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Linguitics DENG504 Linguitics DENG504 Edited by: Dr. Gowher Ahmad Naik LINGUISTICS Edited By Dr. Gowher Ahmad Naik Printed by USI PUBLICATIONS 2/31, Nehru Enclave, Kalkaji Ext., New Delhi-110019 for Lovely Professional University Phagwara SYLLABUS Linguistics Course Objectives: • To introduce the student to the tools, branches, and history of Linguistics • To improve and enhance student’s pronunciation and language skills • To improve the proficiency of the student in the correct usage of English Vocabulary. Sr. Content No. 1 Introduction to Linguistics: Its Aspects, Linguistics: Branches and Tools, Brief History of the Growth of Modern Linguistics: Bloomfield and Chomsky 2 Phonetics: Speech Mechanism, Places and Manners of Articulation; Classification of Speech Sounds: Vowels, Consonants- General Introduction 3 Consonants and its Phonetic Transcription, Vowels and its Phonetic Transcription, Diptholongs and its Phonetic Transcription 4 Clusters and Syllables, Phoneme: Detailed Study, Allophones: Allophonic variation in English Speech: Difference between Monoptholong and Diptholong Glides; Transcription of English Speech Sounds: From words to sentences, Syllables : Mono- syllabic, Bi- syllabic and stress in English 5 Branches in Linguistics: Socio-Linguistics, Psycho-Linguistics, Educational Linguistics 6 Varieties of English Cardinal Vowel System, Connected English Speech Accent, Rhythm, Discourse, Difference in R.P. and Indian English 7 Morphology: Morph, Morpheme, Allomorph; Morphological Analysis (Identification of Morphemes and Allomorphs) 8 Word Formation: Process, Rules, Derivation and Inflection; Transformational Rules: Application-Tree Diagrams 9 Affixes: Prefixes, Suffixes, Infixes and Circumfixes; Grammar Traditional to Transformational; Transformational Generative Grammar; Transformational and Phrase Structure Rules 10 Language Teaching Analysis, Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis: Semantic Meaning Types: Lexical, Contextual and other Semantic Practice; Synonymy, CONTENTS Unit 1: Introduction to Linguistics: Its Aspects 1 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 2: Linguistics: Branches and Tools 13 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 3: Brief History of the Growth of Modern Linguistics: Bloomfield to Chomsky 24 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 4: Phonetics: Speech Mechanisms-Places and Manners of Articulation 43 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 5: Classification of Speech Sounds: Vowels, Consonants-General Introduction 51 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 6: Consonants and its Phonetic Transcription 74 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 7: Vowels and Its Phonetic Transcription 83 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 8: Diphthongs and its Phonetics Transcription 94 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 9: Clusters and Syllables 103 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 10: Phonemes: Detailed Study 118 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 11: Allophones–Allophonic Variation in English Speech: Difference between Monopthong and Diphthong Glides 146 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 12: Transcription of English Speech Sounds: From Words to Sentences, Syllables: Monosyllabic, Bi-syllabic and Stress in English 161 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 13: Branches in Linguistics: Socio-Linguistics 177 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 14: Branches in Linguistics: Psycho-Linguistics 188 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 15: Branches in Linguistics: Educational Linguistics 194 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 16: Varieties of English Cardinal Vowel System 206 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 17: Connected English Speech: Accent 225 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 18: Rhythm 243 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 19: Discourse 257 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 20: Difference in R.P. and Indian English 272 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 21: Morphology: Morph, Morpheme, Allomorph 279 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 22: Morphological Analysis (Identification of Morphemes and Allomorph) 289 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 23: Word-Formation: Process and Rules 304 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 24: Word-Formation: Derivation, Inflection 310 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 25: Transformational Rules: Application-Tree Diagrams 318 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 26: Affixes: Prefixes, Suffixes, Infixes and Circumfixes 326 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 27: Grammar: Traditional to Transformational 334 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 28: Transformational Generative Grammar 346 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 29: Transformational and Phrase Structure Rules 369 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 30: Language Teaching Analysis: Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis 383 Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 31: Semantic: Meaning Types: Lexical, Contextual and Others Semantics Practice 391 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Unit 32: Synonymy, Antonymy, Polysemy, Homophony and Ambiguity 403 Gowher Ahmad Naik, Lovely Professional University Digvijay Pandya, Lovely Professional University Unit 1: Introduction to Linguistics: Its Aspects Unit 1: Introduction to Linguistics: Its Aspects Notes CONTENTS Objectives Introduction 1.1 Is Linguistics a Science? 1.2 The Scope of Linguistics 1.3 Linguistic Levels 1.4 Some Major Linguistic Concepts 1.5 Summary 1.6 Key-Words 1.7 Review Questions 1.8 Further Readings Objectives After studying this Unit students will be able to: • Understand Linguistic and its Aspects. • Discuss the Scope of Linguistics. Introduction The word ‘Linguistics’ has been derived from Latin lingua (tongue) and istics (knowledge or science). Etymologically, therefore, linguistics is the scientific study of language. But it is the study not of one particular language but of human language in general. It studies language as a universal and recognizable part of human behaviour. It attempts to describe and analyze language. The field of linguistics comprises understanding of the place of language in human life, the ways in which it is organized to fulfil the needs it serves, and the functions it performs. So linguistics is that science which studies the origin, organisation, nature and development of language descriptively, historically, comparatively and explicitly, and formulates the general rules related to language. Diachronic (historical) linguistics studies the development of language through history, through time, for example, the way in which French and Italian have evolved from Latin. Synchronic linguistics investigates how the people speak and use language in a given speech community at a given time. In Comparative linguistics one is concerned with comparing two or more different languages. Linguistics, therefore, is the science that describes and classifies languages. The linguist identifies and describes the units and patterns of the sound system, the words and morphemes, and the phrases and sentences, that is the structure of language, as completely, accurately, and economically as possible. 1.1 Is Linguistics a Science? Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Like all other sciences linguistics has a well-defined subject matter, viz. natural languages, living or dead; it employs careful methods to observe, record and analyse the various phenomena related to its subject matter and hopes to present unprejudiced, objective and verifiable descriptions. The approach and methodology of linguistics is scientific. It is as inductive as a science could be, and is based on observations, formation of LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1 Linguistics Notes hypothesis, testing, verification, tentativeness and predictiveness. Like a scientist a linguist observes his data. Some of his methods of observation include simple listening, phonetic transcription, and the use of various instruments, such as oscillograph, sounds pectograph, kymograph, chromograph, mingograph, laryngoscope, endoscope, sonograph, autophonoscope, breathing flask, strobolaryngoscope, electric vocal tract, pitchmeter, intensity meter, speech stretcher, formant graphing machine, etc. Records and cassettes made in these ways help in various kinds of objective description. A linguist has his language laboratory too. Again, like a scientist a linguist develops hypotheses, makes generalized statements and teststhem against the fact of languages. When a linguist or a phonetician makes a statement about languages, he makes it on the basis of observation. First he observes linguistic events. He finds some similarities and contrasts on the basis of which he makes sound generalizations. On the basis of these generalizations hypotheses are formulated to account for the events. These are tested by further observations, and out of them is constructed a theory of how language works. From the theory are derived methods for making statements about linguistic events. The statements link the theory to the events it is set up to account for, and they can now be evaluated by reference both to the theory and to the events: the best statements are those which make maximum use of the theory to
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