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Volcanism Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York Hongkong London Milan Paris Tokyo Hans-Ulrich Schmincke

Volcanism

With 401 Figures, 396 in Color

Springer Author

Professor Hans-Ulrich Schmincke Dept. ofVolcanology and Petrology GEOMAR Research Center University of Kiel (Germany)

E-mail: hschmincke@geomar. de

All photographs by the author unless otherwise noted

Cover illustrations by: Nagasaki Photo Studio (front cover); H.-U. Schmincke and M. Sumita (back cover).

ISBN 978-3-540-43650-8 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New Yo rk

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

Bibliograhic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bib• liographic data is available in the Internet at < http://dnb.ddb.de>.

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Dupli• cation of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.

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Typesetting: schreiberVIS, Seeheirn, Germany lllustrations: www.schreibervis.de in cooperation with Elke Gopfert, Morlenbach-Weiher, Marion Mayer, Darmstadt. Dr. Mari Sumita, Ascheberg

Cover design: E. Kirch ner, Heidelberg

Printed on acid-free paper 32/3141/LT 5 4 3 2 I 0 Preface

he reason why I wrote a book on volcanism quoted is in no way re• A is not made on purpose to frighten in German (second edition published in 2000) presentative. In view of superstitious people into fits of piety and devo• rather than in English, the lingua franca of the large amount of lit• T tion; nor to overwhelm devoted cities with erature consulted when science, was simple. The intended users of this destruction; a volcano should be considered as a writing this volume, 1 book were not only scientists and beginning stu• spiracle to the subterranean furnace, in order to dents in the sciences, but also school teach• have not been able to prevent the unnecessary elevation of land, and ers and lay people interested in volcanoes. The trace back some infor• letal effects of earthquakes. mation to its primary updated English translation likewise attempts to James Hutton, Theory ofthe Earth, Codicote, 1795 strike a balance between providing enough sci• source. I apologize to ence and a few up-to-date references for those those colleagues whose who want to dig deeper, while at the same time paper I have failed to quote. The 2000 German remaining digestible for those who simply want to edition was also conceived to summarize some know more about volcanoes. Translation of the aspects of the research of our group and to repre• text by the author had the advantage that it sent a symbolic thanks to several research agencies allowed rewriting and updating of major sections that had generously funded our work for more of several chapters, within the constraints of the than four decades. Many figures are sourced in publication schedule. these publications, which are thus greatly overrep• The first edition of this book appeared at a resented in the list of references. The present text time (1986) when a certain plateau had been has been updated and some parts were rewritten reached in , following an almost ex• to provide a more logical flow and to make refer• plosive growth phase in the study of volcanic ence to important recent eruptions. Some 35 rocks and processes. The basic motivation to study graphs and 85 photos were added to the English• volcanoes is the sustained curiosity about what language edition or exchanged with previous happens beneath volcanoes, at the source of mag• illustrations. mas, during their rise, their vesiculation, their About half of the roughly 450 references - many ways to erupt explosively or quietly and the generally indicated in the text by a number in transport of hot and cold materials along the parenthesis (the number of the chapter in which Earth's surface or through the atmosphere. This they are quoted is given in the list of references) book attempts to point out some of the major cur• but listed alphabetically at the end - were pub• rent issues in volcanology. Two fundamental goals lished during the past six years. Recent books that for motivating research have recently been rein• treat some aspects of volcanism in more detail forced in national and international research pro• include Francis (1993), Wohletz and Heiken ( 1992), grams. One goal is that of mitigating volcanic dis• McGuire (1995), Scarpa and Tilling (1996), Sparks asters. The other is concerned with the interaction et al. (1997), Gilbert and Sparks (1998), Heiken of volcanic processes with the environment in• and Wohletz ( 1998), and Freundt and Rosi ( 1998). cluding the solid earth, groundwater and surface The monumental Encyclopaedia of Volcanology waters, as well as the atmosphere. (Sigurdsson et al. 2000), published after the sec• This book shares the fate of all books at• ond German edition of Vulkanismus appeared, tempting a broad overview of a subject. Experts will remain the standard source of information will not be content with the superficial account of for many years. Two older classic textbooks in vol• their specialized fields. Yet there is a great need for canology, by Macdonald (1972) and Williams and broad-brush treatments in the face of ever-grow• McBirney ( 1979), are still informative introduc• ing specialization. I have listed a few more special• tions to the subject. Blong ( 1984) provides a de• ized books below, some of which contain exten• tailed and comprehensive overview of the effects sive lists of references for those who want to delve of volcanic eruptions. There are also many popu• deeper into a subject. lar accounts of volcanology, particularly readable The first chapters (Chaps. 1- 9) are more gen• books being those by Decker and Decker (1994), eral in nature and thus do not require detailed of which there are several editions. Woods and references. Most recent studies quoted are the Kienle ( 1998) provide a guide to many areas of sources of the figures. Hence, the list of papers volcanic interest in the United States. Volcanic VI Preface

national parks in the United States are succinctly earlier versions of one or more chapters and make discussed and supplied with illustrative maps by helpful suggestions. These include Colin Devey, Decker and Decker (2002). Planetary volcanology, Wendell Duffield, Jim Gardner, Martina Halmer, a subject not treated in this book for simple space Jason Phipps Morgan, Chris Newhall, Jon Snow, reasons, is discussed in several dedicated books Roland von Huene and, for the German edition, such as Cattermole (1996). The history of man's Armin Freundt and Matthias Hort. I am especially attempt to understand volcanoes is discussed in grateful to Shane Cronin, a as well as some detail by Sigurdsson (2000). a native English speaker. He did a trail-blazing re• There are two journals in volcanology: Bul• view of first drafts of all chapters chopping over• letin of Volcanology and Journal ofVolcanology and long Germanic sentences and making the text easi• Geothermal Research. Publications treating various er to follow. Kathy Cashman did a final review of aspects of volcanology also appear in journals in several chapters pointing out logical flaws and geology, petrology, , geochemistry and other inconsistencies. I owe much to Tad Ui, my . host at Hokkaido University where the final drafts Details of current eruptions can be obtained of the translation were prepared. He also looked from the Internet, especially www.volcano.si.edu/ over several chapters and made many useful sug• gvp, the Global Volcanism Network of the Smith• gestions. Several colleagues kindly provided me sonian Institution (Washington, D.C.) and the with files of figures from their publications. I was US Geological Survey. They contain weekly and lucky to have been associated with many able monthly activity reports where details of current students and some of our joint work is quoted eruptions and background data are summarized, throughout the book. I was advised on graphics by as well as data on volcanoes of the world and vari• Conny Park. Much of the book owes its appear• ous links to other volcano sites. The Internet site ance to the graphic skills of Mari Sumita who pre• of IAVCEI, the International Association of Vol• pared preliminary versions of many graphs and canology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior graciously helped completing the book in many (www.iavcei.org) also contains much useful infor• other ways. Joachim Schreiber and colleagues pre• mation on volcano observatories, current courses pared the final figures and mastered the layout. I and links to various volcano-related sites. am very grateful to Wolfgang Engel (Springer Ver• A list of common abbreviations and physical lag) who patiently paved the way for the English units is given at the end of this book along with SI edition. Luisa Tonarelli (Springer Verlag) took care units. Leading journals continue to use some of of the manuscript during the final stages and saw the old units. I have followed this practice and still the book to the press. Many thanks to all of you. use kb (kilobar) instead of Gpa (giga pascal). For AU the faults remaining are my own responsibility, density I mostly use g/cm3 which is easier to visu• and there are undoubtedly many. I encourage alize than kg/m3• readers to point these out and also suggest more Several colleagues were kind enough to take appropriate references or figures for future revi• out time from their busy schedule to critically scan sions.

Lisch, March 2003 Hans-Ulrich Schmincke Contents

Introduction 1 Chambers ...... 28 Zoning in Phenocryst Minerals 29 Early Perception of Volcanoes Compositionally Zoned and Volcanic Actions ...... Magma Reservoirs ...... 30 Neptunists, Volcanists Summary ...... 34 and Plutonists ...... 3 How and Why Do Volcanoes Work? ... 5 Rheology, Magmatic Gases, The Volcano-Magma System ...... 6 Bubbles and Triggering of Eruptions 35 The Global Framework of Volcanism ... 7 Nature - Nurture . 8 Rheology ...... 37 How Do Work and Melt Structure ...... 38 Why Do They Work on Volcanoes? 9 Viscosity ..... 39 The Impact of Magmatic Gases . 42 Volcanic Activity on the Environment Volatile Budget of Kilauea Volcano .. .. . 48 and on Society ...... 11 Formation of Bubbles . 49 Explosive Eruptions ...... 50 External and Internal 2 Forcing Mechanisms or Why Do Volcanoes Erupt? ...... 51 The Conveyor Belt of the Mid-Ocean Ridges ...... 14 Triggering of Volcanic Eruptions 52 The Layered Earth...... 15 Internal Forcing Mechanisms 52 Dynamic Subdivision Internal/ External of the Earth 15 Forcing Mechanisms ...... 54 Distribution of Volcanoes Extrinsic Far Field Lithosphere 54 on the Earth's Surface...... 17 Atmosphere and ...... 55 Hybrid Tectonic Settings ...... 18 The 864 A.O. and 1707 A.O. Summary ... 19 Eruptions of Mt. Fuji ...... 56 Classification of Pyroclastic Eruptions .... 56 Summary ..... Magma 21 ···························· 57

What ls Magma?...... 21 Mid-Ocean Ridges 59 Classification of Igneous Rocks ...... 21

Where Are Generated?...... 23 The Revolution How Are Magmas Generated? ...... 24 in the Earth Sciences ...... 59 Why Do Magmas Rise? 26 Geophysical Studies Magmatic Differentiation ...... 26 of the Ocean ...... 60 Cooling and Crystallization Ridge Morphology and Tectonics ...... 61 of 27 Pillow and Pillow Volcanoes ...... 64 VIII Contents

Sheet Lavas ...... 64 Island Arcs ...... 115 Pyroclastic Eruptions Convergent Continental Margins ...... 117 in the Deep ? ...... 66 Volcanic Fronts ...... 118 How Common Are Zone Magmas ...... 122 Submarine Eruptions?...... 67 Source Materials ...... 122 The Roots of Mid-Ocean Ridge Magma Chambers ...... 67 The Role of Water ...... 124 Summary ...... 69 Summary ...... 125

Seamounts and Volcanic Islands 71 Volcanic Edifices and Volcanic Deposits 127 ...... 72 Guyots ...... 75 Lava Flows ...... 127 Volcanic Islands ...... 75 Pahoehoe Lava ...... 128 Destructive Stage Columns ...... _.. _.. ... 129 and Lateral Apron Growth ...... 82 Aa Lava ...... 131 How Representative Are Block Lava ...... 132 the Evolutionary Domes ...... 132 Stages of the Hawaiian Islands? ...... 83 Tephra and Pyroclastic Deposits ...... 137 Speculations on the Cause of Contrasting Evolution Scoria Cones ...... 138 of Oceanic Islands 90 Stratovolcanoes .. . _...... 143 Large Igneous Provinces Flank Collapses, Debris Avalanches and Oceanic Plateaus .... 91 and Debris Flows ...... 144 Hot Spots and Plumes .. .. 92 Calderas and Summary ...... 96 Caldera Volcanoes ...... 147 Calderas on Basaltic Volcanoes and the 2000 Eruption ofMiyakejima Volcano ...... 149 Continental lntraplate Volcanoes 97 Ash-Flow Calderas ...... 151 Summary ...... 154 Zones and Rift Shoulders ...... 97 Scoria Cones .. 99

The Quaternary Volcanic Fields Strombolian, Hawaiian and of the Eifel ...... 101 Plinian Eruptions and the The Yellowstone Plume ...... 106 Mount St. Helens Eruption 1980 155 Flood ...... 107 Pyroclastic Fragmentation ...... 155 Generation of Flood Basalts 11 1 Eruption Columns ...... 157 Summary ...... 111 Strombolian and Hawaiian Eruptions ...... 161

Subduction Zone Volcanoes 113 Plinian Eruptions ...... 163 The Eruption of Mount St. Helens Subduction Zones ...... 113 on 18 May 1980 ...... 166 Volcanic Arcs Analysis of the Eruption Dynamics .. .. 172 Above Subduction Zones . 114 Summary ...... 176 Contents IX

Pyroclastic Flows, Block and Nevado del Ruiz ...... 252 Ash Flows, Surges and the Pinatubo ...... 253 Laacher See Eruption 177 Volcanic Eruptions and the Media ...... 256 Some Historical Notes . ······· 180 Summary ...... 257 Terminology ...... 184 Ignimbrites ...... 187 Pyroclastic Block Flows and Their Deposits ...... 193 Volcanoes and Origin of Climate 259 Pyroclastic Block Flows ...... 195 Surges, Blasts, Umbrella Clouds The Scientific Revolution . 260 and Debris Jets ...... 196 Input of Volcanic Gases The Eruption of into the Atmosphere ...... 261 Laacher See Volcano Sulfur...... 262 12 900 Years Ago ...... 198 Formation of the Aerosol Veil: Summary ...... 207 Gas-Particle Conversion . 263 The Effects of Stratospheric Aerosol Veils on Global and Fire and Water 209 Regional Temperatures and Ozone Depletion ...... 264 The Discovery ...... 209 Which Volcanic Eruptions Load the Atmosphere Most? ...... 266 Rapid Cooling ...... 213 Back For the Future ...... 267 The High Explosivity of Magma- Water Interactions ...... 215 The Chicken and the Egg ...... 269 Open Water Conditions ...... 217 Are Mass Extinctions Due to Mega-eruptions? ...... 270 The Initial and Terminal Phases Summary ...... 271 of Eruptions ...... 216 Phreatic Eruptions ...... 224 Rainwater ...... 225 Man and Volcanoes: Fire and Ice ... , .. ... 225 The Benefits 273 Summary ...... 227 Heat From the Interior of the Earth ...... 273 Volcanic Hazards, ...... 273 Volcanic Catastrophes, Hot Water Valves and Disaster Mitigation 229 on the Ocean Floor and the Formation of Terminology .. ... 230 Ore Deposits ...... 276 Volcanic Hazards .. ····· 230 Volcanic Soils . ··············· 278 The Volcano Explosivity Index Volcanoes as Source for (VEI) ...... 239 Raw Materials ...... 280 Can Volcanic Catastrophes The Attraction be Avoided? ...... 239 of Volcanoes and Monitoring ...... 242 Volcanic Landscapes 282 Lessons Learned From Summary ...... 287 Two Large Volcanic Eruptions ...... 251 Epilogue ...... 289 X Contents

Physical Units and Abbreviations 291 Subject Index 311

Glossary 293 Index of Geographical Names 319

References 299 Index of Names 325