THIRD EDITION GAS Turbine Combustion Alternative Fuels and Emissions THIRD EDITION GAS Turbine Combustion Alternative Fuels and Emissions Arthur H. Lefebvre and Dilip R. Ballal Downloaded by [Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU Consortium)] at 01:38 11 January 2017 Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-8604-1 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. 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Gas-turbines--Fuel. I. Ballal, Dilip R. II. Title. Downloaded by [Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU Consortium)] at 01:38 11 January 2017 TJ778.L417 2010 621.43’3--dc22 2010005450 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface .................................................................................................................. xvii Authors ................................................................................................................. xix 1. Basic Considerations ......................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................1 1.2 Early Combustor Developments .........................................................2 1.2.1 Britain ........................................................................................3 1.2.2 Germany ....................................................................................5 1.2.2.1 Jumo 004 ....................................................................5 1.2.2.2 BMW 003 ...................................................................6 1.2.3 The United States .....................................................................6 1.3 Basic Design Features ...........................................................................8 1.4 Combustor Requirements ....................................................................9 1.5 Combustor Types ................................................................................ 10 1.5.1 Tubular .................................................................................... 11 1.5.2 Tuboannular ........................................................................... 11 1.5.3 Annular ...................................................................................12 1.6 Diffuser ................................................................................................. 14 1.7 Primary Zone ....................................................................................... 15 1.8 Intermediate Zone ............................................................................... 16 1.9 Dilution Zone ....................................................................................... 17 1.10 Fuel Preparation .................................................................................. 18 1.10.1 Pressure-Swirl Atomizers .................................................... 18 1.10.2 Airblast Atomizer ................................................................. 19 1.10.3 Gas Injection ..........................................................................20 1.11 Wall Cooling ........................................................................................20 1.11.1 Wall-Cooling Techniques ....................................................22 1.12 Combustors for Low Emissions ........................................................23 1.13 Combustors for Small Engines ..........................................................26 1.14 Industrial Chambers ...........................................................................28 1.14.1 Aeroderivative Engines ....................................................... 31 References .......................................................................................................33 Bibliography ....................................................................................................33 2. Combustion Fundamentals Downloaded by [Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU Consortium)] at 01:38 11 January 2017 ........................................................................35 2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................35 2.1.1 Deflagration ............................................................................35 2.1.2 Detonation...............................................................................35 2.2 Classification of Flames ......................................................................36 2.3 Physics or Chemistry? ........................................................................37 v vi Contents 2.4 Flammability Limits ...........................................................................37 2.5 Global Reaction-Rate Theory .............................................................38 2.5.1 Weak Mixtures .......................................................................39 2.5.2 Rich Mixtures .........................................................................39 2.6 Laminar Premixed Flames ................................................................ 41 2.6.1 Factors Influencing Laminar Flame Speed ........................ 41 2.6.1.1 Equivalence Ratio ................................................... 41 2.6.1.2 Initial Temperature ................................................42 2.6.1.3 Pressure ...................................................................42 2.7 Laminar Diffusion Flames.................................................................42 2.8 Turbulent Premixed Flames ..............................................................43 2.9 Flame Propagation in Heterogeneous Mixtures of Fuel Drops, Fuel Vapor, and Air ................................................................45 2.10 Droplet and Spray Evaporation .........................................................49 2.10.1 Heat-Up Period ......................................................................50 2.10.2 Evaporation Constant ........................................................... 51 2.10.3 Convective Effects ................................................................52 2.10.4 Effective Evaporation Constant ..........................................52 2.10.5 Spray Evaporation .................................................................54 2.10.6 Some Recent Developments ................................................54 2.11 Ignition Theory ....................................................................................55 2.11.1 Gaseous Mixtures .................................................................55 2.11.2 Heterogeneous Mixtures .....................................................56 2.12 Spontaneous Ignition .........................................................................64 2.13 Flashback ..............................................................................................69 2.14 Stoichiometry .......................................................................................70 2.15 Adiabatic Flame Temperature ...........................................................71 2.15.1 Factors Influencing the Adiabatic