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campaigns greatly favors incumbents would, after all, need to vote for such (with the ratio of average incumbent- reforms). Everyday Environmentalism: to-challenger financing now exceeding Of course, in addition to these long- 10-to-1). This tends to make districts term structural factors, shorter-term relatively safe for the party that controls economic and social fluctuations also Law, Nature, and Individual Behavior the seat, thereby increasing the impor- have pronounced effects. In particular, tance of primaries. significant economic downturns — Jason J. Czarnezki These three factors operate mainly whether the Great Depression of the through the replacement of members 1930s or the Great Recession of the of Congress, whether due to death, past several years — increase political retirement, or challenges from within polarization. Faced with the seemingly overwhelming prospect of global climate change and its conse- the party — that is, the ideological The 1930s saw not only the rise of quences, is there anything that a person can do to make a di erence? “Yes, there is!” says By Robert N. Stavins shifts that cause increasing polarization American socialists and communists, Jason Czarnezki, in his new book, Everyday Environmentalism. Writing as a lawyer and envi- largely occur when new members are but also the rise of American right- elected from either party, although a wing extremism. It took World War II ronmentalist, he addresses the small personal choices that individuals can make in order to Polarized Politics disproportionate share of polarization to bring an end both to the economic have a positive e ect on the natural world. Paralyze Policy has been due to the rightward shift of upheaval of the 1930s and the destruc- new Republicans. tive political polarization that had ac- here is a widening gulf between the To a lesser degree, polarization has companied it. Czarnezki compellingly describes the historical and Ttwo political parties that is paralyz- also taken place through the adaptation U.S. participation in the war contemporary forces in the United States that have ing sensible policy action in Washing- of sitting members of Congress as they brought a degree of political unity at ton. This increasing polarization — the behave more ideologically once in of- home, largely because U.S. action was led to a culture of “convenience, consumerism, and disappearance of moderates — has fice. Such political conversions are due precipitated by the attack on Pearl Har- consumption.” He also investigates the individual been taking place for four decades. The to the same pressures noted above: in bor. Under conditions of less clear mo- decisions that have the worst environmental impacts, rise of the Tea Party movement is only order to discourage or survive primary tivation for U.S. military action abroad the most recent vehicle that has contin- challenges, Republican members shift — such as in the war in Vietnam — the along with the ecological costs of our food choices ued a 40-year trend. rightward and Democratic members result has not been political unity, but and the environmental costs of sprawl. Why has party polarization in- shift leftward. Senator divisiveness and polar- creased so dramatically in the Congress John McCain (R-Arizo- It is difficult to be ization. The ultimate over the past four decades? Three struc- na) evolved from being impacts on domestic Aware of the importance of personal choice, Everyday optimistic about tural factors stand out. a moderate at the time politics of the wars in Environmentalism o ers a thoughtful consideration First, there is the increasing impor- of his 2008 presiden- the prognosis for Afghanistan and Iraq of how public policy can positively a ect individual tance of the primary system, a conse- tial run to being a solid American politics may hinge on whether quence of the “democratization” of the conservative in 2010, in they are perceived to be behavior. nomination process that took flight in response to a primary patriotic responses to a the 1970s. A small share of the elec- challenge from a Tea Party candidate. foreign attack (9/11) or manifestations torate vote in primaries, namely those If the increasing polarization of the of U.S. military adventurism. with the strongest political preferences Congress is due to these factors, then So, it’s reasonable to anticipate — or — the most conservative Republicans it is difficult to be optimistic about the at least hope — that better economic and the most liberal Democrats. This prognosis in the near term for Ameri- times will reduce the pace of ongoing self-selection greatly favors candidates can politics, because it is unlikely that political polarization. But in the face of Jason J. Czarnezki is a Professor of Law in the Environmental Law Center at Vermont Law School, home from the extremes. any of these factors will soon reverse the three long-term structural factors to one of the nation’s leading environmental and natural resources law and policy programs. Previously, Second, decades of redistricting — course. I’ve identified — increasing importance Professor Czarnezki served as a law clerk to the Honorable D. Brock Hornby of the U.S. District Court for a state prerogative guaranteed by the The two parties are not about to of primaries, continuing redistricting, the District of Maine and as a law clerk for the Bureau of Legal Services at the Wisconsin Department of Constitution — has produced more abandon the primary system to return and increasing costs of electoral cam- Natural Resources. Professor Czarnezki received his undergraduate and law degrees from the University and more districts that are dominated to smoke filled back rooms. Likewise, paigns — it is difficult to be optimis- by either Republican or Democratic state legislatures are not willing to tic about the long-term prognosis for of Chicago. voters. This increases the importance abandon their power to redistrict (al- American politics. I hope I’m wrong. of primary elections, which is where though California’s experiment with the key choices among candidates are an independent citizens commission Robert N. Stavins is the Albert Pratt Profes- To order, call 1-800-621-2736, or visit www.eli.org now made in many congressional dis- may provide hope). And public fi- sor of Business and Government at the John tricts. Because of this, polarization has nancing of campaigns and other mea- F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard proceeded at a much more rapid pace sures that would reduce the advan- University, and Director of the Harvard En- ISBN: 978-1-58576-152-4 • 150 pp • $29.95 in the House than the Senate. tages of incumbency remain generally vironmental Economics Program. He can be Third, the increasing cost of electoral unpopular (among incumbents, who reached at [email protected]. ELI Associates receive a 15% discount. Copyright © 2011, Environmental Law Institute®, Washington, D.C. www.eli.org. Page 18 ❧ THE ENVIRONMENTAL FORUM Reprinted by permission from The Environmental Forum®, Nov./Dec. 2011