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Pragmatic Language of African American Children and Adolescents a Systematic Synthesis of the Literature

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Pragmatic Language of African American Children and Adolescents a Systematic Synthesis of the Literature Top Lang Disorders Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 8–45 Copyright c 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved. Pragmatic Language of African American Children and Adolescents A Systematic Synthesis of the Literature Yvette D. Hyter, Kenyatta O. Rivers, and Glenda DeJarnette Purpose: A systematic review and synthesis was performed on published articles and disser- tations produced between 1970 and 2013 that focused on selected pragmatic language behav- iors of African American children and adolescents. Methods: Electronic databases and hand searches of articles located in the databases were used to identify the published articles and dissertations. Each article or dissertation was reviewed by at least 2 of the authors to determine whether it met the criteria for inclusion in this study. Selected observations of the documents that met criteria for inclusion were recorded on the Primary Research Appraisal Tool (PRAT; DeJarnette, Hyter, & Rivers, 2012), a data gathering and analysis framework developed by the authors specifically for this systematic synthesis. Results: The literature search resulted in 92 re- search articles and dissertations, 37 of which were eliminated because they did not meet all of the inclusion criteria. The documents that met our inclusion criteria focused primarily on the struc- ture and/or content of narrative discourse rather than speech acts, other forms of discourse (e.g., conversation, expository), and presupposition/perspective taking skills. Six major themes identi- fied in the major findings are used to summarize studies reviewed for this systematic synthesis. Conclusions: We (a) explain the current state of knowledge about African American pragmatic language behaviors, (b) explain major findings and implications of the extant literature in this topi- cal area and how it may inform speech–language pathology practice, and (c) identify directions for future research on pragmatic language of African American children and adolescents. Key words: African American, communication functions, discourse, pragmatic language, presupposition, speech acts, systematic review and synthesis, theory of mind RAGMATICS is an area of international P interest (Archer, Aijmer, & Wich- mann, 2012), which is studied in various Author Affiliations: Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo (Dr Hyter); Department of Supplemental digital content is available for this ar- Communication Sciences and Disorders, University ticle. Direct URL citation appears in the printed text of Central Florida, Orlando (Dr Rivers); and and is provided in the HTML and PDF versions of Department of Communication Disorders, this article on the journal’s Web site (www.topicsin Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven languagedisorders.com). (Dr DeJarnette). Corresponding Author: Yvette D. Hyter, PhD, CCC- Yvette D. Hyter and Kenyatta O. Rivers have no finan- SLP, Western Michigan University, 1903 W. Michigan cial or nonfinancial relationships to disclose. Glenda Ave, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5355 (yvette.hyter@wmich. DeJarnette discloses that she has received a faculty edu and [email protected]). research grant from the Connecticut State University American Association of University Professors. DOI: 10.1097/TLD.0000000000000043 8 Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. Pragmatic Language of African American Children 9 disciplines, including speech–language ond component is the regulation and struc- pathology, anthropology, linguistics, neu- ture of discourse (such as conversation, oral roscience, philosophy of language, and and written narratives, expository, and class- sociology (Huang, 2012; Perkins, 2007; Xie room discourse), which includes turn taking & House, 2009). Scholars in each of these and repair strategies (Spinelli & Ripich, 1985; disciplines approach pragmatics from a Stockman, Karasinski, & Guillory, 2008). The different theoretical framework, resulting third component of pragmatics is presuppo- in varied conceptualizations of pragmatics. sition. It refers to making inferences about In general, however, pragmatics can be what communication partners know, and it described as a vast content area that consti- includes register switching, dialect shifts, and tutes a component of social communication code switching (Atlas, 2004; Roth & Spekman, (Adams, Baxendale, Lloyd, & Aldred, 2005; 1984a, 1984b). Presupposition also requires Coggins, Timler, & Olswang, 2007; Hyter, social cognitive skills, such as perspective tak- 2007; Olswang, Coggins, & Timler, 2001). ing and theory of mind (Bates, 1976a, 1976b; According to Coggins et al. (2007), social de Villiers, 2004; Prutting & Kirchner, 1987). communication is the ability to use language Nonlinguistic aspects of pragmatics pro- effectively to influence others and to inter- vide a bridge between language and con- pret situations. Social communication is not text in that gestures and body movements, only supported by pragmatics but also by so- facial expressions, and prosody provide in- cial cognitive skills and executive functioning formation about a communicator’s intentions (EF; Olswang et al., 2001; Timler, 2008), affect (Bates, 1976a, 1976b; Kelly, 2001). These regulation (the reciprocal element of EF), and serve to facilitate the communication part- working memory, which serves as the glue ner’s comprehension (Goldin-Meadow, 1999; holding the other components of social com- McNeill, 1996, 2005). Cognitive aspects of munication together (Hyter, 2012; Hyter & pragmatics focus on the cognitive skills (e.g., Sloane, 2013). Perkins (2007) stressed the im- implicature, inference or intention reading, portance of approaches to pragmatics focus- perspective taking, and theory of mind) ing, not only on the behaviors of individuals, needed to interpret and comprehend what is but also on “underlying factors” (e.g., social– said in a given context (Bara, 2010; Perkins, cultural, cognitive, and contextual) that moti- 2007; Schmid, 2012; Sperber & Wilson, 2002, vate those behaviors (p. 32). 2005). One’s social cultural history and in- We use a holistic definition of pragmatics fluences make up the macrolevel contexts in this article. This holistic definition is what for communicative practices, as well as de- Huang (2012, p. 8) calls a “continental view.” termine the roles or status of interlocutors It includes linguistic, nonlinguistic, and cog- (Hyter, 2007; Rivers, Hyter, & DeJarnette, nitive aspects of communication, as well as 2012; Sperber & Wilson, 2002, 2005). macrolevel contexts (e.g., community, eco- Pragmatic language is important for every logical, global, economic, political, or ideo- aspect of human interaction. It is important logical environments) that influence commu- for communicating effectively in diverse nicative behaviors (Hyter, 2007, 2014; van situational contexts (Levinson, 1983), as Wormer & Besthorn, 2010). well as with a range of communication Linguistic aspects of pragmatics refer to partners (Hyter, 2007). As an aspect of the use of language to (1) communicate and social communication (Hyter, 2012; Olswang (2) produce and regulate discourse in ways et al., 2001), pragmatics plays a role in helping that are effective on the basis of the require- communicators to see the world from others’ ments of the communicative endeavor (de perspectives (Epley & Caruso, 2009) and to Villiers, 2004). This aspect of pragmatics in- regulate social interaction (Weiner & Schnei- cludes three components, the first of which der, 2002). Positive social interactions facili- is speech acts or the communication of in- tate prosocial behaviors, such as developing tentions (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969). The sec- and maintaining interpersonal relationships Copyright © 2015 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited. 10 TOPICS IN LANGUAGE DISORDERS/JANUARY–MARCH 2015 (Brinton, Robinson, & Fujiki, 2004). In addi- Washington, 1994, 1995, 2002; Dandy, 1991; tion, pragmatics helps communicators make Green, 2002, 2003; Newkirk-Turner, Oetting, sense of social cues (Weiner, 2004) and can & Stockman, 2014; Oetting et al., 2010; play a role in academic outcomes (Boudreau, Roy, Oetting, & Moland, 2013; Seymour & 2008; Donahue, 1985; Eder, 1982; O’Neill, Roeper, 1999; Smitherman, 1994; Stockman, 2014). Presupposition and inferring others’ 2010; Stockman, Guillory, Seibert, & Boult, intentions, both components of pragmatic 2013; Stockman & Vaughn-Cook, 1992; Van language, facilitate comprehension of oral Hofwegen & Wolfram, 2010). In contrast, and written discourse, as well as figura- there has been limited research regarding the tive language (Troia, 2011). Multiple areas pragmatic components of AAE. of cognition support pragmatic language One reason for this may be that, to date, (Hyter, 2012; Olswang et al., 2001; Perkins, there has not been a unifying framework 2007), and cognitive impairments can affect for examining the pragmatic language of pragmatic functioning (Perkins, 2007). African American children and adolescents In addition, cultural practices are man- (DeJarnette et al., 2015; Hwa-Froelich, Kasam- ifested through pragmatics (Hyter, 2007; bira, & Moleski, 2007; Rivers et al., 2012). As a Rivers et al., 2012). Culture can be defined consequence, much of the published research as the assumptions, values, belief systems, on this population consists of small data sets and worldviews that guide daily practice of (Hwa-Froelich et al., 2007), using inconsis-
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