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European Summer Campus 2013 Strasbourg

Energy on all scales

Joël Pouthas

Laboratoire de Physique Corpusculaire ENSICAEN, Caen, France

[email protected] European Summer Campus 2013 Strasbourg

What is ?

Lectures Richard on Feynman

Summer Science Program 1960 European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN European Summer Campus 2013 Strasbourg

Energy, the rise of a concept

Part I – Historical sketch

English: energy French: énergie

German: energie Italian: energia

Greek: ἐνέργεια , energeia Latin: energia

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Origins in Physics ()

Outlines of the Science of Energetics Read before the Philosophical Society of on May 2, 1855

On the phrase “”, and on the Definitions of Physical Quantities Read before the Philosophical Society of Glasgow on January 23, 1867

W. J. M. Rankine (1820 – 1872) 1807

Miscellaneous Scientific Papers by W. J. Macquorn Rankine London, Charles Griffin and Company, 1881

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Origins in Physics (Natural Philosophy)

Late introduction of the word “Energy” in physics (Nineteenth century)

… but

Notions of “”, “”, “”vis viva” already used in Mechanics

Capacity of performing work

Steam engines (Development in eighteen century)

Mid-nineteenth century

Development of “”

Relations between “” and “work”

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Thermodynamics

Mid Nineteenth Century

William Thomson (1824 – 1907) (1822 – 1888)

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Thermodynamics - Clausius

1822 Born in Pomerania (Prussia) 1844 Graduate From University of Berlin 1848 Doctorate from University of Halle (Reflected in the sky)

1850 Professor at Berlin (Royal Artillery School) 1855 Chair of Mathematical Physics at ETH Zurich 1867 University of Würzburg 1869 University of Bonn (Rector in 1884 and 1885)

1888 Died in Bonn

On the motive power of heat and on the laws which 1850 can be deduced from it for the theory of heat*

I. Consequences of the principle of the equivalence of heat and work

II. Consequences of Carnot’s principle in connection with the one already introduced

*Ueber die bewegende Kraft der Wärme und die Gesetze, welche sich daraus für die Warmelehre selbst ableitenlassen (Annalen der Physik und Chemie)

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Equivalence of Heat and Work Several actors in the 1840s “Work” “Force” “Power” “Energy” “Precursors” - Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) (1753 – 1814) American-born. England. Bavaria. France. Interest in gunnery and explosives An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction (1798)

- Karl Friedrich Mohr (1806 – 1879) German chemist Uber die Natur der Wärme (1837) Transformation of “Kraft”

Julius Robert von Mayer German physician and natural philosopher (1814 - 1878)

Travel on boat as a ship’s doctor. Idea of equivalence of heat and work (1840)

4 papers: 1 rejected (1841) 1 published (1842) 2 printed at his own expense (1845 and 1848)

No personal experiment but use of existing results to obtain the First figure for equivalence between heat and work

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Equivalence of Heat and Work Several actors in the 1840s “Work” “Force” “Power” “Energy”

James Prescott

English brewer and physicist (1818 - 1889)

Interest in electricity (Heat and current => Joule’s law)

On the Mechanical Equivalent of heat (1845 and 1847) (Reports of the British Association for the advancement of Science)

On the Mechanical equivalent of Heat Philos.Trans. Royal Society 1849

Joule (1818 – 1889) To day

The joule (J) is the Unit of Energy

2 2 Apparatus 1 J = 1 kg. m / s Science Museum, London

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Equivalence of Heat and Work Several actors in the 1840s “Work” “Force” “Power” “Energy” “Others” - Ludwig August Colding (1815 - 1888) Danish civil engineer and physicist

- Gustave-Adolphe Hirn (1815 - 1890) French manufacturer and physicist

Hermann von Helmholtz German physiologist and physicist (1821 - 1894)

On the Conservation of Force (1847) Über die Erhaltung der Kraft

Considerations on heat and human action versus the impossibility of perpetual Formulation of the concept of “Conservation (Erhaltung)” in the framework of mechanics

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Carnot’s principle ? Sadi Carnot

1796 Born in Paris (Son of Lazare Carnot)

1812 Ecole Polytechnique

1814 Ecole de Metz and (weak) military activities

1819 Paris (General Staff). Personal works

1828 Retired (without pension) from the army

1832 Died of cholera In 1813 by Louis-Léopold Boilly

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Carnot’s principle ?

1824

In 1813 by Louis-Léopold Boilly

Reflexions on the Motive power of fire and on machines fitted to develop that power

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Carnot’s principle ?

1824

In 1813 by Louis-Léopold Boilly

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN engines – Historical roots

Condensation of hot steam -> Production of a partial vacuum in a vessel

~ 1700 Piston in a cylinder : Denis Papin (1647 – 1712)

1698 “Fire engine” by Thomas Savery (1650 – 1715) Pumping water in mines (only few samples)

1712 Engine by Thomas Newcomen (1654 – 1729) Pumping water in mines (Savery’s patent)

~ 75 engines on 1730

“Atmospheric condensing engine”

The “motive power” is the Atmospheric

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Steam engines -

Work on the Newcomen engine (Model, economy) -> 1765 Introduction of the Condenser

James Watt (1736 – 1819) X

Immersion of the condenser in cold water

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Steam engines - Watt

Other improvements: Sealing the top of the cylinder and injection of steam on the upper part Etc…

Matthew Boulton (1728 – 1809) (1736 – 1819)

Engineer Manufacturer

1774

Final quarter of the 18th century

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Steam engines - Industrialisation

Stephenson - 1829 Trevithick - 1803

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Steam engines - Industrialisation

Ebley Cloth Mills, Gloucestershire c.1850 Painting by Alfred Newland Smith

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN “”

1824 S. Carnot Reflexions on the motive power of fire and on machines fitted to develop that power

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Carnot’s work

1824 S. Carnot Reflexions on the motive power of fire and on machines fitted to develop that power 1834 E. Clapeyron Mémoire sur la puissance motrice de la chaleur Journal de L’Ecole Polytechnique (Memoir on the motive power of heat) Carnot cycle

Modern representation on a pressure- graph

(Not in the Carnot treatise) Emile Clayperon (1799 – 1864)

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Legacy of the Carnot’s work

1824 S. Carnot Reflexions on the motive power of fire and on machines fitted to develop that power (French)

1834 E. Clapeyron Memoir on the motive power of heat (French) Translations English 1837 German 1843

1848 W.Thomson On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot’s Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault’s observations (English)

1849 W.Thomson An Account of Carnot’s Theory of the Motive Power of Heat with Numerical Results deduced from Regnault’s Experiments on Steam (English)

1850 R. Clausius On the motive power of heat and on the laws which can be deduced from it for the theory of heat (German)

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Thermodynamics - Thomson

1822 Born at Belfast 1833 Family moved to Glasgow

1845 High level graduation () at Cambridge

1846 Professor at Glasgow (Natural Philosophy)

1892 Baron of Largs (Knighted in 1866)

1907 Died at Largs, Scotland

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Thermodynamics - Clausius

1850 On the motive power of heat and on the laws which can be deduced from it for the theory of heat

I. Consequences of the principle of the equivalence of heat and work

II. Consequences of Carnot’s principle in connection with the one already introduced

1854 On another form of the second law of the mechanical theory of heat

Zweite Haupsatze Satz von der Aequivalenz der Verwandlungen der mechanishen Warmetheorie (“Principle” of the equivalence of transformations) (Second “main proposition” of the mechanical theory of heat)

For all the reversible close cycles, the analytical expression of the second law of the mechanical theory of heat is:

∫dQ/T = 0

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Thermodynamics - Clausius

1850 On the motive power of heat and on the laws which can be deduced from it for the theory of heat

1854 On another form of the second law of the mechanical theory of heat 1862 On the application of the principle of the equivalence of transformations to internal work

1865 On several convenient forms of the fundamental equations of the mechanical theory of heat

On a reversible cycle : “Equivalence of transformation” ∫dQ/T = S - S0

“I propose to name the quantity S the of the system, after the Greek word τροπη transformation.

I have deliberately chosen the word entropy to be as similar as possible to the word energy: the two quantities to be named by these words are so closely related in physical significance that a certain similarity in their names appears to be appropriate.”

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Part I – Summary Origins of the concept of energy in physics

Natural philosophy (Physics) Human Industrial revolution Physiology Motion of bodies - Heat engines th 17th century 19 century 18th century

1840’s - Equivalency of Heat and Work () To day 1850’s - Thermodynamics “” 2 Laws T = ½mv2 To day Potential energy V = mg.h “Classical Thermodynamics”

(1 dimension,1 particle of mass m) Energy (U) dU = δQ + δW (Q: Heat ; W: Work) Lagrangian mechanics (1788) Entropy (S) dS = (δQ) /T Hamiltonian mechanics (1833) rev (T: absolute ) H = T + V

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Industrial revolution

Le Creusot (France) on 1847 Lithography according to the watercolor of Trémaux

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Industrial revolution

Electricity Thomas Edison (1847 – 1931) Chemistry

Nikola Cardiff Docks – 1894 (1856 – 1943) Oil painting, Lionel Walden

Brighton Electric Light Station in 1887. Liebig Laboratory at Giessen , 1850’s European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Energy - Physics – Nineteenth century

Mechanics Thermodynamics

Electricity Magnetism

Electromagnetism

(Waves)

Michael Faraday James Clerk (1791 – 1867) Chemistry (1831 – 1879)

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Energy - Physics – Nineteenth century

Mechanics Thermodynamics

Electricity Magnetism

Electromagnetism

(Waves)

Wilhelm Ostwald (1853 – 1932) Chemistry (1861 – 1916)

Energetik Energetics Energétisme “Energy in all forms” at our (human) scale

Production Storage Distribution Consumption Efficiency Safety Management

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN European Summer Campus 2013 Strasbourg

Energy on all scales

Part II – Energy and atoms

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Kinetic theory of

First edition: 1872

James Clerk Maxwell (1831 – 1879)

Energy of a hot body <-> Motion of its parts (molecules)

History (Overview by Maxwell)

Pressure of gases due to the impact of molecules on the recipient walls

Clausius: “Dynamical theory of gases”

Clausius 1857 “The living force of the translation movement is proportional to the absolute temperature”

1858 Introduction of the notion of “Mean (free) path” (“Mittlere Weglänge”)

Mathematical relation between “macroscopic” and “microscopic” levels

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Kinetic theory of gases

James Clerk Maxwell

1860 Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gazes Read at the BAAS, Sept 1859. Published in Philosophical Magazine 1860

1866 On the Dynamical Theory of Gazes Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (Received May 1866)

“Maxwell’s Distribution” Velocity distribution law of particles in gases James Clerk Maxwell (1831 – 1879) Ludwig Boltzmann

1844 Born in Vienna, Austria

1866 Doctorate with Stefan. Lecturer

Professor

1869 Graz (Mathematical Physics) 1873 Vienna (Mathematics) 1876 Graz (Experimental Physics) 1890 Munich (Theoretical Physics) 1894 Vienna (Theoretical Physics) 1900 Liepzig (Invited by Ostwald) 1902 Vienna (Physics and Naturphilosophie) Ludwig Boltzmann (1844 – 1906) 1906 Suicide at Duino

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Boltzmann – Entropy and statistics

1872 Weitere Studien über das Wärmegleichgewicht unter Gasmolekülen Wiener Berichte 66 (1872) 275-370 (Complementary studies on the thermal equilibrium of molecules) “Boltzmann equation” Evolution of the distribution [f] of the kinetic energy of molecules in collisions “H Theorem” It exists a quantity [ H = f. log(f) ] which never increase

1877 Über die Beziehung swischen dem zweiten Hauptsatze der mechanischen Wärmetheorie und der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechung respektive den Sätzen ûber das Wärmegleichgewicht. Wiener Berichte 76 (1877) 373-435 (About the relation between the second law of the mechanical theory of Ludwig Boltzmann heat and the probability calculations applied to the thermal equilibrium) (1844 – 1906)

Proportionality of entropy and distribution of states of kinetic energy

1891 & 1893 (2 Vol.) Vorlesungen über Maxwells Theorie der Elektrizität und des Lichts

1896 & 1898 (2 Vol.) Vorlesungen über Gastheorie

1897 & 1904 (2 Vol.) Vorlesungen über Prinzipien der Mechanik In the 19th century, Atomism was not prevailing in Physics… and Chemistry

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Energy – Beginning of 2Oth century - Overview Max Planck

1858 Born in Kiel, Germany

Educated at Munich and Berlin 1879 Doctorate dissertation (Munich): Über den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie

1889 - 1926 Professor at Berlin University Book “Thermodynamik” (Thermodynamics) (1897)

1947 Died at Göttingen

1900… Planck Black-body radiation Calculations based on a set of N resonators Empirical laws (Wien) with frequency ν. (Energy element: ε = h.ν)

Publications: mainly in Annalen der Physik Book: Theorie der Wärmestrahlung (Theory of heat radiation) (1906)

1918 Nobel Prize in Physics "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta".

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Energy – Beginning of 2Oth century - Overview Albert Einstein 1879 Born in Ulm, Germany

1896 – 1900 Student at ETH Zurich (Polytechnic institute) 1896 – Stateless

1902 – 1909 Patent office at Bern 1901 – Swiss citizenship

1908 – 1914 Teaching positions at Bern, Zurich, Prague

1914 Professor at Berlin University 1932 Professor at IAS Princeton 1933 Emigration in US

1940 – US citizenship (Still Swiss) 1955 Died at Princeton First publications in Annalen der Physik

1901 and 1902 2 papers on intermolecular forces 1902 Kinetische Theorie des Wärmegleichgewichtes und des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermodynamik (Kinetic Theory of Thermal Equilibrium and of the Second Law of Thermodynamics)

1903 Eine Theorie der Grundlagen der Thermodynamik (A Theory of the Foundations of Thermodynamics)

1904 Zur allgemeine molekulare Theorie der Wärme (On the General Molecular Theory of Heat)

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Albert Einstein – 1905 - Overview

Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden Received AdP heuristischen Gesichtspunkt 17th March On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light

Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Received AdP Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen 11th May On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat

ÜberZur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper Received AdP On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies 30th June

Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig? Received AdP Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? 27th Sept.

Zur Theorie der Brownschen Bewegung Received AdP On the Theory of Brownian Motion 19th Dec.

Doctoral dissertation Completed on 30th April - Printed in Bern (Buchdruckerei K. J. Wyss, Bern, 1906) Submitted at Zurich University - Accepted on July - Published in AdP

Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Albert Einstein – 1905 - Overview

Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden Received AdP heuristischen Gesichtspunkt 17th March On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light

“Photoelectric effect” Proposal of the photon as a quantum of energy

1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"

The “Quantum discontinuity” was introduced in relation with radiation

ÜberZur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper Received AdP On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies 30th June

“Special relativity”

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Albert Einstein – 1905 - Overview

Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig? Received AdP Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? 27th Sept.

E = mc2 was introduced as a consequence of “relativity” (radiation & motion) European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN Energy – Beginning of 2Oth century - Overview What about energy in atoms ? Atomic nucleus

1911 Rutherford. Explanation of the diffusion of alpha particles 1913 Bohr. Introduction of the quantum of action (levels of energy) Binding energy - Mass excess

1913 J.J. Thomson. Neon20 and 22. Notion of “Isotopes”, “same place” (F. Soddy) 1919 Aston. Mass spectrograph. Precise “atomic weights” measurement Huge energy in the nuclei (E = mc2)… but not accessible !

Neutron and nuclei models

1932 Chadwick. Discovery of the neutron Heisenberg Model of nuclei with protons and neutrons

Atom Fission and nuclear energy

1938 Hahn and Strassmann Experimental discovery of fission 1942 Fermi at Chicago First experimental nuclear reactor 1945 “Atomic bomb” Trinity site. Hiroshima and Nagasaki

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN What is energy ?

European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN European Summer Campus 2013, Strasbourg Joël Pouthas LPC - ENSICAEN