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Turbine Combustion Alternative Fuels and Emissions THIRD EDITION GAS Turbine Combustion Alternative Fuels and Emissions THIRD EDITION GAS Turbine Combustion Alternative Fuels and Emissions THIRD EDITION GAS Turbine Combustion Alternative Fuels and Emissions Arthur H. Lefebvre and Dilip R. Ballal Downloaded by [Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU Consortium)] at 01:38 11 January 2017 Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-8604-1 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit- ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lefebvre, Arthur H. (Arthur Henry), 1923-2003. Gas turbine combustion : alternative fuels and emissions / authors, Arthur H. Lefebvre, Dilip R. Ballal. -- 3rd ed. p. cm. “A CRC title.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-8604-1 (hardcover. : alk. paper) 1. Gas-turbines--Combustion. 2. Gas-turbines--Fuel. I. Ballal, Dilip R. II. Title. Downloaded by [Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU Consortium)] at 01:38 11 January 2017 TJ778.L417 2010 621.43’3--dc22 2010005450 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface .................................................................................................................. xvii Authors ................................................................................................................. xix 1. Basic Considerations ......................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................1 1.2 Early Combustor Developments .........................................................2 1.2.1 Britain ........................................................................................3 1.2.2 Germany ....................................................................................5 1.2.2.1 Jumo 004 ....................................................................5 1.2.2.2 BMW 003 ...................................................................6 1.2.3 The United States .....................................................................6 1.3 Basic Design Features ...........................................................................8 1.4 Combustor Requirements ....................................................................9 1.5 Combustor Types ................................................................................ 10 1.5.1 Tubular .................................................................................... 11 1.5.2 Tuboannular ........................................................................... 11 1.5.3 Annular ...................................................................................12 1.6 Diffuser ................................................................................................. 14 1.7 Primary Zone ....................................................................................... 15 1.8 Intermediate Zone ............................................................................... 16 1.9 Dilution Zone ....................................................................................... 17 1.10 Fuel Preparation .................................................................................. 18 1.10.1 Pressure-Swirl Atomizers .................................................... 18 1.10.2 Airblast Atomizer ................................................................. 19 1.10.3 Gas Injection ..........................................................................20 1.11 Wall Cooling ........................................................................................20 1.11.1 Wall-Cooling Techniques ....................................................22 1.12 Combustors for Low Emissions ........................................................23 1.13 Combustors for Small Engines ..........................................................26 1.14 Industrial Chambers ...........................................................................28 1.14.1 Aeroderivative Engines ....................................................... 31 References .......................................................................................................33 Bibliography ....................................................................................................33 2. Combustion Fundamentals Downloaded by [Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU Consortium)] at 01:38 11 January 2017 ........................................................................35 2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................35 2.1.1 Deflagration ............................................................................35 2.1.2 Detonation...............................................................................35 2.2 Classification of Flames ......................................................................36 2.3 Physics or Chemistry? ........................................................................37 v vi Contents 2.4 Flammability Limits ...........................................................................37 2.5 Global Reaction-Rate Theory .............................................................38 2.5.1 Weak Mixtures .......................................................................39 2.5.2 Rich Mixtures .........................................................................39 2.6 Laminar Premixed Flames ................................................................ 41 2.6.1 Factors Influencing Laminar Flame Speed ........................ 41 2.6.1.1 Equivalence Ratio ................................................... 41 2.6.1.2 Initial Temperature ................................................42 2.6.1.3 Pressure ...................................................................42 2.7 Laminar Diffusion Flames.................................................................42 2.8 Turbulent Premixed Flames ..............................................................43 2.9 Flame Propagation in Heterogeneous Mixtures of Fuel Drops, Fuel Vapor, and Air ................................................................45 2.10 Droplet and Spray Evaporation .........................................................49 2.10.1 Heat-Up Period ......................................................................50 2.10.2 Evaporation Constant ........................................................... 51 2.10.3 Convective Effects ................................................................52 2.10.4 Effective Evaporation Constant ..........................................52 2.10.5 Spray Evaporation .................................................................54 2.10.6 Some Recent Developments ................................................54 2.11 Ignition Theory ....................................................................................55 2.11.1 Gaseous Mixtures .................................................................55 2.11.2 Heterogeneous Mixtures .....................................................56 2.12 Spontaneous Ignition .........................................................................64 2.13 Flashback ..............................................................................................69 2.14 Stoichiometry .......................................................................................70 2.15 Adiabatic Flame Temperature ...........................................................71 2.15.1 Factors Influencing the Adiabatic
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