CAS LX 522 Syntax I
Total Page:16
File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb
Load more
Recommended publications
-
The Empirical Base of Linguistics: Grammaticality Judgments and Linguistic Methodology
UCLA UCLA Previously Published Works Title The empirical base of linguistics: Grammaticality judgments and linguistic methodology Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/05b2s4wg ISBN 978-3946234043 Author Schütze, Carson T Publication Date 2016-02-01 DOI 10.17169/langsci.b89.101 Data Availability The data associated with this publication are managed by: Language Science Press, Berlin Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California The empirical base of linguistics Grammaticality judgments and linguistic methodology Carson T. Schütze language Classics in Linguistics 2 science press Classics in Linguistics Chief Editors: Martin Haspelmath, Stefan Müller In this series: 1. Lehmann, Christian. Thoughts on grammaticalization 2. Schütze, Carson T. The empirical base of linguistics: Grammaticality judgments and linguistic methodology 3. Bickerton, Derek. Roots of language ISSN: 2366-374X The empirical base of linguistics Grammaticality judgments and linguistic methodology Carson T. Schütze language science press Carson T. Schütze. 2019. The empirical base of linguistics: Grammaticality judgments and linguistic methodology (Classics in Linguistics 2). Berlin: Language Science Press. This title can be downloaded at: http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/89 © 2019, Carson T. Schütze Published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence (CC BY 4.0): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN: 978-3-946234-02-9 (Digital) 978-3-946234-03-6 (Hardcover) 978-3-946234-04-3 (Softcover) 978-1-523743-32-2 -
Greek and Latin Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes
GREEK AND LATIN ROOTS, PREFIXES, AND SUFFIXES This is a resource pack that I put together for myself to teach roots, prefixes, and suffixes as part of a separate vocabulary class (short weekly sessions). It is a combination of helpful resources that I have found on the web as well as some tips of my own (such as the simple lesson plan). Lesson Plan Ideas ........................................................................................................... 3 Simple Lesson Plan for Word Study: ........................................................................... 3 Lesson Plan Idea 2 ...................................................................................................... 3 Background Information .................................................................................................. 5 Why Study Word Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes? ......................................................... 6 Latin and Greek Word Elements .............................................................................. 6 Latin Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes .......................................................................... 6 Root, Prefix, and Suffix Lists ........................................................................................... 8 List 1: MEGA root list ................................................................................................... 9 List 2: Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes .......................................................................... 32 List 3: Prefix List ...................................................................................................... -
Syntax and Semantics of Propositional Logic
INTRODUCTIONTOLOGIC Lecture 2 Syntax and Semantics of Propositional Logic. Dr. James Studd Logic is the beginning of wisdom. Thomas Aquinas Outline 1 Syntax vs Semantics. 2 Syntax of L1. 3 Semantics of L1. 4 Truth-table methods. Examples of syntactic claims ‘Bertrand Russell’ is a proper noun. ‘likes logic’ is a verb phrase. ‘Bertrand Russell likes logic’ is a sentence. Combining a proper noun and a verb phrase in this way makes a sentence. Syntax vs. Semantics Syntax Syntax is all about expressions: words and sentences. ‘Bertrand Russell’ is a proper noun. ‘likes logic’ is a verb phrase. ‘Bertrand Russell likes logic’ is a sentence. Combining a proper noun and a verb phrase in this way makes a sentence. Syntax vs. Semantics Syntax Syntax is all about expressions: words and sentences. Examples of syntactic claims ‘likes logic’ is a verb phrase. ‘Bertrand Russell likes logic’ is a sentence. Combining a proper noun and a verb phrase in this way makes a sentence. Syntax vs. Semantics Syntax Syntax is all about expressions: words and sentences. Examples of syntactic claims ‘Bertrand Russell’ is a proper noun. ‘Bertrand Russell likes logic’ is a sentence. Combining a proper noun and a verb phrase in this way makes a sentence. Syntax vs. Semantics Syntax Syntax is all about expressions: words and sentences. Examples of syntactic claims ‘Bertrand Russell’ is a proper noun. ‘likes logic’ is a verb phrase. Combining a proper noun and a verb phrase in this way makes a sentence. Syntax vs. Semantics Syntax Syntax is all about expressions: words and sentences. Examples of syntactic claims ‘Bertrand Russell’ is a proper noun. -
Language Structure: Phrases “Productivity” a Property of Language • Definition – Language Is an Open System
Language Structure: Phrases “Productivity” a property of Language • Definition – Language is an open system. We can produce potentially an infinite number of different messages by combining elements differently. • Example – Words into phrases. An Example of Productivity • Human language is a communication system that bears some similarities to other animal communication systems, but is also characterized by certain unique features. (24 words) • I think that human language is a communication system that bears some similarities to other animal communication systems, but is also characterized by certain unique features, which are fascinating in and of themselves. (33 words) • I have always thought, and I have spent many years verifying, that human language is a communication system that bears some similarities to other animal communication systems, but is also characterized by certain unique features, which are fascinating in and of themselves. (42 words) • Although mainstream some people might not agree with me, I have always thought… Creating Infinite Messages • Discrete elements – Words, Phrases • Selection – Ease, Meaning, Identity • Combination – Rules of organization Models of Word reCombination 1. Word chains (Markov model) Phrase-level meaning is derived from understanding each word as it is presented in the context of immediately adjacent words. 2. Hierarchical model There are long-distant dependencies between words in a phrase, and these inform the meaning of the entire phrase. Markov Model Rule: Select and concatenate (according to meaning and what types of words should occur next to each other). bites bites bites Man over over over jumps jumps jumps house house house Markov Model • Assumption −Only adjacent words are meaningfully (and lawfully) related. -
Syntax: Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency
Syntax: Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Recursion Syntax: Conjunction Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Constituency . Syntax: Course Readings Recursion, Conjunction, and Constituency Course Readings Recursion Conjunction Constituency Tests The following readings have been posted to the Moodle Auxiliary Verbs course site: I Language Files: Chapter 5 (pp. 204-215, 216-220) I Language Instinct: Chapter 4 (pp. 74-99) . Syntax: An Interesting Property of our PS Rules Recursion, Conjunction, and Our Current PS Rules: Constituency S ! f NP , CP g VP NP ! (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Course Readings VP ! V (NP) f (NP) (CP) g (PP*) Recursion PP ! P (NP) Conjunction CP ! C S Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs An Interesting Feature of These Rules: As we saw last time, these rules allow sentences to contain other sentences. I A sentence must have a VP in it. I A VP can have a CP in it. I A CP must have an S in it. Syntax: An Interesting Property of our PS Rules Recursion, Conjunction, and Our Current PS Rules: Constituency S ! f NP , CP g VP NP ! (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Course Readings VP ! V (NP) f (NP) (CP) g (PP*) Recursion ! PP P (NP) Conjunction CP ! C S Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs An Interesting Feature of These Rules: As we saw last time, these rules allow sentences to contain other sentences. S NP VP N V CP Dave thinks C S that . he. is. cool. Syntax: An Interesting Property of our PS Rules Recursion, Conjunction, and Our Current PS Rules: Constituency S ! f NP , CP g VP NP ! (D) (A*) N (CP) (PP*) Course Readings VP ! V (NP) f (NP) (CP) g (PP*) Recursion PP ! P (NP) Conjunction CP ! CS Constituency Tests Auxiliary Verbs Another Interesting Feature of These Rules: These rules also allow noun phrases to contain other noun phrases. -
Lecture 1: Propositional Logic
Lecture 1: Propositional Logic Syntax Semantics Truth tables Implications and Equivalences Valid and Invalid arguments Normal forms Davis-Putnam Algorithm 1 Atomic propositions and logical connectives An atomic proposition is a statement or assertion that must be true or false. Examples of atomic propositions are: “5 is a prime” and “program terminates”. Propositional formulas are constructed from atomic propositions by using logical connectives. Connectives false true not and or conditional (implies) biconditional (equivalent) A typical propositional formula is The truth value of a propositional formula can be calculated from the truth values of the atomic propositions it contains. 2 Well-formed propositional formulas The well-formed formulas of propositional logic are obtained by using the construction rules below: An atomic proposition is a well-formed formula. If is a well-formed formula, then so is . If and are well-formed formulas, then so are , , , and . If is a well-formed formula, then so is . Alternatively, can use Backus-Naur Form (BNF) : formula ::= Atomic Proposition formula formula formula formula formula formula formula formula formula formula 3 Truth functions The truth of a propositional formula is a function of the truth values of the atomic propositions it contains. A truth assignment is a mapping that associates a truth value with each of the atomic propositions . Let be a truth assignment for . If we identify with false and with true, we can easily determine the truth value of under . The other logical connectives can be handled in a similar manner. Truth functions are sometimes called Boolean functions. 4 Truth tables for basic logical connectives A truth table shows whether a propositional formula is true or false for each possible truth assignment. -
24.902F15 Class 13 Pro Versus
Unpronounced subjects 1 We have seen PRO, the subject of infinitives and gerunds: 1. I want [PRO to dance in the park] 2. [PRO dancing in the park] was a good idea 2 There are languages that have unpronounced subjects in tensed clauses. Obviously, English is not among those languages: 3. irθe (Greek) came.3sg ‘he came’ or ‘she came’ 4. *came Languages like Greek, which permit this phenomenon are called “pro-drop” languages. 3 What is the status of this unpronounced subject in pro-drop languages? Is it PRO or something else? Something with the same or different properties from PRO? Let’s follow the convention of calling the unpronounced subject in tensed clauses “little pro”, as opposed to “big PRO”. What are the differences between pro and PRO? 4 -A Nominative NP can appear instead of pro. Not so for PRO: 5. i Katerina irθe the Katerina came.3sg ‘Katerina came’ 6. *I hope he/I to come 7. *he to read this book would be great 5 -pro can refer to any individual as long as Binding Condition B is respected. That is, pro is not “controlled”. Not so for OC PRO. 8. i Katerinak nomizi oti prok/m irθe stin ora tis the K thinks that came on-the time her ‘Katerinak thinks that shek/m /hem came on time’ 9. Katerinak wants [PROk/*m to leave] 6 -pro can yield sloppy or strict readings under ellipsis, exactly like pronouns. Not so OC PRO. 10. i Katerinak nomizi oti prok/m irθe stin ora tis the K thinks that came on-the time her ke i Maria episis and the Maria also ‘Katerinak thinks that shek came on time and Maria does too’ =…Maria thinks that Katerina came on time strict …Maria thinks that Maria came on time sloppy 7 11. -
Final Review: Syntax Fall 2007
Final Review: Syntax Fall 2007 Jean Mark Gawron San Diego State University December 12, 2007 1 Control and Raising Key: S Subject O Object C Control R Raising For example, SOR = Subject(to)-Object Raising. Example answers: 1.1 seem a. Identify the control type [subject/object]. What NP is understood as controller of the infinitive (does or is expected to do or tries to do or ... the action described by the verb in infinitival form) John tries to go Subject SSR, SC John seems to go Subject SSR, SC John is likely to go Subject SSR, SC John is eager to go Subject SSR, SC Mary persuaded John to go Object SOR, OC Mary expected John to go Object SOR, OC Mary promised John to go Subject SSR, SC The control type of seem is subject! b. Produce relevant examples: (1) a. Itseemstoberaining b. There seems to be a problem c. The chips seems to be down. d. It seems to be obvious that John is a fool. e. The police seem to have caught the burglar. f. The burglar seems to have been caught by the police. c. Example construction i. Construct embedded clause: (a) itrains. Simpleexample;dummysubject * John rains Testing dummy subjecthood ittorain Putintoinfinitivalform ii. Embed (a) ∆ seem [CP it to rain] Embed under seem [ctd.] it seem [CP t torain] Moveit— it seems [CP t to rain] Add tense, agreement (to main verb) d. Other examples (b) itisraining. Alternativeexample;dummysubject *Johnisraining Testingdummysubjecthood ittoberaining Putintoinfinitivalform ∆ seem [CP it to be raining] Embed under seem it seem [CP t toberaining] Moveit— it seems [CP t to be raining] Add tense, agreement (to main verb) (c) Thechipsaredown. -
1 Logic, Language and Meaning 2 Syntax and Semantics of Predicate
Semantics and Pragmatics 2 Winter 2011 University of Chicago Handout 1 1 Logic, language and meaning • A formal system is a set of primitives, some statements about the primitives (axioms), and some method of deriving further statements about the primitives from the axioms. • Predicate logic (calculus) is a formal system consisting of: 1. A syntax defining the expressions of a language. 2. A set of axioms (formulae of the language assumed to be true) 3. A set of rules of inference for deriving further formulas from the axioms. • We use this formal system as a tool for analyzing relevant aspects of the meanings of natural languages. • A formal system is a syntactic object, a set of expressions and rules of combination and derivation. However, we can talk about the relation between this system and the models that can be used to interpret it, i.e. to assign extra-linguistic entities as the meanings of expressions. • Logic is useful when it is possible to translate natural languages into a logical language, thereby learning about the properties of natural language meaning from the properties of the things that can act as meanings for a logical language. 2 Syntax and semantics of Predicate Logic 2.1 The vocabulary of Predicate Logic 1. Individual constants: fd; n; j; :::g 2. Individual variables: fx; y; z; :::g The individual variables and constants are the terms. 3. Predicate constants: fP; Q; R; :::g Each predicate has a fixed and finite number of ar- guments called its arity or valence. As we will see, this corresponds closely to argument positions for natural language predicates. -
Lambda Calculus and the Decision Problem
Lambda Calculus and the Decision Problem William Gunther November 8, 2010 Abstract In 1928, Alonzo Church formalized the λ-calculus, which was an attempt at providing a foundation for mathematics. At the heart of this system was the idea of function abstraction and application. In this talk, I will outline the early history and motivation for λ-calculus, especially in recursion theory. I will discuss the basic syntax and the primary rule: β-reduction. Then I will discuss how one would represent certain structures (numbers, pairs, boolean values) in this system. This will lead into some theorems about fixed points which will allow us have some fun and (if there is time) to supply a negative answer to Hilbert's Entscheidungsproblem: is there an effective way to give a yes or no answer to any mathematical statement. 1 History In 1928 Alonzo Church began work on his system. There were two goals of this system: to investigate the notion of 'function' and to create a powerful logical system sufficient for the foundation of mathematics. His main logical system was later (1935) found to be inconsistent by his students Stephen Kleene and J.B.Rosser, but the 'pure' system was proven consistent in 1936 with the Church-Rosser Theorem (which more details about will be discussed later). An application of λ-calculus is in the area of computability theory. There are three main notions of com- putability: Hebrand-G¨odel-Kleenerecursive functions, Turing Machines, and λ-definable functions. Church's Thesis (1935) states that λ-definable functions are exactly the functions that can be “effectively computed," in an intuitive way. -
A Logical Approach to Grammar Description Lionel Clément, Jérôme Kirman, Sylvain Salvati
A logical approach to grammar description Lionel Clément, Jérôme Kirman, Sylvain Salvati To cite this version: Lionel Clément, Jérôme Kirman, Sylvain Salvati. A logical approach to grammar description. Jour- nal of Language Modelling, Institute of Computer Science, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland, 2015, Special issue on High-level methodologies for grammar engineering, 3 (1), pp. 87-143 10.15398/jlm.v3i1.94. hal-01251222 HAL Id: hal-01251222 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01251222 Submitted on 19 Jan 2016 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. A logical approach to grammar description Lionel Clément, Jérôme Kirman, and Sylvain Salvati Université de Bordeaux LaBRI France abstract In the tradition of Model Theoretic Syntax, we propose a logical ap- Keywords: proach to the description of grammars. We combine in one formal- grammar ism several tools that are used throughout computer science for their description, logic, power of abstraction: logic and lambda calculus. We propose then a Finite State high-level formalism for describing mildly context sensitive grammars Automata, and their semantic interpretation. As we rely on the correspondence logical between logic and finite state automata, our method combines con- transduction, ciseness with effectivity. -
FOL Syntax: You Will Be Expected to Know
First-Order Logic A: Syntax CS271P, Fall Quarter, 2018 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence Prof. Richard Lathrop Read Beforehand: R&N 8, 9.1-9.2, 9.5.1-9.5.5 Common Sense Reasoning Example, adapted from Lenat You are told: John drove to the grocery store and bought a pound of noodles, a pound of ground beef, and two pounds of tomatoes. • Is John 3 years old? • Is John a child? • What will John do with the purchases? • Did John have any money? • Does John have less money after going to the store? • Did John buy at least two tomatoes? • Were the tomatoes made in the supermarket? • Did John buy any meat? • Is John a vegetarian? • Will the tomatoes fit in John’s car? • Can Propositional Logic support these inferences? Outline for First-Order Logic (FOL, also called FOPC) • Propositional Logic is Useful --- but Limited Expressive Power • First Order Predicate Calculus (FOPC), or First Order Logic (FOL). – FOPC has expanded expressive power, though still limited. • New Ontology – The world consists of OBJECTS. – OBJECTS have PROPERTIES, RELATIONS, and FUNCTIONS. • New Syntax – Constants, Predicates, Functions, Properties, Quantifiers. • New Semantics – Meaning of new syntax. • Unification and Inference in FOL • Knowledge engineering in FOL FOL Syntax: You will be expected to know • FOPC syntax – Syntax: Sentences, predicate symbols, function symbols, constant symbols, variables, quantifiers • De Morgan’s rules for quantifiers – connections between ∀ and ∃ • Nested quantifiers – Difference between “∀ x ∃ y P(x, y)” and “∃ x ∀ y P(x, y)”