which are free-floating and fo lded under the body, which is enclosed in a fo rm part of the temporary plankton. generally heavily calcified carapace. The Finally. crabs breathe by mean of gill eyes are on stalks and usually can be retracted attached in series to the base of each thoracic into hollow orbits. The two pairs of appendage and to the adjacent wall of the antennae are located anteriorly. The mouth gill cavily and protected by the overhanging i surrounded by six pairs of appendage , ide of the carapace. including three pairs, the maxillipeds, which are modified thoracic appendages. Only Five major groups of crabs the fir t pair of legs are provided with There are five major groups of crabs : nippers. The remaining four pairs may be the Oxystomata (pebble crabs. box crab , variou ly modified for digging or swimming, etc.), in which the outer maxillipeds are etc. The abdominal appendages are modi­ triangular in shape (in other crab the fied for reproduction in the male (only two mouthparts close to form a rectangle); the

Page 304 March. 1970 Dromiacea (sponge crabs). in which the last often heavily encrusted with worm tubes. pair of legs are reduced, provided with two small oy ters, lace corals, and other organ­ claws at the tip, and fo lded up over the back: ! IllS. the Oxyrhyncha (spider crabs or masking Spider crabs commonly have variou crabs), which have a somewhat triangular organi m attached to the carapace, and some carapace with a narrow front sometimes intertidal species appear to have a garden of produced into spines; the cancroid crabs, seaweed growing on their backs. In fact. which have a round or transversely oval the seaweed is plucked from the sides of carapace; and the grapsoid crabs, which rocks and placed on the back by the very have a square or rectangular carapace. mobile chelipeds; there it attaches to special These two group , cancroids and grapsoids. curled hairs which occur in clumps over the include between them the bulk of crab species carapace. The common little Seaweed Crab and comprise a large number of families (Naxia tumida) may be completely covered by such as the Portunidae (swimming crabs); se;;��eed. Xanthidae (reef crabs), Grapsidae and Ocypodidae (ghost crabs, fiddler crabs, etc.). Among other large crabs are a number of These different groups are found in different swimming crabs, including the two com­ parts of the seas and oceans. For instance, mercially exploited species, the Blue Swimmer whilst nearly all have intertidal and offshore (Portunus pelagicus) up to 7 inches across the representative , xanthids, grapsids and ocy­ carapace, and the Mud Crab (Scylla serrata), podids are almost confined to intertidal areas, up to 8 inches wide. These two swimming and sponge crabs and spider crabs are crabs are extremely widely distributed largely offshore, rather solitary animals. throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans. and the Blue Swimmer is the only Australian In common with the general pattern Decapod which occurs right around the found in other animals and plants, there are whole Australian coastline. many more species in tropical areas than in temperate regions. Most crabs in Australia The sponge crabs, as already mentioned, are marine, only two families have truly have very short last legs provided with two freshwater representatives, and three include hooks at the end. These animals contin­ semi-terrestrial or terrestrial species. ually wear a sponge cap which sometimes is so large that it covers the whole animal. The hooked, upturned legs are used to move Australia's largest crab the sponge into position and help to hold it The largest crab in Australia is the giant in place. The crab actually cuts out the Tasmanian crab Pseudocarcinus gigas, an piece of sponge and trims it to the required offshore xanthid found in the Bass Strait shape. ot a great deal is known about area. This animal grows up to 18 inches Australian sponge crabs. One of the species across the carapace, with one chela larger which is not uncommon intertidally i than the other, and up to 17 inches long from Petalomera lateralis. A related species. base to tip of fingers; large ones may weigh Cryptodromia octodentata, is unusual in up to 30 pounds. Another large xanthid that the larval stages are passed within the found off outhern Australia and also in egg and the young hatch as small crabs. Japan, Hy pothalassia armata, is rather smaller, about Si inches across the carapace. The Oxystomata This animal has long spines around the sides of the carapace and covering the upper The Oxystomata include two main groups. surface of the nippers and legs. Spider the Leucosiidae or pebble crabs a'i;d the crabs of the genus Leptomithrax also attain a Calappidae or box crabs. The leucosiids very large size. One southern species, L. generally have rounded bodies and long gaimardii, reaches a carapace length of chelipeds, and the fa mily includes some 6 inches and almost 2 feet across the legs. extremely abundant offshore species. such as These crabs moult in May in shallow water the ut Crab (Phlyxia intermedia), which and sometimes come ashore in very large occurs in very large numbers on soft sedi­ number around Tasmania, Victoria, and ments around southern Australia. A related South Au tralia in autumn. The animals species, the Smooth Pebble Crab (Philyra washed up are large, and their bodies are lae1•is) is common in estuaries and can be

Australia11 atural History Page 305 Top (from left ): Carpi/ius macula/us, one-third natural size; Eriphia sebana, half natural size. Centre (from left): Trape=ia cymodoce, x 1.25; Cymo andreossyi, twice natural size. Below (from left): Leucosia ana/11111, x 1.25; Parathelplwsa lrans•·ersa, two-thirds natural size.

Page 306 March, 1970 seen moving about at low tide searching for The most common species around southern food by pushing its hands down into the Australia is Pinnotheres pisum, which occurs soft mud. The late H. M. Hale wrote of in mussels (genus Mytilus). In these crabs the courtship behaviour of this crab: "A the fe male grows to a greater size than the male selects a fe male and moves around her male and the carapace never hardens. The in a clumsy sort of dance; after a time the males are much less commonly found than female, as if fascinated, fo lds her legs and the fe males. remains quiescent. The male then seizes his consort with one or other of his large Abundant intertidal crabs chelipeds, and bears her off at arm's length, the fe male remaining all the time quite The xanthids are by fa r the most diverse motionless". This species burrows very and most common tropical reef crabs. rapidly by tilting its front upwards and More than 160 species occur in Australia, moving its legs quickly. In tropical regions and most of these are widely distributed the common leucosiids are species of Leuco­ throughout the lndo-Pacific. The Red-Eyed sia, often brightly coloured and having a Crab (Eriphia sebana) is frequently seen peculiar channel in the side of the carapace scuttling along the beach rock and reef crest just above the point of attachment of the of coral islands. This is a scavenger and chelipeds. This channel and the base of the hides under rocks and sometimes in crevices. chelipeds are often surrounded by prominent The Shawl Crab (Atergatis floridus), so tubercles. Several species vary quite widely named because of the lace-like pattern on its in coloration. One, Leucosia anatum, which back, is common in shallow water just off occurs in Western Australia and throughout the reef crest. Another species, Carpi/ius much of the lndo-Pacific area, is found in maculatus, sometimes called the Blood­ four diffe rent forms or "morphs". One is spotted Crab (not to be confused with the generally stone-grey to brown above with a swimmer, Portunus sanguinolentus) or Spotted horseshoe pattern of white spots on the back, Pebble Crab, is also commonly fo und in and the tubercles on the chelipeds are orange. shallow reef areas. Species of Phymodius, In others there are red circles, large white Actaea, and Liomera are often found hiding spots, and small red spots on the carapace. under rocks and among corals. Chlorodiella Not surprisingly, this species has been species are found in huge numbers in clumps described under eight diffe rent specificnames. of seaweed, whilst small xanthids such as Cymo andreossyi and Trapezia cymodoce are Calappids or box crabs have large flattened found in large numbers amongst branching chelae which fold in front of the "face'' in a corals such as Pocillopora and Acropora. particular way, each being provided with a complex series of grooves and bumps. They In southern parts of Australia the most are commonly dredged in the sandy lagoons abundant intertidal crabs are grapsids. The of reefs. One species common on the Great Steelback (Leptograpsus variegatus) is typical Barrier Reef is Ca/appa hepatica. of rocky coasts exposed to pounding surf. The body and legs are flattened so that it is The fa mily Raninidae is sometimes con­ able to shelter in narrow crevices, and the sidered to be closely related to the Oxystomes. terminal two segments of each walking leg This fa mily includes the Spanner Crab are provided with stout spines which enable (Ranina ranina), a strange looking animal it to grip rock so effectively that a strong wave with large spinous flanges around the front can wash over it without dislodging it. of the carapace. The tips of the legs are The Steelback forages around the sides of flattened and used fo r burrowing. rock stacks and boulders and feeds mainly on encrusting algae, which it scrapes off with Parasitic crabs the spooned fingers of its chelae. Species There are several groups of crabs which similar in shape and habits, belonging to the live as commensals or parasites. Probably genus Grapsus, are very common in tropical the best known are the Pinnotheridae or Pea areas (see Ausrralian Natural His1or-y, Vol. Crabs, which are found in the mantle cavity 15, o. 2, June 1965, p. 37). Species of of bivalved molluscs such as oysters, mussels, Cy clograpsus and Paragrapsus are common and scallops and also in some other animals, on more sheltered coasts in southern Aus­ including holothurians or sea cucumbers. tralia.

Australian Natural History Page 307 The fiddler crabs ( Uca), ghost crab beginning of this cenlllry. Yet a lot of (Ocypode). and sentinel crab (Macroph­ work remains to be done in the field ofboth thalmus), of the family Ocypodidae. are the taxonomy and biolog) . most abundant crab on estuarine flats and river bank in tropical Australia. All live in [The pho10s in 1his article are by C. V. burrow and have a fa irly complex array of Turner.] social behaviour patterns (see Australian atural History, Vol. 15, o. 3, September Ft;RTHER READI:-;G

1965, p. 87). Some fiddler crabs and gho t Cru.\/acea/1.\. bv Waldo Schmitt. crab appear to communicate by making Michigan Press. U.S.A .. 1965. noise . rubbing a ridged area on some part The Cru.lla< ea11s of Somh A usrralia. b) Hcrbcrt M. of the cheliped against a smooth area on the Hale. Go\ crnment Printer. Adelaide, 19�7. ba e of the cheliped or the underside of the Pacific Cru;rucea, by S. W. Tinker. Charlc� F. carapace, or by tapping or drumming on the Tunic. Tokyo, 1965. ground with their chelae or walking legs. Article; b) Melbourne Ward in The l'i<·roriau However, there is no evidence that these a111ralisr, Vol. 46, No. 4, 19::!9. p. 75: The crab can detect air-borne sounds. Onl) Au\rraliall Zoologisr. Vol. 5. Part 3, 192R. p. 24 1. and Vol. 13. Part 2. 1965. p. 127: and Proceeding� recently it ha been discovered that nerves in of the Royal Zoological Socict� of .S.\V., 1967. the leg of one species of Ocypode and a p. 59. .. pecie of Uca respond to short tone Crabs of the S)dne) Foreshores··. b) F. A. tran mined through the ground. Me 'cill. in Ausrralia11 J\'arurul Hisron.· \'ol. 14. o. ::!. June. 1962.

Fre hwater crabs The only truly freshwater crabs in Australia are the ix pecies of Parathelphusa (family Potamidae) and the little flat-backed crab BOOK RE VIEW Halicarcinus lacustris, although one of the outhern Australian grapsids, Leptograpsodes AUSTRALIAN WILDFLO\\ER I� COLOUR; octodentatus, sometimes lives in hyposaline photographs by Douglass Baglin, text by !Jarbara Mullins; published by A. H. and �. W. Reed, ydney, pools or near freshwater seepages (see 1969; 112 pages. 109 colour plates. Price $3.95. Australian Natural History, 3, Vol. 14, o. Among the diversity of illustrated books on September 1962, p. 71). There are six Australian flowers now available, this relatively specie of Parathelphusa in Australia and small volume is notable for it widely representative five of them are fo und only in the Cape York selection of plants and for the excellent illustrations Penin ula area of Queensland. The sixth which accompany the brief. informative text. specie , P. transrersa, occurs in the orthern Examples of thiny-two families are treated. including those generally most familiar in temperate Territory, Queensland (not Cape York Australia as well as some of the most handsome Penin ula). and 'ew South Wales. These flower of nonhern and inland Australia. crab are fo und in creeks, swamps, spring , For each family the distribution and si/c are river pool and fa rm dams and drains, where indicated, with mention of well-known or eco­ they burrow into the mud banks. During nomically imponant members. otes follow on drought the burrow mouth is sealed by a the panicular species illu trated. giving an outline of their distribution and other points of interest. plug of earth, thus preventing evaporation. Mistakes arc few, but the following were noted : The larval stages are passed within the eggs, Lecythidaceae (page 66) and Tr ichiuium (p. 82) are which hatch as young crabs. mi spelled, and the plant illustrated as .. Careya specie ·· (p. 66) is Plauchouia careya. Halicarcinus lacus1ris (family Hymenoso­ A book of this size cannot be comprehensive, and matidae) is one of the spider crab group. is therefore only to a limited extent useful for lt i a small animal, black or dark brown in identification, particularly as the empha i on the colour, occurring beneath stones in lakes and flowers in the photographs. while leading to most attractive illustrations, is sometimes at the expense streams in ew Zealand, orfolk and Lord of other features useful in recognition. Some Howe Islands, and southeastern Australia. indication of the scale of the photographs would have been helpful. Crab are of widespread interest to many. This attracti\e publication will ha\e wide appeal r About 60 pe cent of the species known from and i� good value.-Barbara G. Briggs, Royal Australia have been described since the Borauic Gardeus. Syduey.

\1arch. 1970 -

The author (centre) and two native carriers fe rrying cargo acros the nooded Pio Ri\er on a raft during a reptile-collecting expedition.

COLLECTING REP TI LES AND AMPHIBIANS IN NE W GUINEA

By FRED PARKER Assistant District Officer, Daru, Western District, 'ew Guinea

ARLY in 1960 I arrived in ew Guinea prehensile-tailed skinks with habits very and was posted to Bougainville Island, much like those of the Australian blue­ inE the northern part of the Solomon Islands. tongue SpJBZ!J and which ate only leaves and Initially, I was kept busy learning the varied fruit high in the trees. At night, in the aspects of a general administrative position village rest houses of woven sago palm leaves. with the Government. lt was when it came brown tree-snakes would chase and catch to the practical side-road building and rats in the rafters and fat sluggish ground patrolling over the large rugged island pythons would crawl under boxes and into covered in dense rainforest that I took notice beds. of the many striking species of reptiles to be Having had an amateur interest in reptiles found along the narrow tracks between while still in Australia, I tried to put name villages, from sea-level to over 8,000 feet, to the many species I saw, and came up through lowland swamps and along razor­ against the great barrier in ew Guinea back ridges. In patches of sunlight in the taxonomy-many of the papers describing its dark gloomy fo rest there were small scurrying reptiles and amphibians are scattered through gold-striped skinks with iridescent blue tails, old and obscure journals in German, Italian, thin grey tree-snake swiftly darting into the Dutch, French, and other languages. Most undergrowth, large noisy black goannas with collections have been made by worker yellow spots, and large green and brown during short visits to various places, and

Australian Natural History Page 309 many of the e collectors were not primarily the native people are often willing collector interested in herpetology. Thus, each of the of animals and plants. But the degree of scattered papers dealt with only a few specie willingne depends on many thing -the and rarely was there any information knowledge the people ha\e of the specimens recorded about the living animals. By wanted. the kind and magnitude of the writing to many Museums I obtained copie rewards offered. whether the rea on for the of the e papers. and when Or Ernest collecting have been adequately explained, Williams, of the Museum of Comparative understood, and accepted, and any fea r or Zoology, Harvard, wrote to suggest dislike the people may have of all or ome of publishing ob ervations on the life- history the thing wanted. So a collector in any and behaviour of Bougainville animals, biological field should not come to ew collecting quickly expanded to fill all my Guinea expecting to make a comprehen ive pare time. After 4 years I moved to the "armchair" collection by enlisting the aid of central highlands of ew Guinea, where native collectors. there were diffe rent species of reptiles, diffe rent people, and diffe rent habitats­ Villagers' knowledge of wanted specimens montane grasslands and stunted moss forest Surpri ingly enough, the village people do a well as normal rainforest. I found that not always know all the specie of reptile native collectors were bringing in the bulk and amphibians to be found in the country- of my collections, as far as numbers went, ide in which they live, hunt, and garden. but that most ob ervations on the habits and As a rule, the animals which are best known habitat of the living animals resulted from are those which are hunted for food, tho e my own trip by day and night. which are dangerous, and those which are strikingly noticeable in behaviour or The native people as collectors appearance. On Bougainville the habits of I found native collectors a mixed blessing. the two species of large river frogs, Discode/es In ew Guinea, as in many tropical countries, guppyi and D. bufoniformis, are well known

Corucia =ebrata, a large aboreal skink found only in the Solomon Islands, is strikingly similar in appearance and behaviour to the Australian Blue-tongues.

Page 310 March, 1970 This froglet. Platymantis parkeri, is less than half an inch long when fully grown, and is found in leaf litter on the forest floor on Bougainville Island. it is dark red­ brown with yellowish markings and white bands on the lips.

to the natives because the legs of these frogs limit their actiVIties to the more common are a popular item in the diet. Similarly, the species and lose interest when one limits prehensile-tailed skink, Corucia zebra/a, also purchases to only the more unusual and an item of food, the estuarine crocodile, uncommon kinds. Adults supply the larger Crocody/us porosus, occasionally a man-eater, and rarer species. the striking forest dragon, Goniocephalus Another feature becoming more common godeffroyi, and the ficusgecko, Cy rtodactylus in many parts of New Guinea is a widespread /ouisiadensis, are well known to the people; lack of knowledge about wildlife on the part all of them have names in the native of the younger generation in the more languages, and are most commonly collected sophisticated areas. Older children have by the people. In the central highlands, grown up in Government and m1ss1on where protein is at a premium, the many tree schools, away from the influence of their frogs normally collected by the women for parents, who would normally teach them bush food are well known and easily collected, lore, and in one or two generations this whereas the many species of burrowing and knowledge may be lost. leaf-dwelling Microhylid frogs, none of which are eaten, are not as well known, more Rewards rarely collected and do not have distinctive Some knowledge of the people in an area names in the local languages. In most of is a necessity if one is to ask them to collect the areas in which I have collected, the small specimens. In the more developed groups cryptic lizards, frogs, and snakes, which are money is the acceptable payment for animals of much importance in taxonomy, are little brought in. In more backward areas, if there known by the native people, and groups of are no stores in which money can be put to species are lumped together under single use it is not accepted. The amount to be names according to habitat, size, or colour. paid for a given animal also requires careful In many cases of very small cryptic species, I consideration. Higher prices should not be have collected all specimens myself-native paid only for large animals if they are people have not brought any in at all. Often difficult to catch, but also for species which a group of collectors have become most are obviously rare and those which are enthusiastic when I have been able to valued for food or other reasons. In many describe in detail some small species of which parts of Bougainville I have fo und the people they knew little or nothing. afraid of all snakes, even though none of the Children are often the most enthusiastic land snakes there are dangerous, and have collectors in a village, but, generally speaking, offered higher prices for them to ensure

Australian Natural History Page 311 representation of the species. In parts of atmosphere warmed noticeably. Many times New Guinea large native collections may I have been asked why various white men, contain no goannas (Va ran us species) or green myself included, insist on collecting every­ tree-pythons (Chondropyrhon viridis ). This thing from rocks and artefacts to animals and is because goanna skins are used to cover plants. A rambling reply describing the wooden hour-glass drums (kundus) and museums, universities, and taxonomy, and green tree-pythons are a valued food, why diffe rent species inhabit different areas especially in the highlands. Incentives have and habitats, could make the people much to be tailored to fit these groups. more interested in collecting and could over­ come any misgivings the villagers had about When 1 took time off for a trip from collecting. In areas where sorcery is Karimui, in the central highlands, to common and much feared, an interest by a Baimuru, in the Gulf of Papua, through stranger in snakes or particular kinds of frogs villages which have not had a lot of contact could be interpreted to mean that he intended by the Administration, I packed quantities to use them in sorcery. Again, in some areas of razor blades, matches, twist tobacco, axes, people felt reptile collecting might be a knives, and lengths of coloured calico. commercial venture and wanted to know Despite flooded rivers, timid native:. who whether this was the case and, if so, how the fa ded into the forest leaving deserted villages, animals were marketed. Once, near Kieta, and the loss of many carriers who were on Bougainville, the rumour spread that all afraid to cross tribal boundaries for fear of the snakes brought in to me were being sent sorcery, I arrived on the coast with specimens to Japan to be cooked and put into tins of representing over I 00 species of reptiles and fish. This led to some very fa st talking-! amphibians. Many of these have proved to made my explanations to irate storekeepers be undescribed. Had I taken money 1 with large stocks of unsaleable tinned fish. would have had very few specimens brought Thus, the amount of assistance the village in by the people. people will give collectors often depends on a truthful explanation of the reasons for Importance of explanations scientific collecting and the degree to which Often village people extend, at the best, a it is accepted and understood. cool welcome to a visiting patrol officer, since he has both police and judicial powers. Fear an important fa ctor Many times I found that an interest in wildlife Apart from a common fear of nakes, led to discussions with the men, and using both harmless and dangerous, many native local names and detailed descriptions of the groups have totems-forbidden animals habits of various snakes and lizards I which members of particular clans or managed to "break the ice" and the lineages cannot touch or kill. The long list

The ew Guinea fresh­ water crocodile. Crocod­ ylus noraeguineae. This young specimen is about 3 fe et long. The species grows 10 about 11 feet and is harmless to man.

Page 312 March, 1970 The large nocturnal venomous snake Micro· pechis ikaheka, found under logs and rubbish in the ew Guinea low- lands.

of totems includes many larger birds, some instance from the coast to the highlands. marsupials, and such reptiles as turtles, Careful questioning ensures that specimens crocodiles, and pythons. Where some bought in a particular area do in fact reptiles are endowed with mystical powers or belong there. are the subject of a particular belief there By learning where the villagers find the may be a reluctance or refusal on the part of animals they bring in I have also learned to the villagers to collect them. This applies look for places where villagers do not seek often to snakes, which are incorporated in the smaller frogs and lizards. As a result, cults and ceremonies, and, in some areas, are many interesting cryptic species have fo und believed to be the agents of sorcerers. Any their way into my collections. Some small of these fa ctors can leave gaps in reptile species I have collected only myself, none collections. having appeared in large collections brought in to me. Near Kainantu, in the highlands, Valuable collections a low croak in the extensive swamps in the These limitations do not prevent large open grasslands led to a find of a new small collections made by the native people from green frog, Hyla contrastens, which the being extremely valuable. On a quick visit natives had not collected. It was named and to a place, by far the best results are to be described only in 1968. In the mountains had by purchasing animals from villagers. near Goroka while Dr Richard Zweifel, of It is by such means that most collections have New York, was with me collecting on patrol, been made in New Guinea to date. But we spent one night picking minute brown there is room for improvement on this type frogs off the leaves of clumps of pitpit or of collecting. For instance, when an unusual wild sugar cane. The frog's call was like specimen turns up amongst common species that of a small insect, and the native people brought in by native collectors I discuss the had assured us that frogs did not live in animals's habitat in detail with the collector these exposed clumps on the open ridges. if time permits, and also attempt to go to This is a species of Cophixalus, yet to be the actual site. Questions about even the described and named. common species can result in unexpected information. There can be other surprises Results of collecting which must be guarded against. Often a Nine years of collecting in various parts man away working or visiting will pick up of New Guinea, by many hundreds of native an animal that interests him and take it home collectors and myself, have added con­ as a pet. Parrots, hornbills, possums, tree siderably to the known herpetofauna of kangaroos, pythons, and goannas are so New Guinea. From Bougainville four new transported for considerable distances-for species of lizards, eight of frogs and one

Australian Natural History Page 313 blind snake either ha\e been described or diffe rent form in the variou habitats of ew soon will be. And many years ago it was Guinea and there would till be extensive said that almo t certainly the fa una of the gaps in knowledge. An under landing of the island was then well known. From ew full fa una of ew Guinea is necessary before Guinea, the pecimens collected have still the origin of Australia' wildlife can be to be fully studied and compared with the known. scattered de criptions in the literature. At [The photos in this m·ticle are by the author.] least four new lizards and six frogs have turned up o far. Many observation on the FuRTHER REAOI;\'G habits, habitat, and breeding behaviour have ell) de Rooij : The Rep1iles of 1he tndo-Aus1ralian yet to be a embled into order fo r publi hing Archipelago (2 volumes), Leiden, Holland, 1915. -a difficult task when new collections are P. . van Kampen: The Amphihia of 1he tndo- coming in all the time. Auslralian Archpelago,i Leiden, Holland, 1923. Arthur Lovcridge: Rep1iles of 1he Pacific World• The end is nowhere in sight. Many ew York, 1945. collectors of reptiles and amphibians (and Michael J. Tyler: "Papuan Hylid Frogs of the any other forms of life you care to mention) Genus Hyla,.. in Zoologilche Ve rhandelingen, could pend their lifetime tudying the Lciden, Holland, 1968.

BOO/( RE VIEW

ELEME 'TS OF E TOMOLOGY, by Harold back to. The illustrations vary in their quality Oldroyd. Weidenfeld and 'icolson. London, 1968; from poor to excellent: for example, plate 48 (of a 312 pages, 70 text figures, SO black and white plates. mosquito) is poor, plates 49 and 50 are not Price, 6.65. convincing, whereas plate 25 is very fine. This is a book consisting of a brief introduction, 1t is inevitable that, when one author attempts to twenty-three relatively short chapters, an appendix, cover so wide a field as that of insects and their a bibliography and an index. In the introduction biology, as is attempted here, there would be errors it is stated that the purpose of the book is to bridge of fact and certain inaccuracies. These, however, the gap between school and university or between are comparatively few in this book and whilst they courses of general biology and courses of zoology may irritate specialists they are of little consequence or specialist entomology. Jt is stressed that the to the general reader and do not detract from the book is not a teaching manual but a book for value of the book from his point of view. Perhaps background reading in addition to recommended some of these could have been eliminated by text books. The book, therefore, is decidedly reference to a specialist. aimed at the serious student. The facts presented The most important chapters are chapter 8 and are essentially the same as those which are to be those which follow. The material of the first found in many modern texts on entomology, and seven chapters is inevitably repetition of material they are presented in popular terms wherever possible. to be found in many other elementary general texts. Chapters I to 7 are arranged �ery much as in 1t is some years since the subject matter in the many other recent texts. The first chapter is a later chapters of this book has been presented in general introductory one giving the fundamental popular vein, and since the earlier publications anatomy of the insect. The second relates to there ha been considerable advance in knowledge immature insect , and chapters 3 to 7 deal with the in the many spheres of insect biology which are various orders and other groups of insects in a covered. More widespread appreciation of the systematic fashion. For each of these the salient value of insects as experimental animals, the features of their biolog) arc indicated. Chapters tremendous improvement in technique and the 8 to 10 deal essentiall) with certain restricted aspects greater number of research worker in entomology of insect biolog) such as 'ision, sound and hearing, have all contributed to great advances in insect Right and adaptation to terrestrial and aquatic physiolog) and insect beha' iour studies. The emironments. Chapters 13 and 14 arc devoted to essence of much recent work which has not feeding, and 15 to 17 are devoted to the social pre' iously been reported in popular literature is insects. Chapter 18 i a generaI chapter on condensed in thi volume; sometime this could behaviour. and the remaining chapters deal \\ith have been more accurately done, but it is mostly the various economic aspects of entomology. well done. Each of these chapters forms a general introduction This book is recommended to the layman who to its subject for the intelligent lay reader. For wishes to obtain modern general information on the serious student it would perhaps be preferable insects and their biology. Jf it leads to more detailed to proceed dircctl) to more technical text . reading in any of the brieR) co,ered sections, the This i a good introductory book on insects. few inadequate sections will be ob' ious: if not, The la)out, "ith clear chapter headings and clear at least the general picture "ill ha'e been well headings to ections, makes it an ea ) book to go presented.-C. '. Smi1hers, Aus!ralicm Museum.

Page 314 March, 1970 The Production of Horizontal High­ tidal Shore Platforms

B�· i'\ORMA K. SA 'DERS Assistant Professor of Geography, ni\'ersity of California, U.S.A.

ORIZO TAL platforms at the approxi­ platforms for over a century. One compli­ H mate level of high tide occur on many of cating fa ctor i the number of different the world's shore . but ome of the best platform types pos ible. Horizontal, high­ examples can be fo und on the southeastern tidal platform are the most spectacular. but Australian coast. From northern ew South fo rms such as horizontal supratidal. hori­ Wales to Tasmania. shore platforms give zontal subtidal. and loping intertidal al o di tinctive character to the coastal scener) occur. and are great attraction fo r fishermen and Theories of horizontal high-tidal platform scientists alike. For the fisherman, the formation have become polarized into two rewards are immediate and satisfying. The basic areas: (I) Shore platforms at pre ent cientist must be content with less tangible exposed at high tide were cut by wave­ and sometimes inconclu ive results. propelled rock abrasion when relative Geologists and geomorphologists have ea-level was higher: (2) shore platform have been trying to explain the fo rmation of shore been fo rmed by some agency or combination

Australian a/ural History Page 315 of agencies with sea-level near the present Underwater investigation was being carried height. If shore platforms were produced on at the same time as the mapping of the by wave abrasion at a higher sea-level, then exposed platforms. The ub-surface survey they would be good indicators of sea-level hawed that a number of distinct platform change, and they have in fact been cited as existed offshore, producing a tepped profile evidence by many researchers. which was eventually obscured by sand at a Earlier worker tended to neglect three depth of about 40 fe et. Thi tepped profile major avenues of investigation which are might have upported the theory of under­ important in defining the proce es involved water formation of shore platforms by rock in hore platform development. These are: abrasion except that any rock present were preci e mapping of the platform surfaces, wedged firmly in crack and matted with laboratory work including wave tank experi­ organisms. The platform surfaces them- ments, and underwater study. In addition, elves were al o completely covered with algae the influence of biological factors, climate, and other fo rms. These observation wave characteri tic . and tidal regime were matched tho e made elsewhere in Tasmania often overlooked. it was in the e neglected and the Pacific Basin and indicate that area that I concentrated my research, ubmarine rock abrasion. while locally supported by a Fulbright Grant and a important in Britain, may be of le s conse­ University of Tasmania Scholarship. quence elsewhere in the world.

Mapping Bevelling repeated The mapping phase of the tudy was When the Eaglehawk eck survey wa concentrated in the Eaglehawk eck area of completed. platforms in other pans of the the Forestier Peninsula, 30 air miles southeast State were measured. The bevelling found of Hobart. Detailed surveys of the plat­ in the sandstones of Eaglehawk eck forms were accomplished with a Wild TO occurred in other sedimentary rocks on the theodolite. The data was plotted to obtain Tasmanian coa t. More ignificantly. the map with scales of I inch to 10 fe et and Tertiary ba alt along Ba Strait were al o contour intervals of 6 inches, with elevations bevelled into horizontal platforms at the level tied to a sea-level datum through the use of a of mean higher high water. even though the portable tide gauge developed fo r the project. tide range between mean higher high water As the maps were compiled, they began to and mean lower low water was over 9 fe et how some intere ting similarities. One of (compared to a ran�e of2·6 fe et at Eaglehawk the mo t striking was the bevelling of the eck). One platform at Don Heads. near loping sedimentary rock urfaces to produce Devonpon. showed extreme horizontality : a horizontal area near the elevation of mean urface elevation varied only 0·28 feet over higher high water. In some instances the the 10.000- quare-foot area. The arched and rock was not bevelled, but was deeply pitted. plunging nature of the olivine basalis in The pits extended downward to the approxi­ which the platform is cut rule out the pos i­ mate level of mean higher high water and bility of stripping by wave action to a then topped. Thi would eem to indicate horizontal joint plane. Again. the evidence that the bevelling process wa at present pointed toward ome sub-aerial weathering active and that some mechanism hould be process which was limited in it downward apparent. Abrasion by wave-propelled action. rocks has often been mentioned as a platform­ A proce ha been mentioned periodically producing force. In this in tance, however. in the literature which could account fo r the the pits were narrow and deep and contained horizontality noted on the hore platform no tool stone . Another alternative wa tudied. but details of how the process sub-aerial weathering-the gradual break­ actually worked were canty. The mech­ down of rocks by chemical, mechanical, and anism was called "Water Layer Weathering··, organic force . Weathering eemed a more proposed by C. K. Wentworth in 1938. plausible explanation, but why should the He believed that alternate wetting and proce develop a horizontal urface which drying of rock in the coa tal zone encouraged i at the same elevation on a number of breakdown through surface tension phen­ different platform ? Obviously, further omena, colloidal and dilation behaviours, study wa needed. and recry tallization of alts. This action

Page 316 March. 1970 would be inhibited by permanent wetne Laboratory te t the saturation level in the rock. Of all the To determine if the Ta manian rocks were water-layer weathering processes, alt permeable enough to meet the req uirements crystallization otTers the mo t possibilities for salt crystallization weathering, laboratory for rapid removal of material to a base level. te t were conducted. Sample included The brine enters minute cracks in the rock Permian sand tone and Tertiary basalts, both and evaporates. Crystals then grow in the of which often support horizontal platform . concentrated solution left behind, exerting and Devonian granite and Jurassic dolerite. pressure on the walls of the crack. Even­ which usually have sloping urface . One tually the pressure may cause the rock of the tests consisted of measurements of the particle to flake ofT and the process begins ample rocks cut into 1-inch cubes and again on the newly exposed urfa ce. immersed in altwater for 70 hour . The For salt crystallization to bevel coastal ba alt, ho t of the extremely horizontal rocks into horizontal shore platforms. three platform at Don Heads, absorbed the most condition must be met : (I) Rocks mu t have water-5·1 1 per cent by weight. The Eagle­ characteri tics allowing entry of sea-water for hawk eck andstones ab orbed 3·01 per salt cry tallization, and, when the process cent water by weight, while the dolerite reache its final stages, to permit sufficient and granite took on 0·34 per cent and 0·26 water-flow to prevent crystallization at a per cent, respectively. The test showed that certain level: (2) the rocks must contain a basalt and sandstone could take on appre­ horizontal water table; (3) the proces must ciable quantitie of water which might fa vour be rapid enough to act before other mechan­ the action of salt crystallization. isms with lower base levels can degrade the The existence of a horizontal water table surface. in the rock i more difficult to measure.

A platform in the process of being bevelled. Eaglehawk cck. Tasmania. The white p:llchc on the platform surface are salt crystals. The very small white objects arc the gra7ing periwinkle Melaraplw umfasciara. The �urvcy rod is calibrated in tenths of fee t. [Photo: Author.]

AusTralian 1arura/ Hisrory Page 317 My crude experiment consi ted of drilling was so low on the cliff that any horizontal hole in platform surface and weighing platform produced would be below mean oven-dried sample taken from within the ea-level. A platform shape ubjected to platform itself. Re ults of the weighing wave attack became degraded into a sloping experiments indicated that the rock was form. indicating� that, in ome case , wave saturated, but horizontality of the water action may be de troying horizontal plat­ table was impossible to determine. forms.

peed of crystallization ummary Like the characteri tic of rock aturation, In summary. shore platform are developed the rapidity of alt crystallization is not easy in respon e to a number of interacting to prove. However. an old bridge abutment pa sive and active factor . Passive factor at St Helens, Tasmania, shows evidence for are inherent in the rock itself and active very rapid rock disintegration in the peritidal factors produce the platform morphology. environment. The rock, a Tria sic sand- Active factors include weathering, the tone. ha been in place for about 100 years. activity of organi ms, hydraulic proce e . It i deeply pitted. with ome of the hole and environmental con iderations. The e mea uring 9 inche deep and 15 inches in consideration are climate, tidal regime and diameter. Thi ma ive breakdown of wave characteristics. all of which have material has occurred in blocks artificially influence over platform development. di turbed by quarrying and tran portation, Rock characteristics exert a major control but gives an indication of the attainable over the type of platform present (if any) rate. and the rate at which the platform will form. Salt crystallization alone may be a power­ Most favourable for platform development ful platform-producing force, but when are permeable, well-jointed rocks; least joined by biological action the process could fa vourable are massive fo rmations with no be speeded-up con iderably. A part of the water ab orption potential. Given a suitable activity i mechanical, some is chemical and rock type. we can attempt to recon truct the a large proportion contain elements of both. process leading to the development of the The mechanical fa ctors include craping, horizontal, high-tidal platform common on boring, plucking, and wedging, while chemi­ the Australian coast. Fir t of all, it is cal action i largely in the form of solution. necessary to bring a rock urface into contact Worms. pholad , chitons. limpets. and ea with the ea. This can come about either urchins have long been recognized a agent through movement of the land mass or a of erosion. Other member of the biotic chan!!'e in ea-level. When the ea contacts community which aid in the breakdown of the rock urface the mo t obvious immediate rock are algae, lichen, and periwinkles. The re ult is hydraulic action by waves. Though organisms may remove rock directly, as in the waves may appear overwhelmingly power­ the case of the periwinkle which graze on ful. their ero ive action i fa irly slow except the surface. or may create small opening in in area where weathering ha alread) acted the rock which will fa vour increa ed water along joint and bedding plane . Thu . circulation and ub equent alt cry tal­ wave ma) roughly plane an area down to lization. the level of aturation in the rock the level, Hydraulic activity i yet another proces roughly at mean higher high water, at which which i important to hore platform ub-aerial weathering can no longer act. To fo rmation. The theory of torm wave this extent. torm wave may play a part in production of hore platform till has it platform development. When the surface adherents. and wave-spla h obviou ly ha has reached thi le\el. the forces of water ome effect on the level of aturation in the layer weathering can pecdily act to produce rock. In an attempt to experimentally horizontality. examine the effect of storm wave on sea A rcvi cd definition of water layer cliff , I created waves in a tank to erode weathering could be : "A complex interaction peciall) ea t pia ter-sand blocks. The of chemical, mechanical. biological, and re ult howed that the wave did indeed biochemical proce es which produce hori­ erode a notch in the cliff. but that the notch .wntality through facilitating the rapid

Page 318 March, 1970 acllvtty of salt crystallization to a level BOOK REVIEW where wetting and drying cycle are inhibited by water aturation within the bedrock."" RECE�T FORAMINIFERIDA OF THE Such horizontality is only temporary, because CENTilAL COAST OF NEW SOUTH WALES, many of the processe can act below the by Albcrto D. Albani. Australian Marine cicnces saturation base level. Association Handbook o. I ( 1968). Price. I (student and members of AM A). 2 (non-members). While the platform urface i undergoing This anracti'e linle handbook (37 pages) is an bevelling, the rock at higher levels is being excellent introduction to recent foraminifers of eroded back by normal sub-aerial weathering .S. W., suitable for non-specialists and interested processe . The net result i the typical sea amateurs with access to a low-power micro�cope. cliff with a platform at its ba c. Often the The handbook co,crs all of the common species. platforms are quite wide, making it difficult which are illu trated b) 160 good-quality photographs or sketches. The accompanying to see how so much material could be descriptions arc concise and informative. and removed in the time since ea-level reached three tabular key should enable even a beginner its pre ent height. lt is possible that these to identify pecimens to family and genus after situation represent evidence of former high a linle practice. Other section� co,er the ecology of foraminifers, and the best methods of collection, ea-level in the geological pa t. The ancient preparation, and tudy. platform may have been renewed by modern Thi handbook should certainly be included in forces. every school library, since it describes organisms Can hore platforms be used as indicators readily available in local beach depo its: these are ea ily sorted by children, providing a fa cinating of past ea-levels? Only in broad terms. introduction to these altractivc micro-organisms. The present horizontal high-tidal platforms The handbook, which also contains a useful are very much in equilibrium with contem­ bibliography for further read ing and an up-to-date porary climate. tidal regime. and wave geological time scale, is available from the Honorary Secretary of AMSA, c.o. H)drographic characteristics. Horizontal subtidal plat­ Office, R.A. ., Garden Is.. .S.W. 2000.-A. forms and horizontal supertidal platforms Ritchie, Australian Museum. indicate other higher and lower sea-levels, but degrading fo rces are acting upon them and determination of the exact previous level would be difficult. BOOK 0 MARINE MOLLUSCS

Even though shore platforms may not be The ational Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, very useful for precisely measuring past announces that the price of the book Marine sea-levels, they are still valuable areas to Molluscs of Victoria, by Macpherson and Gabriel. has been reduced from $7 to $3.50. The book. study for insight into weathering mechanisms which contains 475 pages and 486 illustrations. is and coastal erosion processes. In addition, published by the National Museum of Victoria and shore platforms offer productive hunting Melbourne University Press. grounds for zoologists and fishermen. With­ out the action of sub-aerial weathering to a saturation base level much of the rocky coastline now fringed by platforms would be PRIVET HAWK-MOTH CATERPILLAR inaccessible vertical cliffs, and an important L. Courtney-Haines writes to the editor that source of information and enjoyment would the last paragraph of his article ··Privet Hawk­ not exist. Moth Caterpillar"·, on page 96 of the September. 1962, issue of Australian atural History (Vol. 14) seems to indicate that it is the fe male Privet Hawk­ FURTHER READING Moth ( P,i/ogramma menephron menephrrm) that Sanders. . K. ( 1967): ··construction of a Simple produces a squeaky, rasping sound. The paragraph . . in que tion, Mr Courtney-Haines states. should Portable Tide Gauge . Australian Journal of .. Science, Vol. 20. o. 8. pp. 282-283. read as follows: The moths are both crepu cular . and nocturnal and are anractcd to variou garden Sanders, , . K. (1968): . Wave Tank Studie into .. tlowers, among which petunias and honeysuckle the Ero ion of Rocky Coasts, Papers and Pro­ are greatly favoured. The fe males. somewhat ceeding� of the Royal Society of Tasmania, Vol. larger than males. may have a wing-span of 4 inches 10:!. pp. 11- 16. or more. The male when alarmed are capable of Went worth. C. K. ( 1938): ··Marine Benchforming producing an audible squeaJ..y sound. "hich is Processes : Water Le,el Weathering,"' Journal of quite startling and is no doubt some protection .. Geom01 pllology I, pp. 6-32 (Part I). again t enemies.

Australian Natural HiHory Page 319 MEE T OUR CONTRIB UTORS • • •

CATHERI E J. ELLIS. Mus.Bac. (Melb.), Ph.D. JOH V. PETERS was born in England and (Gias.). was educated in Victoria. completing a educated there and in onhern Ireland. He came performer·� Bachelor of Music in Melbourne in to Australia in 1961 to take up a teaching position 1956. She maintained contact with professional with the e\\ South Wale Department of Edu­ music while spending the following two years as cation. and was ;econded 10 the Australian Museum assistant 10 T. G. H. Strehlow at the Univer it) of in Januar). 1968. 10 rehou e and reorgani1e the Adelaide, South Australia. tran cribing and ana­ bullcrny collection . Mr Peters is particularly l)sing recordings from Strehlow's own collection of interested in the distribution of the bullernies of Aranda songs. From 1959 to 1961. a grant from Au tralia and the South Pacific. and ha� carried out GlasgO\\ l'nhersit)' enahled Dr Ellis to continue fieldwork in Au�tralia and 1 e" Caledonia. He ha� work on Aboriginal music in the music department also published note on the bu11ernies of orfolk of that institution, where much experience was Island and Lord Howe lsl;�nd. gained in methods of re earch into musical materials. Re earch ha� ince been continued in Australia through grants from the ni,cr ity of Adelaide. ORMA K. SA OERS IS Assistant Profe sor of the Au;tralian Institute of Aboriginal Studie , the Geography at the lfni,ersity of California at Santa 1yer Foundation. and the Australian Re earch Barbara. In JQ64 he received a Fulbright Fellow­ Grants Committee. ship to study the Tasmanian coast-a �llldy con­ tinued on a University of Tasmania Research DESMO 0 GRIFFI joined the taff of the Scholarship. lie obtained hi R.Sc. from the Au tralian Mu eum in June, 1966. as A sistant Uni,crsit) of Alaska in 1958. his M.A. from the Curator of Marine lmenebratc�. and was appointed Uni,crsit) of California, Los Angeles, in 1964. and Curator of Crustacea in December. 1968. He hi Ph. D. from the Universit) of Tasmania in 1968. graduated 1.Sc. from Victoria University of Dr Sanders i tudying variou a�pects of environ­ Wellington. 'ew Zealand. in 1962. and obtaiPed mental pollution and hum1n i'llpact on coastal his Ph. D. from the Uni�ersit' of Tasmania in 1966. landform . In addition. he is a member of a team His main interests arc in the taxonom) of spider constructing a micro" a'c radiometric remote­ crabs and the ecolog)' and beha' iour of shore crabs. sen ing de' ice to detect oil pollution from aircraft . He is sn�nding from January to September. 1970. as a Visiting Research Associate at the Smithsonian Institution. Washington. U.S.A. J. M. THOMSON. D.Sc .. i Professor of 7oolog) at the Uni,ersit) of Queen land. and \\as a first-class FRED PARKER completed his secondar) honours

Page 320 March, 1970 THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

PRESIDENT OF TR STEE : W. Ii. MAZE. M.Sc.

CROW TRUSTEE: EMERITUS PROFESSOR A. P. ELKI , C.I\I.G., M.A .. Ph.D.

OFFICIAL TR STEES:

TI-lE IiO:-l. TI-lE CHIEF JUSTICE, THE liON. THE PRESIDE 'T OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL, THE HON. THE CHIEF SECRETARY, THE HON. THE ATTOR EY-GENERAL, THE HO . THE TREASURER, THE HO . THE MINISTER FOR I'UBI IC WORKS, THE HO . THE MINISTER FOR EDUCATION, THE AUDITOR-GENERAL, THE PRE IDE!'IT OF THE EW SOUTI-1 WALES MEDICAL BOARD, THE SURVEYOR·GE ERAL Al'O CHIEF SURVEYOR. THE CROWN SOLICIT0R.

ELECTIVE TR STEE :

SIR FRA:O.:K McOOWELL; R. J. NOBLE, C.B.E., M.Sc.. Ph.D.: G. A. JOHNSO ', M.B.F.: S. IIAVILANO,

C.B.E.: PROFFSSOR L. C. lliRCII, D.Sc., F.A.A.: PROFESSOR D. 1'. MELLOK, D.Sc .. F.K.A.C.I.: R. C. RICHARD; PROFESSOR 11. N. BARBER, F.R.S., F.A.A.; K. L. SUTHERLA 'D, D.Sc .. F.A.A.; PROFESSOR A. H. VOISEY. D.Sc.: PROFESSOR G. H. SATCHELL, I'h.D.

DIRECTOR: DEP TY DIRECTOR:

F. 11. TALBOT. Ph.D.. F.L.S. C. N. SMITI-IERS. M.Sc.

SCIENl'IFIC STAFF:

R. 0. CHALMERS, A.S.T.C., Curator of Minerals and Rocks. . S. CLARK. M.Sc .. Assistant Curator, Department of Environmental tudies. H. G. COGGER, M.Sc., Ph.D .. Curator of Reptiles and Amphibian . H. J. o£ S. DISNEY, M.A., Curator of Birds. M. R. GRAY, M.Sc., Assistaot Curotor (Arachnology). 0. J. G. GRIFF! , M.Sc., Ph.D., Curator of Crustaceans and Coelentcratcs. D. K. McALI'I E. M.Sc., Ph.D. . Assistant Curator of Jnsccl' and Arad1nids. B. J. MARLOW, B.Sc., Curator of Mammals. 0. R. MOORE, M.A .. Dip.Anthrop., Curator of Anthropology. J. R. PAXTON, M.Sc., Ph.D., Curator of Fishes. W. F. PO DER. M.Sc., Ph.D., Curator of Molluscs. ELIZABETH C. POPE, M.Sc .. Curator of Worms and Echinoderms. H. F. RECHER, I'h.D., Curator, Department of Environmental Studies. A. RITCHIE, Ph.D .. Curator of Fossils. C. N. SMITHERS. M.Sc .. Curator of Insects and Arachnids. J. P. WHITE. M.A .. l'h.D .. Assistant Curator of Anthropology. Vacant: Assistant Curatorship of Crustaceans and Coclenterates.

EDUCATION OFFICER:

PATRICIA M. McDO ALD, B.Sc., M.Ed.

V, (,.' . N. Bl iGHr. t.iOVERNMk.N1 PRII'.TER. SYDNEY, N.S.W.