Journal Volume 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016
INDEX
Sr. Page Name of the Research Paper Author No. No. Emerging Geo-Environmental Issues And 1 Dr. H.M.Pednekar Challenges Of 21st Century Analysis Of Air Pollution In Selected Cities Of 2 Dr. Moushumi Datta Maharashtra Dr. Arjun Nanaware 3 Pattern of Migration Inkolhapur District Shri. Navnath Bansode General Land-Use Pattern In Devbag, Govardhan S.Ubale, 4 Sindhudurg A Geographical Analysis. Dr. R. B. Patil Geomorphometric Analysis Of The Baitarani 5 Siva Prasad Panda Basin In Odisha Spatial Analysis Of Agricultural Efficiency Ms. Shobha N. 6 Regions In Haveri District: A Geographical Nandihalli Analysis Net Irrigated Area And Its Relationship With 7 Subhasis Mondal Irrigation Intensity: A Case Study Of A Village Spatio-Temporal Analysis Of Land Use In 8 Hassan District (Karnataka State): Using Dr.Basavaraj R.Bagade Geo-Informatics Utility Of Gis And Remote Sensing For Dr. Arjun H. Nanawre 9 Natural Disaster Management Special Anand Londhe Reference To Flood Management A Study Of Inter-Taluk Gender Disparities In N K Manjunatha , 10 Literacy Of Haveri District Deepika Devaramani Ecotourism: A Case Study of Mangalajodi, 11 Arunima Bhattacharya Odisha Sustainable Management of Urban Municipal Dr Chandani 12 Solid Waste: Indian Megacity Perspective Bhattacharjee 13 Radioactivity: Use and waste management Sajal Biswas Status Of Women-A Case Of Nadia District, 14 Jayasree Mandal West Bengal A Geographical Perspective Of Foreign Aid Rajeev Ranjan 15 And Growth Of Agricultural Sector In Somalia Dr. B. B. Sonule The Prospect Of Indian Agriculture In The 16 Dr. Sayantani Nath Changing Climatic Senario Of The World Spatio-Temporal Analysis Of Crop 17 Combinations In Haveri District: A Dr. D. K. Kamble Geographical Analysis
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Economic Transformation Of The People – A 18 Case Study Of Burhi Micro-Watershed, Sajal Barh Kendujhar, Odisha, India Urban Health Care Planning Using Geographical Information System: A Case Dr. Krishna Chandra 19 Study Of Emergency Health Care Facilities In Rath Bhubaneswar City In Eastern India Traffic Congestion-A Case Study Of 20 Nitish Sikdar Krishnagar Municipality Water Bodies And Their Environmental 21 Impact On Urban Living In Bhubaneswar Kumbhakarna Mallik Smart City Kalyan Saha, Santanu 22 Sea Level Change: A Threat To Mankind Bera Perception Study Of Migrant Population In Ms. Agrawal Amrita 23 Mumbai Metropolitan Region: Case Study Of Anilkumar Mamta Navi Mumbai. Dr. S.N.Patil Dr. Growth Of Population Change In Kolhapur 24 R.B.Patil District, Maharashtra (India) Prof. Tejas Jaykar Prof. Dnyaneshwar D. Study Of Geo-Tourism Potentials And Bombe 25 Related Problems Of Potholes (Ranjan Dr. H. M. Pednekar, Khalge) At Nighoj And Takli Haji Prof. Smt. Bharati Unni Species Community Measure And 26 Management Based On Quadrat Method In Subhashis Biswas Rajabhatkhawa, West Bengal Impact Of Socio-Economic And Household 27 Environment On Infant Mortality In City Dr. Bhaskar Samanta Outgrowth Of Tribal City Jagdalpur, (C.G) Ms. Sanjana Shivalkar 28 A Study on Cyclones In India Ms.Nikita Gandhi MkW-jktkjke vk;Z 29 e/;izns’k ds ouksa dh n’kk
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
EMERGING ST GEO -ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF 21 CENTURY Dr. H. M. Pednekar Principal, Sonopant Dandekar College, Palghar (Mumbai)
-: Key Note Address :- Our Earth is the only planet in the solar system having water and different forms of life including man. Why we find favourable environment only on the Earth? Earth is at a critical distance of about 150 million kms. from the sun – our major source of heat. The planets mercury and venus are very close to the sun and other planets are away from it. Temperature on the earth is just suitable for the survival of different forms of life.
Sun 150 million kmsEarth
Fig. 1 – Earth & Sun Earth was formed about 4600 million years ago. Almost all forms of life other than man appeared on the Earth much before the emergence of man i.e. plants, inserts, aquatic animals, birds, animals etc. Hence they are like elder brothers and sisters of man. Man appeared on the Earth’s surface just two million years ago. Man is more intelligent and hence he has learned how to utilise all environmental elements for his benefit through the development of science and technology. He has exploited environment carelessly. Already crossed the limit of control. Hence many species of animals, birds have become extinct. The root cause of all Geo-Environmental issues of 21st century is Man and his dirty selfish thoughts. Some of the major Geo-Environmental issues are as follows. 1) Ozone depletion 2) Global warming 3) Deforestation 4) Desertification 5) Environmental degradation 6) Loss of biodiversity 7) Soil degradation 8) Pollution 9) Increasing population 10) Poverty 11) Unemployment 12) Social unrest and stress 13) Consumerism 14) Changing life style & Selfish attitude Yeh Dil Mange More OZONE DEPLETION : Ozone layer is found at the height of about 30kms. from the earth’s surface. It controls ultra-violet radiation (U.V. radiation) coming from the sun to the earth. Ozone (O3) layer is becoming thinner due to destruction of ozone. Man-made gases like CFC are responsible for this destruction. Increasing amount of U.V. radiation may increase cases of skin cancer and will contribute to the Global warming. Global Warming : Sun is the major source of heat. Earth gets only a fractional part of total energy emitted by the Sun. Out of the total energy received by the earth only 47% reaches directly on the surface. 1 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
Nature had maintained perfect balance between the incoming and outgoing radiation for thousands of years. Man disturbed this balance due to his economic activities- deforestation, increasing use of fossil fuels, increasing population etc. Hence the average temperature of the earth started increasing which is termed as Global warming. As mentioned earlier the root cause of all these environmental issues is the selfish attitude of man. Hence let us understand it in detail. Changes in our education system. In the past it was Gurukul system – in which even the prince was treated as soon of the ordinary students. He has to complete all type of household work along with his study as any other student. Taking education was hard work and there was no comfort for the student. There was respect for the teacher. The education was value based. The purpose of education was to transform student into good citizen/administrator. With the development in science and technology education has become easy and comfortable. Most of the students take education to earn more money. Hence the project on ‘Environment’ becomes ornamental eye wash and becomes harmful to the environment due to excessive use of papers. Students get very good marks in the exam, but they do not get knowledge and hence they do not get jobs. This situation can be described as operation successful patient died. Let us understand ourself : We know that the earth is the only planet in the solar system having water and favourable environment on it. Sometimes we feel that we are not fortunate. We are poor etc. Who created us? We do not know? Whether we believe in God or not? But he has created millions of life forms on the Earth e.g. insects, bacteria, whale, grass, plants etc. Man is supreme among them – Are we not fortunate? Wild flowers, ants look alike – Who created them? God? It means he could have created all males like Shah Rukh Khan or all girls like Kajol. But he has created each one of us differently. Our appearance is different, our weaknesses are different and our potentials are also different. We should identify this unique gift given to us by the God – our potentials and if we supplement these potentials with the formal education. We become successful. Gods Gift + Formal Education = Success in life. Wild flower plant : Parents try to fulfill their ambitions by forcing or pressurising their children. They compare their children with other successful children and demoralise them. In order to escape from this pressure one girl started growing wild flower plant in a earthen pot. Every day she gave water to the plant and at the same time she worshiped plant and uttered something. Her mother was surprised. She asked her why you are worshipping this plant? The girl said – I am requesting plant to give me rose flowers, lotus etc. along with the wild flowers. Mother started laughing. Are you foolish? This is a wild flower plant and will have only wild flowers. Then the girl said – Like this plant I also have some unique potentials. Let me develop those. Please do not compare me with other children. FOOD & EDUCATION SR. PROCESS OF TAKING FOOD PROCESS OF TAKING EDUCATION NO. Essential for higher standard of living in this 1 Essential for our survival in this world. competitive world Fresh thoughts, innovative ideas obtained 2 Fresh food is good for health from Guru are good for mind- mental health.
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Interest in the food & concentration on Interest in the study and concentration helps 3 eating process helps in better digestion. in better understanding of the subject. Chewing food for about 32 times (32 Small is beautiful and useful. Small concepts teeth) converts food into fine particals – are easy to understand and remember. This 4 this process helps in digestion and technique helps in better understanding and maximum utilisation of food. maximum utilisation of time. Completing study in a hurry and trying to Eating food in a hurry and swallowing remember topics without understanding large pieces creates many problems – 5 creates many problems. It leads to the food is not digested properly – creates wastage of time, money and energy and medical problem. creates many mental problems. Mother puts her all love and affection in Teacher puts her love for subject and 6 preparation of food & hence it is said affection for students in the preparation for Pakaiye Khana Parosiye Pyar the lecture. We should be grateful to our mother for providing us food as soon as we enter in We should be grateful to our teacher for 7 this world and in the subsequent years. introducing us to this wonderful world of Appreciation for her efforts is our moral knowledge. duty. The role of parents in education. Mother can play a Magical role in transforming ordinary girl or boy into a wonder girl or boy. e.g. 1) Edison – Removed from the school because he was a dull student – Mother accepted this fact as a challenge and encouraged him to become one of the Greatest scientist of the world. 2) Mother stopped education of her daughter in seventh standard. She provided training to her at home and that girl could complete her post-graduation before the age of 20 with highest rank. Opportunities often come to us as problems. Farmer died. He had two children. The elder son took all fertile land. Barren land with lot of stones and small ponds was given to the younger son. He was very frustrated. He thought of committing suicide. As a second thought he did survey of his land. He found that there were unique type of snakes in the stones which are consumed as tasty dish in five star hotels. He brought more stones and created breeding ground for the snakes. Cleaned ponds and started breeding of tropical decorative fish. He started one hotel – specialised for snake – dish and acquarium for the sale of fish. Within a period of ten years he was earning ten times more profit than his brother. Life is a puzzle. There are problems at every stage. Accept them as a challenge and then you can become successful with your own potentials. (e.g. Singapore, Middle East areas were very backward areas in the past.) No pains – No gains. We have great potential. We can develop ourselves by putting pressure on us – by doing many things in shortest possible time – i.e. enhancing our efficiency. This fact becomes clear with the following examples. 1) Plastic Pipe :It is used for giving water to the garden. The water falls from the pipe near to us, but when we apply pressure, the jet of water goes at the longer distance. 2) Electricity : Increased pressure on electricity i.e. electric voltage (25,000v) – helps in transmitting it from the place of generation to the place of consumption. 3) Lemon Juice : You get more juice if you apply more pressure on the lemon. 4) Coal – Diamond :Coal is converted into diamond due to intense heat and pressure. Proper pressure and positive attitude help us to get success in life.
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What we require? 1) Healthy body 2) Sound mind 1) Healthy body : We can become healthy by the proper utilization of Air-water and food. a) Air : Deep breathing – Yoga Pranayam – helps to increase capacity of our lungs. It enhances our immune capacity, purifies blood by greater absorption of oxygen and increases our level of energy. b) Water : It is known as Jeevan. Life on the earth depends on water. Our body requires water for many purposes. Drink more water, at frequent intervals. Passing urine frequently helps to keep our body clean. c) Food : Simple fresh food at regular intervals by consuming it in a proper method. 2) Sound mind : Our mind has a great potential which can be exploited with proper concentration on our study or work. Let us reduce our requirements. ‘Earth has sufficient resources to fulfil the needs of everyone but not the greed of any one.’ - Mahatma Gandhi Our wants are unlimited, they are never satisfied, but we can control them. If we can control our mind we can become happy instantly in any type of situation. At the same time we will be able to save valuable environmental elements by reducing our needs e.g. 1) Using cold water instead of warm water for bath. If we take bath using cold water we will be able to save lot of energy (which can provide light of one tubelight for one family for about 150 years). Cold water bath is good for health. You will not face any problem related to your bath – because you are not dependent on warm water – You can have bath two times a day and also enjoy taking bath in river or sea. As you have removed one cause of irritation – You will get mental peace. 2) Drinking Tea : Tea has become an integral part of teaching profession (Tea-cher) you can reduce the dependence on tea in the following manner. Stage - 1) Avoid milk Stage - 2) Avoid sugar Stage - 3) Use only 3-4 grains of tea per cup so that you can use one spoon of tea for a period of 15 days. It is not impossible. Control you mind. Be happy in whatever you have and you will enjoy life. When I was a young man, I wanted to change the world. I found it was difficult to change the world, So I tried to change my nation. When I found I couldn’t change the nation, I began to focus on my town. I couldn’t change the town and as an older man, I tried to change my family. Now, as an old man, I realize the only thing I can change is mysclf, And suddenly I realize that is long ago I had changed myself, I could have made an impact on my family. My family and I could have made an Impact on our town. Their impact could have changed the nation and I could indeed have changed the world -- An Unknown Monk 1100 A.D. One can start his own mission for the conservation of the environment as did by the Hon. Rajendra Singh or Hon. Anna Hajare, Hon. Rabindranath Tagore has given us golden message – Ekla Chalo Re. 4 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov.. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
ANALYSIS OF AIR POLLUTION IN SELECTED CITIES OF MAHARASHTRA
Dr. Moushumi Datta Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Nagindas Khandwala College of Commerce, Arts and Management Studies, Malad (West), Mumbai-400064.
Introduction : Environmental pollution is considered now as a global phenomenon that attracts the attention of human beings for its severer long term consequences. Various sources of pollutants like NO2, SO2 that have altered composition of the air must be measured to determine air quality. Monitoring of the pollution is first and the most important step of air pollution control. We are exposed to outdoor and indoor air pollution. Repeated exposure may damage lung tissue of human being, it also has harmful effects on plants, and animals. Extreme air pollution can deteriorate buildings and monuments too. On this background in the present research paper the data published by MPCB is analysed and results are drawn. Review of Literature : About 90% air we inhale is gaseous nitrogen and oxygen along with trace amounts of other gases, minute droplets of other liquids and tiny particles of various solids. Many of these particles are classified as air pollutants. Most of them come from various vehicles, some from factories, and power plants. Other sources of air pollution are cigarette smoking, use of chemical cleaners and volatiles, burning of fossil fuel, and vehicles are responsible for half of the urban air pollution. Sulphur dioxide is a primary air pollutant and its source is human activities and sometimes even natural events are responsible for it. As a result of chemical reaction of primary air pollutants, secondary air pollutants like sulphuric acid are produced in the atmosphere. Amount of precipitation along with relative size of the particle also influence length of time for which suspended air particulate matter remain in the atmosphere of various areas. We have many defence mechanisms in our body for various diseases like for diseases caused by exposure to different air pollutants we have a filtration system in the form of hairs in the nose to filter out large particles. Even though mortality is due to exposure to fine particles arises because of combustion activity. It has become an important environmental risk factor for lung cancer and cardiopulmonary disturbances (Lomate, 2015)Both ambient ad indoor air pollution levels have reached an alarming stage in Maharashtra. Major sources of ambient air pollution are industries, power plants and motor vehicles emitting high levels of Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, suspended particulate matter and numerous other pollutants (PCI, 2007) Area of Study : Maharashtra is a state on the Western Coast of India which is home to the financial capital of the Country-Mumbai. It is the most urbanized and industrialized state of India. It has been in the news for long for the pollution it has especially air pollution. Though the entire state is industrialized, some districts are comparatively highly industrialized than the others. Hence five important districts have been selected for the present study viz. Mumbai, Thane, Pune, Aurangabad and Nagpur.
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Research Objectives ● To compare the levels of air pollution in the study area ● To analyze the reasons for the same ● To recommend viable solutions Research Methodology The pollution data for selected cities was retrieved from the official website of Maharashtra Pollution Control Board. The data was available for three air pollutants viz. SO2 (Sulphur di oxide), NOx (Nitrogen oxide) and RSPM (Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter) for all the stations for each country i.e., 3 at Mumbai, 4 at Thane, 5 at Pune, Aurangabad and Nagpur each. Averages were then calculated for each city for each pollutant using MS-Excel and were represented using Q-GIS v. 2.14.0. Results and Discussion Figures 1.a, 1.b and 1.c represent the levels of nitrous oxide in the air for the years 2014, 2015 and 2016. It can be observed that the levels are increasing year by year to be the highest in the districts of Thane and Aurangabad. It must be noted that both these districts are a by-product of massive industrialization. Hence, the levels of nitrogen oxide are ought to be higher. However,
Pune has maintained its relatively lower level throughout the years of study. This implies that the citizens of Pune represent a sense of consciousness towards the quality of air in their district. However the major sources of nitrous oxide include agricultural fertilization and production of thermal power. Aurangabad has a large agro based industrial base which is supported by extensive agricultural lands. This adds to air pollution by releasing huge levels of nitrogen in the air. Thane,
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on the other hand, produces power for the surrounding areas due to which quantities of nitrogen are released polluting the air.
Figures 2.a, 2.b and 2.c represent the levels of respirable suspended particulate matter in the air for the years 2014, 2015 and 2016. It can be observed that the levels of RSPM are fluctuating year by year. In 2014, Thane had the highest concentration of RSPM in the air which was accompanied by Aurangabad in 2015. However, the picture changed in 2016 when a decrease in the districts like Aurangabad and Nagpur can be observed. RSPM levels are almost zero in Pune. Major manmade sources of Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) include: Emission from coal based power station, emission from oil fired furnace/boiler, emission from stone crusher, hot mix plants, lime kilns, foundry, hospital waste incinerator, emission from stationery DG sets/portable DG sets, emission from diesel vehicles ( bus and trucks), emission from 2- stroke vehicles (2T oil used), suspension of road dust, burning of biomass/tyre, tube and emission from waste oil reprocessing industries (MPCB Guidelines). Districts with high RSPM possess the above characteristics causing higher RSPM. Districts lower in RSPM are able to control the same using some efforts like cleaning the roads regularly and getting a PUC check done on a regular and compulsory basis. Figures 3.a, 3.b and 3.c represent the levels of Sulphur dioxide in the air for the years 2014, 2015 and 2016. It can be observed that the levels of SO2 fluctuating year by year. In 2014, Pune and Aurangabad had the highest concentration of Sulphur dioxide which changed to thane and Aurangabad in 2015 and then only Aurangabad in 2016. It implies that all other districts except Aurangabad are taking initiatives to minimize the concentration of Sulphur in the air.
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The main sources of Sulphur dioxide in air are combustion of Sulphur in industrial processes. There are many industries in Aurangabad, in fact, a huge MIDC area falls in Aurangabad due to which the quality of air in this district is worse.
Figures 1, 2 and 3 represent the comparative levels of air pollution in the districts under study, it does not put light upon the levels of pollution. This is because, from the maps alone, it cannot be said whether the levels of nitrous oxide, RSPM and Sulphur dioxide exceed the permissible levels or not. Thus, to analyze the proportion of gases present to permissible amounts, bar diagrams can be referred to which are as follows:
Figure 4 represents proportion of all air pollutants in the districts under study against the permissible levels in 2014. It can be observed that, except in few cases, where the levels of RSPM is higher than the permissible levels, the concentration of pollutants is much lower than the permissible limits. Hence, not much air pollution prevailed in 2014.
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In 2015, almost all pollutants went higher and in many cases the pollutants exceeded the permissible limits. This implies that the level of pollution increased in 2015 and RSPM contributed majorly to it.
In 2016, the levels of RSPM have gone much higher than the permissible level. This implies that the sources of RSPM have not been taken care for due to which the particulates are increasing in the air year after year. Increased construction activities has contributed to this increase. Conclusion From the study, it can be concluded that the state of Maharashtra faces industrial air pollution on a large scale. If this continues, the state will face large scale problems related to health and environment. However, in some cases, like Pune, it is found that air pollution has minimized over the years. This is a positive indication for the state. Other districts are largely affected due to their industrial nature and very high population. Slums, especially in districts like Mumbai and Thane, are major contributors to pollutants in the air. Thus, there are varied reasons for the high rates of air pollution in the area under study. Hence, if solutions have to be sought for, they will have to be planned and formulated at the regional level so that their maximum effect can be achieved. Recommendation ● Use of public transport, carpooling, use of bicycle, etc. are common ways of reducing air pollution. ● Households must try to reduce the use of aerosols. This would help reduce the emission of carbon in the air. ● A tree-watch group can be established to ensure the care of trees. ● Make sure that the pollution check for your family car is done at regular intervals ● Cars should, as far as possible, be fitted with catalytic converters ● Use only unleaded petrol ● Use of energy efficient electrical gadgets and equipments is highly recommended. References ● Lomate, V. (2015). Studies on air quality of Maharashtra. International Research Journal of Environment Sciences. Vol. 4(10), October 2015. ● PCI. (2007). Maharshtra Development Report. New Delhi.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858 General Land-Use Pattern In Devbag, Sindhudurg A Geographical Analysis. Govardhan S. Ubale, Assistant professor, Department of Geography, D.K.A.S.C.College, Ichalkaranji Dr. R. B. Patil, Assistant professor, Department of Geography, Arts and Commerce College, Phondaghat.
INTRODUCTION : There are in India the utilization of natural resources like land, soil, water and forest etc. India has experienced utilization pattern of natural resources and land use pattern varies from place to place as well as state to state. General land use pattern also affected by physical setting, proportion of population of the area, economical status of the area and climate also. General land use pattern change from time to time due to the increasing urbanization, agricultural activities, unplanned human activities, forest cutting etc. It is showed the surface utilization of all developed, undeveloped, vacant land for specific purpose. This study of land-use is also vital importance from the point of view of the planning and development of the area. In this research paper to study and analyses the general land-use pattern and their characteristics and its socio-economic aspects relation to the land distribution at micro level in Devbag, Sindhudurg District. This study is based on secondary data collected from secondary records i.e. socio-economic abstract of Devbag, Sindhudurg district and the satellite images. In the Devbag, utilization of land increasing with increase in population, increasing in agriculture, increasing in industrialization and mining also. It shows varies from tahasil to tahasil. The utilization of land is needs to have general frame work of strategic and effective management and analysis of their characteristics and also used for developmental planning in the study area. STUDY AREA :- The Devbag, Sindhudurg district is a part of Western Ghats Maharashtra and extremely southern part of Maharashtra state is Devbag, Sindhudurg district lies between 16º 1' north latitude to 73º 31'east longitude. The Devbag, comprises 13.553sq. km area. The general height of the district is 10 mtrs. In general the physiographic arrangement of the district has Sahyadri hills in a north-south direction, plateau area situated to the east of the Sahyadri hills and eastern plain area and Belgum district of Karnataka state in the south. The climate of Devbag, Sindhudurg is generally temperate. Minimum temperature of the district is 14º c and maximum is 36.9º c. The average annual rainfall is 2063.67 mm. In the study area also found variety of utilization of land due to the physical setting of the district and socio economic aspects also. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES :- 1) To study and the highlight the general land-use pattern in the study area. 2) To study the impact of physical setting and socio-economic factors on the land use pattern in the study region. 3) To study the utilization of land and its characteristics in the study area. DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY:- 1) The presentstudy based on secondary data which is obtained from Socio-Economic Abstract of Sindhudurg district (2011) and satellite images (2011) . 2) Primary data collected by conducting field survey for micro level studies and some questioners fill-upped by corresponds about the available resources under consideration. 3) The simple statistical technique used to calculation of the proportion of ever and each types of land. Data analysis, cartographic technique use to draw the maps and diagrams with the help of GIS techniques. 4) The final results and important finding had presented through the cartographic technique i.e. divided circle for the quality of the work. 10 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS:- General land use pattern in Devbag, Sindhudurg district is shown in chart utilization of land. In this chart shows, every land utilization in percentage to the total area. Table No.1 (Area under meters with tabulated in Percentage ) Gaphical area Percentage in sq. mts Total Area in Sq. mts 13553.53 100 % Area under Forest 4488.56 33.00% River Bed 2401.46 17.77% Other Water Bodies 126.56 00.93% Open Land 398.68 02.94% Open Laterite Rock 1370.63 10.11% Beach 214.46 01.58% Agricultural land 4553.53 33.39% Source – Socio-Economic Abstract and Satellite Image of Devbag, Sindhudurg District (2011) Land use pattern in Devbag, Sindhudurg District (2010-2011)
1%
18% forest 33% Beach open Land Rock Land agricultural Land 34% River Bed 10% 1% Water Bodies 3%
1) Area under Forest :- The total geographical area of the Devbag, is near about 13553.53 sq. mts. About 4488.56 mts (33%) of the total geographical area of the Devbag, Sindhudurg district is under the forest during the year of 2010-2011. It is the highest proportion out of the total geographical area of study region. The area under the forest presents with varies from place to place. The highest area under forest is found due to the rainfall and this tahsil having in high altitude i.e. 1000 to 1200 meter, so the highest area under the forest is found in that tahsil. 2) Area under Agricultural land :- About 4553.50 mts (33.50 %) of area is under agricultural land in Devbag, Sindhudurg district. The area under this category varies from tahsil to tahsil. This is highest area to total geographical area in Devbag region. The highest proportion of land also found in agricultural land due to the rainy season is long and this is the sub-plan area so there are most of the area accurse under the cultivation also. 3) Area under River Bed :- Outof the total geographical area of study region, about 2401.11 mts (17.77%) area are under the River bed. There is most of the area also covered by estuary of Devbag. 4) Area under Open Laterite Rock :- After studing satellite images we have observe that, out of the total geographical area of Devbag near about 1370.63 mts (10.11 %) land is under open laterite rock. We have observed that there are most area represent with laterite rock structure. There are also found mining activities. 5) Area under Open land :-
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The chart is presented the total area under the Open land that is 398.68 mts (2.94%). There is complexes in the utilization of land and its characteristics. There are beaches and laterite rocks bed are concentrated so nothing any more area remaining for the open land. 6) Area under Beach :- After studying satellite images we have observe that, out of the total geographical area of Devbag near about 214.46 mts (1.58 %) land is under the beach. We have observed that there are most area occupied by agricultural land, forest area and river bed also. There is a small thin belt lying between ocean and Konkan plain. 7) Area under Other Water Bodies :- After obsorving satellite images we have found that, out of the total geographical area of Devbag near about 126.56 mts (0.93 %) land is under other Water bodies as like small pond, water of flood. It is the smallest portion in the utilization of land in the Devbag area. CONCLUSION :- In the study region the general land use pattern is varies from places to places due to physiographic structure, other economic activities and change settlement growth and pattern also. The highest proportion of area also represent under the agricultural land (33.59%) due to there were proportion of high quality soil, optimum precipitation and water availability. The lowest area also represented with other Water bodies (0.93%). After the agricultural land the second one area is found under forest (33 %) due to hills, steep slope, high rainfall and critical condition for development of settlement protect forest in this area. Where is the open laterite rock is represented with 10.11 percent due to the very high mining activities is in that area. There are most of the settlement built up with laterite blocks. It is also needs and important for better management of natural resources and development of study region. ACKNOWLEDGEMANT: The authors are very much thankful to Dr. R. B. Patil and Mr. Tejas Jaykar for their constant encouragement and support. REFERENCES :- 1) Das M. M. (1981) : ‘Land-use pattern in Assam, Geographical revive of India, vol. 43, No.3, pp. 243-244. 2) Jadhav S.B., Nagure S. G. (2012) : ‘Spacio-temporal analysis of General Land-use pattern in Latur District’, Proceeding book , ISBN : 978-93-81354-40-7, pp. 11-14. 3) Gajare N.V. (2012) : ‘A Geographical analysis of Forest area in Nanded District’, Procciding book , ISBN : 978-93-81354-40-7, pp. 11-14. 4) Socio- Economic Abstract of Devbag, Sindhudurg district 2011. 5) Pore A.V., Mote Y.S. (2011):‘Spatial Pattern of Literacy In Scheduled Caste Population of Devbag, Sindhudurg District,Maharashtra’ ISSN No-2031-5063, Vol.1,Issue.VI/Dec 2011pp.1-4. 6) Ehsan Golmehr (2009) : ‘ Current Application of Remote sensing Techniques in Land Use Mapping : A case study of Northern parts of Devbag, Sindhudurg District India’, JASEM,ISSN:1119-8362,vol.13(4),pp 15-20. 7) Todkari G.U., Suryawanshi S.P.(2010): ‘Agriculture Land Use pattern in Solapur District, Maharashtra.’ ISAS, ISSN-0975-3710,vol.2,issue. 2,pp 1-08. 8) Ubale G. S., Patil A. N., Majalekar K. H.,(2013)`Study of Rainfall pattern in Sindhudurg District, Mahashtra, India’ Young Researcher, ISSN-2277-7911, Vol.-II, No.3, pp 21-26. 9) Sapkale J. B. & Ubale G. S.,(2013), `Status of Mangroves in Achra and Hadi-Coastal Area of Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra.’ Siddharth, ISSN-2321-2942, Vol-II, Issue 1.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858 PATTERN OF MIGRATION INKOLHAPUR DISTRICT Dr. Arjun Nanaware : Dept. of Geography & research center, Shivaji Mahavidyalaya, Barshi, Dist.- Solapur (MS) Shri. Navnath Bansode : Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography & research center, Shivaji Mahavidyalaya, Barshi, Dist.- Solapur (MS).
ABSTRACT : Migration is the third component of population change, the other two being mortality and fertility. Migration is a permanent or semi-permanent change in residence involving some distance from one, s community. Migration is the result of the changes in economic, political, social and cultural factors in both areas of origin and destination. The study of migration occupies an important place in population studies, because, in combination with fertility and mortality, it determines the size and the rate of the population growth, as well as its structure and characteristics. Therefore an attempt is made here to analyze migration in Kolhapur district. The present research paper is entirely based on the secondary data. To identify the migration pattern in the district Ree,s simple technique is used. The study reveals that the highest out- migration in Gadhinglaj followed by Bhudargad tahsils is result of hilly area, heavy rainfall, high forest area, inferior soil, absence of major industry, poor transport and irrigation facilities. Introduction : The subject geography involves a wide range of knowledge which has been divided into two major areas i.e. physical geography and human geography. Population geography is one of the important branches of geography. Population geography is concerned with different population aspects such as growth and distribution of population, population composition, population movement, human activities, natural resources and its utilization, ultimately with human development. Population change is important aspect of population geography. Population change is depending on fertility, mortality and migration. A person is considered as a migrant by place of birth if the place in which he/she is enumerated during the census is other than the place of his/her birth. Similarly a person is considered as a migrant by place of last residence if the place in which he/she is enumerated during the census is other than his/her place of immediate last residence outside the village or town and not simply in another house or locality in the same village or town. According to the Demographic Dictionary of United Nations, Migration is such an event in which people move from one geographical area to another geographical area. When people leaving behind their place of residence go to live permanently in another area it is called migration (United Nations, 1956). According to Concise Oxford Dictionary, migrate means to move from one place, Country or town to other (Concise Oxford Dictionary). Migration is a permanent or semi-permanent change in residence involving some distance from one’s community (Zelinsky, 1971). In many cases such migrants are only seasonal in nature. People migrate to other places for work in a particular season and come back again to their usual place of residence after three or four months. All such workers are treated as migrants. Migration is the result of the changes in economic, political, social and cultural factors in both areas of origin and destination. The migration phenomena cannot be understood without analyzing the dynamics and the interplay of demographic, economic, social, social-phychological and many other factors (Tarner, 1961). In most countries it is observed that industrialization and economic development have been accompanied by large scale movement of people from farm areas to towns, from towns to other towns and from one country to another (Roy, 2015).
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Migration is has been a more popular subject of interest for geographers as compared to fertility and mortality. Population geographers have since long been concerned with the relationship between movement of people, distance and interacting area (Woods, 1979). Along with its various demographic, social and economic effects, population geographers have also been concerned with the environmental influences upon migration and consequences in areas of departure and destination (Clarke, 1972). Migration is an equilibrium process which includes regional disparities at different stages of development and also responsible for the distribution of population and workers. In other words migration is a phenomenon that takes place over space in search of better standard of living (Kaur, 2002). Migration is not merely the shifts of people from one place to another but also is most fundamental to the understanding of ever-changing space-content and space-relations at an area (Gosal, 1986). All migration flows are related with stages economic development of an area. Migration is an instrument for the diffusion of culture and social investigation. It reflects the changing pattern of opportunities in the affected places. Migration may be considered as a symptom of basic social change. The study of migration occupies an important place in population studies, because, in combination with fertility and mortality, it determines the size and the rate of the population growth, as well as its structure and characteristics. Migration also plays an important role in distribution of the population of any country and determines the growth of the labour force in the area. The measurements and analysis of migration is useful in preparing regional population projections. Therefore an attempt is made here to analyze migration in Kolhapur district. The Study Region : Kolhapur district is the most developed district of Southern-western part of Maharashtra. The absolute location of district is 15o 43’ to 17o 17’ North Latitude and 73o 40’and 74o 42’ East Longitude. It is surrounded by Sangli district to its North and East, Belgaum district of Karnataka to its South and Sindhudurg district to the West. The Sahyadri ranges to the west and Warana River to the North forms the natural boundaries. The maximum and minimum temperature ranges in between 38oC and 14oC with annual average precipitation 115 cm. The geographical area of districts 7685 square kilometers, for the administrative purpose the district is divided into 12 tahsils. The population of the study region is 38, 76, 001 persons, according to census of 2011
Objectives The main objective of the present study is to analyze the pattern of migration in Kolhapur district. Database and Methodology The present study is entirely based on the secondary data. Hence, the data regarding population and birth rate, death rate has been collected from the Census Handbook of Kolhapur District, Annual Vital Statistic Report of Maharashtra State, 1981, 1991and 2011. The migration data are not directly available. The data of the place of birth unfortunately are not available for an areal unit smaller than district. Therefore it is very difficult to show the spatial patterns of migration. Therefore to identify the migration pattern of the district Ree’s simple technique is used. The migration from tahsil is determined with the help of the difference between natural increase and actual increase of the population in a particular tahsil at a given period. The natural increase is measured with the help of the difference between the average total number of
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births and deaths in a period. While the actual increase is measured with the help of the difference between the two population counts at the beginning and at the end of period. The formula used to identify out-migration and in-migration is as follows (P2-P1) < (B-D) > (P2-P1) =Actual increase of population (B-D) = Natural increase of population P1= Population of the tahsil in earlier decade P2 = Population of the tahsil in later of decade B = is the total births recorded in the tahsil in during two decade D = is the total deaths recorded in the tahsil in during two decade The processed data has been tabulated. on the basis of above technique the result and conclusions has been drawn.. Result and Discussion Tahsil Level Pattern of Migration during 1981-1991 Table1 indicates that tahsil-wise actual population and natural population during 1981 - 1991. The distribution of actual population and natural population is not uniform throughout the study region. It varies from tahsil to tahsils. Table 1 reveals that the actual increase in the population of Kolhapur district during 1981-1991 is 532415 as against natural increase of 422829 persons. It means that 109522 persons are added in the total population of the district by in- migration, which indicates that the Kolhapur district is developing and progressive district in the state. Various sectors like agricultural, irrigation, industry, transportation, co-operative and education have made remarkable progress during these decades. This made an overall socio- economic development of the study area, which attracted the people not only from other district of the state but also from outside of the state. As district as whole reveals in-migration but tahsil level analysis reveals both in-migration and out migration Tahsils of In-Migration Table 1 indicates that in-migration flow of the population is recorded in nine tahils during 1981 -1991. But spatial distribution of in-migration is not uniform throughout the study region. Table 1: Tahsil of Out-migration and In-migration in the Kolhapur District 1981-1991 1981-91 Sr. Tahsils Actual Increase Natural Increase No. Difference Remarks (P2-P1) (B-D) 1 Shahuwadi 20087 18395 1692 In-migration 2 Panhala 36049 24618 11431 In-migration 3 Hatkanangale 148693 90486 58207 In-migration 4 Shirol 61810 38819 22991 In-migration 5 Karvir 132495 119625 12870 In-migration 6 Bavda 4464 2723 1741 In-migration 7 Radhanagari 18124 24680 -6556 Out-migration 8 Kagal 30046 30043 3 In-migration 9 Bhudargad 19484 14668 4816 In-migration 10 Ajra 11926 12771 -845 Out-migration 11 Gadhinglal 22840 28652 -5812 Out-migration 12 Chandgad 26394 17412 8982 In-migration District 532412 422890 109522 In-migration Source: Compiled by researcher on the basis of District Census Handbook of Kolhapur District, 1981-91 and Annual Vital Statistic Report of Maharashtra State, 1981-1991. 15 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
The high in-migration flow of the population is recorded in Hatkanangale tahsil i.e. 58207 persons due to development of agro-based industry such as Handloom and cotton textile industry. The moderate in-migration flow of the population is found in Shirol tahsil i.e. 22991 persons. The low in-migration flow of the population is observed in Kagal, Shahuwadi, Bavda, Bhudargad, Chandgad and Panhala tahsil i.e. below19404 persons because these tahsils are in developing process of industry and irrigation. Tahsil of Out-Migration Table-1also indicates that out-migration flow of the population is rcorded in three tahsils during 1981 -1991. The spatial distribution of out-migration is not uniform throughout the study region. It varies from tahsil to tahsils. The highest out-migration is found in Radhanagari tahsil followed by Gadhinglaj and Ajra due to the push factors i.e. undulating topography, heavy rainfall, high concentration of forest area, inferior soil, and absence of small and large scale industry. Tahsil Level Pattern of migration during1991-2001 Table-2 reveals that the actual increase in the population of Kolhapur district during 1991- 2001 is 533655 as against natural increase of 393730 persons. It means 139925 persons are added in the total population of the district by in-migration due to fertile soil, developed agricultural practices in Panhaganga and its tributaries i.e. Warna, Dhudhaganga, Vedhaganga basins and development of agro-base industries such as cotton, sugar, milk industry. This made an overall socio-economic development of the study area, which attracted the people not only from other district of the state but also out side of Maharashtra state. District as a whole reveals in-migration during 1991-2001, but tahsil level analysis reveals both the in-migration and out-migration. Tahsils of In-Migration Table 2 indicates that the spatial distribution of in-migration is not uniform throughout the study region, while varies from tahsil to tahsils. The high in-migration flow of the population is recorded in Karvir and Hatkanangale tahsil i.e. above 30474 persons. It is high in Karvir tahsil because of district headquarter is located in this tahsil further more irrigation leads agricultural development which resulted in to industrial and education development. It is high in Hatkanangale tahsil due to development of handloom and cotton industry in Ichalkaranji and development of irrigation facility which leads agricultural development. The low in-migration flow of the population is found in Panhala, Bavda, Chandgad, Ajra, Kagal and Shirol tahsil i.e. below 16458 persons Table 2: Tahsil of Out-migration and In-migration in the Kolhapur District 1991-2001 1991-2001 Sr. Tahsils Actual Increase Natural Increase No. Difference Remarks (P2-P1) (B-D) 1 Shahuwadi 18282 18292 -10 Out-migration 2 Panhala 31511 29069 2442 In-migration 3 Hatkanangale 133287 98384 34903 In-migration 4 Shirol 51092 42582 8510 In-migration 5 Karvir 168440 123950 44490 In-migration 6 Bavda 4744 2187 2557 In-migration 7 Radhanagari 19068 20369 -1301 Out-migration 8 Kagal 35163 29613 5550 In-migration 9 Bhudargad 17365 18104 -739 Out-migration 10 Ajra 15005 11027 3978 In-migration 11 Gadhinglaj 18657 32817 -14160 Out-migration 12 Chandgad 21041 18446 2595 In-migration District 533655 393730 139925 In-migration Source: Compiled by researcher on the basis of District Census Handbook of Kolhapur District, 1991-2001 And Annual Vital Statistic Report of Maharashtra State, 1991-2001.
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Tahsils of Out-Migration:- Table 2 indicates that out-migration of the population in the Kolhapur District during 1991 - 2001. The spatial pattern of out-migration is not uniform throughout the study region. It varies from tahsil to tahsils. The heighest out-migration is registered in Gadhinglaj followed by Radhanagari, Bhudargad and Shahuwadi, tahsils because of these tahsils have dense forest, undulating topography, absence of small and large scale industry and transportation facilities, which resulted into unemployment. Tahsil Level Pattern of Migration during 2001-2011 Table 3 reveals that the actual increase in the population of Kolhapur district is 352839 as against natural increase of 295689 persons during 2001-2011. It means 57150 persons are added in the total population of the district by in-migration due to fertile soils in Panchaganga, Warana and Krishna basin which is leads to high development of agriculture and development of agro- based industries such as cotton, sugar, milk industry and educational development. This made an overall socio-economic development of the study area, which attracted the people not only from other district of the state but also from outside of the state. As district as whole has in-migration during 2001-2011, but tahsil level analysis reveals that both In-migration and out-migration. Table 3: Tahsil of Out-migration and In-migration in the Kolhapur District 2001-2011 2001-2011 Sr. Tahsils Actual Increase Natural Increase No. Difference Remarks (P2-P1) (B-D) 1 Shahuwadi 8802 5960 2842 In-migration 2 Panhala 21034 10030 11004 In-migration 3 Hatkanangale 98123 72156 25967 In-migration 4 Shirol 31836 29758 2078 In-migration 5 Karvir 130847 119257 11590 In-migration 6 Bavda 3247 1045 2202 In-migration 7 Radhanagari 11606 8745 2861 In-migration 8 Kagal 27135 15250 11885 In-migration 9 Bhudargad 5458 7400 -1942 Out-migration 10 Ajra -1165 5630 -6795 Out-migration 11 Gadhinglaj 9477 31390 -21913 Out-migration 12 Chandgad 6439 6330 109 In-migration District 352839 295689 57150 In-migration
Source: Compiled by researcher on the basis of District Census Handbook of Kolhapur District, 2001-2011 and Annual Vital Statistic Report of Maharashtra State, 2001-2011. Tahsils of In-Migration:- Table 3 indicates that nine (9) tahsil show in migration trends namely Shahuwadi, Panhala, Hatkanangale, Shirol, Karvir, Bavda, Kagal, Radhanagari and Chandgad during 2001 -2011. The spatial distribution of in-migration is not uniform throughout the study region. It varies from tahsil to tahsils. The high in-migration flow of the population is recorded in Hatkanangale tahsil i.e. 25967 persons due to development of cotton textile and handloom industry. The moderate in-migration flow of the population is observed in Panhala, Karvir and Kagal tahsils i.e. 8728 to 17347 persons. The low in-migration flow of the population is found in Chandgad, Shirol, Bavda, Shahuwadi and Radhanagari tahsil i.e. below 8728 persons because these tahsils are in developing process of small and large scale industries acts aspush factors.
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Tahsil of Out-Migration Table 3 indicates that three (3) tahsils designate out migration trends i.e. Bhudargad, Ajra and Gadhinglaj tahsils during 1991 -2011. The spatial distribution of out-migration is not uniform throughout the study region. It varies from tahsil to tahsils. The highest out- migration is found in Gadhinglaj followed by Bhudargad, and Ajra tahsils due to hilly area, heavy rainfall, high forest area, inferior soil, absence of major industry, poor transport and irrigation facilities. Conclusions The forgoing analysis reveals that there is high influence of geographical factors on migration pattern in Kolhapur district. The district as a whole has in-migration due to fertile soil, availability of surface water leads to developed agricultural practices in Panhaganga and its tributaries i.e. Warna, Dhudhaganga, Vedhaganga basins and development of agro-base industries such as cotton, sugar, milk industry. The high in-migration flow of the population in Hatkanangale tahsil is a result of development of cotton textile and handloom industry. The low in-migration flow of the population in Chandgad, Shirol, Bavda, Shahuwadi and Radhanagari tahsil because of these tahsils are in developing process of small and large scale industries. The highest out- migration in Gadhinglaj followed by Bhudargad, and Ajra tahsils is result of hilly area, heavy rainfall, high forest area, inferior soil, absence of major industry, poor transport and irrigation facilities.
References 1. Clarke, J.I (1972): Population Geography, Second Edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford, London. 2. Concise Oxford Dictionary. 3. Gosal G.S (1986): ‘International Migration in India: A Regional Analysis, Indian Geographical Journal, Vol.36, Pp .106-121. 4. Kaur, Gurinder, (2002): Rural to Rural Male Migration in India, Transactions Institute Indian Geographers, Vol.24, No. 1 and 2, Pune, P.72. 5. Rees, P.H. (1977): ‘The Measurement of migration from Census Data and Other Sources’, Environment and Planning, Pp.249-254. 6. Roy D. (2015): Population Geography, Books and Allied (P) Ltd., Kolkata, Pp. 87 -88. 7. Tarner J.D. (1961): ‘Predicting Migration’ Social Forces, Vol.39, Pp.207-2014. 8. United Nations (1956): ‘Multilingual Demographic Dictionary’ ST/SOA/SER,A/29, Population Studies, No.29, New York,P.46 9. Wood, R (1979): Population Analysis in Geography, Longman, London and New York. 10. Zelinsky, W. (1971): The Hypothesis of Mobility Transition, Geographical Review, Vol. 61 No.2, Pp.219-49.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
GEOMORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF
THE BAITARANI BASIN IN ODISHA Siva Prasad Panda Research scholar, P.G. Department of Geography, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
ABSTRACT : Geomorphometric analysis is a necessary input in river basin development and management planning. Morphometry is measurement and mathematical analysis of landforms.The present study is an attempt to evaluate the drainage morphometric of Baitarani basin using Remote Sensing and GIS approach. A morphometric analysis was carried out to describe the topography and drainage characteristics of Baitarani basin. The geomorphology, lithology and structure, slope and longitudinal stream profile were measured. Total basin area is 10,982 sq. km and the highest altitude of the basin is 1165 mt. About 9.6% area lies above 600 mt., 50% area lies above 300 mt. and 67.32% areas lies above 150 mt. and 32.38% basin area remaining below 150 mt. Fourteen sub-basins are also delineated within this basin to calculate the selected geomorphic parameters. The study area is s a 6th order drainage basin with mainly dendritic drainage pattern. The Geomorphometric analysis of the drainage basin and channel network plays a significant role in comprehension of the Geohydrological nature of drainage basin and expresses the prevailing climate, geological setting, geomorphology and structural antecedents of the catchment area. A quantitative evolution of drainage system is significant aspect of drainage basin and such studies can be of immense help in planning and management of river basins. Key Words: Baitarani basin, Geomorphometric analysis, drainage morphometry, Remote Sensing and GIS, Geomorphology, Lithology and Structure, Slope and Longitudinal Stream Profile, Geohydrological. Introduction : Geomorphology is the science of origin and evolution of topographic features or attributes caused by physical and chemical processes operating at or near the earth surface which determines the variation in earth’s surface from past to present and its causative factors. The term Geomorphology is the combination of three Greek words; i.e. Geo (earth), Morpho (form) and logos (discourse), which means the study of forms of the earth’s surface. But land forms have far less attention, even though landform mapping dates back to early geological research (Close,1867) and has been subject to a number of study in the 1960’s and 70’s (Rose and Letzer, 1975). Morphometryis the measurement and mathematical analysis of the configuration of the earth’s surface, shape and dimension of its landforms (Clarke, 1996). The term ‘Morphometry’ literally means measurement of forms introducing quantitative description for landforms. The morphometry of the river basins relates to the hydrological and geomorphic response of processes like runoff, soil erosion, floods and droughts, river sedimentation, changing river flows and branching habit of the streams, flow characteristics of the drainage lines, and on the performance and sustainability of the associated dams and reservoirs if available within the basin (Garade, 2005; Mohd et al., 2013). The stream arrangement in drainage system leads to the drainage pattern that successively reflects structural and lithological controls of underlying rocks. More precisely, widely acknowledge principle of morphometry is the drainage basin morphology renders varied geological and geomorphological processes overtime, as studied by illustrious people (Hurton, 1945; Strahler, 1952; Muller, 1968; Shreve, 1969; Evans, 1972, Chorley et al., 1984). Morphometric methods, through simple, have been applied for the analysis of area-height relationships, determination of
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erosion surfaces, slopes, relative relief and terrain characteristics, river basin evaluation, watershed priorization for soil and water conservation activities in river basins (Kanth, 2012). It is important in any hydrological investigation like assessment of ground water potential, ground water management, basin management and environmental assessment. The morphometric analyses of different basins have been done by various scientists using conventional methods (Horton, 1945; Smith, 1950; Strahler, 1957) and earth observation data and GIS methods (Narendra and Rao, 2006). The use of GIS technique in morphometric analysis has emerged as a powerful tool in recent years particularly for remote areas with limited access. Hydrologic and geomorphic processes occur within the watershed and morphometric characterization at the watershed scale reveals information regarding formation and development of land surface processes (Singh 1992, 1995; Dar et al. 2013). Drainage characteristics of many river basins and sub-basins in different parts of the globe have been studied using conventional methods (Horton 1945; Strahler 1957, 1964; Krishnamurthy et al. 1996). The surface runoff and flow intensity of the drainage system can be estimated using the geomorphic features associated with morphometric parameters (Ozdemir and Bird 2009). Strahler’s system of classification designates a segment with no tributaries as a first-order stream. Where two first-order stream segments join, they form a second-order stream segment and so on. The morphometric analysis of the drainage basin is aimed to acquire accurate data of measurable features of stream network of the drainage basin. Various hydrological phenomena can be correlated with the physiographic characteristics of an drainage basin such as size, shape, slope of the drainage area, drainage density, size and length of the contributories, etc. (Rastogi and Sharma 1976; Magesh et al. 2012). The present study aims at using the remote sensing and GIS technology to compute various parameters of morphometric characteristics of the Baitarani basin. This is in consonance with the latest developments and researches as cited above. Methodology This work is carried out dividing the study in three parts which are as follows: i. Using topographical sheet (1:2, 50,000) altitudinal range, geomorphology and slope map has been prepared. ii. Using satellite imageries (ITS P6, LISS III) and GSI geological map study area study area is divided in different geomorphic units. The study area The river Baitarani is one of the important east flowing rivers of peninsular India located in northern Odisha. The river is flashy in nature having a total length of 355 km. and an area of 10,982 km2. The basin is situated approximately between east longitude of 850 10’ to 870 03’ and between north latitude 200 35’ to 220 15’. The basin is surrounded by the Brahmani basin on the south and west and Subarnarekha basin on the north, the Budhabalanga and the Bay of Bengal on the east. The covers an area of 10,982 km2 of which 10,246 km2 (93.3%) lie in Odisha and 736 km2 (6.7%) in Jharkhand. The northern portion comprises of rugged hilly terrain. The basin perimeter measures 622.22 km. The Baitarani river receives a number of small tributaries along its course. The main tributaries of the river are Kangira river, Aradei river, Khairi-bandhan river, Deo river, Kanjhari river, Sita river, Musal river, Kusei river, Salandi river which meet together and flow as Baitarani in Odisha. The tributaries have considerable contribution towards the discharge of the main stream, Out of which
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the tributaries, Salandi river and Khairi-bandhan river, are responsible for most of the sediment contribution to the Baitarani river. Area-Height Relationship The relationship between area and altitude is of fundamental geomorphological significance. It is the function of both exogenetic and endogenetic forces at work and forms a clue towards estimating the relative intensity of these forces. The area height curve shows the actual area of land distribution between two adjacent contours depending on the contour interval selected. Attitudinally the basin varies from 2 mt to a maximum of 1165 mt. The general decrease of altitude is towards coastal and northward. More than 9.6% areas lie above 600 mt, which occupies its entire north eastern and north western regions of the basin (fig.3). Lowest height group i.e. below 50 mt covers 25.88% of the total area. 50% area lies above 300 mt. and 67.32% areas lie above 150 mt (Fig.3). Low height group (50 mt-150 mt) and the intermediate height group (150 mt-300 mt) occupying in central (small patch) constitute 6.8% and 6.22% respectively of the total basin area. High height group (300 mt- 600 mt) constitutes largest areal percentage i.e. 51.48% of the total basin area. The highest altitudinal zone (above 600 mt) covering nearly 9.62% of the total area occupies upstream region i.e. northeast and North West region of this drainage basin. Altimetric frequency diagram (Baulig H. 1936) is drawn by taking the highest elevation from each square km area of this basin. Geomorphology The major landforms of theBaitarani basin have been classified into high land, upland, and low land (Fig.4). The high land consists of denuded hills, isolated hillocks. The upland consists of undulating to rolling dissected plateau with valleys, undulating upland with sporadic mounds, gentle sloping upland. The low land consists of coastal plain, flood plain and delta. Slope Slope is one of the most important elements of landscape which can be defined as the degree by which the straight line connecting the divide and nearest valley bottom departs from horizontal. In this thesis Strahler’s method (Strahler, A.N. 1953) of actual slope analysis has been used because it gives comparatively better picture of slope. For this nearly 1000 points are set up according to the parallelism of contour lines. The divider points are set down on the map to lie orthogonal to the contours through the points and with approximately equal distances fallingupslope and down slope from the points. The drop in elevation is then estimated by counting the contour interval intercepted and by making adjustments for incomplete intervals. Then the angle of slope is calculated as Tan θ =V/H, where V= vertical interval and H = horizontal distance. The factors like the hardness of the rocks, intensity of the fractures in the granite gneiss country, presence of vegetative cover, the variation of discharge relating to the seasonal distribution of rainfall, underlying structure and tectonic inequalities, and drainage seems to have made a profound influence on the development of such a wide range of slope units in the basin.
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AREA-HEIGHT CURVE OF THE 6000 BAITARANI, ODISHA 5000
4000
3000
2000
1000 AREA AREA SQ. IN KM. 0 < 50 50 - 150 150 - 300 300 - 600 600 < ALTITUDE IN METRE
Source-Toposheets of SOI and computed by the researcher.
SLOPE IN 0 IN THE BAITARANI BASIN, 30 ODISHA.
25
20
15 Area in % 10 to total
AREA AREA % IN Basin… 5
0 < 2 2-4 4-7 7-13 13-27 27-54 >54 0 SLOPE IN Source-Toposheets of SOI and computed by the researcher.
Moderately slope is scatterdly distributed in the basin along the foot hills. It accounts for nearly 27.31%. The slope is moderately steep along the hill slopes which are strongly resistant to erosion. It covers nearly 8.81% of the basin area. Nearly 27.6% of the basin area is under steep slope, 3.07% very steep slope and 0.75% very very steep slope in the basin. And these occupy the uppermost part of the basin very close to the source region of the origin of the stream. It is mostly found in the north-western part of the basin (Figure 5 & 7).
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Conclusion The study reveals that GIS and Remotesensing can be very useful in evaluation of various morphometric parameters and its influence on landforms. Interpretation of satellite images can help delineate lithological and geomorphic units. GIS facilitates analysis of various morphometric parameters and act as an effective tool in establishing relationship between drainage morphometry and properties of landforms. The study also reveals that DEM can useful in studying the topography within GIS environment. Geomorphological study of an area is the systematic study of present day landforms, related to their origin, nature, development, geologic changes recorded by the surface features and their relationship to other underlying structures. To understand the nature of the terrain and evolution of fluvial regime the quantitative measurement of a basin is pre requisite. Geomorphometric analysis of the different terrain types and indices are useful in catchment management strategies. Water conservation structure (impounding and storage) and recharge structures (percolation tank) are suitable in metamorphic and Odisha sedimentary respectively. Acknowledgment The author owes a deep sense of gratitude to Prof. S.N. Tripathy, Professor and Ex-Head, P.G. Department of Geography, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha for his constant encouragement and valuable guidance for completion of the research work. Bibliography 1. Agrawal Meera (2007): Geomorphological Evolution of Kolar Drainage Basin, Madhya Pradesh, India, National Geographical Journal of India, Vol. 53, Sept - Dec, Pp. 17-33. 2. abar MD. (2009): Uniformity in classification of hydro morphological Units, A need for his application, Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol. 13 & 14, October, Pp. 127-137. 3. Babar Md, Kaplay, R.D., & Panaskar, D.B. (2000): Structural Control on Drainage Pattern in The Tirna River Catchment, Central West India, Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol. 5, No. 1 & 2, Pp. 129-136. 4. Babar, MD & Kaplay R.D. (1998): Geomorphometric Analysis of Purna River Basin in Parbhani Dist, Maharashtra, India, Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol - 3, No.1, (Jan-Jun), Pp. 29-39. 5. Chattopdhyay Srikumar and Chattopdhyay Mahamaya (2004): Geomorphic Evolution of Ponmudi Scarp Land, Some Observations, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 66, No.3 September, Pp. 243-253. 6. Chattopadhyay Mahamaya & Nair P. Lijith (2012): Landscape Evaluation of the Neyyar Basin, Thiru anathapuram District, Kerala, Annals of the National Association of Geographers, India,Vol. XXXII, No.2, December, Pp. 62-69. 7. Diwan H.D. and Gupta M.P. (2002): Geomorphometric Characteristics of Kurung river basin in Chhatishgarh state,Vol. 40, No. 1, Jan-June, Pp.19-30 8. Joji V.S. & Nair Ask. (2002): The study of Fourth Order Sub-Basin of Vamanapuram River Basin, Southern Kerala, India, Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol -7, No.1&2, Pp. 37-48. 9. Kavitha T. & Ganesh A. (2009): Geomorphology & Drainage Basin Characteristics of Amaravathy River Basin, Tamilnadu, Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol 13 & 14, Oct, Pp. 117-126. 10. Monkhouse F.J. and Wilkinson H.R. (1996) Maps and Diagrams, Methuen & Co. Ltd, London. 11. Mukhopadhyay S.C. (2002): Geomorphology & National Hazards in The Lower Brahmaputra Basin with Special Reference to Floods, Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol.7, No.1&2, Pp. 73-80 12. Muralidharan, P.K., Pravakar, A & Kumaraguru, P. (2000): - Geomorphology & Evolution of Polar Delta, Tamilnadu Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol. 5, No. 1 & 2, Pp. 91-100. 13. Parveen Reshma, Kumar Uday, SinghVivek Kumar (2012): Geomorphometric Characterization of Upper South Koel Basin, Jharkhand: A Remote Sensing & GIS Approach, Vol.4, Dec, Pp. 1042-1050 14. Punithavath J. & Baskaram Dr. R. (2010): Geomorphology and land use pattern of Thanjavur Urban Area using Remotesensing & GIS, India Journal of Geomorphology, Vol. 5 (1-2). Jan- June, July - Dec, Pp. 107-120 23 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Spatial Analysis of Agricultural Efficiency Regions In Haveri District: A Geographical Analysis
Ms. Shobha N Nandihalli
ABSTRACT : In order to know agricultural efficiency in the Haveri district all the indicators mentioned above have been used for the present analysis, these indicators differ not only in their basic unit, but -also in their relative importance. Therefore, to get the combined effects of these, the composite index has been proposed by applying Kendal's (1936) rank-score method. Ranks are given to all the 30 indicators and then are summed up for each revenue circle. The total rank score of each taluka wise is divided by 30, which gives a composite index of agricultural efficiency. Thus the results obtained with regard to agricultural efficiency in the present study have been categories in to three groups i.e. high, medium and low agricultural efficiency regions and are cartographically represented with the help of choropleth map. INTRODUCTION: In the present study an attempt has been made to study and examine the levels of agricultural efficiency in Haveri district at taluka level by selecting relevant selected indicates for two points of time i.e. 1997-98 and 2012-13. The selected indicators approach appears to be of special relevance in the present analysis. The indicators of the agricultural efficiency have been selected after a careful study of their relative importance. The selected indicators fall in to three broad groups, viz. demographic, economic and infrastructural which show significant growth and development in terms of agricultural development in the study region. As stated earlier, the agricultural efficiency is a function of the combined interplay of a variety of factors. The term agricultural efficiency means, it is much more than agricultural productivity and conveys a more comprehensive and wider meaning. It is the composite index of all the factors. In view of this, the present study attempts to examine the level of agricultural efficiency at taluka level. By selecting different indicators for two points of time i.e. 1997-98 and 2012-13. The following variables are considered for determining the levels of agricultural efficiency in the present study. Depict the relative importance of indicators at taluka level. It is observed that there has been a tremendous impact of irrigation on agricultural efficiency from different irrigational sources in the command areas of Tungabhadra River project, Varada river project and Dharma, and soil fertility, rainfall, conditions, and socio-economic facilities play an important role m the development of agriculture in the remaining areas of the region. High Efficiency Regions. Spatial variations in efficiency are marked in the regions depending upon the nature of relief, shape, drainage, soil and rainfall, as well as the level of diffusion of agricultural innovations. The high (<3.00) agricultural efficiency during 1997-98 was observed in two taluka i.e., Hanagal and Ranebennur. Whereas during 2012-13 Ranebennur talukas the high agricultural efficiency in this category. It is because of development in irrigational facilities increased in the percentage of high yield verities of seeds and better socio-economic facilities (Table No.4.34 & Fig. No. 4.29). Medium Efficiency Regions: During the period of 1997-98, there were three talukas come under in this category (3.00% to 4.99%) viz, Haveri, Hirekerur and Shiggaon talukas falls under the medium category of agriculture conductivity region and where as during the period of 2012-13. Three talukas were 24 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
involved in this category namely Haveri, Hirekerur and Shiggaon due to lesser amount of rainfall limited water supply through irrigation soil fertility etc one the factors which are responsible for the medium agriculture efficiency in the district. (Table No.4.34 & Fig.No. 4.29). Low Efficiency Regions: During the year 1997-98 the low productivity regions were observed in Byadagi, Savanur and Shiggaon talukas and whereas during 2012-13 there were also two talukas i.e., Byadagi and Savanur were found in this category of low agricultural productivity. Due to the scarcity of rainfall, topography, problems of varies seeds, fertilizers and methods of cultivation etc. The study reveals that low efficiency was concentrated in those areas were non irrigated belts or hilly terrain and lack in modernization of agriculture the high efficiency was found especially in irrigated belts. The profitability of agriculture has greatly increased due to the impact of the sources of irrigation, assured rainfall condition, improved seeds and fertile soils in the region. (Table No.4.34 & Fig.No. 4.29).
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CONCLUSION: The study reveals that, the crop concentration of Haveri district is the main role for the development of agriculture in Haveri district. The socio-economic and agriculture conditions are prevailing an area. The present study analysis that the imbalance between the crop concentrations during the study period from 1997-98 to 2012- 13. During the study period 1997-98 to 2012-13, the Haveri district crop concentration was varied between taluka to taluka by using Bhatia`s method.
REFERENCES A.Saikai-1994 Agricultural Efficiency in Arunachal Pradesh. The Decca Geography, Vol-32, No, 1. Ali Mohammad-1979, “Dynamics of Agricultural Development in India” Pub-Concept Publishing Company, Delhi. Bharadwaj B.K. “Components and Determinants of Agricultural Productivity. A Case Study of Gurgaon District”. Unpublished thesis, Department of Geography, J.N. University, New Delhi, Pp. 10, 23. Bhatia S.S. 1967 “A new Measurement of Agricultural Efficiency in U.P. Economic Geography”, Vol-43, No-3 Pp. 242-260. Chatterjee. N. 1986 “Impact of Irrigation on Agriculture in Southern West Bengal, Geographical Review of India”, Vol-48, Pp. 73-81. Dadly Stamp 1960 “Our Developing World, London”. Pp. l08-109. Eshwar Thakur -1992, “Imbalance in Agricultural Productivity” Pub-Northern Book Center New Delhi Pp. 1-8, 42-70. Ganguly B.N. 1964 “Trends of Agriculture and Population in the Ganges Valley, London”. Hurakadli. S. M. - “Impact of Irrigation on Land Use and Cropping Pattern in Raichur District -A Geographical Perspective”, (Unpublished Thesis Submitted to Karnatak University). Kendal M.G. 1939 “The Geographical Distribution of Crop Productivity In England”, Journal of Royal Statistical Society, Vol 162. Pp.2-4. Kurian. N.J 2000: Widening Regional Disparities in India- Some Indicators, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.xxxv, No-7, Feb: 12-18 P. K. Sharma Ludhiana 1995 Agricultural Development in the State of Punjab During the Last Two Decades, Trans Inst, Indian Geography, Vol-17, No, 2 Pp.107, 116. Shafi M. 1960 “Measurement of Agricultural Efficiency in U.P. Economic Geography”, Vol-34, No-4, Pp. 34-37. Shafi M. 1984 “Agricultural Productivity and Regional Imbalances- A case Study of Uttar Pradesh,” Concept, New Delhi. Shinde B.D. 1974 “Agricultural Productivity in Maharashtra Platue- A Geographical Analysis”, National Geographers, Vol. 13, No.1, Pp.33-41. 26 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
NET IRRIGATED AREA AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH
IRRIGATION INTENSITY : A CASE STUDY OF A VILLAGE
SubhasisSubhasis Mondal, Mondal, SeniorSenior Research Research Fellow Fellow,Department,Department of of Geography,Visva Geography,Visva-Bharati-Bharati.
ABSTRACT : The mango is the national fruit of India and the Philippines. It is also the national tree of Bangladesh. The mango is the tropical fruit of the mango tree belonging to the Anacardiaceous family. Native to eastern India and Burma, several hundred varieties of mango exist, but only a few are commercialized. More than 90 countries grow it. The fruit has many nutritional qualities, being rich in minerals, fiber, vitamin C, B and A and pro-vitamins. Kokan region have specific climatic condition for cultivation of Alphanso mango but mango growers in Sindhudurg district are facing many mango cultivation and marketing problems. For more production and productivity Alphanso mango, it is necessary to Cooperative societies should take interest to purchase mango from farmers at favorable price to avoid exploitation of farmers from agents. Mango orchard should be managed professionally and ongoing investments should be made in creating the necessary infrastructure. Key Words: Irrigation, Irrigation Intensity. Introduction: Water is an essential agricultural input and its proper management may ensure higher water nutrient and energy use efficiencies with greater crop productivity and lower cost of production. Crops need water to fulfill its evapotranspirational need. Timely and adequate supply of water is the prime need for higher agricultural productivity. In independence India, every five year plan promised high priority on irrigation and its proper distribution because agriculture still contributes nearly 24% to gross net product but irrigation scenario of our country is still grim and needs focused attention so that irrigated area may be increased to the level of irrigation potential created so far. In the Kurumba sample village is intensively and extensively irrigated by means of canal, submersible-pump and tank sources of irrigation. Due to the presence of irrigation almost all the farms have more than 90% of their land as net sown area, where irrigation intensity is more than 157%. The rapid agricultural development of any agricultural region without the development of its irrigation is almost impossible. Statement of problem: Agriculture is the chief sources of livelihood in the Kurumba village. Almost 70% of the working population are employed in agriculture either as cultivators or as agricultural labourers. In the study area monsoons are active only for 3-4 months in a year. The remaining 8-9 months are marked by dry season when irrigation is needed for successful growth of crops. Rice, which require more water, is the principal crop of the study area. The above importance and problems have prompted the investigator to select this topic and the area to have an intensive study. Literature Survey: Naraniwal . R (1986) studied “Intensity of Irrigation in Rajasthan” He findout that irrigation facilities are far more important as a decisive factor in crop regionalization than any other determinant in the state. The rainfall pattern and its spatial distribution is the single most important factor for the development of irrigation facilities in Rajasthan. The sources of irrigation in Rajasthan are mainly tank,canals,wells and tube-wells etc. 27 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
Sharma . P.M. (1984) Studied “Irrigation Development in Rajasthan” Researchar observed that in the area irrigated from underground water sources occupies the first place and that from surface sources occupies only second place. Locking to the area available for agriculture and its irrigational need the state is deficient in irrigational facilities. Objectives of the study: To understand the relationship between net irrigated area and intensity of irrigation. To uncover the problems and to suggest policy measure. Data base: The data have been collected from the two sources i.e. secondary which is collected from different Books, References, Journals, different offices and primary which is collected through field investigation. Analytical procedure: The collected data have been processed and represented by statistical and cartographic technique. Irrigation intensity has been computed by following formula. 퐺퐼퐴×100 푁퐼퐴 GIA= Gross irrigated area. NIA= Net irrigated area. The interrelationship between the independent and dependent variable has been computed by Co- relation technique. The cause and effect relationship has been obtained by means of regression analysis. Location of the study area: Fig.1 (Showing location of the Kurumba The Kurumba village is located at the village, Birbhum district) Southern point of Labhpur CD Block, Birbhum district. Total area of the village is 830.0 hectare. It extended from 23042’0’’ to 230 54’00’’north latitudes and from 87048’0’’to 8800’0’’east longitudes. This village is bounded by Tiltikuri village and Mandari village in the north , by the village of Tilutia and Bara in the south , by the village of Sultanpur in the east, by the village of Kuchli in the west as shown in Fig.1. Socio economic characteristic of farmer: The Kurumba village is a dwelling place of farmers, belonging to different caste groups. These includes high caste hindu (Brahmin, Baidya, Kayestha ), middle caste Hindu (Sadgope, Ugrakhatriya,Mayra etc.) ,scheduled castes( Bagdi, bauri, Dome etc.), scheduled tribes (santal, Konra,Mal etc.) and Muslims. Educational status of farmers have been observed from primary to masters degree in the study area, but secondary passed number of farmers are high. The total number of family member of farmers have been observed from 2 to 12(2 lowest and 12 highest).Agriculture is the chief source of livelihood in Kurumba village. Almost 70% of the working population are employed in agriculture, either as cultivators or as agricultural labourers. The highest amount of owned land of farmers 15.2 acre have been observed but the most of the size of holding are below 1 acre.
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Table analysis: Relationship between net irrigated area and intensity of irrigation in Kurumba village. (Tow ways bi-variate cross classified contingency table) %of net Irrigation Intensity irrigated area No. of sample 171.79- 157.69- Average to net sown 185.90-200 185.90 171.79 area 93.34-100 20 20 0 0 192.95 86.67-93.34 10 0 10 0 178.85 80.00-86.67 20 0 0 20 164.74 Source: Compiled by Researchar Statistical Analysis: Positive Correlation coefficient between the net irrigated area and intensity of irrigation have been observed in the Kurumba sample village which means that both the variables are directly proportional to each other. The computed t values of the Kurumba sample village are significant at 1% and 5% level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted indicating there is significant statistical correlationship between the net irrigated area(X variable) and intensity of irrigation(Y variable). In the case of Kurumba village the regression coefficient (b) is (2.065) where the equation is(Y=( -)6.448 + 2.065x). This shows that per unit increase of net irrigated area will increase 2.065unit of intensity of irrigation in this village. The coefficient of determination (r2)is 0.997,which means 99.7% of the total variation in Y(intensity of irrigation) is being explained by X(net irrigated area). The intercept (a)is -6.448 which means the regression coefficient shows variation below this constant figure. Cartographic Analysis:
Irrigation is an important input for successful agriculture. The choice of cropping pattern ,varity of crops, method of cultivation is also depends on irrigation. There are close positive relationship between net irrigated area and intensity of irrigation in Kurumba village.
Identification of problems: 1. Canal water are not available after kharif season for irrigation in the study area. 2. Very close agricultural field to canal get sufficient water but agricultural field located away from the canal not get sufficient water for their irrigation. 3. Some part of canal has eroded at the north-west side of the village ,as a result during heavy monsoon rainfall the water slops down vigorously over the agricultural field to cause soil erosion.
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4. Tank irrigation is still an important source of irrigation in the study area. But these tanks are in many cases, silted up, neglected and derelict. 5. There are very few submersible pumps at the east side agricultural field of study area. Policy measure: 1. Two submersible pumps should be installed at the east side agricultural field. 2. The canal should be aligned on the ridges, from where water can easily slop down to the distance part of the agricultural field. 3. Permanent field canals should be made on the agricultural field for distributing irrigation to the farthest part of the area with least possible wastage. 4. Derelict tanks should be renovated and the farmers should not be allowed to cultivate on the banks. Deposit of eroded soil into these tanks should be controlled. 5. The derelict canals should be renovated and damages should be repaired immediately. Conclusion: The geographical condition, especially the nature of monsoon rainfall in the study area make irrigation in dispensable for sustainable agricultural development. Rice is the principle crop of the study area which require more water. Agriculture of Kurumba village cannot be developed without modernising the irrigation schemes and without increasing the amount of net irrigated and gross irrigated area. References: 1. Das,P.K.(2002):The Monsoons,Fourth Revised Edition,National Book Trust.,New Delhi:pp.254. 2. FAO(1999):Poverty Reduction And Irrigated Agriculture. 3. Gautam,A .(2009):Advanced Geography Of India,SecondEdition,ShardaPustak Bhawan.,Allahabad:282-371. 4. Gosal,G.S.(1999):Forth Survey Of Research In geography,FirstEdition,Manak Publications (P) Limited.,New Delhi:pp.418. 5. Gurjar, R.K.(1987): Irrigation for Agricultural Modernisation,Scientific Publishers Jodhpur:3-4. 6. Hanji,A.B.(2006):Impact Assessment Of Irrigation On Cropping Pattern,Food And Nutrition On Security At Macro And Micro Level in GhataprabhaMalaprabha Command Area. 7. Husain,M.(2009):Systematic Agricultural Geography,Rawat Publication, Jaipur:186-212. 8. Jin,S; Yu,W.;Jansen,H.G.P.;Muraoka,R.(2012):The Impact Of Irrigation On Agricultural Productivity:Evidence From India,(IAAE)Triennial Conference,Foz Do Iguacu,Brazil. 9. Khan,N.(1998):Quantitative Methods In Geographical Research,Concept Publishing Company.,New Delhi:pp.136. 10. Khullar,D.R.(2004):India A Comprehensive Geography,Kalyani Publishers,Delhi:275-292. 11. Kirpich,P.Z; Haman, J .; Styles,S.W.(1999):Problems Of Irrigation In Developing Countries. Journal Of Irrigation And Drainage Engineering, Vol.125,No.1,1-6. 12. Motebennur,S.S.(2013):Impact Of Irrigation On Agricultural Development In Dharward District Of Karnataka State.International Journal Of Scientific Research, Vol.2,Issue 1,119-121. 13. Roy,P.(2007):Economic Geography A Study Of Resources,SixthEdition,New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd.,Kolkata: 149-216, 511-517. 14. Shanan,L.(1987):Land Transformation In Agriculture,JohnWiley&Sons Ltd,115-131. 15. Singh, J.(1974):Regional Imbalances and Temporal Development in Irrigation Facilities in Haryana, Geographical review of India, Vol.36, No.2,P.111. 16. Todkari,G.U.(2012): Impact Of Irrigation On Agriculture Productivity In Solapur District Of Maharashtra State.International Journal Of Agriculture Sciences,Vol.4,Issue 1,165-167.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Land Use in Hassan District (Karnataka
state): Using Geo-Informatics Dr.Basavaraj R.Bagade Assistant Professor Dept.studies in Geography Rani Channamma University, Belgaum, Karnataka
Abstract: Land use and Land cover information is a pre-requisite for optimal land use planning from a larger term perceptive. In order to use land use optimally, it is not only necessary to have the necessary to have the information on existing land use but also the capability to monitor the dynamics of land use resulting out of changing demands of increasing population. In the recent years both remote sensing and geographic information system have been used to acquire information of land use\land cover. The GIS technology has a greater relevance in the context of various applications of natural resources mapping and monitoring. The Hassan district begins at base of the Western Ghats and continues in to the gently rolling Deccan plateau. The two major physiographic regions are steep Western Ghats and eastern plains with occasional hills. The soils of Hassan are red sandy soils, laterite soils and black cotton soils, Dharwad schist’s and granite gneiss are two major rock types found in the study area. The methodology adopted land use of Hassan district was generated by digital approach Geo-referencing of satellite data with respect of SOI Topo-maps and digital classification, contextual, refinements and stratification.The study area located in the South Western part of Karnataka State, the district situated between 120 31’ and 130 31’ North latitude and 750 33’ to 760 38’ East longitude. The present study aims at Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Land Use in Hassan District, Karnataka: Using Geo-Informatics.Remote sensing change detection is a process of determining and evaluating difference in a variety of surface phenomena over time. Changes can be determined by comparing spectral response differences at the same spatial location among a set of two or more multispectral data acquired at different times. Land use/land cover classes such as built- up land, agriculture land, wastelands, water bodies and others have been classified at level 1. These level 1 classes have been further classified into level 2 and level 3 classes as per the guidelines given under NR-Census.) INTRODUCTION : Land use\Land Cover is a need for resource planning, cultural advancement as well as overall economic development of a nation. The potentiality of a region depends upon the scale (extensive or intensive) of use of the land. The extensive use of land reflects such features as sparse population, dispersed settlement, unhealthy living, agro-based economy and poor transport network where as the intensive use of land reflects dense population, sound agricultural production, industrial establishments, well developed communication network etc. however economic and cultural advancement can better be carried out only through the systematic and balanced utilization of land (i.e. to correct the misuse, underuse and overuse of land). Thus one cannot think of any progress without proper and optimum use of land. Hence, the land use study is of immense value for human sustenance. Land-use classification is the systematic arrangement of various class of land on the basis of certain similar characteristics, mainly to identify and understand their fundamental utilities intelligently and effectively in satisfying the needs of the people. The study area is a typical example where constant thrust of Man’s economic activities greatly transforms the physical landscape beyond recognition. The general land-use pattern of the district has to be seen in the light of its overall natural and changing socio-economic conditions. The pattern of land-use in the study area is mainly controlled by the physical aspects like relief, soil type and south-west
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Monsoon. Certain variations and special aspects of the monsoonal climate have significance from the point of view of crop land-use pattern. The amount of rainfall distribution exerts influence on different patterns of crop land-use. But the relief and the rainfall have their clear bearing on the forest land-use pattern. The west zone is associated with the economy of rice, areca nut, coconut and evergreen forest, while the regions of heavy to moderate rainfall have promoted more complex crop production and agricultural economy, based on rice, millets and fruit gardening under the influence of soil and climate. The general build of the area, its relief, geology, climate and soil have been responsible for giving rise to broad land-use zones like the cultivated land, barren the cultivable land, forest land, pastures etc. The human and economic factors have influenced the extension of settlement areas, transportation lines, the fallow land and the stage and rate of agricultural development and its intensity. In the recent years both remote sensing and geographic information system have been used to acquire information of land use\land cover. The GIS technology has a greater relevance in the context of various applications of natural resources mapping and monitoring. Regional Setting of the Study Area Hassan district named after its headquarters city of Hassan, is one of the 27 districts of Karnataka state. The district is located in the south-western part of the state. The district, situated between 12 31’ and 13 33’ north latitude and 75 33’ to 76 38’ east longitude. The greatest length of the district, from north to south is about 129 km and its greatest breadth, from east to west is about 116 km, spanning a total geographical area of 6845 sq. km which ranks second in area among the 27 districts. The district is surrounded by as many as seven district of Karnataka state. The district is bounded on the north by Chikmagalur district, on the east by Tumkur and Mandya districts, on the south by Mysore and Coorg districts and on the west by Dakshinakannada and Udupi districts. Hassan district consists of eight taluks viz., Hassan, Arasikere, Holenarasipura, Channarayapatna, Sakeleshapura, Alur, Belur and Arkalgud located in an extent of 6845 sq. km. Hassan district consists of 38 hoblies, 2379 habited villages, and 910 hamlets. The population of the district as per 2001 census is 17,21,319 out of which 14, 16,579 is rural population and 3,04,740 is urban population. The density of population per sq. km is 230. Hassan district has three important rivers namely the Cauvery, Hemavathi and Yagachi. While the Hemavathi is a tributary of the river Cauvery and Yagachi is a tributary of the Hemavathi. INDEX MAP OF THE STUDY AREA
thodology: land use/land cover map of Hassan district was generated by digital approach. Multi-date Remote Sensing for Land Use/Land Cover Change: Hassan District The methodology followed consisted of 1. Geo referencing of satellite data with respect to SOl topomaps, 2. Digital classification with a trio of supervised classification, contextual refinements and stratification (visual based), 3. Generation of land use / land cover maps of periods 1996-97 and 2001-02. 4. Change analysis to generate land use /land cover change map using spatial modeling techniques,
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Objectives of the study The following are the objectives of the study. 1. The present study is initially concerned with a geographical analysis of the physical and General Land use\Land Cover of the region. 2. To study taluka-wise land use\land cover. 3. Land use/land cover classes such as built- up land, agriculture land, wastelands, water bodies and others have been classified at level 1. These level 1 classes have been further classified into level 2 and level 3 classes as per the guidelines given under NR-Census. The major land use/land cover classes are described below. The maps generated under land use /Land cover themes are land use/land cover map of Hassan district -1996-97 (Fig 1) land use/land cover map of Hassan district -2001-02 (Fig.2) land use/land cover map of NR 57C/04 -1996-97(Fig 3) land use/land cover map of NR 57C/04 -2001-02 (Fig. 4) land use/land cover change assessment of Hassan district for the period 1996-2002 (Fig. 5) Satellite data depicting urban changes of Hassan district for the year 1998 (Fig6) Satellite data depicting urban changes of Hassan district for the year 2002 (Fig 7 Fig 1 - Land use/land cover map of Fig.2 - land use/land cover map of Fig 3 - Land use/land cover map of Hassan district -1996-97 Hassan district -2001-02 NR 57C/04 -1996-97
Fig 4 - land use/land cover map of Fig. 5 Land use/land cover change NR 57C/04 -2001-02 assessment ofHassan district for the ` period 1996-2002
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Fig 6 & Fig 7 - Satellite data depicting urban changes of Hassan district for the year 1998 & 2002 Fig 6 Fig 7
Built up land: Built up land comprises of all type of urban / rural structures, houses, industries, playgrounds parks etc. The major urban settlements like Hassan district headquarters, major towns and villages could be identified and mapped while others were identified but could not be mapped due to scale limitations specifically in the eastern part of the district while some could not be mapped in the western half of the district because they are surrounded by thick evergreen forests and plantations. The area under this category has been estimated as 3086.9 hectares or 0.45 per cent of the total geographical area of the district during 1996. Similarly the area under this category has been estimated as 3244.55 hectares or 0.47 per cent of the total geographical area of the district during 2001-2002.
Agricultural lands: Cropping activities are seen during Kharif and Rabi seasons in Hassan district. The Kharif season is from May-June to September and Rabi season is from October to February. The main agriculture crops of the district are Potatio, Sugarcane, Ragi, Paddy, Maize, Cotton, Groundnut, Tobacco and Sunflower. Ginger, Coffee, Cardamom, Pepper and Coconut are the main plantation crops. The economy of the district mainly depends on these agriculture crops and plantation crops like Coffee, Coconut, Ginger, Cardamom and Pepper.Paddy and Ragi are the main staple food crops grown in all the taluks except Sakaleshpura. Potato is one of the important cash crops grown as rainfed in the district. In the western part of the district in Sakaleshpur, Alur, Arakalgud and Belur taluk Coffee, Cardamom, Ginger, Pepper are grown. Coconut is an important plantation crop in the district and this crop is grown in Arasikere, Channarayapatna, and Hassan taluks. Crop land of Kharif season: The satellite images of October month clearly reveals the spatial distribution of Kharif crops grown in the district. The field visits. during this period reveal that kharif crops include paddy, ragi, jowar and pulses. The prospects of kharif crops in the state mainly depend on the regularity of monsoon and to some extent on irrigation facilities. The area covered by this category has been estimated as 375421.44 hectares or 55.1 per cent of total geographical area of the district during 1996-97 and similarly the area covered by this category has been estimated as 354140.74 hectares or 51.95 per cent of total geographical area of the district during 2001-2002. Crop land of Rabi season: The satellite imagery of January/February month was used for delineating Rabi cropped areas. Generally the Rabi crops are raised under irrigation conditions such as canal, tank and well systems. The major crops grown during Rabi season are ragi, jowar, pulses and vegetables etc.
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The area under this category has been estimated as 63439.30 hectares or 9.28 per cent of the total geographical area of the district during 1996-97. Similarly the area under this category has been estimated as 124087.12 hectares or 18.21 per cent of the total geographical area of the district during 2001-2002. Double Cropped Area (Kharif and Rabi): The analysis of the two season data clearly indicates that the double cropped areas are mostly concentrated in the command areas. The double cropped areas are found under canal, tank and well irrigation conditions. Generally paddy, jowar, sugarcane, groundnut and vegetables are found in double cropped areas. The paddy crop under canal irrigation system is largely grown in Arkalgud taluk. Fallow land: Fallow land is an agricultural land left uncultivated during both Kharif and Rabi seasons. An analysis of two season data reveals that certain amount of fallow land is found in Hassan district. The area under this category is estimated as 4187.60 hectares during year 1996-97 and 16980.51 hectares during 2001-2002. NATURAL VEGETATIONS In Hassan district, we have Evergreen/Semi-evergreen forests in theWestern Ghats area. The different forest types that have been mapped are Evergreen/Semi-evergreen, Deciduous (moist/dry/thorny), scrub forest and forest plantations. Forest boundaries were digitized using 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scale SOl topo sheets. The total area under forests in the district is a little over 510 sq km, thus the percentage of the forest area to the total area of the district is only about 7.5, which is far below the state average of 18.4 percent. But according to the national forest policy, the forest area should not be less than 1/3 percent, the limit being 20 percent in the case of maiden areas and 60 percent in respect of maland areas. The districts contribution to the total forest area of the state is only 1.5 percent. The chief sources of forest revenue in the district are the sandalwood and some other soft and hard woods exploited for commercial purposes. Besides, there are also minor forest products like thangadi and kakke barks, tupra leaves, myrobalans, gum, honey and waz, tamarind, honge seeds, bark of gulmarver and cinnamon, canes and to a certain extent, bamboos from the evergreen, which also add to the forest revenue of the district. Flora: The Hassan district has a rich and varied flora. Major contributing factors to this variety are the differences in rainfall and topography within the district. Some areas of the eastern maidan, a part of the Deccan plateau, may receive an average rainfall of less than 150 mm. while the western mountainous malnad gets about 2500 mm during the same period. There is therefore, a rapid transition from scrub to the monsoon forests as one move from east to west. The intermediary stages of dry deciduous west deciduous and semi-ever green from a continuous pattern as the rainfall increases and the plateau breaks up into the lofty peaks and deep valleys of the Western Ghats. Forest: Forests play an important role in the economic life of the people of the district; they covered nearly 71.5 percent of the total area of the district in 1996-97 or 1.5 percent of the total area under forests in the state. The western parts of the district forming a portion of the Western Ghats are clothed with magnificent virgin forests. Some of these forest tracts along the slopes of the valleys have been taken up for Coffee and Cardamom cultivation, but they are sparse towards the east. They exert indirect influence on the climate, regulation of moisture, prevention of soil erosion and also the fertility of the soil. Deciduous forests (Dry/Moist/Thorny): Dry deciduous forests are found in eastern plains and extensive stretches are seen in Hassan and Arasikere taluks. Most of these deciduous forests are put to changed land use with Eucalyptus and Acacia plantations. Mainly deciduous type of forests is observed within semi- evergreen forests along the lower elevations in the Western Ghats region. Multitemporar satellite data adjusted to phonologic cycle (Kharif and Rabi) of predominant species helps in discrimination of these forest areas. The area under this category is estimated as 14162.26 hectares during year 1996-97 and 17576.77 hectares during 2001-2002.
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Scrub forest: The forest area irrespective of floris tic composition is considered to be degraded when the areal crown density of the community falls below 10percent. Hill top grasslands in Western Gnat region within notified forest area is classified as scrub forest. The stunted, pricky vegetation found in degraded forest of eastern plains are due to dry climate and poor soil conditions, grazing pressure and biotic interference. The area estimated under this category within notified forest area is 10797.42 hectares during the year 1996-97 and 8042.64 hectares during 2001-2002. Wastelands: Wastelands refer to degraded land, which can be brought under vegetation cover with reasonable effort. These lands are not productive currently due to various problems such as soil erosion, salinity, water logging etc. The various types of wasteland categories identified in Hassan district include Gullied/Ravenous land; land with / without scrub, sandy area, barren rocky/story waste and mine dumps and industrial waste. The area estimated under this category is 40227.92 hectares during 1996-97 and 41388.52 hectares during 2001-02. Land with or without scrub: These are found as patches of various dimensions either on uplands slopes of hills/mountains or along stream courses. Sometimes they are also found along the fringes of the notified forest regions. The most common scrub species observed in Hassan district are Cathium parciflora, Dodnea vericosa, Cassia auriculate, Toddelia asiatica, Acacia leucophloea etc. Succulents and herbs of various species are also seen in dense scrub areas. In the dryland areas, plant actions of Eucalyptus and Acacia have been raised under various social forestry/watershed development programmes. Barren rocky/stony waste: They are mostly found in small patches either on hill summit or steep slopes or uplands. They are unproductive and can also be observed within notified forest boundaries. They can be easily identified due to their distinctive appearance on satellite data. Sandy area: This category appears bright white in colour and appears linear in pattern along the riverbeds and within reservoir/tanks. Gullied/Ravinous lands: Only few small patches of gullied and ravinous lands have been observed in the districts mainly in the taluks of Hassan and Arkalgud. Few mine dumps/industrial wastelands could be mapped in the district. Water bodies: This class consists of areas of surface water either impounded in the form of ponds, tanks, reservoirs or flowing as rivers, canals, streams etc. These features can be readily extracted during digital classification due to their distinct appearance on the image. Some canals are digitized and overlaid on the classified output. The area estimated under this category is 12581.23 hectares during 1996-97 and 18229.43 hectares during 2001-02. Rivers/streams: Krishna, Cauvery, Netravathy, Yagachi, Hemavathy rivers with their network of streams drain the water from the district. Most of the streams in Western Ghat are perennial. Reservoirs and tanks: Apart from major irrigation reservoirs like Hemavathy, Yagachi and Watehole, there are quite a large number of big and medium sized irrigation tanks which could be mapped using IRS LISS III imagery.Natural lakes and ponds are not observed in the district. The canals and major streams and river courses were classified based on the presence of water in them. No major industrial ponds/pits were observed in the district. Others: A few patches of mining, quarries and brick kilns have been identified and mapped based on distinctive tones on the raw FCC and extensive field checks.. The areal extent of this category is estimated as 397.2 hectares during 1996-97 and 900.11 hectares during 2001-02. Built-up land: The change analysis indicates that the areal extent of categories like built-up land (urban and rural) and industrial land has increased between the periods 1996-97 to 2001- 2002. The increase in urban built up land is estimated as 175.82 hectares and industrial area is estimated as 58.44 hectares. The drivers for such change are (1) increase in urban sprawl around Hassan city, other taluk centres and important towns and (2) development of infrastructural facilities like highway/bypass and industrial area development around the Hassan city. Agricultural land: In all the taluks, these are no major changes observed in croplands. Due to commissioning of canal system from reservoirs like Hemavathy, Watehole and Yagachii additional Kharif lands have been brought under irrigation and area under double crop has increased mainly in the taluks of Arkalgud, Holena rasipura and Channarayanapatna taluks. 36 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
The farmers of the district have accepted the advanced agricultural practices like horticulture, agro-horticulture and agro-forestry systems and hence there is an increase in Agricultural/Horticultural plantation area from 151599.19 hectares during 1996-97 to 161976.99 hectares during 2001-2002 indicating an increase of 10377.80 hectares during this period. The change is very well noticed in the C R Patna taluk. Otherwise, the change in agricultural pattern is not much in other taluks. Though reports indicate more lands being brought under coffee, cardamom and tea plantation in Alur and Sakleshpur areas, it was difficult to identify such small pieces of lands brought under plantation areas due to scale and sensor limitations. Field data collected indicates increase in coffee areas in Belur taluk as more uplands are brought under coffee plantation at lower elevations in the foot hills of Western Ghat region. Forests: During the period from 1996-97 to 2001-02, there are insignificant changes in areal spread of different classes of forest categories except for forest plantations. The degraded forest lands and other wastelands have been brought under afforestation under different social forestry and watershed development programmes. The analysis indicates dynamic change in this particular case. Both positive and negative changes are observed. The area under forest plantation category is estimated as 5382.45 hectares during 1996-97 to 5883.04 hectares during 2001-02 indicating an increase of 500.56 hectares during this period. Wastelands: Open/dense scrub category is the only major wasteland category, which is undergoing change. Due to implementation of social forestry and watershed development programmes, some patches of the scrublands have been afforested with Eucalyptus or Acacia plantations. The change area in wasteland is estimated as 40227.92 hectares during 1996-97 to 41388.52 hectares during 2001-2002 indicating a change of 1160.6 hectares during this period. Water bodies: No significant change in water bodies is observed in the district. The change in Water spread area under different classes of water bodies is mainly due to variation in rainfall pattern during the years of analysis. Field investigations also indicate insignificant changes under this category. Others: The classes like mining areas, quarries and brick kilns were identified during both the periods of analysis. It indicates marginal increase in numbers and areas of these classes during this period. The increase in area may be due to more and more demand for construction materials from growing Hassan and other taluk centers as well as industries. The detailed statistics of land use and land cover change of Hassan District is presented in Table 1. Table No.1 LAND USE/LAND COVER AND CHANGE STATISTICS OF HASSAN DISTRICT GENERATED USING IRS LISS III SATELITE DATE
Level III Area in 1996-97 Area in 2001-02 Change in area from 96-02 Area % Area % Area % Residential (Urban) 754.77 0.11 930.59 0.14 175.82 0.03 Industrial 38.43 0.01 93.84 0.01 58.44 0.00 Recreational (parks/garden) 24.63 0.00 25.86 0.00 1.23 0.00 Built-up area (Rural) 2269.07 0.33 2346.88 0.34 77.81 0.01 Built-up 3086.07 0.45 3244.55 0.47 313.30 0.04 Kharif crop 375421.44 55.1 354140.74 51.95 -21280.7 -3.15 *Rabi crop 63439.31 9.28 124087.12 18.21 60647.81 8.93 Kharif + Rabi (double) 62852.90 9.21 124087.12 18.21 61234.22 9.00 Current fallow 4187.60 0.62 16980.51 2.48 12792.91 1.86 Agricultural plantation (coconut + coffee) 151599.19 22.23 161976.99 23.77 10377.80 1.54 Agriculture 531794.64 78.02 523651.97 76.85 -8142.67 -1.17 Ever Green/Semi evergreen (dense) 59489.48 8.73 58303.38 8.55 -1186.48 -0.18 Deciduous (dry/moist) 14162.26 2.09 17576.77 2.58 3414.51 0.49 Degraded/scrub forest 10797.42 1.58 8042.64 1.18 -2754.78 0.40 37 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
Forest plantation 5382.45 0.80 5883.04 0.86 500.56 0.06 Forest 89831.61 13.20 89805.80 13.17 25.81 -0.03 Grass Lands 3480.5 0.51 4023.68 0.59 543.18 0.08 Gullied and Ravinous-Mild 942.58 0.14 850.48 0.27 907.9 0.13 Gullied and Ravinous-Severe 242.40 0.04 297.39 0.04 54.99 0.00 Open Scrub 5226.46 0.77 8666.97 1.29 3440.51 0.52 Dense Scrub 33816.48 4.96 30573.68 4.49 -3242.8 -0.47 Waste Lands 40227.92 5.91 41388.52 6.09 1160.6 0.18 Water Bodies 12581.23 1.85 18229.43 2068 5648.2 0.83 Others 397.2 0.06 900.11 0.13 502.91 0.07 Total 681400 100 681400 100
Land use/Land cover in Hassan District 1996-97 Residential (Urban)
Industrial
Recreational (parks/garden)
Built-up area (Rural)
Built-up
Kharif crop
*Rabi crop
Kharif + Rabi (double)
Current fallow
Agricultural plantation (coconut + coffee)
Land use/Land cover in Hassan District 2001-02
Residential (Urban)
Industrial
Recreational (parks/garden)
Built-up area (Rural)
Built-up
Kharif crop
*Rabi crop
Kharif + Rabi (double)
Current fallow
Spatial features of Hassan District The analysis of two period data of 1996-97 and 2001-2002 with a gap of 5 years to generate information on natural resources of Hassan district brought out the following: 1. Detailed note on the study area and also geographical change and development in Hassan district has been analyzed. 2. The district has three important rivers namely the Cauvery, Hemavathi and Yagachi. Hemavathi is a tributary of the Cauvery and Yagachi is a tributary of the Hemavathi. 3. Hassan district has forest loams, red laterite, ferruginous and clay soil found in hill slopes and sandy or gravelly soil found in plain region. These soils are favorable for growing crops like 38 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
Paddy, Sugarcane, Coconut, Potato, Vegetables and Plantain crops under irrigated conditions while Ragi, Millets, Pulses, Groundnut, Cotton and Jower under rainfed conditions. 4. Geologically the rock of the district has older series of schist’s cut up and introduced by granitic gneisses, which occupy a major portion of the area. 5. Total geographical area of Hassan district, Arasikere taluk ahs largest area while Alur taluk has lowest area in hectares. Percentage of forest area to total geographical area of the district, Sakaleshpur and Arasikere taluks have highest percentage of area under forest where as Channarayapatna has very lowest percentage of area under forest. Almost all the taluk forest area was decreased from 1996 to 2001 except Sakaleshpur and Belur taluks. 6. The Built-up lands, which include cities, towns and big habitats, have shown horizontal growth with time. The Hassan city has spread in all directions and new infrastructural facilities in the form of highways / bypass and new industrial area have increased total area under this category. 7. The major part of the district is under dry land agriculture. The frequent updating of natural resources may help the district administration to understand the problems of dry land agriculture and suggest suitable advanced technology based packages to farmers under various national and state funded projects to improve the socioeconomic status of the farmers of the district. Reference : 1. Directorate of Economics and Statistics. 2. Directorate of Agriculture 3. Agricultural Market Bulletins 4. Central soil & waters conservation & training institute 5. National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS &LUP) 6. Forest Survey of India 7. Annual Administration Report of Forest 8. National Remote Sensing satellite imaginaries Hassan District 9. Brahmananda, P.R. (1995): “New Economic Reforms need for some Rethinking”, 10. Ruddar Dutt The Indian Economic Journal, Indian Economic Association, Department of Economic, University of Bombay, India, Vo. 42, PP.106-107. 11. Census of India, 2001: Das, B.K.(ed.) Indian Administrative Service Director of Census Operations, Karnataka, Series 9, Part II-A.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
“UTILITY OF GIS AND REMOTE SENSING FOR NATURAL
DISASTER MANAGEMENT SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 1. Dr. Arjun H. Nanawre : Dept of Geography & Research Center, FLOOD Shri.Shivaji MANAGEMENT” Mahvidyalaya, Barshi, Dist.-Solapur, (MS).
2. Anand Londhe : Dept of Geography, S. B. Z College, Barshi, Dist –Solapur.
Abstract: The measurement or acquisition of information of some property of an object or phenomenon, by a recording device that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object or phenomenon under study is called remote sensing. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provide a computer-based information and manipulation system useful in support of flow forecasting and emergency response. Information from a variety of sources and scales can be combined as a series of layers, provided that the information can be identified in terms of the common denominator of location. Present paper considers the use and development of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing techniques in helping to reduce the impact of natural hazards with special reference to flood disaster management. The limitations of existing GIS are then considered, with particular reference to the availability and deficiencies of the data on which hazard mitigation must depend, the limited functionality of current GIS techniques with reference to the needs of all countries where natural hazards occurs mostly. The natural hazard like flood is most disasters type of natural disaster in the coastal area and in some rivers basin. With the help of GIS and remote sensing techniques we can control on flood disaster. Key words: GIS, Remote sensing,Natural disaster management, Flood management Introduction: Natural disasters are extreme events within the earth's system that result in death or injury to humans, and damage or loss of valuable goods, such as buildings, communication systems, agricultural land, forest, natural environment etc. The economic losses due to natural disasters have shown an increase with a factor of eight over the past four decades, caused by the increased vulnerability of the global society, but also due to an increase in the number of weather-related disasters (Coppock J. T. 1995). The measurement or acquisition of information of some property of an object or phenomenon, by a recording device that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object or phenomenon under study is called remote sensing. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a computer-based information and manipulation system useful in support of flow forecasting and emergency response. Information from a variety of sources and scales can be combined as a series of layers, provided that the information can be identified in terms of the common denominator of location. For the management of natural disasters a large amount of multi -temporal spatial data is required. Satellite remote sensing is the ideal tool for disaster management, since it offers information over large areas, and at short time intervals. Although it can be utilized in the various phases of disaster management, such as prevention, preparedness, relief, and reconstruction, in practice up till now it is mostly used for warning and monitoring. During the last decades remote sensing has become an operational tool in the disaster preparedness and warning phases for cyclones, droughts and floods. The use of remote sensing data is not possible without a proper tool to handle the large amounts of data and combine it with data coming from other sources, such as maps or measurement stations. Therefore, together with the growth of the remote sensing 40 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
applications, Geographic Information Systems have become increasingly important for disaster management. (Drury S.A 1987) The present paper considers the use and development of geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing techniques in helping to reduce the impact of natural hazards with special reference to flood management. An overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land is called flood (www.flooddefinition.com.). The limitations of existing GIS are then considered, with particular reference to the availability and deficiencies of the data on which hazard mitigation must depend, the limited functionality of current GIS techniques with reference to the needs of all countries where natural hazards occurs mostly. The natural hazard like flood is most disasters type of natural disaster in the coastal area. With the help of GIS and remote sensing techniques we can control the flood disaster. therefore attempt is made here to explain role of GIS and remote sensing in disaster management. Objectives: i) To study GIS and Remote Sensing application in natural disaster management. ii) To study Pre disaster planning and preparedness. iii) To explain the Prediction and early warning of flood-prone region. Methodology: This article is written on the basis of study of Various reference books, journals and project reports. GIS and RS Application for natural disaster management: Geographic information systems: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provide a computer-based information and manipulation system useful in support of flow forecasting and emergency response. Information from a variety of sources and scales can be combined as a series of layers, provided that the information can be identified in terms of the common denominator of location. A good representation of the basin topography is an important asset in flood forecasting, emergency action and mitigation. A digital elevation model (DEM) or digital terrain model (DTM) for the basin should be developed as part of any GIS. Technologies exist that enable the construction of a "seamless best available" DEM. In other words the DEM is constructed from whatever topographic information is available. Parts of the basin or certain features may be very accurate while others may be quite basic. The DEM can be improved with time. (Cova, T.J. 1999) Remote Sensing and GIS Tools: Mitigation of natural disasters can be successful only when detailed knowledge is obtained about the expected frequency, character, and magnitude of hazardous events in an area. Many types of information that are needed in natural disaster management have an important spatial component. Spatial data are data with a geographic component, such as maps, aerial photography, satellite imagery, GPS data, rainfall data, borehole data etc. Many of these data will have a different projection and co-ordinate system, and need to be brought to a common map-basis, in order to superimpose them. (Chakraborti, A.K. 1999) Access the information gathering and organizing technologies like remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), which have proven their usefulness in disaster management. 1. First of all, remote sensing and GIS provides a data base from which the evidence left behind by disasters that have occurred before can be interpreted, and combined with other information to arrive at hazard maps, indicating which areas are potentially dangerous. The zone of hazard must be the basis for any disaster management project and should supply planners and decision-makers with adequate and understandable information. Remote sensing data, such as satellite images and aerial photos allow us to map the variability of terrain properties, such as vegetation, water, and geology, both in space and time. Satellite images give a synoptic overview and provide very useful environmental information, for a wide range of scales, from entire continents to details of a few meters. 41 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
Secondly, many types of disasters, such as floods, drought, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, etc. will have certain precursors. The satellites can detect the early stages of these events as anomalies in a time series. Images are available at regular short time intervals, and can be used for the prediction of both rapid and slow disasters. 2. Then, when a disaster occurs, the speed of information collection from air and space borne platforms and the possibility of information dissemination with a matching swiftness make it possible to monitor the occurrence of the disaster. Many disasters may affect large areas and no other tool than remote sensing would provide a matching spatial coverage. Remote sensing also allows monitoring the event during the time of occurrence while the forces are in full swing. The vantage position of satellites makes it ideal for us to think of, plan for and operationally monitor the event. GIS is used as a tool for the planning of evacuation routes, for the design of centers for emergency operations, and for integration of satellite data with other relevant data in the design of disaster warning systems. 3. In the disaster relief phase, GIS is extremely useful in combination with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) in search and rescue operations in areas that have been devastated and where it is difficult to orientate. The impact and departure of the disaster event leaves behind an area of immense devastation. Remote sensing can assist in damage assessment and aftermath monitoring, providing a quantitative base for relief operations. 4. In the disaster rehabilitation phase GIS is used to organize the damage information and the post-disaster census information, and in the evaluation of sites for reconstruction. Remote sensing is used to map the new situation and update the databases used for the reconstruction of an area, and can help to prevent that such a disaster occurs again.(www.floodmanagement Wikipedia) The volume of data needed for disaster management, particularly in the context of integrated development planning, clearly is too much to be handled by manual methods in a timely and effective way. For example, the post disaster damage reports on buildings in an earthquake stricken city may be thousands. Each one will need to be evaluated separately in order to decide if the building has suffered irreparable damage or not. After that all reports should be combined to derive at a reconstruction zoning within a relatively small period of time. i) Mapping: Maps of areas at risk from natural disasters are valuable information and communication tools. They can be used for a wide variety of purposes ranging from flood plain delineation, zoning and land use planning to presentation of information at public meetings. Zoning maps, however, are static and may require updating with time as changes occur. For static information, such as the delineation of the flood-prone area, frequent updating is not required, and maps are a useful reference tool for a wide variety of users. ii) Visualization techniques GIS and other computer-based information systems allow for a wide range of presentational material to be easily generated and tailored to the target audience. Three dimensional displays zoom and scan, and rotational techniques can be combined with other informational material such as pictures, overheads or slides. As an example, a GIS flood inundation map can be generated based on hydraulic model derived information. The map can be conveyed to residents in the flood plain and is useful for depicting the probable impact of the approaching flood. Different types of flooding (e.g. river floods, flash floods, dam-break floods or coastal floods) have different characteristics with respect to the time of occurrence, the magnitude, frequency, duration, flow velocity and the areal extension. Many factors play a role in the occurrence of flooding, such as the intensity and duration of rainfall, snowmelt, deforestation, land use practices, sedimentation in riverbeds, and natural or manmade obstructions. In the evaluation of flood hazard, the following parameters should be taken into account: depth of water during flood, the duration of flood, the flow velocity, the rate of rise and decline, and the frequency of occurrence. Satellite data has been successfully and operationally used in most phases of flood disaster management. Multi channel and multi sensor data sources from satellites imageries are used for meteorological evaluation,
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interpretation, validation, and assimilation into numerical weather prediction models to assess hydrological and hydro-geological risks (Barrett E.C. 1996). Quantitative precipitation estimates (QPE) and forecasts (QPF) use satellite data as one source of information to facilitate flood forecasts in order to provide early warnings of flood hazard to communities.(Scofield R.A. and Achutuni R. 1996). Earth observation satellites are also used extensively in the phases of preparedness/warning and response and monitoring. The use of optical sensors for flood mapping is seriously limited by the extensive cloud cover that is mostly present during a flood event. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) from ERS and RADARSAT has been proven very useful for mapping flood inundation areas, due to their bad weather capability. In India, ERS -SAR has been used successfully in flood monitoring since 1993 and Radar-sat since 1998 (Chakraborti, 1999). A standard procedure is used in which speckle is removed with medium filtering techniques, and a piece-wise linear stretching. Color composites are generated using SAR data during floods and pre-flood SAR images. For the disaster relief operations, the application of current satellite systems is still limited, due to their poor spatial resolution and the problems with cloud covers. Hopefully, the series of high resolution satellites will improve this. Remote sensing data for flood management should always be integrated with other data in a GIS. Especially on the local scale a large number of hydrological and hydraulic factors need to be integrated. One of the most important aspects in which GIS can contribute is the generation of detailed topographic information using high precision Digital Elevation Models, derived from geodetic surveys, aerial photography, SPOT, LIDAR (Light detection And Ranging) or SAR (Corr 1983 ). These data are used in two and three dimensional finite element models for the prediction of floods in river channels and floodplains. Prediction and early warning of flood-prone region: Construction of protective works such as flood storage reservoirs, diversion of water to side channel storage or other watersheds, construction of storm channels to carry water around the area to be protected, and levees along the floodway provide tools to reduce flood damages. Such works can be constructed to various levels of protection, usually based on: 1) Minimum standards for flood protection; 2) The optimum level of costs and benefits based on an economic analysis; or 3) To meet established levels of acceptable risk. Protective works should be considered when major infrastructure has already been developed and costs to protect existing investments are far less than those related to reconstruction, lost economic activity, disaster assistance, or relocation of existing structures and activities. Conclusion: Management of activities within the flood prone area can significantly reduce flood damages to existing development and prevent the amount of damages from rising in the future by using GIS and Remote Sensing. The GIS and Remote Sensing techniques, combined with the flood forecast, provide a very effective means of delineating areas at risk and for communicating this to the decision-makers, emergency response teams, and the public. With the help of these two techniques we can control and manage the natural resources, man-animal lives and economic loss against the natural disaster. References: 1. Barrett E.C. (1996): The storm project: using remote sensing for improved monitoring and prediction of heavy rainfall and related events. Remote Sensing Reviews, vol 14, 282 pp. 2. Chakraborti A.K. (1999): Satellite remote sensing for near-real-time flood and drought impact assessment- Indian experience. Workshop on Natural Disasters and their Mitigation - A Remote Sensing & GIS perspective, 11-15 October 1999,Dehradun, India. 3. Coppock J. T. (1995): GIS and Natural Hazards: An overview from a GIS Perspective, Amasterdam. 4. Corr D. (1983): Production of DEM’s from ERS -1 SAR data. 5. Cova T.J. (1999): GIS in Emergency management: Geographical Information Systems, management and Applications, Magra publication, New York. 6. Drury S.A (1987): Image interpretation in geology. Allen and Unwin, London, 243 pp.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016
ISSN 2277 – 4858
A STUDY OF INTER-TALUK GENDER DISPARITIES IN
LITERACY OF HAVERI DISTRICT N K Manjunathaand Deepika Devaramani
Abstract : Literacy and education are reasonably good indicators of development in society. Literacy forms an important input in the overall development of individuals enabling them to comprehend their social, political and cultural environment better and respond to it appropriately. Present investigation aims to study the inter taluk gender disparities in literacy of Haveri District and mainly based on secondary source such as District Census Hand Book of Haveri District. Literacy rate has been calculated for the population above 6 year and Sopher's Disparity Index (1974) modified by Kundu and Rao (1983) has been employed for the measurement of male-female disparity in literacy. It is perceived that, in all taluks of Haveri district, experiences greater regional disparities in the literacy. We found that literacy rate in study area was 67.79% in 2001 which is increased to 77.4% % in 2011. We also found that the urban literacy is significantly greater than the rural literacy which is coexisting to the wider gender disparities from the rural to the urban population. KEYWORDS: Literacy, Disparity index, , composite index, Gender.i1 INTRODUCTION : According to the census of India 2001, a person aged seven and above, who can both read and write with understanding in any language is treated as literate. At the national level the literacy rate is 74 % (male 82.1% and female 65.5 %) and Haveri district literacy rate is higher than the India (77.40 %), (male 84.0 % and female 70.46 %) respectively. Present study focused on inter-taluk disparities in literacy of Haveri District. The district experience greater inter-taluk disparities in the literacy. The present study attempts to analyze taluk wise disparities in literacy of Haveri district. OBJECTIVES : The main aim of this study is to analyze the inter-taluk gender disparities in literacy of Haveri district during 2001 to 2011. LOCATION MAP OF HAVERI DISTRICT GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA : Haveri district is situated between latitudes 14° 28' N to 14° 59 ' north and longitudes 75° 07' E and 75° 38' east. It is bordered by the Dharwad and Gadag on the north, Davangere and Shimoga districts on the south, Uttara Kannda on the west and Bellary district on the east with a total area of 45053 hectares. According to 2001 census, the Haveri district has 705 villages; among them 698 villages are inhabited villages and 7 villages are uninhabited villages. According to 2011 census the total population of the district is 1597668 with literacy 77.40 %. The average elevations of the landmass of the district extend from 515 meters to 732 meters above mean sea level. The major rivers and tributaries of the district are Tungabhadra, Varada, Kumadvati and Dharma. The major part of the district consists of red sandy soil, medium black soil and deep black soil.
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The district experiences sub-tropical monsoon type of climate with temperature ranging in between 180 and 400 c. The rainfall in the district varies from 903 mm in west (Hangal) to less than 592 mm in east (Renebennur). The district has 19 hoblies and 208 gram panchayat. The Haveri district comprises 7 talukas viz , Haveri, Byadagi, Hanagal, Hirekerur, Ranebennur, Savanur and Shiggaon, spread over 691 villages, The Haveri is the place for main Administrative head Quarter, there are 9 town/municipal corporation which receives on an average 719 mm of rainfall between June to October, The rain fall is received with two peaks, first being in July followed by the second peak in September, Haveri District is known for its chilly and small millets cultivation. Physical and cultural factors as well as educational units effects on literacy rate. Hirekerur taluk has highest literacy (81.4%) followed by Ranebennur taluk (78.7%) because of availability of more number of educational units in these taluks. DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY The present research work is based on the secondary data obtained from District census hand book of Haveri district, statistical abstracts of Haveri and Karnataka state and census of India 2001and 2011. The methodology includes the preparation of graphical representations like Bar graphs, etc. Similarly mathematical and statistical techniques like calculation of percentages, literacy rate, disparity of literacy and composite index of disparities has been used. Literacy rate is computed for the population above six years of age. 퐿푖푡푒푟푎푡푒 푝표푝푢푙푎푡푖표푛 1} 푳풊풕풆풓풂풄풚 푹풂풕풆 = × 100 푇표푡푎푙 푝표푝푢푙푎푡푖표푛 푎푏표푣푒 6 푎푔푒 2} David Sopher’s Disparity Index: It is concerned with male and female gap in literacy. David Sopher’s index modified by Prof. Amitabh Kundu,and Rao in 1983. FORMULA 푋2 200 − 푋1 퐷푀푆 = 푙표푔 + 푙표푔 + ⋯ 푋1 200 − 푋2 Where, X2 is more than X1. X2= is considered Male. X1=is considered Female
LITERACY RATE OF HAVERI DISTRICT According to 2011 census, the average literacy in Haveri district is 77.4%. The highest literacy rate is 81.4% in Hirekerur taluk and lowest literacy rate is 71.16 % in Savanur taluk respectively.The literacy rate of Haveri has increased from 67.79% in 2001 to 77.4% in 2011. Largest proportion of male literacy is found in Hirekerur taluk (77.69%) followed by Ranebennur taluk (85.58%) and lowest literacy of male in Savanur taluk (86.21%) in 2011. The average literacy of male population in Haveri district is 84% in 2011, compared to 77.60% in 2001 respectively. There is wide gap from average male to female literacy in Haveri district. Table 1-Literate Population and Literacy Rate-2011 Name of Literate Population Literacy Rate %-2011 Taluks Total Male Female Total Male Female Shiggaon 124269 69141 55128 76.07 82.34 69.44 Savanur 99550 56028 43522 71.16 77.69 64.21 Hangal 176901 97404 79497 77.73 83.61 71.57 Haveri 188091 104698 83393 76.6 83.3 69.57 Byadgi 96320 53921 42399 77.53 84.88 69.84 Hirekerur 167102 92627 74475 81.4 88.15 74.32 Ranibennur 233210 129974 103236 78.67 85.58 71.41 District: 1085443 603793 481650 77.4 84 70.46 Haveri Source: Census of India 2011
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GENDER DISPARITY IN LITERACY OF HAVERI DISTRICT The literacy rate of Haveri District is 77.4% in 2011, as compared to 67.79%in 2001. The male-female disparity was 0.197in 2001, while 0.124in 2011. Table 2 shows that the literacy rate in the study area varied from a minimum of 71.16% in Savanur taluk to a maximum of 88.15% in Hirekerur taluk of Haveri district. In the study area the male literacy was 84% and for female was 70.46% in 2011. It shows a wide gap of 13.54% literacy from male-female. With regards to Table No.2 it is perceived that minimum male literacy in Savanur taluk is 77.69% and maximum in Hirekerur taluk (88.15%) in Haveri district. It is observed that the female literacy was 70.46% in study region. It ranges from a minimum of 64.21% in Savnur taluk to a maximum of 74.32% in Hirekerur taluk. It shows that there are wide gender disparities from the male-female literacy rates. The disparity of literacy in Haveri district was decreased by 0.073 % in 2011 as compared to 2001. It is mainly because of increase in literacy rate. Highest disparity of male and female is observed in Byadagi taluk (0.138) followed by Ranibennur taluk (0.129) and Savnur taluk (0.128). Lower disparity of literacy in male and female observed Hangal taluk (0.111), because literacy rate of both male and female not bit of variation in Hangal taluk of Haveri district. Figure 1: Disparity of Literacy in Haveri District (2001-2011)
Data sources: Calculated by using data taken from 2001 and 2011 Population Censuses COMPOSITE INDEX : By using following formula we can calculate the Composite index of disparity. 푪풐풎풑풐풔풊풕풆 푰풏풅풆풙 풐풇 푫풊풔풑풂풓풊풕풚 (푫풊풔풑풂풓풊풕풚 풐풇 풍풊풕풆풓풂풄풚 ퟐퟎퟎퟏ + 푫풊풔풑풂풓풊풕풚 풐풇 풍풊풕풆풓풂풄풚 ퟐퟎퟏퟏ) = ퟐ 1] High Composite Index (Above 0.170) In Haveri district an average composite index is observed 0.160. There is wide gap from the higher to the lower composite index in district. In Savanur taluk composite index is 0.174 which is highest in district, because of disparity of literacy in this taluk is high i.e. 0.221. 2] Moderate composite Index (from 0.150 to 0.170) Moderate composite index ranges from 0.150 to 0.170. In this composite index includes Byadgi (0.169) Haveri (0.167) Ranibennur (0.163) Shiggaon (0.159) Hirekerur (0.158). There are six taluks which comes under medium composite index, because the same taluks having moderate disparity of literacy. 3] Low composite Index (Below 0.150) Low composite index is below 0.150 is found only in one taluk of Haveri district i.e, Hangal Taluk (0.146) because disparity of literacy is lower in this taluk (0.111), respectively.
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Table 2-Disparity of Literacy in Haveri District, 2001-2011 and Composite Index Name of Literacy-2001 Disparity Literacy-2011 Disparity Composit Taluks Of in M/F e Male Female Literacy Male Female Literacy index Shiggaon 74.94 54.94 0.199 82.34 69.44 0.119 0.159 Savanur 69.73 48.77 0.221 77.69 64.21 0.128 0.174 Hangal 76.58 58.09 0.181 83.61 71.57 0.111 0.146 Haveri 75.36 54.56 0.207 83.3 69.57 0.127 0.167 Byadgi 81.33 60.27 0.201 84.88 69.84 0.138 0.169 Hirekerur 83.38 63.00 0.191 88.15 74.32 0.125 0.158 Ranibennur 79.71 59.17 0.197 85.58 71.41 0.129 0.163 Haveri District 77.60 57.36 0.197 84 70.46 0.124 0.160 Data sources: Calculated by using data taken from 2001 and 2011 Population Censuses Figure 2: Composite Index of disparity in Literacy of Haveri District (2001-2011)
Data sources: calculated by using data taken from 2001 and 2011 Population Censuses Table 3: Rural and Urbanliteracy Rates ofMale and Female in Haveri District (%, 2011) Taluk Literacy rate Rural Urban Male Female Total Male Female Total Shiggaon 81.8 67.2 74.7 83.7 75.5 79.7 Savanur 79.4 63.3 71.6 72.4 67.0 69.7 Hangal 83.3 70.5 77.0 86.5 80.4 83.4 Haveri 80.2 64.5 72.6 93.2 85.2 89.2 Byadgi 84.2 68.4 76.5 87.3 75.2 81.2 Hirekerur 87.8 73.2 80.7 91.7 86.3 89.1 Ranibennur 83.0 65.9 74.7 90.3 81.2 85.8 Haveri 83.5 67.89 75.69 87.39 79.29 83.39 District Data sources: Calculated by using data obtained from 2011 Population Censuses
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Figure 3: Rural and Urban literacy rates of Haveri District (2011) Table-3 reveals that in Haveri district, the rural literacy rate is 75.69% whereas urban literacy rate is 83.39%. In rural area literacy amongst women is low in the district, not even single taluk having above 75% female literate whereas rural male literacy is above 75% in almost all the taluks of Haveri district. In urban area male literacy is much higher than that of female literacy. Out of 7 taluks 5 taluks fall in the range of above 85% of male literacy whereas only 2 taluks have above 85% of female literates. It shows that there is a wider gender disparity from the rural to the urban population. CONCLUSION : In Haveri district, the level of literacy has been improved over the period of time. The Urban and rural gap in literacy has been narrowed while male-female literacy gap has broadened over the period of time. Furthermore, gender disparities by literacy have still exists in allover Haveri district. Rural areas by Taluks as well as females by gender are still vulnerable in the area of literacy. Especially, literacy among rural-females is very low compared to urban females. Hirekerur taluk is ranked top in total literacy while Savanur taluk is lowest in the literacy rate in the whole district. There is wide gap from the male to female population in Haveri district. The male literacy was higher than female literacy in district. The disparity of literacy from male to female was 0.197 in 2001 and in 2011 which was 0.160 respectively. Karnataka government started many policies and programs for qualitative improvement of primary education, such as Nali-Kali – A Recipe for Joyful Learning, Chinnara Angala – A Course to the Mainstream, Baa Baale Shaalege (Bringing the girl childto School)Campaign, Beediyind Shaalege(From Street to School), Cooliyinda Shalege [Labour to School] ,Listen - Learn , AKSHARA DASOHA, Distribution of Uniforms, School Bags & Text Books under Vidya Vikasa Scheme etc., which are seeing significant increase in the attendance in the schools. Hopefully in the near future we will see the fruite of these schemes in increasing the literacy rate in haveri district. Reference : 1. Ratan.V. Hajare & Baburao B. Ghurake (2014). Regional Disparities in Literacy of Kolhapur District. Online International Interdisciplinary Research Journal, 2249-9598, Volume-IV. 2. Dr. Dinesh Das1 & Minakshee Pathak (2012). The Growing Rural-Urban Disparity in India: Some Issues. International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 1, Issue 5, ISSN 2278-7763. 3. Agarwal, A.K. and P.L. Hazarika (2002). Regional Disparities in Economic Development of Assam: A District Level Study. Indian Journal of Regional Science, XXXIV (2): 121 – 36 4. Swati Pathak and Dr. Arti Gupta (2013).Status of Women in India with Particular Reference to Gap in Male Female Literacy Rate in India, International Journal of Environmental Engineering and Management. Volume 4, ISSN 2231-1319. 5. Ms. Madhulika Sharma (2015), Inter-District Disparities in Literacy With Reference to Gender and Location: A Study of Rajasthan. International journal of applied research, Volume 5, Issue 3, ISSN - 2249-555X. 6. Ritu Singh Meena(2015), Disparities in literacy with Reference to Gender: A study of inter- districts of Haryana. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development, Volume: 2, Issue: 10, 89-92, e-ISSN: 2349-4182. 7. Varshney, H.K. (2002). Inter-State Gender Disparity in Literacy Rates- A Look at Census Data (1991 & 2001). Journal of Educational Planning and Administration.2002; 16(4): 537-549.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Ecotourism: A Case Study of Mangalajodi, Odisha
Arunima Bhattacharya, Assistant Professor, Vidyasagar College For Women
Abstract : Ecotourism is a completely new term in tourism which in turn promotes conservation and sustains the culture and lifestyle of the related dwellers as well. Ecotourism is distinguished by its emphasis on conservation, education, traveller responsibility and active community participation. Mangalajodi was famous as ‘poacher’s village’ because of the involvement of villagers in water bird poaching on a large, commercial scale. Efforts to curb poaching and provide alternate means of livelihood to the families were started in 1996-1997 by Mr. Nanda Kishor Bhujabal and the members of Wild Orissa, an organization working on wildlife conservation issues. Today it is an exemplary turnaround story – the poachers are now the protectors of the wetlands and the birds. Thus Mangalajodi Ecotourism aims to inspire, inform and enable communities to turn ecosystems into a sustainable source of livelihood through well managed low impact tourism instead of exploiting them for short term profits. Key Words: ecotourism, Mangalajodi, conservation, livelihood, exemplary. Introduction Eco tourism is a responsible tourism which conserves the environment and sustains the well being of local people. The Nature Conservancy adopts the definition articulated by the World Conservation Union (IUCN): "Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promotes conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local people." This is a completely new term in tourism which in turn promotes conservation and sustains the culture and lifestyle of the related dwellers as well. Ecotourism is distinguished by its emphasis on conservation, education, traveller responsibility and active community participation. Additionally, ecotourism can provide a viable economic development alternative for local communities with few other income-generating options. Moreover, ecotourism can increase the level of education and activism among travellers, making them more enthusiastic and effective agents of conservation. Mangalajodi presents a picture of assemblage of the natural and biological factors which make it much talked about tourist spot currently. Objective of The Study : The current study focuses on: The physical background of the area. Examining the history of ecotourism in Mangalajodi and the need of it. Methodology The methodology used in preparing the article is mostly the secondary sources of information, namely, the books, journals, newspaper and the internet. Study Area Tucked away in the north eastern fringe of Chilika Lake in Orissa (the largest brackish water lake in Asia), this little hamlet harbouring rich wetlands is much less known than its famous parent lagoon. The Chilika area is recognised globally for its great biodiversity. Mangalajodi (19019/N and 85042/E) is one of the largest of the 132 villages located on the banks of Chilika Lake. Mangalajodi is an olden village under Tangi, Orissa block in Khordha district of Orissa at the northern edge of Chilika Lake. 49 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
The vast wetlands of Mangalajodi attract thousands of migratory birds. Its wetland now hosts more than 1.5 lakhs of birds in the peak season. November to March is a good time to visit for enjoying an amazing experience. It is an important global wetland habitat and is declared as an International Bird Conservation Area. Mangalajodi is having a huge marshland along the northern edge of Chilika Lake. The area (about 10 sq.km) is primarily a fresh water zone connected by channels cut through the reed beds with the brackish water of Chilika lagoon. The numerous channels that crisscross through the greenery, harbours thousand of water birds, migratory and resident. Physical Setting of Mangalajodi Mangalajodi was famous as ‘poacher’s village’ because of the involvement of villagers in water bird poaching on a large, commercial scale. Even the eggs were not spared. It was no surprise therefore, the census in the year 2000, counted a mere 5,000 birds in these waters. Mangalajodi is not only home to rare birds but also epitomize a sustainable lifestyle that is at brink of extinction. Every winter Manglajodi comes alive with birds from temperate regions that migrate here to spend winter in its warm waters. Ducks like Pintail, Shovellers, Garganey, Gadwall and Pochards; and waders such as Black Tailed Godwits, Black Winged Stilts, Ringed Plovers, undertake a perilous journey from as far as Europe, central Asia, etc. across the Himalayas and congregate here to feed in the rich wetlands and prepare themselves for their return migration in summer. The marshy wetlands interspersed with reeds and vegetation consisting mostly of Typha angustata and Phragmites karka and expanses of water running through the channels provide food and shelter to these waterfowls and raptors until they start moving to their breeding grounds by February-March. Mangalajodi supports over 200,000 - 300,000 waterfowl in winter with populations of 15 species exceeding 1% of their bio-geographical population.
The Community Development Programmes Mangalajodi was the quiet and murky bird poacher’s den until 20 years ago. Large scale poaching has historically been a major threat to the avifauna of Mangalajodi wetland. Poaching provided an alternate livelihood to the 3000 odd residents of the village and threatened to destroy the area as a bird breeding and wintering habitat of immense importance. They earned up to forty
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thousand rupees a month from selling the dead birds whose meat was much in demand in local dhabas and in the cities; five months of poaching coupled with income from fishing provided them with their livelihood and sustenance for the year. Efforts to curb poaching and provide alternate means of livelihood to the families were started in 1996-1997 by Mr. Nanda Kishor Bhujabal and the members of Wild Orissa, an organization working on wildlife conservation issues. After a lot of cajoling and counselling over years Bhujabal managed to make them see the senselessness and cruelty in the activity of poaching. While doing so he also had to provide them with ideas for an alternate means of livelihood which was not easy. These efforts bore fruit with the formation of Sri Mahavir Pakhshi Surakshya Samiti, on 10th December 2000. This step marked a watershed in the history of Mangalajodi. Wild Orissa partnered with the Forest Department of the Government of Odisha, Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) and Indian Grameen Services (IGS) to initiate community development schemes that provided assistance for alternative livelihoods to the poachers. They were also provided training and education about migrating avifauna so that they could assist and guide tourists and bird enthusiasts who visited the place. Today it is an exemplary turnaround story – the poachers are now the protectors of the wetlands and the birds. Poachers were converted to protectors and were made members of this Samiti (committee). Six members from the committee carry out daily surveillance and patrolling to check incidences of poaching. The Orissa Wildlife Department also chipped in by has provided seasonal employment to some Samiti members. Wild Orissa provided small wooden boats for patrolling and monitoring and the Chilka Development authority provided much needed funding for this conservation initiative. Country boat manufacturing units are established in this village and have supplied different types of wooden boats to government and public. These efforts bore fruit with the official census bird count at Mangalajodi rising from 5000 birds in 1999-2000, to 10,000 birds in 2000-2001 reaching a figure of 3, 00,000 birds in the year 2003-2004. The effort was recognized by the Government of Orissa with the “Pakhshi Bandhu (Friends of birds) Award" for the year 2001being bestowed on the Sri Mahavir Pakhshi Surakshya Samiti. An eco-tourism project has been started at village Mangalajodi since October 2002 for the benefit of those involved in the conservation activities. An advertisement and write-up was inserted in the daily newspaper. This project had already drawn a good response and since the winter of 2002-3 about 500 people have annually visited this village and availed of the meagre facilities offered. For the benefit of the tourists, the villagers have taken the following steps with help from Wild Orissa and CDA: . In 2004 a bird interpretation centre has been constructed for visitors to Mangalajodi. . CDA, Directorate of Tourism Orissa, etc. have undertaken steps to impart eco-guide training to about 50 persons from Mangalajodi and Sundarpur villages. . CDA has constructed watch-towers, nature trails, benches, jetty, etc. for visitors. Thus Mangalajodi Ecotourism aims to inspire, inform and enable communities to turn ecosystems into a sustainable source of livelihood through well managed low impact tourism instead of exploiting them for short term profits. Some of the initiatives of Sri Mahavir Pakshi Surakshya Samiti include- Monitoring the lake, especially in the poaching-prone areas adjoining Mangalajodi. Patrolling during odd hours against poaching of bird eggs. Holding regular meetings of members of the bird protection committee of Mangalajodi. Holding meetings with the forest staff of Tangi Wildlife Range and Mangalajodi Section. 5. Outings with visiting scientists from the Bombay Natural History Society to the breeding habitats. Involvement of school children in boat excursions to the bird-breeding habitats. Organising competitions on Chilika Lake and its birds amongst school children of the area. . Seeking interventions of the chief wildlife warden, irrigation department, Chilika Development Authority, etc., on the more fragile waterfowl breeding habitats. Ensuring some income generation for the poachers-turned-conservationists, which could help mitigate the poor economic conditions of these people, and ensure their continuous involvement in waterfowl conservation.
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Impact of Community Efforts Community efforts in turning Mangalajodi into an ecotourism spot are worth mentioning. Wild Orissa helped in procuring small wooden boats, which are being utilised for patrols and monitoring, as well as by two erstwhile poachers for income generation. As per calculations, each such boat enabled a poacher to earn Rs 25 worth of fish per day, which comes to about Rs 9000 per year. This step therefore helped in bird conservation/preservation and was also a small step towards rehabilitating the people whose income had been impacted because of giving up hunting. Wild Orissa has also helped in attracting visitors to this area to enhance the income of the villagers through ecotourism. Additionally, relatives of the members of the bird protection committee have also been provided employment opportunities outside Orissa since 2006. Members of Wild Orissa and the samiti are currently involved in wildlife awareness and education in local schools to sensitise children towards the birds that visit Chilika Lake. Villagers are negotiating with the state wildlife wing as well as the irrigation department, to ensure that water after the rains is retained inside this closed embankment at least till the month of March every year. Part of this area is used by the villagers for agriculture; however, the villagers have resolved to use methods of agriculture that would not harm the birds. Participation in protection of birds and involvement with the local NGO has encouraged the local villagers and has also lead to self-belief and self-esteem. Many government officials have visited Mangalajodi in recent times. Members of the bird protection committee take the visitors around the area. Certain rules and regulations have been laid down jointly by the protection committee and Wild Orissa to ensure that some areas remain inviolate and the number of people visiting does not exceed a certain number, so as to avoid excessive disturbance to the birds. The Constraints Though Mangalajodi ensures a positive relationship between man and nature, however there is a gloomy side of it as well. Certain factors are identified that can be detrimental to the ecosystem- Increased human movements leading to disturbances to nest-building and nesting/rearing. Possibilities of causing disturbance while monitoring the nests and eggs, by boats or on foot. Once the nesting birds get disturbed, they leave the nest leaving the exposed eggs to the mercy of the crows (ravens). Increased cattle movement as the dried lakebeds are browsed upon by buffaloes and goats, which stamp upon the nests. A number of boats are plied in these waters all the year round by the villagers for fishing as well as transport. They usually spill oil in water. The involvement of the local people, most importantly the poachers-turned-conservationists, in all aspects of bird conservation is a must, as this would keep their involvement intact as well as ensure them a say in decision making. But many members of the bird protection committee have had to give up their major source of income. Both Wild Orissa and the bird protection committee face a resource crunch to undertake many activities like regular patrolling, awareness campaigns for the inhabitants of Mangalajodi and nearby villages, etc. Many schemes and programmes are not able to take off due to this financial crunch and lack of boats, binoculars, documentation equipment, etc. The Findings The problems which are still now faced in this marshy area need certain protective steps towards it. The bird protection committee has to ensure that these places are not overused by visitors. Another major problem is the disturbance in the nesting of the birds caused by frequent visitors. This problem could be solved by minimizing the movements of boats/people inside the area to the bare minimum level. The members of the bird protection committee have already been successful in controlling the cattle movement to a small extent, after successful interventions through the village panchayat. However continuous efforts need to be there in this regard. 52 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
Care should be taken to ensure that when ecotourism takes place in a bigger manner, eco- friendly modes of transport should be resorted to. The area is prone to ill-directed developmental activities like-well digging, artificial fish feeding, etc., which would cause demise of this habitat. It is imperative that only such activities should be encouraged which do not cause any harm to this fragile wetland. It is important that attention is paid to the villagers so that they could earn some livelihood while protecting the birds. Wild Orissa has already addressed letters to the authorities concerned for involving these persons in the eco-tourism projects, so that they could earn a livelihood as well as monitor this bird habitat. It is important to understand that without this the future of this wetland would be bleak. It is also important that some legal protection is offered to this area. However the legal support would need to take into account the fact that the Mangalajodi birds would not be safe but for the efforts of the local villagers. In any decision that is taken about the area, the consent of the local villagers is a must. In order to heighten the importance of heritage and natural resources, and manage them better, training and education programme should be instituted. Conclusion : Although “green” travel is being aggressively marketed as a “win-win” solution for the environment, the tourist, and the travel industry, the reality is far more complex.Mangalajodi however, presents an excellent example of how local people, if taken into account, can turn into the best protectors of an ecosystem and its non-human inhabitants. If convinced, they can undertake conservation even at tremendous personal and economic costs. However, sustaining any effort at a loss is unrealistic. But they should be supported in their efforts through working out ecologically sensitive livelihood options. As ecotourism aims to conserve the environment and sustain the well being of the local people, Mangalajodi presents the perfect picture of an ecotourism spot. Here the involvement of local community helps maintaining the appropriate tourism development. Mangalajodi presents an assemblage of pride in being able to harbour such a spectacular assemblage of birds, and the hope that visiting birdwatchers would bring some income their way. References: 1. Bhardwaj, Kandan and Chowdhury: Domestic Tourism in India (2004), Indus Books, New Delhi 2. Lane B. Journal of Sustainable Tourism (1994), Vol 1, pg 7-21. 3. Honey Martha, Ecotourism and Sustainable Development, 2nd Edition, pgs 12-60. 4. Jeyakumar, N and Fredrick, J: Ecotourism in India (2010), pgs 32-98. 5. Potential and Exisiting Ramsar Sites in India; Islam M.Z. & Rahmani A.R. (2008); BNHS, pgs 14-75. 6. Ecotourism accessed from www.wilkipedia.com/ecotourism on 26.9.2016 7. Ecotourism accessed from www.nature.org › Green Living on 26.9.2016 8. Mangalajodi accessed from mangalajodiecotourism.com on 27.9.2016 9. The Magic of Mangalajodi accessed from www.sanctuaryasia.com on 28.9.2016. 10. kalpavriksh.org/.../Orissa_CaseStudy_MangalajodiVge_Chilika accessed on 27.9.2016. 11. Why Mangalajodi, accessed from www.changemakers.com / mangalajodi ecotourism on 27.9.2016. 12. www.nature.org › Green Living 13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotourism
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Sustainable Management of Urban Municipal Solid Waste: Indian Megacity Perspective
Dr. Chandani Bhattacharjee : Assistant Professor, H.R. College of Commerce and Economics, Mumbai University, Mumbai.
ABSTRACT : Indian waste scenario is increasingly facing challenges of abundance of collectibles and paucity of disposal space. Urban morphology needs to align to accommodate the rising consequences of population generated waste. The urban ecology is riddled with the issues of paucity of space, segregation problem, accumulating waste, population numbers, affluence and environmental pollution to combat. Urban centers like Mumbai, Delhi, etc. have to combat over 18.4 million urban population (Census, 2011) and per capita waste of 0.45 kg/c/day and a collectable efficiency of 96.6 % ( CPCB& MoEF& CC). To manage this problem the paper delves into the possibilities of management of the MSW through sustainable waste management, awareness, resource recovery from the collected waste. The objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive yet complete urban waste management perspective. The methodology would include cognitive mapping of the resource recovery, primary data collection and representation thereof. The urban waste ecosystems will in that event seem a haven for further development of sustainable and much desires smart cities. Key Words: waste generation, sustainable waste management, urban waste ecosystems and urban waste management. Introduction: Urban Waste Ecosystems As a country with over 1.21 billion population which roughly is 17.66% of the world population, India has tremendous challenges to cater to the urban service needs of its residents. India’s urban population which was 285 million in 2001 ,increased by 31.8% to 377 million in 2011 causing the urban ecosystems to brace for a critical threshold assessment of the problems thereof. Municipal Solid waste is presently one of the core area of research and analysis due to the rising volumes of this waste and the inability to manage the waste sustainably. Though the waste need not be urban or rural, the magnitude and the implication of waste accumulations and the problems thereof have made it mandatory for any urban planning. Waste is defined by the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board as, “solid wastes are those undesirable useless and unwanted materials and substances that arise from animal and human activities”. Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source: a) Household waste is generally classified as municipal waste b) Industrial waste as hazardous waste c) Biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste and d) Hazardous Waste ( Bhattacharjee, 2012). The chart prepared above shows the way in which the urban waste can be sustainably managed to reduce the magnitudes that get generated. The need to prevent waste generation includes the steps of reduction, recycling, segregation, Waste to Energy( WTE) and eventual disposal. This would create lesser volumes than what is currently produced. Disposal may be carried out by scientific disposal, incinerations of the specified categorized waste, treatment of the industrial waste and autoclaving to help manage the waste.
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Defining the Mega Cities The Census of India, in 2011, has identified and defined megacity as, “ UAs/Cities, there are three very large UAs with more than 10 million persons in the country, known as Mega Cities.” These are very large urban agglomerations which have evolved into huge urban spots with major administrative, environmental and socio-cultural challenges in the 21st century. The 2011, Census has identified only three such cities which have crossed the ten million mark Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata, while the other metropolises of Chennai and Bangalore are close behind. The megacity of Greater Mumbai UA has a population of 18.4 million and is the largest followed by Delhi UA of 16.3 million and Kolkata UA about 14.1 million (Census, 2011). Further, the Census, mentions that the growth in population of the megacities, have slowed down during the last decade. Greater Mumbai UA, which had witnessed 30.47% growth in population during the decade of 1991-2001 has recorded 12.05% during 2001-2011. Similarly Delhi UA (from 52.24% to 26.69% in 2001-2011) and Kolkata UA (from 19.60% to 6.87% in 2001-2011) have also slowed.( Census of India, 2011). This paper would focus on the sustainability of waste management in the three mega cities that have been identified by the last census held in the country. A View of the Waste in the Megacities The waste generated in the three megacities indicate, the highest quantity in Delhi UA followed by Mumbai UA and Kolkata UA. It may be interesting to note that the urbanization trends show Delhi UA ,as the city, has grown the most, with urban population rise of 41% from the last census. (McKinsey Global Institute). This is further accentuated by the fact that the hazardous waste contaminated sites state wise show the highest in Delhi ( 21 sites),Maharashtra ( 10 sites) and West Bengal ( 8 sites) as per the CPCB records. Therefore, the long shot view of the waste scenario shows a greater challenge for New Delhi as a megacity which is growing with a higher population more contaminated sites and lesser waste collection efficiency than other megacities. Kolkata having the least population pressure, lesser waste generated per day may remain a megacity which has the greatest potential to rework its waste management schedules for a sustainable management of waste. The cities of Mumbai and Delhi would need to reinvent newer innovative and quick measures to tackle the waste sustainably. Table 1: Megacity View of Different Aspects Area Waste Urban Population Waste Waste Mega in Collection 2001 in the Quantity(T generation City sq. Efficiency Megacities,2011 PD) kg/c/day kms % Kolkata 4572876 14.1 million 187 2653 0.58 Na Delhi 1,03,06,452 16.3 million 1483 5922 0.57 90 Greater 1,19,78,450 18.4 million 437 5320 0.45 96.6 Mumbai Table Source: Compiled from CPCB.2005, Census 2001 & 2011, MoEF.
The waste composition is varied for the three megacities as well. (Refer Table 2) The urban population in the three megacities of India as per the Census 2011, show Mumbai having the highest urban population followed by Delhi and Kolkata. The total wastes generated in the three megacities under study and also tend to vary. The volume of waste per day too varies. The amount is the highest for New Delhi followed by Mumbai and Kolkata.
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The chief material in the waste disposed is compostable which indicates that the potential to segregate, vermin compost and bio-methane generation as a by product of the waste collection and disposal process. This also shows a potential to reduce the waste in the future by segregation and the dumping of waste in the dumpyards could also reduce. The presence of recyclable could make way for reuse and following the cradle to grave approach for all products. The diagram given alongside shows further solid waste characteristics as conducted and published 2002, clearly indicating the MSW of the select Metropolis. It shows very high compostable matter in the collected MSW. This characteristic enables a Management of the solid waste which may be treated and reduced significantly and also be converted into energy. The line graph drawn below also shows the similar compositional attribute of the solid waste in India. The city of Mumbai has the highest percentage of ash and compostable matter followed by Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata and Bangalore. Delhi and Mumbai compare and are the leading producers of municipal waste in the country. On a per capita basis too these two metropolis have the highest followed by Kolkata. Another interesting aspect of the MSW composition in the metropolis is the change in the composition that has been recorded by the CPCB for the period of 1971-2005.
The composition of waste has been progressively decreasing from 1971 to 2005 as the data has been collected by the Pollution Control Board. The amount of food residuals in the waste has however remained more or less steady at 40% for the study period. The percentage of plastics in the waste has been significantly on the rise which could indicate the increased usage of materials, poly bags and even packaging materials in urban living.
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The projected MSW generation beyond 2015 is indeed alarming with MSW per capita touching 1100gms/capita/day. This would imply that the authorities would need to ensure that proper measures are in place to enable a reduction of the collected waste for the country as a whole. The problem of waste management in the country is even more magnified due to the manner in which waste is handled. In the Municipal disposal trends chart, it is evident that most of the waste is dumped openly without proper municipal support. This clearly litters the cities and makes it difficult to use the entire MSW potential for recovery of resources from them. Energy cannot be generated neither can the recyclable be collected in an organised manner, even though scavenging may exist. Table 2: Composition of Waste in the Megacities Compostabl Megacity Recyclable% C/N Ratio HCV/Kcal/kg Moisture % e % Kolkata UA 50.56 11.48 31.81 1201 48 Delhi UA 54.42 15.52 34.87 1802 49 Mumbai UA 62.44 16.66 39.04 1786 54 The comparative composition of the composition of waste in the megacities is given in the three pie diagrams alongside. The maximum in all the cities is the compostable matter which is highest as a percentage in Mumbai followed by Delhi and Kolkata. The recyclables too are an important component of the waste collected which imply the usage of the waste which can be made for resource recovery. The C/N ratio too is an important determinant for the future extraction of resource from the waste. The higher the ratio the greater the possibility of generating methane gas as a byproduct from the dumping of the waste in the dump sites. Another very striking factor is the moisture content of the waste. The reduction of volume would enable cost effectively of the transportation of the MSW from the collection to the dumping stations. The MPCB regularly monitors the dump sites & collects JVS which it then maintains a record for future studies. The practice of dumpying of waste creates several pollution issues that need to be taken into account by the planners. A small case of the Mumbai megacity has been shown to indicate the nature of pollution. Mumbai as a city has three major dumpying yards some active and others on their way towards scientific closure. The statement of results for the Mumbai Dumpyards is given below:- Table 3: Quality of Leachates of Solid Waste Dumping Yard, Mumbai Name of the pH SS BOD COD TDS Dumpyards Deonar 7.9 390 310 928 ----- Mulund 8.2 152 119 1264 6942 Gorai 7.8 112 600 1150 ---- According to the figures collected by the MPCB, for the sites of Mulund, Deonar and Gorai. The pH levels are the steepest at Mulund followed by Deonar and Gorai . Also the COD levels are the highest in Mulund while it is the lowest at Deonar. The BOD levels are the highest at Gorai followed by Deonar and Mulund. All these indicate the location of the dumping grounds regularly pollute the water and the land they are in contact with impacting the biota of the place. The MPCB, has proposed that the MCGM be directed to select new sites for collection and treatment of MSW. Since the older dumping yards are exhausted and may need newer placed to dump. As per the direction of honorable High Court, the Government has allotted 165 hectare of land for new site development at Kanjurmarg for future disposal for the city. Conclusion Responsible living has begun to incorporate goals that are set by the international fraternity to manage the environmental issues that are faced by all. The Millinium Development Goals have been replaced by the Sustainable Development Goals to enable responsible development. Similarly there have been the increased referral to the Waste Management Goals too which has been
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currently followed by most developed nations. The increase in Urban population has resulted in the volume of MSW. It would take immense amount of determination from the governing authorities to ensure that all the waste is managed scientifically. Some of the waste is lost to litter and open dumping while most of the sources of collection are not outlined. Among the megacities that have been the highlight of the study, Delhi and Mumbai are significant contributors of MSW. Unless better management like development of energy generation units and collection of recyclables are made efficiently, the volume of waste would only increase in the county. These megacities need to set examples for the other urban centers to follow and manage their wastes sustainably too. Cities like Kanpur, Bangalore have already taken steps to segregate the MSW. The emergence of the other urban problems tend to cover the issue of waste management and perhaps the reason why the present paper has been devised and presented. Acknowledgements This paper uses some research conducted by the researcher for the University of Mumbai, Minor Research Project, and acknowledges the same.
References 1) Akhilesh S,(2013), Indian Society: Issues and Problems: Bhattacharjee C, A study of Waste Management in Mumbai, MP, ISBN 978-81-87364-49-8,223:224 2) Brown Lester: Eco economy. 3) Brown Lester R, Larsen Janet, Roberts Bernie Fischlouritz,(2004), The Earth Policy Reader, Orient Longman, Hydrabad. 4) Bigio Anthony G and Dahiya Bharat;(2004), Urban Environment and Infrastructure Towards Liveable Cities; The World bank, Washington D.C. 5) Bianchi Adraina, Cruz Wilfrido, and Nakamura Masahisa.The. Edts.(2005) Local Approaches to Environmental Compliance, Japanese Case Studies and Lessons for Developing Countries, The World Bank. 6) Chhokar Kiran B, Pandya Mamata and Raghunathan Meena;(2005), Understanding Environment, Sage Publications, New Delhi . 7) Dash MC,(2004), Ecology Chemistry and Management of Environmental Pollution, Macmillan, New Delhi . 8) David, MD,(1996), Urban Explosion of Mumbai: Restructuring of Growth , Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai. 9) Dhamija Urvashi, (2006), Sustainable Solid Waste Management: Issues Policies and Structures, Academic Foundation, New Delhi:125. 10) Holdgate Martin,( 1997), From Care to Action making a Sustainable World, IUCN, Earth scan Publication ltd., London . 11) Jain AK,( 2005), A Sustainable Vision for Urban India, Kalpaz Publications, Delhi. 12) Kawadia Ganesh, Ahuja Kanhaiya(Eds), ( 2006), Environmental Issues of Development: The Associated Publishers. 13) Kosambi Meera,( 1986), Bombay in Transition: The Growth and Social Ecology of a Colonial city, 1880-1890, , Almqvist and Wiksell International Stockholm, Sweden. 14) Kumar Virendra,( 1975), Committees and Commissions in India: 1947-73, Vol I: 1947- 1954, D K Publishing House, Delhi. 15) Melosi Martin V,(2005), Garbage in the cities, refuse, reform and the environment (revised edition) university of Pittsburgh press. 16) Pandey BW, ( 2005), Natural Resource Management, Mittal Publications, New Delhi. 17) Roy Kartik C et al.,(1992), Economic Development and Environment : A Case study of India, OUP, Calcutta. 18) The League of Women Voters:( 1993), The Garbage Primer A handbook for citizens Lyons and Burford Publishers, New York . 19) Tchobanoglous G et.al.( 1993), Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues, McGraw- Hill, Singapore :131.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
“Radioactivity: Use and waste management”
Sajal Biswas : Assistant Professor in Physics, Krishnagar Women’s College, Krishnagar, Nadia, West Bengal
Synopsis: - Three important discoveries in nuclear science areNatural Radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in the year 1896 and artificial Radioactivity by Irene Curie-Joliot and Fredric Joliot in the year 1933 and self sustained nuclear chain reaction by Enrico Fermi (1901-1954) in the year 1942. As fossil fuels are being spent up more efficient sources of energies are needed. Nuclear power plant is one of them. Using small amount of nuclear fuel large amount of energy can be produced. Radiations from radioactive elements are being used widely in medical sciences, agriculture, industries and even in preparation of nuclear weapons. Use of radioactive materials in both of good and evil purpose causes the generation of different types of radioactive wastes harmful for both of animals and plants. This planet will no longer remain safe place for our next generations unless the harmful radioactive wastes are managed carefully and in correct manner. Notations: -푡1 = Half life of the radioactive element. The time at which the total no of ⁄2 radioactive nuclei becomes half of its initial value. 퐴 In the expression 푍푋; X= element, Z= atomic no and A= mass number of the element. Radioactivity:- 235 237 The nucleus of heavy elements like 92푈, 93푁푝 etc. whose neutron to proton ratio is greater 푛 than 1.5 (i.e. > 1.5), spontaneously disintegrate and causes the emission of some corpuscular 푝 (α and β) or electromagnetic radiation (γ) of very high energy. Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. Radioactivity or natural radioactivity was first discovered by French physicist Henri Becquerel (1852 – 1908) in the year 1896 [1]. Irene Curie-Joliot and her husband Fredric Joliot discovered artificial radioactivity the year 1933. 훽+ 27 30 30 13퐴푙 + 훼 → 15푃 → 14푆푖 …………………………………… (1) Components of radioactive emission:- Radioactive emissions basically contain three types of emissions i.e. α and β particles and γ rays. Also neutrons or many other particles may contain. Among α and β particles and γ rays, α is most massive and β has lesser mass than α, whereas γ is mass less. If we arrange α and β particles and γ rays as per ionization power of gas molecules α > β > γ. According to Penetration power γ> β > α. α and β particles are deflected by both of electric and magnetic field whereas γ remains un-deflected (Fig- 1).
Fig. 1- Components of nuclear radiation
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Use of radioactivity:- Both of natural and artificial radio activities are being used in many aspects of human life. Some of them are:- a) Nuclear power Generation- Nuclear Power Plants (Fig.- 1) are the one of the most peaceful use of nuclear energy [1]. In Nuclear Power Plants, self-sustained chain reactions take place inside Nuclear Reactors. The principle of self-sustained fission chain reaction was first realized in practice by the famous Italian Physicist Enrico Fermi (1901-1954) in the year 1942. If radioactive nucleus of heavy elements like 235 1 uranium ( 92U) is bombarded with neutrons (0푛) , the nucleus breaks up into two fragments of nearly fragments, this phenomena is known as nuclear fission. The nuclear reaction as follows:- 235 1 236 ∗ 141 92 1 92푈 + 0푛 → 92푈 → 56퐵푎 + 36퐾푟 + 30푛……………….. (2) Difference amount of masses before and after the fission process is converted into energy following the Einstein’s mass energy conversion formula:- 퐸 = 푚퐶2 ……………………………………………………. (3) Where, E = Energy, m = mass And, C = velocity of light in free space. From mass energy conversion formula energy released in nuclear reaction (1) can be calculated in the following way:- Difference in masses before and after the reaction 235 141 92 ∆푀 = 푀( 92푈) + 푀푛 − 푀( 56퐵푎) − 푀(36퐾푟) − 3푀푛…… (4) = 235.04278+1.00866-140.9129-91.89719-3×1.00866 = 0.21537 amu And energy released E = 200.617155 MeV. (1 amu = 931.5 MeV) 235 4 If 1 g of 92U is completely fissioned, we shall get 2.29×10 kWh of energy. Heat energy produced in the fission process is used in boiling water and the vapor is used to rotate the turbine and to produce electricity. This amount of energy can be obtained by burning about 2.56×103 kg of Coal. Again, the chemical reaction of burning coal in air is as follows:- 퐶 + 푂2 = 퐶푂2 ……………………………………… (4) 12푔 + 32푔 = 44 푔 From equation (4) it can be shown that 2.56×103 kg of Coal with complete burning in air (Oxygen) will produce 9386.667 kg of CO2 gas. This CO2 gas will further cause Global Warming, Acid rain and above all will decrease the percentage of O2 in Atmosphere for the respiration of the living beings in the Earth. Further coal is a non-renewable resource. Thus nuclear power is more reliable source of energy from the last century.
Fig.-2:- Nuclear power plant b) In Medical Science: - Radiation and radioisotopes are used in both of diagnosis and therapy of different medicinal critical conditions [2].
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Over 10000 hospitals over the world use radioisotopes in medicine. Use of radiopharmaceuticals in diagnosis is growing day by day in India. Radioactive metastable nuclear isomer of Technetium, 99푚 푇푐 (푡1 = 6 hours) is used in detecting tumors in different parts of body like liver, heart, lungs, 43 ⁄2 kidneys etc. The radiation given by some radioisotopes are much more effective in curing certain disease like 60 brain tumor. Radioactive isotope of cobalt 퐶표 (푡1 = 1925 days) is used in the treatment of brain 27 ⁄2 32 tumor and Radioactive isotope of phosphorus 푃 (푡1 = 14.29 days) is used in curing bone disease 15 ⁄2 131 and Radioactive isotope of iodine 퐼 (푡1 = 8.0197 days) is used in treatment of thyroid cancer 53 ⁄2 etc. c) Agricultural use: - Radioisotopes are used in determining the function of different elements in nutrition of different plants. Many fertilizers have been improved using this result. Radiations can cause mutation in plants (Fig: - 3). New species of plants have been developed using this theory. Better yield of milk and milks and more eggs from hens or ducks have been obtained from the information of mixing of radioisotopes in their diets. Radiation of some radioactive isotopes is used in killing insects which damages food grains. Harvested foods may also be damaged by the pests or microbes. Harmful pesticides or preservatives affect health of human being. Food irradiation technique is used in killing bacteria and harmful microorganisms inside the foods without Fig. 3:- Mutant flowers near the site of the affecting the nutrition value of the food. Low dose Fukushima nuclear power plant disaster. irradiation is used in inhibition of sprouting of potatoes, onions etc and delaying the ripening of fruits like mangoes etc. Medium dose irradiation is used in extended shelf life of berries, mushrooms etc. and halting the spoilage of meats or seafood by killing pathogens. High dose irradiation is used in industrial sterilization and decontamination [2]. d) Tracer Technique: - Different types of oil can be transported in distant places through same pipeline. When the type of oil through the pipeline is changed a ball containing small amount of radioisotope is inserted exactly at the same place where the change in type of oil takes place. Using the signals received by a Geiger counter at the other end the junction of different oils can be found out. The same tracer technique is used in finding the obstruction in blood circulation system of human 32 body by injecting short half lived radio-phosphorous 푃 (푡1 = 14.29 days). 15 ⁄2 e) Industrial use: - Since materials having different have different absorption power of β particle or γ rays, a radioactive material kept one side of material sheet and radiation detector kept at the other side may find out the uniformity in thickness of different material sheets. This technique is used in determining partially filled cigarette packets. f) Water reservoirs: - Leakages in water reservoirs can be found out by mixing up a small amount of radioactive material in water and detecting the radiation in the water of the other side of the reservoir using Geiger counter. g) Radioactive Dating: - In nature abundance of different isotopes of carbon is constant. Living beings takes carbon in different ways. Thus ratio of different isotopes remains constant till their life. As their life ends radio isotopes begin to decay resulting decrease in percentage of them. By calculating the ratio of different isotopes of carbon death time of ancient mummies can be calculated. Egyptian mummies have been found to be about 3500 year old [1]. h) Smoke detectors: - Using the ionization current caused by the emission of α particles from 241 compound of americium 퐴푚 (푡1 =432.2 years) smoke detectors have been invented. If smoke 95 ⁄2 enters inside it, absorbs α particles and interrupts the ionization current causing setting off the alarm [2].
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i) Nuclear Bombs: - Amongst many uses of radioactivity most harmful and destructive use is nuclear bomb. Nuclear bombs are mainly of two types- fission type or atom bombs and fusion type or thermonuclear bombs [3]. Other types are boosted fission weapon, neutron bomb and radiological bomb. Sources of radioactive waste:- a) Nuclear Power plants: - Spent fuel of nuclear power plants are one of biggest source of nuclear 234 waste. Spent fuel rods and fission products emit β and γ radiation. Uranium ( 92푈), neptunium 237 238 241 ( 93푁푝 ), plutonium ( 94푃푡), americium ( 95퐴푚) etc. radioisotopes are the end products of the nuclear power plants. In time of shutting down of old a nuclear power plant total radioactive waste produced about 100 times of its normal operation time [4]. b) Nuclear weapon: - Nuclear weapons are the extreme dangerous. Radioactive nuclear fuels like 235 uranium 푈 (푡1 = 70380000 years) are used. Following mass energy conversion formula 92 ⁄2 small amount of uranium results production of large amount of blast energy, thermal radiation, ionization radiation and residual energies. Chief effect of fission bomb are- intense heat (~ 5×107K), shock waves and radioactivity [5]. Radioactive splits and the daughter nucleus of the fuels also being radioactive they cause radioactive effects over centuries. Radiations from the first atom bombs still now exist. c) From Medical Uses: - As radioisotopes are widely used in medical science in diagnosis and therapy radioactive waste are also produced. Radioactive medical waste contains short-lived gamma emitters. d) Nuclear Accidents and disasters: - Nuclear accidents or disasters are another source of radioactive waste. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defines a nuclear and radiation accident as, “an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility." Some notable nuclear disasters are- Chernobyl disaster, Ukrainian SSR (26th April1986) due to operator error and design deficiencies causing death of 56 people direct and 4000 people suffering from cancer [1] . Fukushima disaster , Japan ( 12th March 2011) as Tsunami flood damaged 5 active reactors and causing loss of back up electric supply leading overheating and meltdown . 1 e) Industrial: - Industrial source of nuclear waste may contain α, β, γ or 0푛 emitters. γ emitters are 1 used in radiotherapy and 0푛 emitters are used in logging of oil wells. Effects of Nuclear radiation:- a. Biological effect: - Nuclear radiation in large dose upon animals can kill, produce cancer, because certain blood disorders etc. It may also cause mutation, abnormal pregnancies etc (Fig.-4). Effect of nuclear radiation upon plants also has been observed. Mutations have been observed in flowers and fruits of different species plants places close to nuclear disasters. b. Effect on solids and gases:- Nuclear radiation passing Fig. -4. Chernobyl baby with DNA mutations. through solids and concretes causes the displacements or internal change in atomic positions of crystal lattice causing corrosion and erosion of them. Nuclear radiation passing through gas may cause ionization of the gas. Wastage management:- a) Classification of nuclear waste :- Nuclear wastes are classified into the following categories- 1. High level waste (HLW): - High level wastes are least in volume and contains highest level of radioactive content. High level wastes are formed from spent fuel rods of nuclear reactors. 2. Intermediate level waste (ILW): - Intermediate level wastes lesser level and lesser volume of radioactive waste. Intermediate level wastes are formed in reactor operation or reprocessing. 3. Low level waste (LLW): - Low level wastes are maximum amount in volume but contains lowest level of radiation. Low level wastes are generated from mining and ore processing [6].
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Table-1:-Types of Nuclear Waste [7] Waste Volume (%) Radioactive content (%) High level waste 3 95 Intermediate level waste 7 4 Low level waste 90 1 b) Management and disposal: - Nuclear waste management should obey national safety regulations. As low level wastes contains least amount of radiation they are very often kept inside a sealed metal container and may be disposed off after certain time. Intermediate level wastes are solidified by mixing up with sand or cement and buried at far distance from human inhabitations after keeping them in nuclear power stations for long period. Maximum care should be taken for Fig.- 5. Near Oskarshamn nuclear power plant in Sweden is a facility called CLAB, used nuclear fuel is stored underwater management and disposal of high level waste. Spent fuel is kept in “spent fuel pool” inside nuclear fuel building [7],[8]. Time distance and shielding are maintained in management and disposal HLW. HLW are sometimes kept inside the tunnels dug inside a mountain (e.g. Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository). In some countries spent fuels are stored under water inside sealed radioactive shielding containers. Natural disasters like earth-quake may damage the containers and the wastes may be exposed out.
Conclusion:- Discovery Radioactivityis a boon for mankind. More and more applications of both of natural and artificial radioactivities are being used in wellness of mankind; as a result larger amounts of wastages are being produced day by day. The wastages should managed in such ways that our planet remains safe for both of animal and plant kingdom and the References:- [1] Ghoshal , S. N. Nuclear Physics. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. 2005. [2] “The many uses of nuclear technology”. World Nuclear Association (Website). March 2014. < http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/non-power-nuclear-applications/overview/the- many-uses-of-nuclear-technology.aspx>. (4th October 2016) [3] "Nuclear weapon." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, (Web site). 2nd October 2016.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
STATUS OF WOMEN-A CASE OF NADIA DISTRICT, WEST
BENGAL Jayasree Mandal, Assistant Professor, Krishnagar Women's College, Krishnagar, Nadia
Abstract: As a country with more than 70% of its population residing in rural areas, it is necessary to examine the status of women in rural India because the status of women denotes the condition of whole nation. To find out a true picture a micro- level socio-demographic survey of status of women was conducted in Deypara Gram Panchayat, Nadia District, West Bengal. The study reveals that the village economy is mainly based on agriculture (vegetable farming & floriculture are predominant) with 94% of females and 84% of males engaged in framing activities. Women show the pillars of every household as well as the society. They equally handle the household duties, sibling care and also fully participate in agricultural works. At home girls assist their mother in almost all tasks.Keeping these scenarios in view the objectives of my study are to find out the factors affecting the social status of women in rural areas, classify the status of women and find out the changing character of the status of women in rural West Bengal. Key Words : Empowerment, Self-help groups (SHGs), Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). INTRODUCTION: “You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of its women.”- Jawaharlal Nehru. This statement stresses the role of women in our society. The study regarding the status of women is the highly significant social issues of recent times. In a pure sociological term; status does not imply any rank or hierarchy but denotes only a position in relation to others in terms of rights and obligations, superiority or inferiority in a particular social structure, power and privileges. As a country with more than 70 percent of its population residing in rural areas, it is worthwhile to examine the condition of women in villages. To have a closer look in this regard, a micro level socio-demographic survey was conducted in Nadia district, West Bengal. OBJECTIVES : The following objectives are to be studied, I. To study the status of women in different sectors of society. I. To find out the changing characteristics of status of women in rural areas of Nadia District. II. To examine the constraints and problems towards women empowerment in Nadia District. METHODOLOGY: This part will cover both analytical and non-analytical part. The analytical section will include the concept and historical background of the status of women in West Bengal and different parameters of rural development particularly about gender empowerment while the analytical part will encompass the collection, processing and representation of data through various cartographic depictions. Remote sensing and GIS will also be used for map making and representation of statistical data analysis. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA: Nadia district is situated in the middle point of Bengal delta.Because of Ganga and its tributaries, the soil of the district is mostly alluvial.The north-west and north of the district is bounded by the district Murshidabad. On the North East there is Bangladesh, South and South West part of the district is bounded by North 24Parganas District. Nadia district is formed in the year 1787, Krishnanagar is the Head Quarter of the district and it is divided in to 4 sub-divisions namely (1) Krishnanagar Sadar, (2) Tehatta, (3) Kalyani and (4) Ranaghat.
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Total geographical area of the district is 3927 sq.km. Total population as per 2011 census was 5168488.Majority of the people in the district speak Bengali followed by Hindi and Santhali. About 75% of the populations are Hindu and the people of the district share the traditional Bengali culture in the state. Location Map of the Area of Study
WEST BENGAL NADIA DDDDDIDDISTRI N CT
Fig. No.1 DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS AND STATUS OF WOMEN : An understanding of demographic background is an important parameter for exploring the status of women living in rural areas. The total population of Nadia district was 4604827 in 2001.By 2011 it had raised to 5168488 population. However decadal population growth rate showed a welcome decline from19.54 percent during 1991-2001 to 12.24 percent during 2001-2011.It seems that the faster rate of growth were not entirely due to natural increase; possibly much of the growth came about through immigration from neighbouring country, Bangladesh as district Nadia share its eastern boundary with Bangladesh. The 2011 census reveals that the population density of Nadia district is1316 persons per sq. km. which has increased approximately to 1173 persons per sq.km.from that of 2001 census. The figure is much higher than the state average. Table no.1.1: Provisional Population Total for West Bengal, 2011 Decennial Population
Population 2001 Population 2011 Growth Rate Density per (%) sq.km.
1991- 2001- TP M F TP M F 2001 2011 2001 2011
Areain sq.km.
State and Districts
West 88752 80176197 41465985 38710212 91347736 46927389 44420347 17.77 13.93 903 1029 Bengal Nadia 3923 4604827 2366853 2237974 5168488 2655056 2513432 19.54 12.24 1173 1316 *Source: Census of India 2011 65 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
India is one of the few countries in the world where there is a deficit in the relative number of female as compared to men and the picture is depressing through decade. West Bengal State and District Nadia are not an exception. According to 2001 census there were 942 female per 1000 male in Nadia district. Chart No. 1
MALE-FEMALE RATIO IN THE TOTAL POPULATON(1971-2001) 960 950 West Bengal 940 930 Nadia
Female Ratio 920 - 910 1971 1981 1991 2001 Male West Bengal 941 947 940 950 Nadia 953 945 929 942 Year
*Source :Census of India NUTRITION AND HEALTH STATUS: Health of the people is a reflection of the socio-economic and cultural situation prevailing in a society. Like any other field of social development, women’s status in the field of health is characterized by inequality based on gender.Ansaemia, urinary tract infection, malnutrition,repeated child birth, adolescent marriage and overwork are the most common health feature of women in rural areas. Malnutrition, under nutrition, low birth weight and anaemia are common for infants and adolescent girls.Even pregnant women remains largely mal nourished which causes illness for the mother and low birth weight for the baby. Table No.2: Districts-wise Distribution of Health Facilities in Rural areas, West Bengal Rural Hospital BPHC PHC Total No. of District Sub No. Beds No. Beds No. Beds No. Beds centers Nadia 7 240 7 160 49 346 63 746 469 *Source: Health on the March, 2005-2006 The field survey reveals that rural women have general negligence and apathy regarding health care and health checking. But the feature is gradually changing. In recent past there was difference between boys and girls about immunization coverage but with the introduction of free vaccination programme and continuous advertisement the scenario have changed a lot. Health and ICDS workers play an important role in this regard. EDUCATIONAL STATUS: Education is an important parameter to understand the status of women in the society. The relative slowness of literacy in Nadia is to be observed both for males and females but it is more pronounced in respect of female literacy. After the recent constitutional amendment (RTE -2009) education for 6-14 years becomes fundamental right. Though there is a distinct difference of educational attainment between girls and boys regarding primary, upper primary and secondary stages. Primary survey reveals that at home girls assist their mother in almost all tasks. Boys on the other hand are usually sent to school to
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complete primary education much before lending a hand on field. The drop in school attendance among girls after class VIII and X has a lot. Poverty, burden of household work, lack of interest in girls’ education parents and belief in their traditional role in life, distance of the school from home, poor infrastructural facilities are major reason for slowness of female literacy and dropout of girl student in Nadia. According to Human Development profile 2007 male literacy rate was 72.31 percent and female literacy rate was 59.58 percent in Nadia districts. But the gap of literacy rate between male and female is breaching too fast. Table No.3: Literacy among Males and Females (in per cent), 1991 State Male Female Gender Gap and All SC ST All SC ST All SC ST District West 67.8 54.6 40.1 46.6 28.9 15 68.7 52.9 37.4 Bengal Nadia 60.1 55 33.5 44.4 34.8 12.6 74 63.2 37.7 *Source: Selected Educational Statistics, Ministry of Human Resource Development In case of higher education though the enrolment ratio is higher among boys but in some of the streams like arts girls have done better than boys. In recent times district Nadia has provided some technical and vocational education to encourage and facilitate female empowerment. Now women of Nadia district have opportunity to train themselves in polytechnic and six months short term vocational courses like mat, soft toys ,hand bag making and different handicrafts, run by polytechnic ,junior high schools, NGOs and SHGs.Every year in winter district administration organises “Sabala Mela” to encourage those women where women can display their works. ECONOMIC STATUS: Participation in domestic duties i.e. most of the work done by women at home in the form of household activities are uncounted and unpaid. They participate in home based works and take part in other family occupation like maintenance of kitchen gardens, collection of firewoods, husking paddy, grinding of foodgrains, preparation of cowdung cakes, sewing and tailoring etc. With the passage of time the importance of non-agricultural off-farm employment for women is on rise and greater dependence on small-scale industries. Chart No.:2
OCCUPATIONAL SEX-RATIO
2 Ratio
- Nadia West…
0 OccupationalSex Categories
While discussing the economic status on women in Nadia district it is essential to note about the role of Self-help Groups (SHGs) because District Nadia is one of the successful districts of West Bengal for successfully performing the activities of SHGs. Since the beginning of 2000, the spread of SHGs in Nadia has been phenomenal. The SHGs not only gives the women a financial sustainability but also alleviate poverty and push women towards empowerment. According to SIPRD there are 175 active SHGs in Nadia amongst them 159 SHGs are all women groups, 9 are 67 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
all men and 7 are mixed groups. In west Bengal percentage of women leader is highest in Nadia (93.71%) Table no.4: Occupational Distribution of SHGs Members in Nadia District
Types of occupations
trict
Total
farm
Dis
-
work
Rural
labour labour
artisan
Animal
Respondents
Service
Business
Non
Cultivation husbandry
Household
Agricultural 6.58 6.90 1.45 2.38 Nadia 2144 30.55% 5.74% 23.88% 22.53% % % % % *source: SIPRD Note: Figures in the table are percentage of respective total.
POLITICAL STATUS : With the 73rd Constitutionals Amendment Act, 1992 of India aims to decentralize power and eliminate gender imbalances and biases in the institutions of local self- governance and focus on collective empowerment of rural women to participate as elected representatives in the democratic process to raise their voices. For this, Panchayati Raj Institutions could be the foundation stone and a platform for the empowerment of women. The West Bengal Panchayat Act also provides an opportunity to take part in political decision making process by reserving 50 percent seats for women. The statistical data from 1993 election (when reservation for women was only 33 percent) showed a good result of it. Table No.5 : Women representation in three tiers of Panchayati Raj Zilla- Parishad Panchayat Samiti Gram Panchayat Women Women Districts Total Total Total Women Members Members Members Members Members Members (%) (%) (%) 14 173 1080 Nadia 41 504 3052 (34.14) (34.33) ( 35.39) *Source: Tathya O Samiksha, 2003. Though data only shows the number of women participation but the field survey tells something different. Many panchayat members are economically and mentally dependent on their male counter parts, family and party leaders .The main reason behind the picture is after reservation women participation in panchayats has been increased .But whether they (women) are properly groomed or not or whether they (women) have their role clarity or not, there is no clear picture about this. Adequate administrative support from the official functionaries or any other support (training support, knowledge support, consultancy etc.) for capacity building are necessary for the actual participation of women members in rural areas. Even in 2013 panchayat election not only 50 percent seat reserved for women but 10 polling booth were maintained and supervised by women. CONCLUSION : In concluding observationthe above problems perceived by this study have some possible remedies: 1. The factors that give rise to gender child mortality pattern which have to be probed first. 2. Close attention should be paid to the observation on rural-urban disparity in case of infant mortality levels. 3. Special attention should be paid to female education, particularly in view of its direct contribution towards lower fertility rates, better child birth and child health practices. 68 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
4. Pre-natal, natal and post natal case have to be extended both in terms of institutional & home based case. 5. The drive for child immunization has to be vigorously sustained till full immunization is achieved in rural areas and immunization programme should be free from gender discrimination. 6. Women in rural Bengal are found to lack awareness about RTI as compared to men. This has to be taken into note and suitable awareness programmes have to be taken. 7. Parents are less inclined to invest in a girl child’s education and would rather invest in her marriage. Intensive campaigns are necessary to counter this trend in general. 8. Increase the number of courses, dissemination of information employment opportunity may help to increase female enrolment in technical education. 9. Awareness programme on equal right of men & women in political decision making sectors. 10. Awareness raising campaigns need to be intensified regarding the different forms of violence practiced against women in everyday life.
From the above discussion it can be said that from India’s point of view, one cannot expect an outstanding socio economic background in rural set up so far the women are concerned. But the process should be on. Though the status of women in rural Nadia is gradually changing in different sectors of society to reduce the gap between male-female and rural-urban society but it is not yet enough.
REFERENCES: 1. Margaret Urquhart, “Women of Bengal”, Gian Publishing house, Delhi, 1987. 2. G.K. Lieten, “Caste, Gender and Class in Panchayats: Case of Bardhaman, West Bengal”, Economic and Political Weekly, July 18, 1992 3. G.K. Lieten, “Rural Development In West Bengal: Views from below”, Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 24, No. 4, 1994. 4. Ashim Mukhopadhyay, “Kultikri: West Bengal’s only All-Women Gram Panchayat”, Economic and Political Weekly, June 3, 1995 5. Panda Snehalata 1996, “Emerging Pattern of Leadership among Rural Women in Orissa, Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 42, No. 3-4. 6. Krishna, Sudhir, “Women and Panchayati Raj: The Law, Programme and Practices, Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 16(4) NIRD, Hyd. pp. 651-662,1997. 7. N.H.Anita ,G.P.Dutta and A.B. Kasbekar, “Health and Medical Care:A People’s Movement”, Pune , 2000. 8. Biswajit Chatterjee and Dilip Ghosh, “Towards a District Development Report for West Bengal”,SIPRD,Kalyani,2003. 9. Prabhat Dutta &Panchali Sen, “ Women in Panchayats in West Bengal ” ,2003. 10. Jasodhara Bagchi, “The Changing Status of Women in West Bengal, 1970-2000….. The Challenge ahead”, Saga Publication, 2005. 11. Tathya O Samiksha, 2003. 12. Health on the March,2005-2006 webliography : i. Rural.nic.in ii. Cag.gov.in iii. censusindia.gov.in iv. Siprd.org.in v. nadia_pr.com vi. Wbprd.nic.in
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
A Geographical perspective of Foreign aid and Growth of Agricultural sector in Somalia
Rajeev Ranjan : Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Geography, University of Mumbai Kalina, Santacruz East, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400098. Dr. B. B. Sonule : Professor and Head of Department, Department of Geography University of Mumbai, Kalina, Santacruz East, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400098. Abstract: In this study I will be responding to the research question: “To what extent Official Development Assistance (ODA) is affective to reduce poverty in Somalia”. The scope of this study to examine whether aid schemes of various agencies are affectively reducing poverty in Somalia. The perception that foreign aid increases economic performance and generates economic growth is based on Chenery and Strout's Dual Gap Model which claims that foreign aid promotes development by adding to domestic savings as well as to foreign exchange availability, this helping to close either the savings-investment gap or the export-import gap. This study is based on both the Primary and secondary data base. To study domestic saving and saving investment gap I have collected primary data where as to study foreign exchange availability and import export gap secondary data from various agencies has been used. I have reached the conclusion that Official Development Assistance in the Somalia has limited impacts on poverty alleviation mainly because of unstable government, corruption and tribalism. However, large numbers of NGO’s are working on the ground level to achieve the short and long terms development goals. The political economy of Somalia is lacking strong policy to integrate all sections of the society therefore, aid schemes are not permeating down to the needy people and casing economic disparity. Export-Import gap is still very high in Somalia and per-capita household saving has also marginal change in last few decades. This study doesn’t conclude that Dual gap Model is not successful in Somalia but it suggests the need of effective policy of ODA to integrate larger sections of society for the poverty alleviation. Key word : Official development assistance (ODA): Aid provided by official agencies, including state and local governments, or by their executive agencies. Introduction In recent time, causes of low agricultural production and food shortage in Somalia was much discussed among economist and other social engineers. Along with the other factors low agricultural investment is an important factor for discouraging agricultural growth and performance. Two aspects of agricultural investment are important. First is foreign agricultural aid and second is public domestic expenditure on agriculture. Kalibata (2010) in his research finding suggested that foreign aid can provide the required solutions to the needs of Somalia farmer: to improve agricultural input such as seed, market link, irrigation, fertilizers and field mechanization. Agricultural credit and private sector investment can promote financial inclusion to supply money on time, to spur growth, to reduce post-harvest wastage through developing proper storage facility, to provide required skill training and technology to cope with climate change. She suggested and emphasized on combination of locally driven solutions and reliable donor support. None of them can work in isolation without the support of each other. Political leaders of Africa have begun to mobilize local resources for the agricultural growth by increasing government spending. It is a powerful initiative to increase agricultural productivity and to support smallholders by using Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Programme (CAADP).Under the CAADP, African nations have
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promised to allocate 10% of their national annual budgets to agriculture. Government of Rwanda has increased its venture in agriculture by 30%; on a similar path Sierra Leone has also increases budgetary allocation to agricultural sector by 9.9% in 2013. Somalia and Somaliland has also increased annual support to agriculture sector by 7.8% and 10% respectively. To solve the issue of low development assistance, global leaders gathered at L’Aquila in 2009 and requested $22 billion support for the food security. In this summit leaders showed their concern for declining food assistance. In a similar way G 20 countries in Pittsburgh urged for the multilateral fund to scale up assistance to the agriculture sector. To carry forward this commitment, the USA, Canada, Spain, South Korea and Bill & Melinda Gates foundation initiated the Global Agricultural and Food security programme to help poorest and needy farmers. Agriculture sector requires government support and assistance in most of the countries of the world. Perhaps few rich countries like USA and Germany can provide assistance to farmers but poor countries have limited financial resource to support their farmers and farmers in those countries cannot develop with assistance. Study Area Somalia is located in the eastern Africa, boarding the Gulf of Aden, the Indian Ocean and east of Ethiopia. Geographical coordinate of Somalia is 10 degree North latitude and 40 degree East Longitude. Total area of Somalia is 637,657 sq km. More than 70% land of Somalia is suitable for agriculture out of which 68.5% is permanent pasture. Somalia is rich in uranium and largely unexploited reserves of iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, copper, salt, natural gas, likely oil reserves. Despite of political instability in the recent years, Somalia maintains an informal economy largely based on livestock, remittance/money transfer companies, and telecommunications. Agriculture is the most important sector with livestock normally accounting for about 40% of GDP and more than 50% of export earnings. Somalia's small industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, has largely been looted and the machinery sold as scrap metal. (CIA fact file).
Location of Somaliland and Galmudug on the map of Africa
Source: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html Dated 15/08/2015 at 7:38 PM
Thus they are reaching out for development aid to help their people can feed themselves (NEPAD, 2010). 71 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
According to ECA (2009) agricultural assistance to African nations should be increased by the development stakeholders in order to meet the goal of Millennium development Goals (MDGs).The matter of foreign agricultural aid is debatable issue among donors and recipient countries in a same fashion. In one hand recipient countries want more foreign aid to improve agriculture sector in the hand donor countries focus on the effectiveness of aid supported projects to continue with project funding. Therefore, it essential to empirically investigate and analysis of the ground level reality of the effectiveness of foreign aid in the growth of agricultural sector. This extended essay will help policy makers and all the stakeholders of to understand the upto what extent foreign aid is helpful in the growth of agriculture sector. It will also help them to understand the ground level reality of foreign aid in Somalia Hypothesis: With the basic observation of effectiveness of foreign aid in Somalia, the following hypothesis will be investigated Hypothesis Somaliland has least flow of foreign aid among all other regions of Somalia. Justification: Somaliland has recently claimed itself an independent state from the Somalia (Fragile state) which is not recognized by the UN and other important organizations. Research methodology This research paper is predominantly based on primary data collected between May to July 2016. For this study independent variable is flow of foreign aid in Somalia whereas dependent variables are demand of imported food items, investment in modern field operation equipment. To verify these variables data on direct aid and assistance received by the farming community and their total expenditure on field mechanization, recent trend in the growth of imported food item was required. Very limited research has been conducted on this topic hence there was lack of authentic secondary data therefore I decided to collect Primary data. Primary data can also give ground level reality, recent trends and unbiased observation. Primary data has been collected based on well prepared questionnaire (attached in the Appendix).Questions were mostly close ended to get objective and quantifiable view of the farmers. Total 300sample size were interviewed in two regions of Somalia i.e. Somaliland and Galmudug. These regions were selected to conduct interview because they receive lowest and highest foreign aid respectively among the Somalian states. Stratified Random sampling method has been used for this study to get data from different section of farmers and their scale of operation and also to avoid any repetitive trend and biasness. Household were selected based on availability of phone number to that household. Most of the samples are collected at the outskirts of large cities. Phone number of respondents were collected from local directory and agencies. Statistical methods such as simple arithmetic mean, rank correlation, percentage and ratio has been used for the data processing. Secondary data has also been used in analysis part to verify the trend and link this study with previous research on this topic. Secondary data on demography, economy, and geography has made this study more comprehensive and pragmatic. Research Findings Hypothesis: Agrarian society of Somaliland has least access of aid and assistanceas compare to other states of Somalia Aid and assistance in Somaliland Below 2000 2000 to 5000 Above 5000 Respondents (Somalian Shilling) (Somalian shilling) (Somalian Shilling) Direct Subsidy by 17% 39% 44% Local Govt. Loan from the formal 9% 14% 19% financial institutions Technology Support 18% 23% 27%
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Modern Farming 11% 29% 39% Methods HYV Seeds 17% 28% 36% Access of Market 9% 19% 26% Produce for market 3% 11% 17% Direct benefit of 6% 4% 9% Foreign Aid Figure 1 In Somaliland Direct subsidy provided to the farmers is positively related to their income. Farmers those who are earning less than 2000 Somali shillings in a year have only 17% access of direct subsidy where as it increases up to 44% for the farmers earn more than 5000 Shillings per year ( Figure 1) . Direct government subsidy is helping farmers to maximise their income. Farmers in the higher income bracket have more access of the formal banking and financial institutions and also they have more access of agricultural loans. But lager sections of the farmers are still beyond the reach of banking system which shows that agriculture sector is not well integrated with financial institutions in Somaliland. However, farmers are getting support in the form of field mechanization, HYV seeds and modern farming methods mainly by the local government.
Small farmers Large Farmers
Figure 2 Modernization and mechanization in the agricultural system is more prevalent among the relatively affluent farming community than the small and marginal farmers. Marginal farmers are largely doing agriculture for their self-subsistence and only 9% farmers in this category have access to market where as only 3% farmers are producing for the market. This percentage slightly increases for the relatively larger farmers where 26% farmers have direct access of market and 17% farmers produce to sell their products in the market (Figure 2). Out of 150 sample size 41% farmers are marginal farmers who has less than 1 hectare of land where as 37% farmers are small farmers who has between 1 hectare to 3 hectare of land and 22% farmers are large farmers who has more than 3 hectares of land (Figure 3).
Large farmers have higher percentage of market accessibility and as compare to marginal and small farmers. Large farmers can afford modern farming methods and they have also got more benefits of financial and technological support for government and other agencies. In the Somaliland two third population are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture sector. Population growth rate is also much higher than the world average which will lead to 27% extra demand of the food products in coming five years. With this rate of population growth (TFR 3.9) lager percentage of large farmers will move in small and marginal farmer’s category. With present rate of financial inclusion of farming community, Somaliland might face the severe problem of food shortage. It is therefore essential to focus on marginal farmers and small farmers who have highest
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percentage among farming community but lowest accessibility of the market. Agricultural growth can increase higher contribution in GDP;at the same time it will also reduce the dependency on import of the food items. Through improved agricultural system Somaliland can reduce inflation rate caused due to lower production and increasing demand. Somaliland can import other essential commodity by saving larger amount of money which further will help to boost the economy. Better income among the farming community might increase the demand of various commodities in Somaliland which can be used as an economic opportunity by the government and local investors which will further pave the way for the growth of manufacturing and service sector and also will create greater employment opportunity. Somaliland has very less obtainability of foreign aid (Figure 4) because of recent political status of Somaliland. Somaliland claims himself as a sovereign state and a separate political entity Figure 4 from the Somalia which is not recognized by many countries and financial institutions. Therefore, availability of foreign aid in Somaliland is least among and compare to the other Somalian states. Despite of low flow of foreign aid to Somaliland farmers there have better and one of the highest income among the Somalian states. This is largely because newly formed Somaliland government has prioritised the agriculture sector and in a shorter period of time and more than one fourth of the farmers has been covered under various government schemes. Aid and assistance in Galmudug Below 2000 2000 to 5000 Above 5000 Respondents (Somalian Shilling) (Somalian Shilling) (Somalian Shilling) Direct Subsidy by 11% 14% 75% Local Govt. Loan from the formal 6% 13% 16% financial institutions Technology Support 14% 11% 24% Modern Farming 4% 14% 39% Methods HYV Seeds 12% 14% 42% Access of Market 2% 9% 21% Produce for market 1% 9% 14% Direct benefit of 27% 42% 57% Foreign Aid Figure 5 In Galmudug lager section of large farmers are getting benefits from the government and foreign aid but they have least contribution for the GDP.As compare to the Somaliland; Golmudug has higher flow of foreign aid but large farmers have more access of foreign aid as compare to small and marginal farmers.57% of the large farmers are getting direct benefit from the foreign aid whereas only 27% small farmers have access of foreign aid which shows large degree of inconsistency and unfair distribution of foreign aids (figure 5). Despite of higher percentage of foreign aid very small numbers of farmers are producing for the market which shows poor economic status of the farming community. Present trend of agricultural growth in Golmudug indicates serious socio-economic repercussion in this region. More than 79% population of this region are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture sector. Population growth rate is also much higher than Somaliland (TFR 4.1) which indicated the more demand of food isapproaching 5 years. This region is not self-dependent on local agricultural sector as result larger amount of GDP is outgoings on import of the food items. There is a wide gap 74 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
Figure.7 between demand and supply of food products which is causing high inflation rate and poor accessibility of market for other commodities.Galmudug has 38% large farmers as compare to 27% small Farmers and 35% marginal farmers (Figure 6). It depicts that this region has higher amount of per capita land holdings but pitiable accessibility of market, a smaller amount of financial inclusion and less availability of farm mechanization lead to traditional farming system and resultantly acute food shortage and low economic returns from the farm. Accessibility of foreign aid is very high in Galmudug region as compare to Somaliland where 57% large farmers receives foreign aid where as 27% small and 42% marginal farmers are benefited from foreign aid which is manifold higher than Somaliland (Figure 7). On the basis of above cited data it can be concluded that Somaliland have lesser aces of foreign aid as compare to Galmadug. Galmadug is one of the most politically unstable regions of the Somalia and therefore it has attracted special attention from various agencies who help Somalia for socio-economic and political stability. But despite of high foreign aid farming community is not growing on economic front hence larger section of the youth population are indulge in anti-social act such as terrorism and drugs trafficking. Conclusion and Evaluation The hypothesis states that Somaliland has least flow of foreign aid as compare to other states of Somalia. There are variety of evidences to support this claim, as all data previously seen indicates that farmers of Somaliland gets least financial support through foreign aid as compare to Golmudug. Farmers are getting limited foreign aid as Somaliland is a fragile state. But local government has initiated inclusion of local financial sector with agriculture system. As a result farmers in Somalialand are in better economic status than the farmers of Golmudug. Research Limitations: The major limitation of this study is limited availability of literature on this topic. There are very few research being conducted on the impact of foreign aid on agriculture sector in Somalia. Most of the available research have done by sociologist or political science experts therefore it was difficult to get secondary data to study economic perspective on this issue. Political condition of Somalia is another limitation to conduct academic study because primary data collection in the remote part of Somalia is a difficult task. Local government has limited data record. Another major limitation of this study is to identify different categories of farmers (small, marginal and large) who are recipient of foreign aid. Geographical constraints and time frame of this study is another limitation as it was difficult to collect larger sample size in a limited period of time. To test hypothesis one data from all different regions was required which was practically not possible in shorter period of time therefore background information on Somalian states has been used. This approach limits to give comparative view; particularly in primary data based study. Hypothesis two is giving very general picture of foreign aid and agricultural modernization. It only shows the correlation but it doesn’t give actual impression on ratio between foreign aid and investment on agricultural modernization. It is also not giving impression of how investment in agriculture has improved the status of farming community.
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Based on research limitation stated above following suggestions can be incorporated for the further study on this topic 1) Temporal data should be collected for the trend analysis and to get true picture on change in the status of farmers. 2) Data on total expenditure on various agricultural inputs like irrigation, fertilizers, seeds, irrigation technology, field operational tools and technology will give clear image that how farmers are improving existing agricultural system. 3) Study on crop diversification and local demands of food products in Somalia will give clear view on demand and supply of food items. It will also help to understand why Somalia is importing certain food products. 4) Study on the scope of community farming will help to suggest how marginal and small farmers can get maximum output and economic benefits. 5) Study on possibility and scope of increasing agricultural contribution in national GDP through increasing export of food items will help to frame national agricultural policy. 6) Study on the delimitation of agro climatic zone can help farmers and local government to frame micro level agricultural planning. Bibliography 1) Alesina, A and Weder, B., 2002. Do Corrupt Governments Receive Less Foreign Aid? American Economic Review 92(4): 1126-1137. 2) Boone, P., 1995. Politics and the Effectiveness of Foreign Aid, Centre for Economic Performance Discussion Paper No272. Available on the internet at www.cep.ise.ac.uk/pubs/ download/dp0272.pdf. [Accessed on August 7, 2016] 3) Burnside, C., and Dollar, D., 1997. Aid, Policies, and Growth. American Economic Review 90 847-868. 4) Juma, C., 2011. The New Harvest: Agricultural Innovation in Africa. Oxford University Press, London. 5) Collier, P., and Dollar, D., 2001. Development Effectiveness: What Have We Learnt? Washington DC:World Bank.31 6) Durbarry, R., Gemmell, N., and Greenaway, D., 1998.New Evidence on the Impact of Foreign Aid on Growth.Center for Research in Economic Development and International Trade. 7) Granger, C.W.J., 1969.Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross- spectral Methods. Econometrica 37 (3), 424–438. 8) Iganiga, B.O., Unemhilin, D.O., 2011. The Impact of Federal Government Agricultural Expenditure on Agricultural Output in Nigeria. Journal of Economics 2(2): 81-102. 9) New African, 2014. How Africa Can Feed Itself: Beyond Food Aid and Corporate Greed. New African Pan African Magazine., Page 12-13, Number 537, An IC Publication, London, UK. 10) World Bank, 2010. Bank, Donors Take Long Term View on Food. Available on the internet.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
THE PROSPECT OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE IN THE CHANGING CLIMATIC SENARIO OF THE WORLD
Dr. Sayantani Nath (Bhadra) : Lecturer & Head, Dept. of Geography Haringhata Mahavidyalaya, Haringhata, Subarnapur, Nadia
Abstract Among the geo-environmental issues, global climate change and its impact on Indian agriculture is one of them. The countries which will be affected mostly due to climate change; India is one of them, because of so many reasons. Frist of all, India is an agriculture based country and its agricultural system predominantly depends on rainfall or weather. This weather or climate is ever changing these days – as for example rising of temperature, increase the duration of summer season, deficiency of rainfall in stipulated time of monsoon or rainy season, again when rainfall is occurring it is becoming flood, somewhere winter is so cold, somewhere it stays for a short time. Above all there is a change of climate which can be realized but it has not any pattern at all. The present paper is on the vagaries of Indian weather as well as climate and its impact on our agriculture, economy and the people residing here. Lastly some ways have been suggested to mitigate the challenges through critical analysis on them. Key words: Global climate change, rising of temperature, deficiency of rainfall, flood, vagaries of Indian weather as well as climate 1.0. Introduction Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a global scale. Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways, including through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and climate extremes (e.g., heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in sea level ( Hoffmann.U. et al. 2013). Climate change is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world. Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries like India, while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative (Porter.J.R. et al. 2014). Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups, such as the poor (Paragraph 4). Agriculture contributes to climate change by (1) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and (2) by the conversion of non-agricultural land (e.g., forests) into agricultural land (Section 4.2). Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010 (Blanco.G. et al .2014). There are ranges of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture (Porter.J.R. et al andOppenheimer.M. et al 2014), and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector (Summary and Recommendations 2012, Current climate change policies 2014, Smith.P. et al 2014). 2.0. Aims and Objectives ● To recognize the threat of climatic change in Indian agriculture ● To introduce some mitigation programmes to reduce the intensity of climate change in Indian agriculture 3.0. Methodology Reviewed and analyzed secondary data, information and literature that are available in the public domain, including information available on official websites of several Governmental 77 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
agencies, scientific data and reports are used for the purpose of writing this paper. Reproduction of data and scientific analysis in this paper is only to the extent of reiterating the unique challenges faced by the Indian agriculture. 4.0 Result and Discussion 4.1. The Physical Evidences of Increasing Temperature 4.1.1. The relentless rise of Carbon-di-Oxide Ancient air bubbles trapped in ice enable us to step back in time and see what Earth's atmosphere, and climate, were like in the distant past. They tell us that levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere are higher than they have been at any time in the past 400,000 years. During ice ages, CO2 levels were around 200 parts per million (ppm), and during the warmer interglacial periods, they hovered around 280 ppm (see fluctuations in the graph). In 2013, CO2 levels surpassed 400 ppm for the first time in recorded history. This recent relentless rise in CO2 shows a remarkably constant relationship with fossil-fuel burning, and can be well accounted for based on the simple premise that about 60 percent of fossil-fuel emissions stay in the air. Today, we stand on the threshold of a new geologic era, which some term the "Anthropocene", one where the climate is very different to the one our ancestors knew. If fossil-fuel burning continues at a business-as-usual rate, such that humanity exhausts the reserves over the next few centuries, CO2 will continue to rise to levels of order of 1500 ppm. The atmosphere would then not return to pre-industrial levels even tens of thousands of years into the future. This graph not only conveys the scientific measurements, but it also underscores the fact that humans have a great capacity to change the climate and planet (Global Climate Change, Vital Signs of the planet, NASA). 4.1.2. Deficiency of rainfall Small and marginal farmers practicing agriculture on rain-fed farms will bear the brunt of climate change. The vulnerability of Indian agriculture to climate change is well acknowledged. But what is not fully appreciated is the impact this will have on rain-fed (non-irrigated) agriculture, practiced mostly by small and marginal farmers who will suffer the most. The crops that may be hit include pulses and oilseeds, among others. These are already in short supply and are consequently high-priced. Nearly 80 million hectares, out of the country's net sown area of around 143 million hectares, lack irrigation facilities and, hence, rely wholly on rain water for crop growth. Over 85 per cent of the pulses and coarse cereals, more than 75 per cent of the oilseeds and nearly 65 per cent of cotton are produced from such lands. The crop yields are quiet low. The available records indicated that the predominantly rain-fed tracts experience three to four droughts every 10 years. Of these, two to three droughts are generally of moderate intensity and one is severe. Most of the rain-fed lands, moreover, are in arid and semi-arid zones where annual rainfall is meager and prolonged dry spells are quite usual even during the monsoon season. This makes crop cultivation highly risk-prone. If the quantum of rainfall in these areas drops further or its pattern undergoes any distinct, albeit unforeseeable, change in the coming years, which seems quite likely in view of climate change, crop productivity may dwindle further, adding to the woes of rain-fed farmers. Though the rainfall records available with the India Meteorological Department (IMD) do not indicate any perceptible trend of change in overall annual monsoon rainfall in the country, noticeable changes have been observed within certain distinct regions. At least three meteorological sub-divisions - Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Kerala - have shown significant decrease in seasonal rainfall though some others have recorded an uptrend in precipitation as well. Since rain-fed crops, like coarse grains, pulses and oilseeds are grown mostly during the kharif season, these are impacted by both low as well as excess rainfall. The groundnut crop in the Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh in 2008 can be a case in point. It suffered substantial damage because of high as well as low rainfall at different stages of 78 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
crop growth. While heavy rainfall early in the season adversely affected the development of pegs (which bear groundnut pods below the soil), the relatively drier spell at the later stage hit the development of pods. This aside, climate change is also reflected in the increasingly fluctuating weather cycle with unpredictable cold waves, heat waves, floods and exceptionally heavy single-day downpours. The most noticeable of such events in recent years included the country-wide drought in 2002, the heat wave in Andhra Pradesh in May 2003, extremely cold winters in 2002 and 2003, and rolonged dry spell in July 2004 and January 2005 in the north, unusual floods in the Rajasthan desert in 2005, drought in the north-east in 2006, abnormal temperature in January and February in 2007, and 23 per cent rainfall deficiency in the 2009 monsoon season. All these events took a heavy toll on crop output (Sud 2010). 4.1.3.Short time winter season The time span of winter has been decreased than the past centuries, as a result the winter agricultural production has also been adversely affected. As for example, the flowers of wheat came during the month of January in the present day’s varieties which was produced before six decades but nowadays it seems in the month of February. This varies the production (Ghosh 2010). 4.1.4. Monsoonal change in changing climate Simulations of future climate generally suggest an increase in monsoon rainfall on a seasonal mean, area-average basis. This is due to the twin drivers of an increasing land-sea thermal contrast, but more importantly, warming over the Indian Ocean which allows more moisture to be carried to India. Typically increases in total rainfall over India may be in the region of 5-10%, although some climate models suggest more and some less. Climate simulations also show different patterns of rainfall change, so it is difficult to predict how rainfall might change within India. The Indian monsoon is remarkably stable as a whole, with a mean total of around 850mm in the months of June to September, and an inter-annual (year-to-year) variation of only around 10% in most cases. Even these relatively small variations in the Indian monsoon can influence things like agricultural production and the stocks and commodities market, so a 5-10% change on top could have significant impacts. For many people in India it is the variability of rainfall on shorter time scales that has the biggest impacts – intense heavy rainfall leads to flooding; breaks in the monsoon of a week or more lead to water shortage and agricultural drought. Floods and droughts are a normal occurrence in India. In 2002 for example, a break in the monsoon rains saw July receiving only about 50% of its normal rainfall, leading to cuts in agricultural output and declining GDP. Thinking about climate change in the context of how these extreme events will change can help farmers and other end users to understand its implications. It’s difficult to say for certain that a particular extreme event for the monsoon is attributable to anthropogenic climate change – like the Pakistan floods of 2010 – but we do know that with a warming climate more moisture can be held in the atmosphere, leading to heavier rainfall when it does occur. It is also thought that inter-annual variability of the monsoon will increase in future, whatever happens to its main driver, El Niño. However it will not be until we have a better capability at simulating the day-to-day and intra-seasonal variability of the monsoon in our climate models that we will have more confidence in our projections of this important variability. Given the increasing population of the region and need for food security, improving the scientific understanding in these areas is of utmost importance (Turner 2012). 4.1.5. Increase of natural disasters With increasing global surface temperatures the possibility of more droughts and increased intensity of storms will likely occur. As more water vapor is evaporated into the atmosphere it becomes fuel for more powerful storms to develop. More heat in the atmosphere and warmer ocean surface temperatures can lead to increased wind speeds in tropical storms. Rising sea levels expose higher locations not usually subjected to the power of the sea and to the erosive forces of
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waves and currents. (USGS FAQs 2016). In recent years, the super-cyclone in Orissa, earthquakes in Nepal, Rajasthan and Gujrat, floods in Bihar and West Bengal etc. are some examples of such extreme events in India and its surroundings (Ghosh 2010). 4.1.6. Impact of rising temperature on Indian agriculture India is a predominantly agriculture-oriented economy, as 52 percent of the population directly depends on agriculture either as farmers or agricultural laborers, and their concentration is higher at 76 percent in the villages. Variation in climate will have a direct impact on the majority of the livelihood of the people. Food production in India is sensitive to Climate Change like variations in temperature and monsoon rainfall. Rise in temperature has a direct impact on the Rabi crop and every 10C rise will reduce wheat production by 4 to 5 Million Tones. Every small change in temperature and rainfall has significant effect on the quality and quantity of fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee, basmati rice and aromatic and medicinal plants (India. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation 2013) The impact of Climate Change on agriculture could result in problems with food security and may threaten the livelihood activities upon which much of the population depends. Climate Change can affect crop yield (both positively and negatively), as well as the types of crops that can be grown in certain areas, by impacting agricultural inputs such as water, amount of solar radiation that affect plant growth as well as the prevalence of pests (Indian Agriculture Research Institute, Key Fact Sheet). Despite complex spatial differences in Climate Change, forecasts agree that in many developing countries, climate will become less suitable for agricultural practices that they now undertake because of more warm and humid atmosphere. Stern Report 2007 by Nicholas Stern, Head of United Kingdom Government Economic Service and Advisor to the Government on the Economics of Climate Change and Development, projected that a 20C increase in average temperature would reduce world gross domestic product by roughly 1 percent while according to World Development Report of the World Bank (2009), Climate Change will cause a decrease in annual GDP of 4 percent in Africa and 5 percent in India (International Food and Agriculture Trade Policy Council 2010). According to World Bank Report “Turn down the Heat: Climate Extremes, Regional Impacts and the case for Resilience” 2013, an expected 20C rise in the world’s average temperature in the next decades will make India’s summer monsoon highly unpredictable. Shifting rain pattern will leave some areas under water and others without water for power generation, irrigation and in some cases even for drinking. The Report warns that by the 2040‟s India will see a significant reduction in crop yields because of extreme heat. Reduced water availability due to changes in precipitation levels and falling groundwater tables are likely to aggravate the situation in India where groundwater resources are already at a critical level and about 15% of the country’s groundwater tables are over exploited. In India, more than 60% of the crop area is rain fed, making it highly vulnerable to climate induced changes in precipitation patterns. It is estimated that by the 2050‟s, water for agricultural production in the river basis of the Indus, Ganges and Brahamputra will reduce further and may impact food adequacy for some 63 million people (Warming Climate in India to Pose Significant Risk to Agriculture 2013). According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Report, Climate Change 2014 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, rise of global temperature and increasing food demand would pose large risk to food security globally and regionally. It finds that even at just 10C of warming, a negative impact for major crops like wheat, rice and corn would be seen. For India, the prediction is that the stress on staple wheat crop would increase negatively, affecting the overall food security of the continent. Post 2030, the overall food production will decrease (Dutta 2014). 4.2. Efforts towards the reduction of global warming While the movie Interstellar doesn’t exactly state that the world is ruined by global warming, it is eye-opening to see that the planet and atmosphere, we call home, could one day turn against us. Global warming has increased in vast increments in the last decade. In fact, in the last 50 years, 80 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
the earth’s global temperature has increased by 3%. Pollutioncaused by the release of carbon dioxide into the air creates a blanket over the atmosphere. Global warming can cause a whole chain of events to rupture ecosystems, weather patterns, and a variety of other factors. We all play a part in our future. Here are some common sense, yet practical and easy ways to stop or prevent global warming and not have to seek colonization on another planet. 4.2.1. Use of solar energy India has produced only 0.4% electricity from solar energy in recent years. In 2005, only 6.4 megawatt of solar energy was produced, however, it was fixed by the National Action Plan on Climate Change, July, 2009 that 1000 megawatt solar energy will be produced during 2013 and onwards (Ghosh 2010). 4.2.2. Wind energy There will be a problem in producing wind energy because there is not uniformity in wind blow. Yet during 2008, 120 Giga Watt (GW) wind energy was produced in the world. India could produce only 10.25 GW wind energy during March, 2009. There is a possibility of intensive wind flow in the coastal region. So Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and West Bengal have produced 4.3 GW, 1.94 GW, 1.56 GW, 26.5 GW, 1.34 GW and 1.10 GW respectively (Statesman 22.02.2010). 4.2.3. Nuclear Energy Most of the people in India think that nuclear means bomb. But this is not true. In fact when atoms of the Radio Active Elements are broken it creates high temperature which in turn produces nuclear energy. It is possible to fulfill the15% demand of electricity in India by utilizing the theory of thermo-dynamic law of Physics. Our country could achieve such development and investment. But still there is a problem to select the place where this type of energy will be produced (Ghosh 2010). 4.2.4. Hydrogen energy The name of hydrogen has been come forward as future fuel. The large car making companies has started making cars run by hydrogen in the developed countries. It is remembered that 25% Carbon-di-Oxide is mixed to the air by the release of automobile or cars. If the hydrogen fuel is used, this type of danger will be diminished forever (Ghosh 2010). 4.2.5. Increase of forestry By ignoring so many debates, it is stated that plants can reduce the level of carbon di oxide till today. Plant kingdom plays a significant role to control the carbon cycle in the world. So there is an urgent need to increase forestry. In one word, the amount of carbon di oxide which can absorb one acre forest area is equal to the ten acres croplands or grasslands (Ghosh 2010). 4.2.6. Stop the misuse of energy It is now necessary to stop the misuse of energy. It is seen from our daily routine that we sometimes consciously or unconsciously misuse a huge amount of energy. As for example, putting on fan and lights, turning on taps etc. are some of them. It is remembered that, every kilowatt of electricity mixes 1.5 to 2 pounds carbon to the air. If we save the electricity, the air as well as the world will remain safe (Ghosh 2010). 4.2.7. Encourage able government project At first, several equipment will be distributed to the people by subsidy to create a mentality to use the solar energy as substitute energy, e.g. solar lamp. Except this, it will be made an arrangement to harvest rainwater including the settings of solar battery in the Government houses. The solar battery included lamps should be attached in the lamp posts of municipality. This kind of work has already been initiated in many cities and towns in India (Ghosh 2010). 4.2.8. Special arrangement for aliving agriculture We must change our present yield cycle by utilizing the development in the branch of reproduction of Life Science. We have to produce the genetically modified tolerate varieties which will be suitable in our weather. The Indian Society of Plant Genetic Resources (ISPGR) has already
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been established in 1987 in India. The scientists of this organization still engage in researching to discover more new plants and inventing newly varieties. The making of a large data base by using the barcode of plant DNA is researching in America. The problem in agriculture will be diminished by the well-wishing scientists of the world and their collective efforts (Ghosh 2010). 5.0. Conclusion Climate change impacts on crop yield are often integrated with its effects on water productivity and soil water balance. Global warming will influence temperature and rainfall, which will directly have effects on the soil moisture status and groundwater level. Crop yield is constrained to crop varieties and planting areas, soil degradation, growing climate and water availability during the crop growth period. With temperature increasing and precipitation fluctuating, water availability and crop production will decrease in the future. If the irrigated areas are expanded, the total crop yield will increase; however, food and environmental quality may degrade. Soil evaporation and plant transpiration will be changed with climate change; thus, water use efficiency may decrease in the future. Improving water productivity and keeping stable relations with global food suppliers will be vital for food security (Kang 2009). 6.0. References 1. Blanco, G., et al., Section 5.3.5.4: Agriculture, Forestry, Other Land Use, in: Chapter 5: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation (archived 30 December 2014), in: IPCC AR5 WG3 2014, p. 383. Emissions aggregated using 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report. 2. Climate change and agriculture - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture 3. Current climate change policies are described in Annex I NC 2014 and Non-Annex I NC 2014 4. Dutta. A. P 2014. Climate Change: IPCC Report Warns of Looming Food Crisis, Down to Earth 5. Global Climate Change, Vital Signs of the planet, NASA, climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/24 6. Ghosh. T 2010. Poribortito Jalobayute Amader Krishir Vobissat. Jalobayur Pribartan. Yojona 7. Hoffmann, U., Section B: Agriculture - a key driver and a major victim of global warming, in: Lead Article, in: Chapter 1, in Hoffmann 2013, pp. 3, 5 8. India. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, „Statistics Related to Climate Change in India‟, November 2013, p.239 9. Indian Agriculture Research Institute, Key Fact Sheet (http://agricoop.nic.in/Climate Change 10. International Food and Agriculture Trade Policy Council, Agriculture Technology for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Developing Countries, May 2010 11. Kang. Y et al. 2009. Climate change impacts on crop yield, crop water productivity and food security – A review, Progress in Natural Science 19 (2009) 1665–1674 12. Lok Sabha secretariat parliament library and reference, research, documentation and information service (LARRDIS) members’ reference service reference note . No. 2 /RN/Ref./ November /2014 For the use of Members of Parliament Not for Publication Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture 13. Oppenheimer, M., et al., Section 19.7. Assessment of Response Strategies to Manage Risks, in: Chapter 19: Emergent risks and key vulnerabilities (archived 5 November 2014), in IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014, p. 1080 14. Paragraph 4, in: Summary and Recommendations, in: HLPE 2012, p. 12 15. Porter, J.R., et al., Executive summary, in: Chapter 7: Food security and food production systems (archived 5 November 2014), in IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014, pp. 488–489 16. Porter, J.R., et al., Section 7.5: Adaptation and Managing Risks in Agriculture and Other Food System Activities, in Chapter 7: Food security and food production systems (archived 5 November 2014), in IPCC AR5 WG2 A 2014, pp. 513–520
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Spatio -Temporal Analysis of Crop Combinations in Haveri District: A
Geographical Analysis Dr. D. K. KAMBLE Assistant Registrar, Rani Channamma University, BELGAUM
Abstract: Agriculture means the cultivation of soil. According to Prof. Zimmermann, “Agriculture cross these productive efforts by which man, settled on land, seeds to make use of land, if possible, accelerate and improve upon the natural genetic or growth, processes of plant and Animal life, to the end that these processes ‘will yield the Vegetable and animal products needed or wanted by man.” Some natural environments have afforded an abundance of wild plant supplies that agriculture at a primitive level could not surpass. But under most conditions the successful cultivation of one or more staple crops, which can provide the greater part of the food supply, greatly reduces the extent of territory on which a given population needs to rely to secure its food. At the same time it can provide, according to the crop and climatic conditions, a harvest of storable supplies for the rest of the year or, as in the humid tropics, an almost continuous supply of maturing tubers and fruits. Both induce a greater fixity and concentration of settlement. Agricultural land use and cropping patterns are the important components of the disciplines of agricultural economics and agricultural geography. Agricultural land use and cropping patterns often undergo remarkable change from time to time due to natural consequences of the influence of physical, cultural, technological and economic factors. INTRODUCTION: Agricultural geography in its broadest sense, seeks to describe and explain the areal variation in agriculture. Therefore geography of agriculture makes a scientific investigation of nature of world areas in their different influence on the production of various crops. Considerable empirical knowledge of the sprouting of seeds and tubers and of vegetative reproduction has been reported from collecting peoples. But for agriculture, however primitive, an element of foresight, planning and an established routine of cultivation is also necessary. The archaeological record shows that agriculture was a late development in the history of mankind. For by far the greater part of their existence, human communities were limited to small, widely dispersed and often migratory encampments of food gatherers. With the regular replanting of the more rewarding crops, incidental selection in favor of higher- yielding or otherwise desirable varieties takes place so that, over considerable periods of continuous cultivation, new mutant and hybrid plants may come to preponderate and thus effect a general improvement and an increase in the number of varieties adapted to different conditions. Already before the spectacular advances achieved by the genetically controlled methods of modern plant breeding; a wide range of improved and locally adapted varieties of cereals such as wheat, rice and corn or maize, of tropical root crops such as yams and cassava and of many other cultivated plants had been developed in primitive agriculture. STUDY AREA: The present study of Haveri district is one of the taluka was placed in Dharwad district earlier, with re-organization of the districts in 1997 by the Government of Karnataka State, the new Haveri district has came into existence as an independent District, in the northern part of Karnataka State after 50th year of India’s independence. Haveri district is located in between 140-28’ to 140-39’ and 750-07’ to 750-38’ East longitude covering area about is 4823 squire kms and consists of seven talukas namely, Byadagi Ranebennur, Haveri, Hirekerur, Savanur, Shiggaon and Hanagal talukas. 83 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
The total population of the district was about 1598506 persons, out of which 819295(52%) males and 779211(48%) female population. The district is drained by four major rivers like Tungabhadra, Varada, Dharma and Kumadvati which supplies water for drinking and agriculture. The soil groups found in the district are red sandy soil followed by the medium black soil deep black soil, the red loamy soil and lateritic soil are seen in very small parts particularly in the southern border of the district. The district enjoys sub tropical climate and temperatures varies 180c to 400 c. The district relieves most of the rainfall from the South-west monsoon and the maximum rainfall (903) occurs in Hanagal taluka and minimum rainfall falls in Ranebennur taluka (592mms). The natural vegetation found in district and semi-evergreen. The total forest, covers an area about 47454 hectares in the district, which contributes 9.78 percent of the total geographical area of the district. Review of Literature. The geographical studies on land use and cropping pattern are many in India and abroad, but the studies with a spatial emphasis on irrigation and agriculture comparatively few in India. It must be mentioned that irrigation is studied by geographers, Economists, Irrigation Engineers, Agronomists and Administrators from the different points of view. In order to overcome the drawbacks of Weaver’s method, certain modifications have been developed by some geographers like Doe (1957), Johnson (1958), Coppack (1964), Raffiulla (1965), Singh L. R. (1965), made a study of the crop association regions of the Teria region of the Uttar Pradesh. Singh H. (1965) delineated the crop combination regions of the Malva Tract of the Punjab The crop culture varies in the area; through the types of agricultural produce happen to vary under local conditions. The physiography of the area has an impact on the association of crops and diversification, as revealed by Bhatia (1965), Gibbs (1962), Harpal Singh (1963), and John Parr (1965). The crop association regions display a relationship between physiography, soil, climate, irrigational facilities, availability of transport and market. Roy B. K (1967) explained the crop association regions and changing pattern in Gangs, Ghaghara Doab. A good number of studies on similar line were made by Indian Geographers to examine the regional characters of agriculture. The notable works on this theme have come from Geographers such as Singh Surendra (1982), Parimala (1983), Daitya and Gupta (1984), Swaminathan (1984), Chatarjee N. (1986), Punnalar Das Biswas (1990), and Sindhe S. D., Noor Mohammad, Mandal R. B. Sharma and Cootino, Ram Mohan Rao, Jayachandran, Subramanyam V.P., Singh Jasbir, Majid Husain, K. V. Tiwari, C. T. Powar and Dixit, V. S. Bhadrapur, dealt with regional study of agriculture recently. Methods of Crop Combination: The study of crop combination of the region is truthful in many ways, firstly it provides adequate understanding of an individual crop geography; secondly crop combination in itself is an integrative reality that demands definitions and distribution of still more complex structures of valid agricultural regions (Weaver J C). Individual crop may be studied in geography for their own sake. But all crops studied individually cannot depict the truth of the agricultural complex of the region. The real dominance of certain crops in their varied combination can be best studied by attempting some kind of synthesis Thus, the study of crops combination analysis minimizes the chance of over simplified generalization. Generalization needs a compact system of agriculture. The planning and development of agriculture is aimed in the upliftment of the rural agrarian poor and consequently the development of the nation as a whole in general and the present study area in particular. J.C. Weavers Methods: The pattern of crop association constitute a major feature of the agricultural land scale of an area crop combination one another not by more chance but as a result of deliberate choice this choice is always a function of the environments set up such as climatic hydrologic edaphic controls socials behavior and economic influences. A study of crop association patterns and their spatio- temporal variations is essentially a probe into the extent of human response to the complier of aggregate environment within the specific set of condition in this paper an attempt has been made 84 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
to find out spatio-temporal variations in cropping pattern the paper also attempts to known whether crop regions themselves be valid and sole criteria for demarcating of agricultural regions. In this study on the crop combination regions in the Middle West (USA) weaver used minimum deviation method, which is essentially statistical and takes into consideration of percentage of crops acreage to total cropped area. In his work Weaver calculated deviation of the real percentage of crops (occupying over 1% of the cropped area) for all the possible combination in the component areal units against a theoretical standard. The theoretical curve for the standard measurement was employed as fallows. Mono culture =100% of the total harvested crop land in one crop 2 Crop combination = 50 % in each of two crops 3 Crop combination = 33.33 % in each of three crops. 4 Crop combination = 25% in each of four crops. 5 Crop combination = 20% in each of five crops. For the determination of the minimum deviation for each of the component areal unit the standard deviation method is used and it is as follows: √∑ 푑2 Formula: 휎 = 푛 However, Weaver has pointed out the relative rank of the amount of deviation among the several possible combinations as was desired by him and not the actual magnitude of the deviation, the square root was extracted in accordance with the standard deviation formula. The specially used variant procedure can, therefore, be expressed as follows. ∑ 푑2 휎 = 푛 Where, 휎 = value of crop combination d = is the difference between the actual crop percentage in a given area unit and the appropriate percentage in the theoretical curve and n = is the number of crops in a given combinations. Crop Combination Regions: Agricultural land use and cropping patterns are the important components of the disciplines of agricultural economics and agricultural geography. Agricultural land use and cropping patterns often undergo remarkable change from time to time due to natural consequences of the influence of physical, cultural, technological and economic factors. The analysis of variations in agricultural land use over a period of time gives us an insight in to the type and magnitude of transformation of an agrarian rural society. An analysis of agricultural land use is essential for a meaningful understanding of the agricultural system prevailing in a region.The major changes in the cropping patterns that have occurred in the study region are mainly from traditional crop to high yielding variety of crops and from cereals to commercial and cash crops. Crop Combination Regions in Haveri District: 1997-98 to 2012-13 (According to J.C. Weavers Method) In the study region, there is a remarkable change in the crop combination over a period of two times in the district. The crop combination in the region varied from 1 to 17 during 1997-98 and it continued to till 2012-13. (Table.No- 1& 2) Explains the taluka wise distribution of crops in Haveri district. Four Crop Combinations: During the first decade (1997-98) four crop combinations there was only one taluka Savanur (Spices, Oilseeds, Cotton and Jowar) taluka falling under this category, whereas in the second decade (2012-13) there are about one taluka Shiggaon (Paddy, Maize, Cotton and Oil Seeds) .(Table.No- 1&2). Five Crop Combinations: During the first decade (1997-98) five crop combinations were observed in sprawl areas of one taluka Shiggaon (Cotton, Paddy, Spices, and Jowar Oilseeds). Whereas, in the second decade (2012-13) there are about three talukas that fall under this category Haveri (Maize, Other Food Crop, Cotton, Jowar, and Oil seeds) Savanur (Oil seeds, Maize, Other Food Crop, Jowar, and Cotton) .(Table.No- 3).
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Seven Crop Combination : During the first decade (1997-98) there was only Haveri ( Jowar, Oilseeds, Maize, Cotton, Spices, Other Pulses, Other Cereals ) taluka falling under this category, whereas in the second decade (2012-13) Sevencrop combinations regions are not found taluka falling under this category, (Table No. 3. Fig 1).
Eight Crop Combinations: During the first decade (1997-98) eight crop combinations were observed sprawl areas of Hanagal (Paddy, Cotton, Maize, Jowar, Spices, Other Pulses, Sugar Cane and Oil Seeds), Hirekerur (Maize, Jowar, Oil Seeds, Cotton, Other Pulses, Paddy, Spices and Other Cereals) and Ranebennur (Jowar, Maize, Oil Seeds, Cotton, Other Pulses, Vegetables, Spices and Other Cereals) talukas. Whereas in the second decade (2012-13) there was not a single taluka fall under this category.(Table.No- 3 & Fig.No. 1). Twelve Crop Combinations: During the first decade (1997-98) there was only Byadagi (Maize, Jowar, Cotton, Paddy, Oilseeds, Pulses, Spices, Other Minor Millets, Vegetables, Tur Pulses, Ragi and Sugar Cane, ) talukas falling under this category, whereas in the second decade (2012-13) twelvecrop combinations regions were not found in any taluka falling under this category, . (Table.No- 3 & Fig. No.1) Fourteen Crop Combinations: During the first decade (1997-98) fourteen crop combination regions were not found. Whereas in the decade (2012-13) was recorded in Byadagi (Maize, Cotton, Jowar, Other Food Crop, Vegetables, Paddy, Oil Seeds, Sugar cane, Other Pulses, Fruits, Bengal Gram, Ragi, Tur Pulses andOther Minor Millets) and Hirekerur ( Maize, Cotton, Other Food Crop, Pulses, Paddy, Jowar, Oilseeds, Vegetables, Sugar Cane, Fruits, Bengal Gram, Tur Pulses, Ragi, Spices)talukas.
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Fifteen Crop Combinations: During the first decade (1997-98) fifteen crop combinations regions were not found in any talukas falling under this category, whereas in the second decade (2012-13) Whereas in the decade (2012-13) was recorded in Hanagal (Paddy, Maize, Cotton, Other Food Crop, Fruits, Sugar Cane, Oilseeds, Other Pulses, Jowar, Spices, Vegetables, Bengal Gram, Ragi, Tur Pulses and Other Minor Millets) and Ranebennur (Maize, Cotton, Paddy, Jowar, Vegetables, Oil Seeds, Sugar Cane, Fruits, Other Pulses, Tur Pulses, Other Minor Millets, Bengal Gram, Wheat and Ragi) talukas. . (Table.No-3 & Fig. No. 1) CONCLUSION: In view of partly contrasting and partly complementary roles of the crop combination in the agriculture study of Haveri district. The crop combination is an index of socio Economic and agricultural conditions prevailing in an area and is a useful tools for regional analysis. The present study reveals the imbalance between the crop combination during the period from 1997-98 to 2012-13. During the period 1997-98 98 to 2012-13, the Haveri district crop combination was varied between one taluka to anather by using J.C Weaver`s method. REFERENCES Ali Mohammad-1979, “Dynamics of Agricultural Development in India” Pub-Concept Publishing Company, Delhi. Bharadwaj B.K. “Components and Determinants of Agricultural Productivity. A Case Study of Gurgaon District”. Unpublished thesis, Department of Geography, J.N. University, New Delhi, Pp. 10, 23. Bhatia S.S. 1967 “A new Measurement of Agricultural Efficiency in U.P. Economic Geography”, Vol-43, No-3 Pp. 242-260. Dadly Stamp 1960 “Our Developing World, London”.Pp. l08-109. Hurakadli. S. M. - “Impact of Irrigation on Land Use and Cropping Pattern in Raichur District -A Geographical Perspective”, (Unpublished Thesis Submitted to Karnatak University).
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Economic Transformation of the people – A Case Study of Burhi
Micro-Watershed, Kendujhar, Odisha, India SAJAL BARH, Assistant Teacher, Prosadpur High School, Hugli, WB
ABSTRACT: Now a day degradation of environment is a serious problem of the gullied areas. Environmental degradation is largely depends on physical component of the environment. The Burhi River is a tributary of the Kanjhira River. This watershed is situated in the upper Baitarani basin, Kendujhar District, Odisha. The basin area is highly affected by gully. The soil and climatic condition of this region is ideal for development of gully. So gully responsible for the degradation of that areas. Thus the land use system of that area has been changed. Now the present land use dominates cashew nut, mango tree, sunflower, where water is available. But people are there. They want to depend on this environment and now how to develop to boost up the economy of the people of that particular area. Various methodologies may be applied to measure the problems of the area and definite plan will be made to remove the poverty of the space by conserving the rain water. Physical and chemical properties of the soil and climatic condition of this area is suitable for plantation of grapes, mosambi, Pomegranate, mango(Alphonso) and jackfruit with the application of drip irrigation system. If it can be followed properly, economic transformation of the people of this area can be achieved well. Key Words Gully Erosion ; Environmental Degradation; Introduction: Soil erosion has been recognized as one of the major problems restricting agricultural activities. In India, increasing growth of population, low man-land ratio, urbanization with the quest for immediate gains to meet the growing demands are responsible for landscape degradation as noted in India. Lands degradation in India covers about 187.7 million ha. or 57.1% of its total area (Chandra, 2006). Soil erosion is associated with about 85% of land degradation in the world, causing up to 17% reduction in the crop productivity (Oldeman et al., 1990). Soil erosion is the major environmental problem which damages the natural resources, agriculture and the environment and also reduces the soil fertility and productivity. Gully erosion is the result of soil erosion it caused when the run-off concentrates and flows at a sufficient velocity to detach and transport soil particles.
Review of Literature: The problem of land degradation and soil loss is a major problem of all the countries of world. Erosion by water is a prime process soil degradation on the global scale, affecting 1094 million hectares, or roughly 56% of the land experiencing human induced degradation. Soil erosion
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is the most important limitation for the sustainable development, optimal land and water management and development. Soil erosion has been recognized as the major cause of land degradation worldwide. An estimated 4 m. ha of land is affected by gully erosion in india and an additional 2.2 m ha is now susceptible to gully erosion. A very important role is also played by man through disturbance to vegetation. Its removal by logging or cropland expansion, in humid areas, or by overgrazing, in semiarid zones, favours the development of gullies (Trimble, 1974; De Ploey, 1990). Gully erosion is the most spectacular form of erosion as the damage caused by it is relatively permanent. Nearly 20% of the total land in the region is under gullies (Kukal and Sur, 1992). Gullies are “relatively permanent steep-sided water courses which experience ephemeral flows during rainstorm” (Morgan, 1995). The size of the gullies varies from shallow 0.3-1 meters deep gullies to over 20 meters deep ravines (Bergsma, 1996). Climate (Valentin et al., 2005), (Zhang et al., 2007), lithology, soils (Vandekerckhove et al., 2001), relief and land use/cover characteristics (Mitiku et al., 2006 and Martinez, 2003) mainly affect gully erosion. In most cases, gullies are formed due to intensification of human activities resulting from rapid population growth in developing countries and expansion of agriculture and grazing lands into forest areas. (Pathak et al., 2005) reported that in semi-aridtropics (SAT) watersheds of Africa, most migrants cut trees, burn litter and grasses and cultivate annual crops on hillsides or marginal lands without using appropriate conservation measures, which has been increasing gully erosion processes. Research Objective: The watershed is actually an ideal geomorphic unit for effective land–water resource management, controlling runoff and sediment yield, enhancing ground water storage, mitigation of erosion hazards or other natural disaster and its overall sustainable development. Hence drainage basin oriented applied geomorphic apprehension is essentially requisite for effective watershed planning and management. To keep pace with the existing situation an effort has been made to quantify the gullies with erosion assessment in Burhi watershed of Odisha to find out cause and impact of gullies on land and soil development process and also to suggest a location specific control measures through development plan with the following objectives: 1. To characterize the gully of the watershed. 2. To study causes and impact of gully erosion on land use pattern of the study area. 3. To prepare a suggested plan of the gully affected area and its surrounding environment. 4. To find out cause and impact of gullies on land and soil development process (add organic matter & various nutrient of soil) also to suggest a location specific control measures through development plan. 5. The main objective of my study is the economic transformation of the space with the proper adoption of the different lifesaving irrigation systems and the development of the soil characteristic and the land use systems. Area of Study: The study area lying between 210 24’N - 210 35’N, and 850 39’E – 850 45’E forms a part of upper Baitarani basin in Kendujhar District, Odisha. The area with mean annual temperature 260C and mean annual rainfall 1487.7 mm. is characterized by monsoon climate. The said area is composed of following geological formations: 1.Singhbhum Granite complex and Bonai Granite complex of Archaean 2. Metagabbro, Epidiorite, Chlorite schist and Hornblende schist, Quartzite schist of lower to middle Proterozoic 3. Banded Hematite, Quartzite, Banded hematite Jasper banded black chert and Ferruginous shale, Carbonaceous shale and Cherty shale with ash & tuff, and grit, Conglomerate & sandstone in Guru Mahisani group of lower to middle Proterozoic. The river Burhi and their tributaries drain the area with general slope form north to south. The Laterite soil & Red soil varying texture are found in the area. Natural vegetation like Sal, Palash, Mango, Babla are commonly grow here. This study area has considerable constraints of rill-gully erosion.
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Analysis and discussion: The watershed is situated in the upper Baitarani basin, Kendujhar district, Odisha. The basin area is highly gully affected. The climate and soil condition of this region is ideal for development of gully by water erosion. So gully responsible for the degradation of environment. But people are living there. They want to depend on this soil and climate, now how to regain the characteristic of soil of the space. Red sandy loam soil is present there. Percentage of the organic matter in this soil is minimum. So fertility rate of soil is very low and now production of agriculture is very low of this area. Availability of water is very low; if we conserve the rain water in rainy season then we use the water in dry season for agriculture purpose. This area is not economically developed; very poor people are living there. If we study details in soil and climate and suggest suitable specific crop for this region then economic transformation of the people can be achieved well. Conclusion: Definite methodology may be applied to measure the gravity of the problems of the area. Thereafter, definite plan will be made to remove the poverty of this particular region by conserving the rain water. Both the physical and chemical properties of the soil and climatic condition of this area is suitable for plantation of grapes, Pomegranate, mango(Alphonso) jackfruit and mosambi with the application of drip irrigation system. If it can be followed truly, economic transformation of the people of this region can be achieved well. Recommendation: To suggest a development plan following: a. Identification of conservation needs b. Conservation of rain water, if necessary c. Provision for engineering structures like check dams etc. d. Change of land use system of using land management treatment and cover crops by selecting varieties Reference : 1) Basu SR (1972) On the formation of a Shoal on the concave bank of Lateritic River Kopai, West 2) Bengal. Geogr Rev India 34(3):287–297 3) Basu P : Laterites of Mednipur and their morphology. Geographical Review of India. Vol 48 4) (2) Calcutta, pp 58-60 (1986) 5) P. K. Shit and R. K. Maiti, “Rill Hydraulics—An Ex- perimental Study on Gully Basin in Lateritic Upland of Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal, India,” Journal of Ge- ography and Geology, Vol. 4, No. 4, 2012, pp. 1-11. 6) Rai Dr.Suresh Chand : “Integrated watershed management-A case study in Sikkim, 7) Himalaya” Proceedings of National (2003) 8) Shrestha, D. P. (2006).Soil Erosion Modeling, In ILWIS Applications Guide. (www.itc.nl/ilwis/Application/applications24.asp) 9) S. Bandyopadhyay, “Drainage Evolution in Badland Ter- rain at Gangani in Medinipur District, West Benagl,” Geographical Review of India, Vol. 50, No. 3, 1988, pp. 10-20.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Urban Health Care Planning Using Geographical Information System: A Case Study of Emergency Health Care Facilities in Bhubaneswar
Dr. Krishna Chandra Rath, AssociateCity Professor,in Eastern P. G. India Department of Geography, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar Abstract During the past century, the world’s population had been rapidly congregating in urban areas. This increasing population and urbanization result in the most complex process of demand for basic necessities like health and educational facilities in urban areas and their availability. So the need of the hour is proper planning of such facilities in urban areas so that it can be made available to the urban population as well as immigrating population from outside areas. However the availability of facilities does not only mean the increase in numbers of such facilities. Rather it should focus on the properly planned location of such facilities and provision of information and support services to avail it. Historically the Government of India’s focus has been on the development of rural health system. However, over the last decade, urban health has emerged as priority in recent policies and plans as the percentage of urban population in India is growing at a rapid rate. In this context, emergency and trauma care services and their accessibility for major cities like Bhubaneswar have become one of the major aspects of urban health care planning. Though a lot of such health care service providers are coming up day by day, there is a need for monitoring and planning such development and also providing support services to users for availing such services. For this GIS technology has a major role to play. The present paper is an attempt in this regard. Key Words: Urban Health, GIS, GPS, Emergency & Trauma Care Services Introduction During the past century, the world’s population had been rapidly congregating in urban areas. Cities in developing countries have experienced rapid urbanization fuelled by the diversification of their economic and demographic growth. As a result, the urban areas are experiencing a greater pressure than rural areas. This increasing population and urbanization result in the most complex process of demand for basic necessities like health and educational facilities in urban areas and their availability. Another aspect of the pressure on such facilities in urban areas is that, compared to rural India, in urban areas the whole range of facilities like hospitals, dispensaries, community health centres of both government and private sectors exist and are widely utilised by the urban communities, whereas in the rural areas, the quality of these services, especially government services is of very poor quality (Dreze and Sen 1995; World Bank 1995), forcing individuals to visit the nearby urban areas instead. Also, the indirect costs like those associated with travel to the facilities act as deterrents for the rural population (Uplekar and George 1994); in fact, many urban areas witness large influx of rural populations to the major hospitals, indicating the absence of similar facilities in the rural areas. It is estimated that India's urban population of around 320 million is one of the largest in the world. The urbanization process in India and other parts of the world constitute a major demographic issue of the century. In absolute numbers, the urban population has increased 8 times in the last 50 years, from 44 million to 320 million. The pace of urban growth in India was high during 1951-91; the number of towns increased from around 2,843 in 1951 to approximately 5,100 in 2001. The number of cities with over one million populations has nearly doubled since 1980, from 12 to 23, with the urban population rising from 26.8% to over 35%. Urban India has four mega-cities (population over 5 million), 19 metro cities (>1 million), 3,000 large towns (> 0.1 million), and 3,396
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small and medium towns (less than 0.1 million). Urban India has 25.7% of the national population, one of the largest urban systems in the world. At the national level, trends indicate that while rural poverty is declining, urban poverty is increasing. However, health care system in India in last fifty years has focused on increasing coverage in the rural areas, leaving little or no attention towards rapid growing vast urban areas. So the need of the hour is proper planning of such facilities in urban areas so that it can be made available to the urban population as well as immigrating population from outside areas. However the availability of facilities does not only mean the increase in numbers of such facilities. Rather it should focus on the properly planned location of such facilities and provision of information and support services to avail it. In this context the role of emerging technological developments in terms of Geographical Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) cannot be ignored. Though the application of these technologies is not new in health care planning, it has not yet been utilized to their optimal extent. It is also noteworthy that, along with the day to day innovations and developments in information technology, the utility of GIS and GPS is increasing, not only in presenting the spatial data related to health facilities but also in analyzing the accessibility of facilities, spatial pattern of diseases etc. So the present paper attempts to analyze the availability and accessibility of health care services for emergency or traumatic needs in Bhubaneswar city using GPS and GIS. Study Area and Problem Bhubaneswar, the capital city of Orissa state is located around 40 Km. inward from the eastern coast of India. The river Kuakhai flows along the boundary of the Bhubaneswar city encompassing fringe areas continuously starting from northern part through eastern side to south of the city. In 1948 the master pan of Bhubaneswar city was first prepared for a population of 40,000 over an area of 16.48km2.But the 2001 census revealed the population of the city to be around 6.58 lakh (Table 1). This rapidly increasing pressure of population is resulting in a faster rate of developmental activities and there by rapid growth and expansion of the city. The present Bhubaneswar has grown in all directions covering Chandrasekharpur, Kalinganagar, Old town & areas adjacent to Daya west canal. In view of the rapid growth, Bhubaneswar Development Authority was created in the year 1982 to control the development. Interestingly, the Development process could not be restricted within its development Plan area (i.e. 93 Revenue villages 233 Sq. Km). As a result, visible effects of development are observed in the fringe areas of the city. Table 1: Population Growth in Bhubaneswar Year Population Percentage of growth 1951 16,512 -- 1961 38,211 131.41 1971 1,05,491 176.07 1981 2,19,211 107.80 1991 4,11,542 87.73 2001 6,58,220 59.93 2011 8,81,988 33.99 Source: - Census of India Presently the city, with a projected population of around twelve lakh, has emerged as a major hub for educational and health care facilities. There are five universities of the state situated in this city complex itself. The mega hospitals like Kalinga Hospital, KIMS, SUM Hospital, Hitech Hospital, Nilachal Hospital, Ayush Hospital, Apollo Hospital along with Bhubaneswar Municipal Hospital and Capital Hospital have made the city a major centre of health care facilities in the state as well as in the eastern region. Apart from these major hospitals, a lot of specialized hospitals and
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nursing homes have also been come up in the city with ICU and bed facilities. The transport and communication facilities to the capital city has added further favorable conditions.However, this situation in the city has necessitated properly planned development of health care facilities, which can ensure proper spatial distribution as well as accessibility. Objective and Methodology The basic objective of the paper was to focus the utility of GPS and GIS in urban health care planning. Further, an important aspect of availability of health care facilities in a city like Bhubaneswar is the accessibility in emergency and traumatic conditions. So it has been attempted to assess the spatial pattern of health care facilities in Bhubaneswar offering 24 hour emergency services and trauma care facilities in various ranges. In this regard, these health units have been identified through secondary information from government sources and surveyed physically in the field for collection of GPS coordinates along with other attribute information. A GARMIN make Etrex Vista model GPS was used in this regard. The coordinates were then plotted in GIS to generate the point layer for health care facilities offering emergency services. Thus the thematic layers of major roads and health units providing emergency services were generated in Geographical Information System (GIS) from GPS based survey information. The administrative boundaries and other spatial features were taken from existing secondary sources. The major roads were taken into consideration on the basis of their physical condition, traffic flow and connectivity. The analysis functionalities of GIS like buffering and overlaying techniques were used for analyzing the physical accessibility of the mapped health units to major roads and nodal points. Discussion In a fast growing busy city like Bhubaneswar, the availability and accessibility of emergency and trauma care services in various health units is an important factor necessitated by increasing population and thereby demand, increasing number of road casualties, increasing flow of patients from outside and above all ever-increasing urban stress. In this context, the locations of health units offering such facilities and ambulance services mostly determine the accessibility of such facilities. An observation of the GIS layers of health units offering emergency and trauma care services along with superimposed major road layer indicates that (Fig. 1) except SUM Hospital and Hitech Hospital, all other major hospitals are spatially distributed mostly along a north to south stretching central axis of the city. The maximum east to west width of the city is around 14 Km. where as the same for the described central axis is around 4 Km. only. This indicates an uneven spatial distribution pattern of the described health units as these remain inaccessible for residents from south-west and north-east part of the city. Infact the present plan of the city proposes a South city development plan on the south-west and East Kuakhai city development plan on the north-east (Fig. 1) and also these areas have already been populated with residential colonies. In order to major the accessibility of different zones in the city, an attempt has been made here to generate one kilometer buffer zones of major hospitals as well as other emergency service providers. Infact, the buffer zone describes the area covered radially from the facility. However, assuming a well developed intra-city transport network in Bhubaneswar and road traffic acting as main obstruction in accessing the facility in emergency, one kilometer radial distance may define the accessibility range of such services due to most of these are located besides major roads. Such proximity analysis based measurement of accessibility (Fig. 2) indicates that quite a large part of the city remains inaccessible to emergency and trauma care services. However, from this it should not be inferred that more number of health units providing emergency services are to be set up in inaccessible areas. Because for a city like Bhubaneswar, which is emerging as a regional health care service centre, this inference has no value. Rather planning should be made to improve this situation through following few initiatives- - Planning for setting up Medical assistance booths with ambulance facilities at major squares on major roads encompassed within inaccessible areas as identified. - Up gradation of few selected health units encompassed within inaccessible areas.
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Conclusion Historically the Government of India’s focus has been on the development of rural health system. However, over the last decade, urban health has emerged as priority in recent policies and plans as the percentage of urban population in India is growing at a rapid rate. In this context, emergency and trauma care services and their accessibility for major cities like Bhubaneswar have become one of the major aspects of urban health care planning. Though a lot of such health care service providers are coming up day by day, there is a need for monitoring and planning such development and also providing support services to users for availing such services. For this GIS techbology has a major role to play. In fact, in an commendable effort, the GIS unit of National Rural Health Mission, Governement of Orissa has already pioneered the integration of GPS and GIS in its urban health care planning through launching Urban Health GIS project. However the need of the hour is to carry forward this effort to encompass all the aspects of health care planning using GIS.
References 1) A situational analysis on the availability and use of health services in urban slum areas of major towns of Orissa (2003), Infant Mortality Reduction Mission, Govt. of Orissa & Development Innovators, Bhubaneswar. 2) Burrough, P.A.(1987),“Principles of Geographical Information System for Land Resource Assessment”, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 3) Chorley, R. and Hagget, P. (1967) “Models in Geography”, Edward Arnold Ltd., London. 4) Dilip TR, Duggal R. 2004. ‘Unmet Need for Public Health-Care Services in Mumbai, India.’Asia- Pacific Population Journal. June 2004: 19(2); 27-40. 5) Routray, J.K., Rath, K.C. and Sahoo, N.N. (2000) “Urban Land Development and Informal Settlement Planning: A Study on Bhubaneswar City in Eastern India”, Orissa Chapter, Institute of Town Planners India, Bhubaneswar and Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok 6) Uplekar, M. and A. George. 1994. “Access to Health Care in India, Present Situation and Innovative Approaches”. Discussion Paper No. 12. Studies on Human evelopment in India, Foundation for Research in Community Health. 7) World Bank 1997. “India New Directions in Health Sector Development at the state level: An Operational Perspective”. Report No. 15753-IN. 8) Yesudian, C.A.K. 1988. “Health Services Utilisation in Urban India”.Mittal Publications, Delhi.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Traffic Congestion-A case study of Krishnagar Municipality
Nitish Sikdar
Abstract : Traffic congestion is faced by every urban dweller and now it is becoming a major urban problem .Though it is primarily prevailed in cities of developing countries where traffic signaling system is not so well managed. Narrow roads, increasing no of private cars, encroachment of hawkers over pavements are main causes regarding traffic congestion. Krishnagar being a class-1 city in West Bengal, is no exception to the problem.To find out a clear picture, a micro level study was done to understand the causes and consequences of traffic INTRODUCTION: Krishnagar being a class-1 city in West Bengal attracts researchers attention as the city is one of the crisis ridden urban areas of Nadia District.The most prominent urban problem is associated with road congestion. The city is growing very fast; naturally the pressure of demand on the available transport system will increase. Only seven percent area of the total land is under road network which is unfavorably low comparing other municipalities of Nadia District.Population density and numbers of registered vehicles are increasing day by day in Nadia District. As an obvious result pressure on the existing limited road space is also increasing, this is leading to overcrowding of vehicles and traffic congestion. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of the paper are as follows: 1. To find out the holistic transport scenario of krishnagar city. 2. To find out the causes behind the traffic congestion of Krishnagar. 3. To find out the impact of traffic congestion. 4. To find out the possible solution for the road congestion in krishnagar city. METHODOLOGY: To achieve the objectives mentioned the present study has been based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data collected from on the basis on questionnaire survey and road survey .The secondary information and data are collected from krishnagar municipality, krishnagar RTO office , District census hand book, krishnagar traffic guard office, krishnagar bus stand office, journals ,atlas and Google earth .Maps and diagram are prepared on a computer environment using Adobe Photoshop, Map Info, Microsoft Office Excel 2007 ,Microsoft Office Word 2007 etc. STUDY AREA: Krishnanagar is an age-old town situated on the bank of river Jalangi. It is the administrative headquarters of the district of Nadia in the state of West Bengal. It is situated at about 110 K. m. north of Kolkata by the side of N.H.-34.
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The geographical extension of Krishnagar Municipal Area is 23° 22´30̎ N to 23° 25´30̋ N and 88°28´30̋ E to 88°31´30̋ E covering an area of 15.96 Sq.Km. Total population of the city is 181182 (as per Census,2011).
Transport media in Krishnagar City: 1. Private bus 2. Private car 3. Trucks 4. Byke, Scooters 5. Rickshaw, Cycle van, Motor van 6. Toto 7. Bycycle
Fig No.1 *Source: Primary Road Survey, 2016 CAUSES BEHIND ROAD CONGESTIONS: 1. NARROW ROADS: Krishnagar is one of the oldest city of Nadia district. Krishnagar Municipality was eastablished in 1864.In the city of krishnagar road network occupies on seven percent of the total built-up area.The streets of Krishnagar are not so wide spread due to lack of proper planning. The major city road namely D.L Roy road and R.N Tagore road are 5.48 metre and 6.70 metre wide respectively .Approximately fifty percent of the total road width are 2-3 meter. Fig.No .:2 Fig. No.:3
*source: RTO, Krishnagar, 2015 Table No.:1 Major roads of krishnagar with road width Name of the road Road width(Metre) 1.M.M Ghosh Street 6.70 2.Aurobindo Sarani 6.70 3.Anatheswar Road 6.03 4.Ramkrishna Mission Road 3.65 5.Nagandranagar Road 3.04 6.P.L. Chatterjee Lane 2.40 96 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
7.Kurchipota Lane 2.40 8.B.L. Chatterjee Lane 2.40 9.Haterpara Lane 2.43 10.Ramkumar Mitra Lane 5.48 11.D.L.Roy Road 3.65 12.R.N.Tagore Road 6.70 13.L.M. Ghosh Street 3.65 14.District jail Road 3.60 15.Ukilpara Lane 3.04 16.Biswambhar Roy Road 3.00 17.C.N. Ghosh Lane 4.57 18.J.N.Roy Bahadur Road 5.48 19.Baku Darjee Lane 3.48 20.Bagula Road 3.65 21.Gati Road 3.04 22.B.D. Mukherjee Lane 3.00 23.Hemanta Sarkar Lane 3.08 24.Malopara Road 3.00 25.Radhanagar Road 4.87 26.Mrtunjoy Road Lane 2.43 27.H . M . Mukherjee Road 2.40 28Mohitosh Biswas Street 2.40 29.D.N.Roy Road 3.04 30.Ananta Hari Mitra Road 5.18 *Source: Primary Road Survey, 2016 2. INCREASING NUMBER OF VEHICLES : The number of vehicles has increased considerably in the past five years,which is one of the causes of traffic congestion. As per RTO sources at present number of registered vehicles includes , 395 buses,120 Auto and more than 2500 Toto Rickshaws in Krishnagar city. Fig.No.4
*source: Private car showroom,2016. 3. INADEQUENCY OF TRAFFIC POLICE : A few number of traffic police are deployed at major traffic signals at Krishnagar Municipality.They are not managing the signals properly and most of the traffic signals are maintain by civic police though they are not well trained for managing the traffic system at peak hours.. At this present krishnagar city is supervised by 38 Government Traffic Guard and 121civic police personnel which is highly inadequate. 4. ILLEGAL PARKING AND TRAFFIC RULE VIOLATION: Illegal parking is a common habit mainly in bus stand area in Krishnagar city. Cars, Buses, Trucks, Two-Wheelers and other vehicles are parked almost everywhere. On-road parking of vehicles is one of the main reasons behind traffic congestion on different part of the Krishnagar. Due to the lack of knowledge and unwillingness to follow traffic rules people violate traffic rules and that causes traffic jam. The public buses ignore the authorized bus stoppages and picking up and dropping passengers from any point.
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5. IMPROPER PLANNING OF CITY DEVELOPMENT OF KRISHNAGAR : Krishnagar becoming a very old city .There is no proper planning but in last 20 years several city planning initiative were taken by Krishnsgar Municipality but the scenario is not much changed. 6. INCREASING NUMBER OF POPULATION: The city is growing very fast; naturally the pressure of demand on the available transport system will increase. Population of the Krishnagar has increased by 10 percent for last ten years. It is one of the bad indicators for the traffic management and this could be a vital reason behind traffic congestion. 7. HIGHER PURCHING POWER OF PUBLIC: Due to higher purchasing power of citizen of Krishnagar city the number of vehicles increasing every day but existing roads are not supportive with the increasing number of vehicles. 8. INCREASING NO OF TOTO RICKSHAW: In last two years increasing number of Toto rickshaw is now a headache of traffic police in Krishnagar. More than 2500 rickshaws ply the city roads, but only1300 have legal papers. From time to time several attempts are made to reduce the number, but the initiative was not so fruitful. Most of Toto driver are having few or no knowledge about traffic rules. Overtaking tendency of the Toto drivers create pro-longed road congestion specially at Post Office Crossing Bus Stand and Railway Station areas. IMPACT OF TRAFFIC CONGESTION:Traffic congestion has a number of negative effects - 1. The main impact of traffic congestion is wasting of valuable time. 2. Due to traffic jam consumption of fuel is increased rapidly. 3. Wasted fuel increasing air pollution in the traffic jam. When vehicles stop for a longer periods of time and their engine is on, they emit Carbon dioxides, Sulpher dioxides, Nitrogen Dioxides. 4. Every car has a running cost. Vehicle operating cost is directly proportionate to traffic jam 5. Sound Pollution is another problem related with road congestion because most of the drivers restlessly honk in traffic jams. 6. People are suffering some kind of physical or mental discomfort due to traffic jam. It is very alarming. They also suffer from breathing problem due to traffic jam. *Source:M.Pacione, 2005 SOLUTIONS OF TRAFFIC CONGESTION: 1.WIDENING OF ROADS : Roads of the krishnagar city are narrow in different place, there are several reasons like illegal possession on the road by shop keepers ,road hawkers, and illegal structure. In Bagula Road half of the road are occupied by street hawkers and same in Krishnagar Municipality to bus stand area. This kind of unlawful activity has to be prevent by imposing proper law and city development plan. 2. SETUP A NEW BUS STAND: From Krishnagar to its surroundings there are 31 bus routes, among these Krishnagar to Karimpur, Krishnagar to Ranaghat, Krishnagar to Gede, Krishnagar to Bagula, Krishnagar to to Nabadwip routes are busiest and number of buses are also very high in these route. At peak hours from 9am to 11 am and 4 pm to 6 pm these routes are remain congested. To solve this problem it is highly necessary to setup a new bus stand outside the city. 3. ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE: Some of the roads within the city are in a pathetic condition. There is no boulevard except station approach road and route signals are not properly available. 4. ADEQUATE PARKING FACILITIES: In krishnagar city there is no proper parking facility. Adequate parking facility should made available within the city like near bus stand area, Municipality crossing , Post office More, Sadar Hospital crossing, Collectary crossing etc. It is very practical that the city does not have sufficient place for allowing the vehicles freely. Unauthorised parking should be banned all over the city. 5. ALTERNATIVE WAY:
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The road which connects between D.L. Roy Road and NH34 place a crucial role for traffic congestion at Beladanga rail gate and adjacent areas. A subway may be a simple way out to solve this problem. A road can be made from Godhadanga to Kalinagar which will connect to Bagula road. 6. RESTRICTING ROUTES FOR RICKSHAW AND TOTO : Rickshaw and Toto Rickshaw should not be allowed in all routes of the city.RTO should take some responsibility to control the increasing number of Toto Rickshaw by imposing registration free and legal documentation. 7. MODERN SIGNALLING SYSTEM : In Krishnagar city traffic management system is not automated and well equipped. All the junction are no facialeted with signal lights. Modern signal system should be introduced. 8. DISCOURAGE PRIVATE CARS: It will be very helpful to reduce load on the road by discouraging private cars.A public bus can be provide 40 people more than a car but occupy only thrice the area than a car . 9. CONTROLS ROADSIDE ACTIVITIES: It is fact that a major portion of road is occupied by the hawkers, salesman and shopkeepers. A significant portion is also occupied by constructions materials, waste containers , puja pandal etc. As a result vehicles do not get sufficient space to move on. Such road side activities creating problem for the traffic should be controlled. 10. FINANCIAL PENALTY TO THE TRAFFIC LAW BREAKERS : Financial penalty can be taken for the law disobeying drivers. Traffic police should be made to dissuade the drivers from certain congestion causing habit such as wrong side driving, wrong overtaking. CONCLUSITION: Traffic congestion is a major urban problem of Krishnagar city. Due to road congestion, this City is causing the major loss in valuable time of the citizen and the loss economy of Nadia District as the city is the District Capital. By reducing road congestion, this city can bring relief and peace for the citizens by ensuring a pollution and noise free environment.To reduce the problem a holistic approach is needed which includes proper signalling system,restriction over private cars, two- wheelers and Toto Rickshaws,proper implementation of traffic rules and last but not the list awareness of the people. References: 1. Dilip Haldar: Urban Transport in India – Crisis and Cure, Bookwell Publication, 30August, 2006 2. S.C. Saxena: A course in Traffic Planning and Design, Dhanpat Rai Publication 3. Colin Buchanan: Traffic in Town; Routledge Publication. 4. K.Mahumud,K.Gope and S.M.R Chowdhury :Possible Causes and Solution of Traffic Jam and Their Impact on the Economy of Dhaka City,Journal of Management and Sustainability ; Vol. 2,2012 5. A. Chakrabarty and S. Gupta: Traffic Congestion in the Metropolitan City of Kolkata, Journal of Infrastructure Development, 2104 6. R.Samsher, M.Nayeem Abdullah “Traffic Congestion in Bangladesh: Causes and Solution: A Case Study of Chittagong Metropolitan City”, Asian Business Review,Vol.2,No.1/2013 7. Managing Traffic Congestion: Victorian Auditor General’s Report, April 2013. 8. B.Ray 1961.Nadia District Census Handbook, W.B, published by the Superintendent, West Bengal. 9. T.Harriet, K.Poku, and A.K.Emmanuel: An Assessment of Traffic Congestion and its effects on Productivity in Urban Ghana; International Journal of Business and Social Science: Vol. 4, No.3, And March2013 10. District Census Handbook (2011) ,Nadia ,West Bengal; Directorate of census operations of West Bengal. 11. www.nadia.gov.in 12. www.wikipedia.com 99 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Water Bodies and their Environmental Impact on Urban Living in Bhubaneswar Smart City
Kumbhakarna Mallik Post Graduate Department of Geography, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar
ABSTRACT Bhubaneswar is the capital city of Odisha, situated in the eastern part of India. The environment of the city has been degraded due to different man made activities. This paper critically analyses the effects of Water Bodies and their Environmental Impact on Urban Living in Bhubaneswar Smart City. Some remedial measures to counteract these effects have also been suggested. Unsatisfactory level of solid waste disposal has been observed in many urban areas. Bhubaneswar is endowed with many natural water streams. But with rapid growth of population coupled with urbanisation, industrialisation and commercialisation, the pressure on land and water resources have gone up significantly. Hence, a time has come to critically examine the various issues associated with the water bodies of Bhubaneswar and the need for their rejuvenation and renovation. Key Words: Environment, degradation, remedial measures. pollution, population. 1. INTRODUCTION Bhubaneswar is endowed with a number of natural water sources like rivers, small streams, canals and tanks/ponds in and around the city. It being a historic temple city has many temple tanks adjacent to the famous temples for use of the devotees before going to visit the Gods; the prominent among them are the Bindusagar, Nilakantheswar, and Kapileswar ponds. Rapid growth of population, owing to unscrupulous land use schemes many of the existing water bodies like ponds, lakes, canals and rivers are being encroached upon illegally either by the vested interest groups or by influential persons or even by the Government organisations in the name of development / urbanisation. Loss of wetlands and water bodies have become a common phenomena in Bhubaneswar owing to rapid expansion of construction of houses, road network, growth of slums in and around water bodies and above all failure of our water policies. Most of the natural streams (estimated to be 10-12) existing in and around Bhubaneswar and more particularly, the historic and heritage river like the Gangawati / Gangua (see the map below for the course of river Gangua) are either blocked for various construction activities or the existing ones are highly polluted due to discharge of urban liquid and solid wastes into those streams. 2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY (i) To study the Water Bodies and their Environmental Impact on Urban Living in Bhubaneswar Smart City (ii) To analyse Scope of Renovation and Rejuvenation of Water Bodies of Bhubaneswar for Water Security 3. THE STUDY AREA Bhubaneswar is located in the Khurda district of the state Orissa between 20°08′00′′ N to 20° 25′ 00′′ N latitude and 85°38’00” E to 85° 55′ 00′′ E longitude on the western fringe of the coastal plain across the main axis of the Eastern Ghats The average temperature ranges between a minimum of around 120 C in winter and maximum 450 C in summer. The present population of the city 8, 37,737
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according to census 2011 though the city was initially planned for a population of 40 thousands only. Since last few years the environment of the city has been degraded due to different man made activities, the original master plan had hardly any provision for counteracting/combating the effects of these environmental degradation. 4. Analysis I. Fate of the river front inside Bhubaneswar Among the natural streams, estimated to be 10-12 existing in and around Bhubaneswar, prominent among them is an independent tributary river of the Mahanadi system, viz. the Gangawati / Gangua that circumferences the city.The map shows only a portion of the river within Bhubaneswar. But the river Gangua originating from the Damapara-Chandka forests flows north- east direction via Nandankanan, Patia, Kalarahanga, Mancheswar, Chakeisiani, Rasualgarh and crosses NH 5 near Palasuni. The river course is either blocked due to various construction activities or the existing ones are highly polluted due to discharge of urban liquid and solid wastes into it (see the photographs given below). At many places it is converted into a sewage stream and many people do not recognise it as a river. II. Floods in the Gangua: During the monsoon seasons, when there is excess rain in its catchment area, the river water overtops its boundary and causes flooding in the vicinity. The encroachment of its flood zone of the Gangua by human activities further aggravates the problem. In the last two decades, a number of times the river has caused flooding and the severe among them are the floods of 1999, 2006, 2008, 2009 and 2013. The trend shows a rise in frequency of floods and it is likely to accentuated in the coming years to come due lack of proper planning in the river front. Often the Government machinery neglects it on the plea that it is Nala not a river. Map : Shows the river system including the Gangua and other water bodies of Bhubaneswar
III LOCALIZED FLOODING/WATER LOGGING Since the last couple of years, the city of Bhubaneswar has been experiencing localized flooding or water logging in some areas. Bhubaneswar has a system of natural drainage comprising of 10-12 drains. Due to rapid growth in infrastructure, encroachment, siltation, and dumping of debris, the natural carrying capacity of these drains has been reduced considerably. The reduced carrying capacity creates barriers to the natural flow of water during heavy rains. The city has 10 major (primary) drains/nallas and several secondary and tertiary drains running along the roads. Many of the flood plains/open areas adjacent to these drains have been recently converted into residential areas – some are approved
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residential areas and some are encroached by city dwellers. The wards reported to have water logging problems during the 2014 flood are shown in Figure. 5. Remedial Measures Suggested: With a view to rejuvenate and regain the glorious past of the Gangua that was once upon a time was associated with our heritage, history and culture, an attempt is made below to suggest some of the remedial measures for the consideration of its stakeholders, viz. the Government, BDA/BMC, general public, social activists and the enlightened citizens. Some of these suggestions are listed below: I. Conservation of the Gangua: In the National Water Policy, 2012 vide section 8 it is envisaged that there should be a thrust on conservation of river, river corridors, water bodies and associated infrastructure in a planned manner with community participation. The storage capacity of water bodies and water courses and associated wetland, the flood plains, ecological buffer areas required for recreational and social needs ought to be managed in an integrated manner to balance flooding, environment and social issues in a planned manner, particularly in the urban areas. II. Revival and Rejuvenation of the original natural streams Many portions of the stream were encroached upon by different groups of people for variety of reasons. So Bhubaneswar has lost all these natural water sources which have aggravated the water scarcity of the city and it is going to be more problematic in future leading to water wars between different groups. ✓ In order to meet the water scarcity problems, a time has come to revisit the issues and plan for revival and rejuvenation of its natural water streams. This calls for proper planning of water supply as well as waste water disposal system in a judicious manner. No direct discharge of waste water should be allowed to the natural streams. ✓ With a view to revive them, first of all the natural streams of the city should be properly identified and properly mapped by the Revenue department. Efforts should be made to stop further encroachment and misutilisation. ✓ As a first step, the BDA/Municipal authorities should construct decentralised effluent treatment plants at different location even in the simple form of oxidization ponds. In view of a good scope for revival and rejuvenation of these water bodies like the traditional streams, the BMC should set up of treatment plants at intermittent points in a decentralised manner. Rejuvenation of these natural streams be included as a part of smart city planning exercise. III. Restoration and Removal Encroachment The national policyfurther focuses on removal of encroachments and diversion of water bodies (like rivers, lakes, tanks, ponds, etc.) and drainage channels (irrigated area as well as urban area drainage) must not be allowed, and wherever it has taken place, it should be restored to the extent feasible and maintained properly. ✓ All unauthorised settlement in the form of slums should be removed on its existing dilapidated embankments at some places. ✓ The embankments of the river be identified and strengthened to protect the nearby habitations from flooding and to provide a road network for the community living nearby. Where ever there is no embankment, it should be constructed. ✓ Steps should be undertaken for massive plantation in its up-stream region as well as the proposed embankment that can help to improve the recharge of its nearby aquifers. IV. Prevention of Pollution of the river: Since the national water policy has envisaged that sources of water and water bodies should not be allowed to get polluted, we urge upon the BMC/BDA, SPCB, as well as district administration to take some of the following preventive measures: ✓ As the Gangua is a natural stream flowing through the lowest points of the city, obviously all sewage water will flow through this stream to the nearby river system. But all such discharge be allowed to flow to Gangua only after proper treatment.
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✓ Hospital waste water should not be allowed to be directly discharged to the drains nor to the river directly. ✓ A system of third party periodic inspection should be evolved and stringent pusitive actions be recommended against the persons responsible for pollution (it is a part of the national policy). ✓ At many places the municipal solid wastes are thrown into the drains and river including different idols to add to the pollution of the river. These activities should be prohibited. V. Fate of the Tanks and Ponds of Bhubaneswar In addition to a number of rivers and water streams, Bhubaneswar being a historic temple city has many temple tanks adjacent to the famous temples for use of the devotees before going to visit the Gods; the prominent among them are the Bindusagar, Nilakantheswar, Laxmisagar, Chintamaniswar, Dimireswar and Kapileswar ponds, and also Kedargouri tank which are also being polluted due to waste water discharge into them. In addition to these temple ponds, there are many water bodies created due to extraction stones and mud in the surrounding areas at different points of time. But unfortunately, due to improper urban planning, many water bodies and ponds are gradually encroached upon by the local influential people for construction activities. The encroachment of the water bodies and ponds is still continuing in the city. Some of the examples of recent attempts of encroachment are indicated in the following photographs: As a result of over exploitation and misutilisation of the water bodies, the groundwater level at different locations has gone down to cause water scarcity even for drinking and bathing. Table below shows the depletion of groundwater levels at different locations in the city, i.e., in terms of water availability in open wells the levels have gone down and in many existing well the water is not available for domestic use. The level might have gone down further in the past few years due to a lot of constructions within the city. Groundwater levels in major areas of Bhubaneswar city Water level below the ground (Open wells) in metres Major areas 2006 2010 Unit VIIII 7.12 8.25 Unit IX 6.90 7.20 Unit IV 4.58 5.25 Nayapalli 7.28 8.10 Tanka Pani Road 3.75 5.50 OUAT 2.66 3.50 BJB Nagar 3.15 4.6 Niladri Bihar 2.88 3.45 Jharapada 4.51 5.20 In addition to the adverse effects on ground water table, there are many other negative impacts, such as: ➢ In view of loss of water bodies and pollution of the existing ones, the city is facing many problems and challenges in the water front, like shortage of drinking water and spread of water borne diseases which will be further aggravated in the future years to come because of population rise, consequent urbanisation, and economic activities. 6. Possible Remedial Measures Suggested: ● All unauthorized encroachment of the ponds should not only be stopped by legal means but also encroachment be vacated, for which a coordinated effort is required by the BMC, SPCB and District Administration. ● The existing ponds in the city be renovated and rejuvenated in a Mission mode as already undertaken by the BMC for some ponds.
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● Besides, new water bodies like ponds/lakes/check dams should be created, particularly in the down hills of the small hillocks located in and around the city as a part of the Smart city planning in the form of common property resource for use of the people. 7. Conclusion In all these above mentioned remedial exercises, a greater role has to be played by all stakeholders including Government, District administration, BDA, BMC, SPCB, the NGOs and specially all those who encroach and pollute the water bodies as well as the community living downstream of the Gangue river who bear the burden of pollution and loss of productivity of land. Above all, we need a good governance system with transparency and peoples’ participation to revitalise and rejuvenate our existing water bodies. So let us all join hands with the government to find out feasible and economically viable solutions to these ensuing problems of our city. 8. References: 1. Rath, B.(1992), "Grass Roots Approach to Community Development Programmes". Productivity, Vol.33, No.2, July- Sept., 1992, pp.325-328. 2. Rath, B. (1992), "Community Action for Social Justice: Grass Root Organisation in India, (Review), Productivity, Vol.33, No.2, July-September, 1992, pp. 383-384. 3. Rath B. (2003), “People’s Participation for Efficient and Accountable Management of Irrigation Systems”, India Infrastructure Report – 2003, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp 243-246. 4. Rath, B. (2012), “Technology Devoid of Human Approach Brings Misery to the Masses: A Case Study”, presented in the 6th International Conference on “Environmental Science & Technology” organized by American Academy of Sciences, Houston, Texas, USA, June 25-29. 5. Dr. Akshaya Kumar Sabat (2012), “Analysis of the Underlying Causes of Environmental Degradation in Bhubaneswar City”, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), Vol. 2, Issue 2,Mar-Apr 2012, pp.210-214 6. Bibhuti Barik and Lelin Kumar Mallik, “Facelift Eludes Water bodies”, The Telegraph, September 4, 2012 7. Bibhuti Barik, “Revamp prod for Daya West Canal”, the Telegraph, October 7,2010
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Water Bodies and their Environmental Impact on Urban Living in Bhubaneswar Smart City
Kalyan Saha & Santanu Bera (3rd year Geography Hons. Students) Haringhata Mahavidyalaya, Dept. Of Geography, Faculty Member, ABSTRACT: Now days the Sea level change is the centre of attention in the whole world. Measuring the change and understanding its causes has improved in recent years. Mainly the thermal expansion and the melting of ice sheets cause the change in sea level. In recent years the sea level rising at increased rate and this affects the human behavior both physically and economically. So we should take some important and fruitful measures that we can face the vulnerability resulting from the sea level change to save our mankind as well as our earth. Key Words: Sea level, anthropogenic effects, Ice-sheets INTRODUCTION: Global sea level change is projected to rise during the 21st Century at a greater rate than during 1961 to 2003. Sea-level rise is a central element in detecting, understanding, attributing and correctly projecting climate change. During the 20th century, the oceans have stored well over 80 per cent of the heat that has warmed the earth. The associated thermal expansion of the oceans together with changes in glaciers and ice caps, will likely dominate 21st century sea-level rise. However, on longer time scales, the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica have the largest potential to contribute to significant changes in sea level. These changes have impacts on coastal ecosystems, water resources, and human settlements and activities. Regions at most risk included heavily populated deltaic regions, small islands, especially atolls and sandy coasts backed by major coastal developments. CAUSES: Two main reasons for sea level change are Thermal expansion of the ocean water and increase in the ocean mass. Thermal expansion: From 1955 to 1995, ocean thermal expansion is estimated to have contributed about 0.4 mm per year to sea level rise less than 25 per cent of the observed rise over the same period. For the 1993 to 2003 decade, when the best date are available, thermal expansion is estimated to be 1.6 mm per year for the upper 750m of the ocean alone, about 50 per cent of the observed sea-level rise of 3.1 mm per year Kaser and other estimate the melting go glaciers and ice caps (excluding the glaciers surrounding Greenland and Anterctica) contributed to sea-level rise by about 0.3 mm per year from 1961 to 1990 increasing to about 0.8 mm per year from 2001-2004. Ice-sheets: The mass balance of the ice sheets is a topic of considerable interest in the context of global warming and sea level rise. If and 3-5 m, respectively. Thus, even a small amount of ice mass loss from the ice sheets would produce substantial sea level rise, with advance societal and economic impacts on vulnerable low-lying coastal region.
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Anthropogenic active: Some human activities directly affect water storage, e.g., pumping ground water out of aquifers (particularly in arid regions), damming rivers to create artificial water reservoirs, and draining wetlands. Other anthropogenic effects on land waters result from changing the physical characteristics of the land through urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation. All these effects impact sea level by either increasing og decreasing runoff. Glaciers: Glaciers are very sensitive to global warming. Observations indicated that since the 1970s most of the world’s glaciers are Retreating and thinning, with noticeable acceleration since the early 1990s. Glaciers represent~35 cm sea level equivalent, potentially another significant source of freshwater mass to be added to the world’s oceans, thereby raising sea level.
Tectonic Control: Tectonic movement also controls the sea level change but causes very slow changes over millions of years.
SEA LEVEL CHANGE (PAST, PRESENT AND FETURE): Past sea level change: Sea level Varied over 100 m during glacial-Interglacial cycles as the major ice Sheets waxed and waned as a result of changes in summer solar radiation in high northern hemisphere latitudes. Palaeo data from corals indicated that sea level was 4 to 6 m (or more) above present day sea levels the interglacial period, about 125000 years ago. Climate and ice-sheet model simulations indicated that Greenland was about 3º c warmer than today and the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets contributed 2.2 to 3.4 m to the higher sea level, with the majority of the rise coming from the partial melting of the Greenland ice sheet. The last few centuries: Costal and island Tied-gauge data show that sea level rose By just under 20 cm between 1870 and 2001, with an average rise of 1.7 mm per year during the 20th century and with an increase in the rate of rise over this period. This is consistent with the geological data and the few long records of sea level from coastal tied gauges. From 1993 to the end of 2006, near- global measurements of sea level (between 65ºN and 65ºS) made by high precision satellite altimeters, Indicate global average sea level has been rising at 3.1± 0.4 mm per year. This rate is faster than the average rate of rising the 20th century
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which, in turn, was an order of magnitude larger than rate of rise over the two millennia prior to the 18th century. The last few thousand years: Sea level rose much more slowly over the past 6000 years. The sea level 2000 years ago can be deduced by examining fish tanks built by the ancient Romans. Because the tanks had to be at sea level for the sluice gates to function’ one can precisely estimate sea level during the period of their use. Comparison of this level with historical records indicates that there has been little net change in sea level from 2000 years ago until the start of the 19th century. Current sea level rise: Current sea level rise is about 3 mm/year worldwide. According to the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) “this is a significantly larger rate than the sea-level averaged over the last several thousand years”, and the rate may be increasing. This rise in sea levels around the world potentially affects human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems. Between 1870 and 2004, global average sea levels rose 195 mm( 7.7 in), 1.46 mm (0.057 in) per year from 1950 to 2009, measurements show an average annual rise in sea level of 1.7± 0.3 mm per year, with satellite data showing a rise 3.3 ± 0.4 mm per year from 1993 to 2009. Projection of 21st century sea level rise: The intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) private the most authoritative information on projected sea lea level change. The IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) of 2001 projected a global averaged sea-level rise of between 20 and 70 cm (the limits of the mode Projections) between 1990 and 2100 using the full range of IPCC greenhouse gas scenarios and range of climate models. When an additional uncertainty for land- ice changes was included, the full range of projected sea-level rise was 9 to 88 cm. For the IPCC’S Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), 2007, the range of sea level projections, using a much longer range of models, is 18 to 59 cm (with 90 per cent confidence limits) over the period from 1980-2000 to 2090-2100. IMPACTS : Impacts of sea-level rise are determined by the relative sea-level change, reflecting not only the global-mean trend in sea level, but also regional and local variations in sea-level change and in geological uplift and subsidence. The impacts are- ● Vulnerability of coastal wetlands, mangrove and biodiversity- Since coastal vegetated wetlands are intimately linked to sea level, these ecosystems are sensitive to long-term sea- level change. Modeling of coastal wetlands (excluding sea grasses) suggests that 33 per cent of global wetlands would be lost with a 36 cm rise in sea level from 2000 to 2080 and 44 per cent would be lost with a 72 cm rise level over this period. Sea-level rise could reduce also the current half-million hectares of mangroves in 16 Pacific Island countries and territories by much as 13 per cent by 2100. ● Vulnerability of coral reefs- Healthy coral reefs have kept pace with rapid postglacial sea-level rise, suggesting that projected rates of sea level rise are unlikely to threaten these reef ecosystems at least over the next few decades. ● Vulnerability of deltas- Rates of relative sea-level rise can greatly exceed the global average in many heavily populated deltaic areas. In Bangladesh accelerated relative sea level rise will compounded by increasing extreme water levels associated with more intense storm surges and monsoon rains. These are in true related to rising water temperature in the Bay of Bengal. Thus sea-level raise poses a particular threat to deltaic environments, especially nether synergistic effects of the other climate and human pressures. ● Vulnerability of human settlements and activities- The sustainability of island tourism resort in Malaysia is expected to be compromised by rising sea level causing both beach erosion and saline contamination of the coastal that are a major source of water supply of the resorts. The number of annual rice croups possible in the Mekong delta will also decline dramatically with a relative’s sea level rise of 20 to 40 cm.
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Global sea level changes: India and sea level change UNEP (1989) has identified India among the 27 countries that are most vulnerable to sea level rise. Estimated trend of the rising mean sea level (MM/year) States Hot spot Trend (MM/100year) by 2100 West Bengal Calcutta 832.317 Diamond Harbour 583.58 Haldia 332 Sager (-405.5_ Maharastra Mumbai 78 Gujarat Kandla 337 Andhra Pradesh Vishakhapatnam 52 Karnataka Mangalore (-149 before 1978) 256(after 1978) Kerala Cochin 125 India has 7,516 km of coastline of which mainland accounts for 5,422 km. We attempt to find the time trend of the rising mean sea level, measured at the nine tidal gauge stations spread in six states along the Indian coast. The worst hits are the Calcutta, diamond harbor in West Bengal; Kandla in Gujarat then again Haldia in West Bengal. The impact of global warming induced sea level has great significance to India due to its extensive low-lying densely populated coastal zone. Major loss of wetlands is projected in the states Gujarat, West Bengal and Karnataka by the possible sea level rise. India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. According to Earth trends 2001, India coast maintains 28 Mangrove species out of the 70found in the world, 12 out of 58 Sea grass species in the world. CONCLUSION : Global sea level has been rising. The average rate of rise over the last 100 years has been 1.0-2.0 mm/yr. Approximately 30% of the rate of sea level rise in due to ocean thermal expansion in re ocean warming. Mass loss in mountain glaciers and ice sheets accounts for Approximately ANOTHER 55%. So for the continuous change in the sea level adaptation and possible management should be required to live this sea level change occurring during the 21st century and beyond. Protection via hard measures such as sea walls for valuable locations and soft measures such as increased beach nourishment. Example: the construction of major dykes and leaves to protect the 10 million people who live below sea level in the Netherlands. (Planned) Retreat through spatial planning, such as implementation of no-build areas or building setbacks for areas susceptible to flooding and erosion. Example: building setback Distances in South Australia that take into account the 100-year emotional trend and the effect of a 0:3 m rise in sea level by 2050. Mangrove nursery: Without stable shorelines, the integrity of infrastructure such as roads, Airport, building, and residence may be threatened. Intact native vegetation is ideal for stabilizing shorelines. Preserving and restoring this vegetation helps maintain shoreline integrity in the face of rising sea level. Use of renewable resources: There is a different relationship between the temperature and sea level change. To protect the world from the adverse effects of sea level change as well as climate change the use of renewable resources must be taken instead of the greenhouse gasses at a hi9gh amount that cause global warming. REFERANCES: ● Anny Cazenave and William Liovel ,(2009), Contemporary Sea Level Rise, Dol-10.1146, Annu.Rev.Mar.Sci.2010.2:145.73 ● Jhon A.Church, Robert Nicholls et al, Global Outlook for ice and Snow, Page : 154-180 ● IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, m.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,Unitade Kingdom and New York, NY. USA 108 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Perception Study Of Migrant Population In Mumbai Metropolitan Region: Case Study Of Navi Mumbai.
Ms. Agrawal Amrita Anilkumar Mamta Assistant Professor, Dept. of Bachelor of Vocation, Nagindas Khandwala College of Commerce, Arts and Management Studies, Malad (West), Mumbai. Introduction Population increase can be attributed to two major factors viz. natural (multiplication) and migration. Multiplication is an endowment for mankind which can be controlled using several ways of birth control whereas migration in most of the cases is a forced change in the residence led by factors related to society, economy, polity and administration. This can be controlled, but in several other ways which are highly manipulative in nature. Areas or regions with high employability and seemingly high income act as magnets for immigrants and when such an area gets saturated with people, it starts expanding in terms of absolute land area and economy. One such prominent magnet is the city of Mumbai which is highly saturated and is expanding since inception. The present study tries to understand the origin of population and actual reasons and prominent areas of expansion in the city. The study also tries to put a light on Gandhian philosophies on population control and current population policies. Statement of the Research Problem Population in the city of dreams... Mumbai is increasing with leaps and bounds. Migration and multiplication of population in the city has led to its massive explosion. This increase has led to positive as well as negative impacts. Increased congestion, pollution and shortage of resources is experienced along with several health hazards. Unplanned urban development has given rise to slums and shanty residential areas making it difficult for administrative activities. It has led to the formation of Mumbai Metropolitan Region amalgamating Mumbai, parts of Thane and Raigad districts too. On the other hand, it can be observed that the city serves as a huge market for all sectors of economy, provides huge educational and employment opportunities and has led to an accelerated economic growth of the country at large, but, nothing comes with a price. With many employment and educational opportunities, people in the city have increased tremendously making the situation worse day by day. Review of Literature Migration has historically played a major role in the growth and development of Mumbai, the commercial centre of India. During the initial period after independence (1951-61), migrants constituted about 50 per cent of the total growth of population in Mumbai. Subsequently, the rates of growth of migrants have declined but it still remains high. The latest census data (2001) show that migrants accounted for about 37 per cent of the decadal growth of population of Mumbai. Mumbai is considered the commercial capital of India. The city offers many opportunities of employment in the field of production, sales, administration and business. About half of the male migrants are engaged in production related activities in comparison to 39 per cent of non-migrants. The non-migrants dominate the professional, administrative and clerical occupations. There were more male migrants than non-migrants among the industrial workers in manufacturing sector. The other sectors such as wholesale, community and social services and construction both the migrants and non-migrants were equally represented. Female workers both migrants and non-migrants were largely engaged in community and social services sector. This occupational pattern for both migrants and non-migrants has remained largely same over the last two decades (Singh, 2013) At present, developers or landowners, looking to change the designated land use in the Regional
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Plan, have to approach the state government. With the state looking to boost its revenue, Chief Minister Devendra Fadnavis is set to approve a proposal for easier conversion of land use zones all over Maharashtra, including in areas marked out as agricultural, public and semi-public, on payment of a premium. The Chief Minister’s Office is studying a proposal to speed up conversion of agricultural zone and public or semi-public zone (for use such as schools, hospitals, post offices, libraries) into residential zones provided the developers or landowners pay a premium charged at a percent of the ready reckoner rates. The proposal also includes easier conversion of residential and commercial zones into industrial zone (Indian Express). It is evident that metropolitan cities are increasingly becoming the focal points of urban population concentration in India. The spread effects around these cities have resulted in satellite towns and towns on the periphery experiencing high growth rates. It has given rise to extended metropolitan regions with the ones centered on Mumbai and Delhi being the most conspicuous. The growth rates have significantly declined in the satellite towns, but still remain high compared to the central city (Bhagat et. al.) Research Objectives ● To analyze the trend of population increase in the study area. ● To undertake a primary study to understand the perception of migrant population about the socio-economic aspects of their life. ● To recommend solutions for the problems discovered. Area of Study The area of study selected is the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. Its latitudinal extension is between 18030’N and 19030’N and longitudinal extension is between 72030’E and 73030’E. The Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) is spread over 4,355 sq. km. and consists of 8 Municipal Corporations Viz. Greater Mumbai, Thane, Kalyan-Dombivali, Navi Mumbai, Ulhasnagar, Bhiwandi- Nizamapur, Vasai-Virar and Mira-Bhayandar; and 9 Municipal Councils viz. Ambarnath, Kulgaon- Badalapur, Matheran, Karjat, Panvel, Khopoli, Pen, Uran, and Alibaug, along with more than 1,000 villages in Thane and Raigad Districts. The area is surrounded by the Arabian Sea in the West, Thane District in the North and East and by Raigad District in its South. Research Methodology The research methodology adopted for the present research will be rationalistic and will satisfy the demands of the research. The research methodology can be divided into three phases viz. pre-field, on –field and post- field for better clarity. Pre-Field Phase: To study the demographic factors, relevant data from the District Census Handbooks of Mumbai, Thane and Raigad published by the Census of India for the years 1991, 2001 and 2011 will be collected. To understand the origin of migration, a questionnaire to collect primary data will be formulated. An extensive literature review to understand the topic and collect texts from Gandhian ideologies and current policies, will be undertaken from several online and offline sources. On-Field Phase: A house to house survey of randomly selected houses within the study area will be undertaken. 100 households from the entire area will be surveyed. Observation method will be used to analyze the infrastructural and living conditions.
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Post-Field Phase: The results obtained from the survey will be tabulated and analyzed using different tests of correlation to test the hypothesis. The observation of infrastructural facilities will be represented using Geographical Information System- Q-GIS v. 2.6.1. to understand its role in expansion of the city. The results will be interpreted and suitable recommendations will be enlisted. Analysis and Discussion Demography refers to the study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which illustrate the changing structure of human populations.The study of the demography helps to understand the changing population structure of an area. It serves as an indirect indicator of economic change and patterns of human settlement. It is therefore essential to analyse the demographic structure of Mumbai Metropolitan Region. It will help us to understand the changing population structure and the resultant changes in the infrastructural facilities too. To analyze the trend of population increase in Mumbai Metropolitan Region, it is essential to map the data to understand the spatiotemporal relationship between population and area of study. It can be done in the following way: Table No.: 01 Population of Mumbai Metropolitan Region, 1991-2011 Total Population Sr. No. Unit 1991 2001 2011 1 Greater Mumbai 9925891 11978450 12442373 2 Thane 803389 1262551 1841488 3 Kalyan-Dombivali 836602 1076316 1247327 4 Vasai-Virar City 371910 695482 1222390 5 Navi Mumbai 307724 667611 1120547 6 Mira-Bhayander 175605 520388 809378 7 Bhiwandi-Nizampur 379070 598741 709665 8 Ulhasnagar 369077 473731 506098 A Municipal Corporations 13169268 17273270 19899266 9 Ambernath 125801 203804 253475 10 Kulgaon-Badlapur 52154 97948 174226 11 Panvel 58986 104058 180020 12 Khopoli 45039 58664 71141 13 Pen 21588 30201 37852 14 Uran 17775 23251 30439 15 Karjat 20204 25531 29663 16 Alibaug 16289 19496 20743 17 Matheran 4708 5139 4393 B Municipal Councils 362544 568092 801952 *Census of India, 1991, 2001 and 2011
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Table 01 represents the population totals for Mumbai Metropolitan Region for the years 1991, 2001 and 2011. It can be observed that the population is increasing in the region in every decade. It represents an increasing trend of population. Figures 1, 2 and 3 help us understand the spatial growth of population. It would help us understanding the reasons for the same. From the maps it can be observed that, throughout the period of three decades, Mumbai has always been the highest populated area in the region. Other areas have gradually dispersed or received population. In the year 1991, the population of Mumbai is followed by Thane and Kalyan- Dombivali. Moderate levels of population are found in Vasai-Virar, Bhiwandi-Nizampur, Ulhasnagar and Navi Mumbai municipal corporations. Lower levels of populations are observed in Mira- Bhayander and Kulgaon-Badlapur areas. Rest of the municipal corporations have very low levels of populations. In 2001, all the municipal corporations follow the same trend, except Mira-Bhayander, where population has increased over the years and Kulgaon-Badlapur has experienced a decrease in the same. The fast developing western suburb of Mira Road is at present one of the most sought-after residential destinations. This is due to the good connectivity and affordability of properties here. Due to its proximity to Mumbai and better connectivity to Thane and Bhayandar, there has been a significant growth of population in this area. 2011 has observed a steady growth in the population of Navi Mumbai, Kalyan-Dombivali, Ulhasnagar and Vasai-Virar Regions. This implies that the growth of population is still taking place at a very high rate. Since, the levels are not declining in Mumbai, it can be concluded that, newly migrated people are staying in Mumbai and the shift from main city to metropolitan region is however limited. This may be attributed to the development in the residential, commercial and transportation projects which makes it easier to live outside the main city too. Table No.: 2 Population Density of Mumbai Metropolitan Region, 1991-2011 Population Density (in sq. km.) 1991 2001 2011 3890 4445 4764
Table 2 represents the density of population for MMR from 1991 to 2011. It can be observed that the density is increasing decade by decade.
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Figure 4 represents the increase in density of population in MMR from 1991 to 2011 and it can be observed that the rate of the increase is not very high. Thus, though the population is increasing, the rate is of increase is moderate. The result and discussion of the survey to understand perception of the migrants is as follows: 1. Age Structure of the Migrants Figure 4 represents the age structure of the respondent migrants. It is observed that most of the respondents fall in the age group of 45-55 years (35%) followed by 35-45 years (31%), below 35 years (23%) and above 55 years (14%). This implies that the percentage of dependent population, when taken below 35 and above 14 together, is quite less than the independent or the working population, 35-45 and 45-55 taken together. This implies that the pressure on the productive population in the study areas is less. 2. Sex Ratio of the Migrants Figure 5 represents that the sex ratio of the migrants is low. This is primarily because the rate of male migration is higher than the rate of female migration. This is prominent in the lower income groups because they mostly migrate from highly rural areas leaving behind their families and work in Navi Mumbai. Also, women working is a taboo in certain villages even today which contributes to restricted migration. Thus, it can be concluded that males migrate more than females. Income Status of Migrants Figure 6 represents the income levels of the migrants on a monthly basis. It is observed that most of the respondents have income ranging between Rs. 30000 to Rs. 50000 followed by higher groups. Few have income below Rs. 30000. This implies that the income generated after migrating to Navi Mumbai is quite high in most of the cases which is sufficient for common man’s living. Occupational Structure of Migrants Figure 7 represents the occupational engagement of the migrants surveyed. It can be observed that most of the respondents i.e., 75% of them are engaged in the service sector followed by family business and others. People engaged in service sector are employed in jobs related to banking, finance and the corporate sector. The family businesses that are run by the migrants include sweet and meat enterprises, transportation and jewellery making. The businesses are run through ages by the ancestors who migrated decades ago. Other occupations include professional and self-employed services like lawyers, chartered accountants and doctors. Reasons for Migration Figure 8 represents the reasons for migration of the migrants. Economic reasons can be understood as the major cause of migration followed by social causes, education and others. Economic opportunities i.e., employability, better vacancies and connectivity to place of work drive people to Navi Mumbai from other regions. Social causes may include marriage and forced outmigration as in the case of Kashmiri pandits. Educational opportunities are ample in the city which attracts 113 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
many students here. Reasons for Choosing Current Locality for Residence Figure 4.7.highlights the reasons for choosing the current locality of residence. It can be observed that time effectiveness is most important followed by cost effectiveness, status match and other reasons. In a city like Mumbai, traveling is becoming difficult day by day. This is due to the increasing vehicles on road and increase in destinations. Thus, whenever people opt to choose residence, they first look at the time required to travel to place of work, time distance of market, railway station, highways and other important destinations. The cost of the locality and travel from the same are also calculated before residing in a location. Sometimes, residential locations are chosen because they help display ones economic status. This is prominent in cases of migrants residing in high income group societies. There are many such residential complexes in the area of study. Other factors could include nearness to relatives or educational prospects. Income Sufficiency Most of the migrants feel that the income is sufficient for them. However, 25% do not feel so. Money or income is one such thing that will never be satisfactory in one’s life. Hence, some people will never find it satisfactory. Moreover, with increasing prices of goods and services, it is difficult to save for future, hence, income for some is not sufficient. Happiness with Residence Almost all the migrants are highly happy with their residence. This may be because their current residence fulfils all their expectations like effectiveness of time and cost.
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Figures 12 represent changes in the life of the migrants as perceived by them. The changes for which the perception is recorded include social status, economic status, change in standard of living, space for social enjoyment, liking for social structure and environment. In all the cases it can be observed that the migrants feel positive change. This is an indication of their happiness and success of their migration. This implies that migrating to Navi Mumbai, has positively changed the Result of Perception Study for Amenities in Navi Mumbai life of the migrants and due to this reason, more and more people keep migrating towards the city. Conclusion : The problem of migration and related urbanization is acute. The physical and infrastructural aspects have helped the city take its present shape and form in the world economy and society. However, migration to Navi Mumbai has definitely contributed in making the life of the migrants better in all spheres of life viz. economic, social, educational and political. Thus, people still do not hesitate in migrating to Mumbai and its satellite towns like Navi Mumbai and starting anew. Due to continuous immigration, the city is expanding further to incorporate far off areas and has today become a metropolitan region called Mumbai Metropolitan Region. Important is to have a check on the status of environment, quality of life and quality of the city’s living conditions. Recommendations ➢ There must be a check on the location of commercial and residential complexes. This would stop overcrowding of areas and reduce pressure on resources. ➢ Planned urbanization is the need of the hour. This will help reduce regional imbalance and the socio- economic gap that exists in the area. ➢ Infrastructure especially supporting basic needs of food, clothing, shelter, health and education must be maintained in areas which already have it developed and should be developed in areas lagging in it. ➢ Since transportation is the driving force of population growth and development in Navi Mumbai, it must be enhanced in accordance with the increasing pressure of population. ➢ Low cost housing complexes such as MHADA, CIDCO, SRA, etc. must be developed by the Government authorities in slum affected areas so as to avoid the development of slums and help maintain the environmental quality of the area. ➢ Since, most of the inhabitants in Navi Mumbai are immigrants from the rural areas of the country, awareness camps related to health, education, crime, etc. need to be conducted. This will help them to be educated about healthy practices and reduce crime rates, the number of health issues and increase their educational levels. ➢ A holistic approach is required for the above so that proper attention can be given towards the betterment of the immigrants and the society as a whole. 115 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
Policy Implications ➢ The trend of population change is traced in the study. This may help predicting the future change so that precautionary measures can already be planned to avoid negative impacts. ➢ The demographic aspects have been highlighted in the study. This will help the policy makers to plan according to the demographic structure so that needs of every individual, every section and every community in the city is met for. ➢ Data collected from the survey reveals facts about the levels of income, education, age, etc. of the migrants. This may help the policy makers to design economic opportunities suitable for the immigrants so that their dreams are met and the city develops with minimum negative impacts. This will also help the citizens to achieve a better livelihood and quality of life. ➢ The perception study about amenities in the city, indirectly highlights the views of its citizens. It helps to understand the areas where improvement is needed. It actually works a s feedback mechanism that would help the policy makers to understand the product of the efforts they are putting in to make the city a better place to live in. References ➢ Acharya, Arun & Nangia, Parveen (2004). Population growth and changing land-use pattern in Mumbai Metropolitan Region of India. Uberlandia: Caminhos De Geografia. ➢ Avinashjee. (2008). Migrants, migration and Mumbai. Sulekha, Mumbai. Retrieved December 23, 2015, from http://creative.sulekha.com ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs. (1991). District Census Handbook of Mumbai District. Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs. (1991). District Census Handbook of Mumbai Suburban District. Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs. (1991). District Census Handbook of Thane District. Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(1991). District Census Handbook of Raigad District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(2001). District Census Handbook of Mumbai District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(2001). District Census Handbook of Mumbai Suburban District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(2001). District Census Handbook of Thane District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(2001). District Census Handbook of Raigad District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(2011). District Census Handbook of Mumbai District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(2011). District Census Handbook of Mumbai Suburban District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(2011). District Census Handbook of Thane District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ India. Ministry of Home Affairs.(2011). District Census Handbook of Raigad District.Maharashtra: Directorate of Census Operations. ➢ Singh. (2013). Migration and occupation in Mumbai: Issues and implications. Mumbai: Tata Institute of Social Sciences Acknowledgements I take this opportunity to acknowledge the support extended by my parents and the guidance given to me by my mentor and guide Dr. Moushumi Datta in conducting this research.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858
Growth Of Population Change In Kolhapur District, Maharashtra (India)
Dr. S. N. Patil - Head, Dept. of Geography, Kankavali College, Kankavali (MS Dr. R. B. Patil - Head, Dept. of Geography, Phondaghat College, Phondaghat (MS). Tejas N. Jaykar - Research Students, Department of Geography, Shivaji University, Kolhapur (MS) Abstract - In this paper the present study reveals the tahsilwise growth of population in Kolhapur district during 1991-2011. It has studied on the basis district census reports of 1991 and 2011. The secondary data have been collected and computed by recent research techniques and the results have been brought through tables and maps. The district is sharing 2.62 % area of the Maharashtra state. According to 2011 census, the total population of the district is 3876001. As of 2011, the district had population of 3876001, of which 33% were urban. Kolhapur, the ‘Historical and Religious City’, is currently emerging as the largest educational centre of certain cool stations, goods and services. Kolhapur district has 18 towns and 1206 villages. The distribution of the total population in the urban and rural area is 1229896 and 1050353 respectively. Growth rate of population in Kolhapur is 10.01 per cent where state population growth rate is 16.01 per cent during the 2011. Karveer tahsil is the biggest population of 1037713 constitutes about 26.77 per cent of total population of the district. The highest growth rate of Karveer tahsil is 173.11 per cent in 1991- 2001and 14.42 per cent in 2001-2011. The lowest growth rate comes from the Ajara tahsil as it is negative i.e -0.95 percent. The results have been discussed with the help of population growth rate refers to the change in population growth rate over a unit time period, often expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population, at the beginning of that period. Keywords - Growth, Population, Change, Decline, Period. Introduction Population of a country or other area is the total number of people who live in it. India is the most populous countries in the world. Our country covers only 2.4 per cent of the land area of the world, whereas it is the home of more than 16.87 per cent of the world’s population. This is the second largest followed by China i.e. 21.03 per cent. Populations change as a result of migration and a process called natural increase. Natural increase is the difference between births and deaths. Most countries have more births than deaths, and so their population increases, unless a net loss results from migration. The rapid increasing of population is a major problem in the socio-economic development of the region. The population is increasing at a very faster rate than the food grain production and its availability per head per annum. The large population size in area are directly affects resource available there e.g. reducing land-man ratio, shortage of food, water scarisity, shortage in electricity supply etc. The district is sharing 2.62 % area of the Maharashtra state. According to 2011 census, the total population of the district is 3876001. As of 2011, the district had population of 3876001, of which 33% were urban. Kolhapur, the ‘Historical and Religious City’, is currently emerging as the largest educational centre of certain cool stations, goods and services. Kolhapur district has 18 towns and 1206 villages. The distribution of the total population in the urban and rural area is 1229896 and 1050353 respectively. Growth rate of population in Kolhapur is 10.01 per cent where state population growth rate is 16.01 per cent during the 2011. Karveer tahsil is the biggest population of 1037713 constitutes about 26.77 per cent of total population of the district. The highest growth rate of Karveer tahsil is 173.11 per cent in 1991-2001and 14.42per cent in 2001- 2011. The lowest growth rate comes from the Ajara tahsil as it is negative i.e -0.95 percent. From
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this point of view, the present study growth of population change in Kolhapur district has been undertaken. Study Area Kolhapur district is located between 15 43’ and 17 17’ North latitude and 73 40’ and 74 42’ East longitude of southern Maharashtra (Fig.1). The Sangli district lies to the north, the Belgaum district of Karnataka State is to the east and south, Ratnangiri and Sindhudurg districts of Maharashtra are to the West. The region receives average rainfall 1900 mm. The main rivers of Kolhapur district are the Krishna, the Warana, the Panchanganga, the Dudhganga, the Vedganga and the Hiranyakashi. The total numbers of villages are 1196 and towns are 18. The district is consisting of 12 revenue tehsil’s namely Shahuwadi, Panahala, Hatkangale, Shirol, Karveer, Gaganbavada, Radhanagri, Kagal, and Bhudhargad. It comprises about 7685.00 sq.kms along with twelve tahsil out of which 340.04 sq.km is urban (4.42%) and 7344.96 sq.kms (95.57) is rural area. The total population of Kolhapur district is 3876001 (2011) out of total population 2645992 (68.26%) population lives in rural area and 1230009 (31.73%) population lives in urban area. Density and literacy of population of Kolhapur district is 500.34 persons per sq.km and 82.90 percent respectively. Objectives The objectives of this paper are to analyze the tahsil wise changes in growth rate of population in Kolhapur during 1991-2011. Data base and Methodology The present study is based on the tahsil wise census data of 1991 to 2011 district census reports. The data have been analyzed for total growth of population change in percentage. Calculate the most common way to express population growth is as a ratio. The change in population over a unit time period is expressed as a percentage of the population at the beginning of the time period. The positive growth rate indicates that the population is increasing, while a negative growth ratio indicates the population decreasing. A growth rate of zero indicates that there were the same number of people at the two times-net differences between births, deaths and migration is zero. The secondary data have been collected and computed by recent research techniques and the results have been brought through tables and maps. Population growth rate (Pr) has been calculated during a period of time. Population Growth rate ordinarily refers to the change in population over a unit time period, often expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the beginning of that period. The change in population growth rate is measured with the following formula.
100
Where, Pr = population Growth rate, Pn = Population of next year, Po = Population of base year and 100 are for percentage value.
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Spatio -Temporal Variation in Population Growth in Kolhapur district Table 1 show the growth of population, temporal as well spatial, is far from being even. This phenomenon was more prominent in the decade 1911-21 recorded negative population growth rate of -9.17 per cent as a result of which the year 1921 is the called the “Demographic Divide” in Kolhapur . The high mortality during this period was the product of large scale abnormal deaths due to epidemics of influenza, plague, small pox, cholera, etc. After 1951 registered growth rate 21.97 per cent, this period very high rate of population growth this period of population explosion. Deaths rates declined much faster than the birth rates. The improvement of health facilities, living conditions of the people enormously. This situation resulted in high natural increase. The highest growth rate recorded of 28.94 per cent in 1971 which continued in 1981 growth rate registered 22.73per cent followed by decline growth rate during the 21.67 per cent in 1991. During 1991 to 2011 this period birth rate declined rapidly. Decline trend of death rate continued but at a slower rate in 2011 growth rate recorded 9.95 per cent. Population Growth Rate and Distribution of Population in Kolhapur district The Table 2 shows that the population of Kolhapur district, as per 2001 census stood at 35.25 lakhs, having a share of 3.75 per cent in Maharashtra population. In 2011 census total population in Kolhapur district 38.76 lakhs. The decadal growth rate of population in this State has come down from 17.85 during 1991-2001 and 9.95 in 2001-2011 (Table No.2). The percentage of decadal growth rate has declined during the census 2001-2011 as compared to 1991-2001 in all tahsils. In fact, Ajara tahsils (-0.95 percent) growth rate is recorded negative. The table reveals that the percentage of decadal growth rate of population higher in Karveer tehsil (14.42 percent) and Hatkangale (13.82 percent) tahsils during the period 2001 to 2011. Population distribution is the geographical arrangement of the population within the physical space of the State boundaries. The major factors that determine the pattern of population distribution are: (1) geographical factors, such as climate, terrain, soils and natural resources; (2) economic, social, and political factors, such as the type of economic activity. Table: 2- Population Growth Rate of Kolhapur District (1991-2011) Decennial Decennial Growth Rate Growth Rate Tehsil 1991 2001 2001 2011 (%) 1991- (%) 2001- 2001 2011 Shahuwadi 153339 176859 15.33 176859 185661 4.97 Panhala 203904 238383 127.90 238383 259417 8.82 Hatkangale 342304 709628 107.30 709628 807751 13.82 Shirol 253404 359179 41.74 359179 391015 8.86 Karveer 332056 906886 173.11 906886 1037713 14.42 Gaganbavada 27781 32525 17.07 32525 35772 9.98 Radhanagri 169039 188107 11.28 188107 199713 6.16 Kagal 184951 248237 34.21 248237 275372 10.93 Bhudhargad 127545 144910 13.61 144910 150368 3.76 Ajara 106425 121430 14.09 121430 120265 -0.95 Gadhinglaj 175214 216257 23.42 216257 225734 4.38 Chandgad 159740 180781 13.17 180781 187220 3.56 Total 2989507 3525193 17.85 3525193 3876001 9.95 Source-1) Census of India, District Census Handbook of Kolhapur District (1991-2011). The national population policy issued in 2000 control the population growth rate and to improve the quality of life. The attainment of compulsory and free school education up to age 14 years, and the reduction of drop-out rates to under 20 per cent at primary and secondary school
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levels for boys and girls. The achievement of universal child immunization against all vaccine preventable diseases.The promotion of delayed marriage for women to 18 years (legal age at marriage for women) and preferably to over 20.Moving in the direction of this target is clearly desirable. Their attainment increased financial resources and improvements of several social sector programs. Considering the significance of population control, World Population Day is celebrated on 11th July each year. Hence, the Kolhapur district is successes the decline growth rate of during 1991-2001 as compared to the decadal growth rate registered during the last decade. Conclusion : The population of Kolhapur district is constantly changing. These population changes represent peoples’ adjustment to economic development, opportunities of employment, development of educational facilities, immigration and outmigration occurs, agricultural development, industrial development, advanced technology, social environment and the exercise of residential preferences when more people move into an area than move out during study period. Thus changes of in the size of an area’s population involve natural increase or decrease and net migration. It is clear that changes in population growth rate will increasingly affect our society. The population of Kolhapur district, like the population of the India, will continue to change as long as people vary their fertility, mortality and migration behaviors. The population of Kolhapur district is to reach 3876001. We face to challenge of anticipating these demographic changes and encouraging social institutions of education, family, economic, political, health and recreation at all organizational levels to plan in ways that will maximize the well - being and satisfaction of the population. Reference : ● M. Brockerhoff, E. Brennam. Population and Development Review, 24, 1 (1998) 75-114. ● M. Brockerhoff. Population and Development Review, 255, 4 (1999) 757-778. ● A. Kundu, S. Gupta. Indian Council of Social Science Research, Manak Publications, New Delhi, (2000). ● Registrar General Census of India, Emerging Trends of Urbanization in India, Occasional ● Paper No. 1 of 1993, Registrar General, New Delhi, (2001). ● Govt. of Maharashtra: Census of India 1991, Series-14, District Census Handbook Kolhapur District. ● Govt. of Maharashtra: Census of India, 2001. ● Socio-Economic Review and Statistical Abstract of Kolhapur District, 1990-91). ● Socio-Economic Review and Statistical Abstract of Kolhapur District, (2000-01). ● Socio-Economic Review and Statistical Abstract of Kolhapur District, (2010-11). ● Census of India, District Census Handbook of Kolhapur District (1991-2011). ● Census Abstracts of Maharashtra, (1991-2011).
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858 STUDY OF GEO-TOURISM POTENTIALS AND RELATED PROBLEMS OF POTHOLES (RANJAN KHALGE) AT NIGHOJ Prof. Dnyaneshwar D. Bombe, AssistantAND Professor, TAKLI Dept. OfHAJI Geography, Sathaye College, Mumbai Dr. H. M. Pednekar, Principal, Sonopant Dandekar College, Palghar Prof. Smt. Bharati Unni, Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, Sathaye College, Vile Parle, Mumbai
ABSTRACT Tourism is an age old important economic activity, related to natural landscapes and beauty and bounties of nature. In modern economics, tourism plays a vital role in accelerating the progress of the communities. It is also induces employment generation and infrastructural development that facilitates the overall development of a region on the one hand. On the other, the excessive and misfit utilization of resources for tourism leads to disturbance to the natural and socio-cultural environment. All round development of tourism in present era has been found to induce large scale degradation of geographical environment at a faster pace. Although it is said that geo-tourism is an environment sensitive activity which touches conservation of natural environment, it has not been total reality. In fact, geo-tourism is also studied by the researchers with narrowed perspectives while just focusing upon different geographical aspects of tourism and their spatial interpretation. Hence, to plan and develop geo-tourism as an important activity needs awareness and detailed study at a grass root level. After field observations the researcher felt that there is a need to look into the matter of awareness level of geo-tourism aspects and also suggests effective strategies for the same to make ecotourism important and useful. The trend of tourism in India with special reference to Maharashtra gives some hints of the potentials and drawbacks of tourism. The present study investigates the geo-tourism potentials of Potholes at Takli Haji in Shirur (Pune district) or Nighoj in Parner (Ahmednagar District). Physical environment is explained by using secondary sources of information and personal visits for observation. The tourism potentials and problems are studied by conducting the survey using the schedules and questionnaires. Different methods are used for analysis of the data and it is interpreted with evidences. The opportunities, drawbacks and remedies are also suggested for the geo-tourism. Key Concepts: Geo-tourism, Tourism Potentials, Drawbacks etc. Introduction: For recreation and entertainment many naturally formed landscapes like waterfalls, beaches, forest, water bodies, parks etc. are deeply exploited presently as it become integral need of human life. The tourism industry has been emerged as one of the largest and fastest accelerated economic sector globally. Tourism Potential includes surrounding physical, socio-cultural, political and economic resources of a region that would essentially form core of development of tourism activities for economic progress. Geo-tourism is an approach to learn about tourism elements of physical landforms, people’s response to tourism activities and conservation of environment also respect to local culture as well as interest in eco-friendly tourism. Geo-tourism is purposeful travel to natural sites to understand, enjoy, learn and explore the ‘natural along with cultural’ sites and taking care not to damage the integrity of it, while conducting such type of economic opportunities that would rather work towards the conservation of natural landforms along with benefits to community. Aim and objectives: To understand the potentials of geo-tourism, related activities and problems, and remedies of potholes (Ranjankhalge) at Nighoj and Takli Haji. ● To understand the present trend of tourism in India and Maharashtra. ● To know the physical and socio-cultural environment of the site. 121 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
● To investigate the physiographical and socio-cultural geo-tourism potentials of potholes. ● To investigate the impact of tourism on natural geographical landform. ● To understand the strengths and drawbacks for geo-tourism. ● To suggest the remedies to overcome problems. Methodology: To understand the geo-tourism potentials of potholes at Takli Haji and Nighoj and tourism activities, the secondary sources of information are used, such as Topographical maps, District Planning Series maps, books and magazines, different websites. To collect primary data, visit to area, photographs, observation, schedule and questionnaire etc. are used. 88 tourists were surveyed and 22 people interviewed to collect data. The data is analysed by using different techniques. Trend of Tourism: According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) highlights, tourism’s total contribution to worldwide GDP is estimated at 9 %. The international tourist arrivals in India were 7.5 million in 2013 which was projected to 10 million from 5 Million in 2007. The New Tourism Policy, 2006 highlights need of eco-tourism activities in India. Trend of tourism in Maharashtra indicates total number of tourist arrivals in the state during the period of 1st July 2009 to 30th June 2010 was 11, 47, 76, 687. Out of the total number of visitors, domestic tourists in Maharashtra were accounted 98% (11, 26, 49,754) and foreign tourist arrivals during the period of 1st July 2009 to 30th June 2010 was 21, 26, 933 accounted only 2%. In general peak month for tourism preferred is January because of pleasant climate. Hill stations and beaches are most preferred sites by the tourist. 79% of the foreign tourist/visitors preferred to visit Mumbai in Maharashtra. The next favourite is Pune (14%). The foreign tourist arrivals in Pune district is 170698 (8.35%) and ranks second in Maharashtra after Mumbai (83.38%) where as domestic tourist arrivals is 14982952 (9.67%) and ranks fourth after Mumbai (18.50%), Aurangabad (13.86%) and Ahmednagar (10.22 %) in the year 2012. There is considerable growth in domestic tourist arrivals from the year 2010 to year 2015. For the accommodation, 21 star hotels, 3 MTDC resorts and 1761 well maintained restaurants are available to the tourist but most of them are available in Pune and Lonavala. Pune district is having well connectivity by national and state highways along with network of central railway and air transport as well. The other amenities and facilities like banking, ATM canters, standard health facilities, safety, tour guides, tour operators, shopping, restaurants, stadiums, gardens, children parks, golf course, water parks, zoo, etc. are also available but in limited way such as only five professional guidance centres are available in entire district. The geographical diversity (topography, rivers, geology, climate, soil, lakes and dams, forest and wildlife etc.) in Pune district provides many opportunities for geo-tourism activities. There are many dams, lakes, forest areas, hills, river valleys, waterfalls etc. which could be developed as eco-tourism sites. In Tahsil Shirur the Ashtavinayak Ganapati at Ranjangaon, Sambhaji Maharaj Samadhi Sthal at Vadhu, Shri Kshetra Ramlinga at Shirur, Mastani Kabar and Vidnyan Ashram at Pabal, are important socio-cultural places that significantly attracts large number of tourists. But Ghod dam at Shirur, Morachi Chincholi and Ranjan Khalge (Potholes) at Takli Haji or Nighoj are important sites for Gco-tourism. According to Pune District Tourism Plan Ranjan Khalage (Potholes) at Takli Haji or Nighoj is included in Tourism Circuit of Pune. The two day visit plan can include Ranjan Khalge – Morachi Chincholi (halt) – Ranjangaon (Ashtavinayak) – Sambhaji Maharaj Samadhi (Vadhu) – Tulapur Triveni Sangam – Alandi – Pune, covering about 150 km distance. According to circuit development budget cost in the year 2015 was 1895.95 lakhs. Ranjan Khalge at Nighoj and Takli Haji is the unique geomorphological structures attract large number of geographers, geologists, geomorphologists, researchers, school and college students and local people to observe and study it. The socio-cultural footprint of Malganga Devi and celebrations is another major attraction for local and other visitors also.
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Ranjan Khalge (Potholes): Potholes and Canyon are located at 180 55’ North latitude and 740 15’ East longitudes. It is 78 km away from Pune, 70 km from Ahmednagar, 40 km from Alephata, 25 km from Ranjangaon via Takli Haji and 3.5 km from Takli Haji (Shirur Taluka) of Pune district and Nighoj (Parner Taluka) of Ahmednagar district. Nearby International Airport is located in Mumbai. By railway one can reach to Pune or Ahmednagar from all over India. The site is connected by roads from Mumbai, Pune, Ahmednagar, Khed, Alephata, Parner and nearby villages.
Physiographical Environment: The area forms a part of the Deccan trap region which is primarily a part of plateau. The rock of the study area is stratified trap of igneous rocks (effusive) generally basalt and associated Lavas and Tuff. As Pune district lies in Monsoon Climate region experiencing rainy, retreat of monsoon, winter and summer seasons, the average temperature experienced around 300 c and 50- 60cms of average rainfall. Soils found in the nearby areas are medium black, brown and fresh yellow to dark brown formed on the bank of the river. Vegetation mainly consists of Tropical Dry Deciduous and Tropical Thorn type but found to be degraded with extension of agricultural activity. Babhul, Neem, Ber, Cactus, Chinch, Jambhul, Nirgudi, Tarwad, Mango, Sandalwood, etc are common species found in the area. The underground water level is depending on aquifers with secondary intergranular porosity and fractures. Wells, tube wells, lakes, and dams are the major sources of water. The river Kukadi is flowing through the village. Near a temple, the river forms a deep Canyon which has resulted in many huge Potholes like structures carved in the bed rock because of the natural erosive action of the water and the abrasion by loose material moving with the water. These potholes are spread over three kilometres with an average depth of over 40 to 120 feet. Canyon : It is said that these rocks were formed of alternative layers of hard and soft rocks where soft rocks get eroded faster compared to hard rocks forms depressions are formed. It is observed that the different colours of rocks found in the area. In later stage the rolling of sand and pebbles in it, have caused further abrasion and erosion are responsible for formation of potholes. Alternative layers of hard and soft rocks and erosion
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Depressions and stacks It is also said that at one point, sudden geological disturbances occurred and a huge canyon was formed. The river flowed through this canyon with a great force formed huge holes in the rocks. Most of the part of river bed is having coarse boulders or pebbles and absent fine sand which confirms the gradient of slope between 20 to 80 meters per kilometre (India Physical Map- NATMO). Compactness of rock, presence or absence of joints is found to bring decisive impact on the potholes variations and formation irregularities. The nick points in the area are the prominent break in slope and have contributed to high rate of weathering finally to induce the development of potholes. Socio-cultural and Economic Condition: The study site is a rural area that includes Nighoj village having population around 13600 and Takli Haji village having 5952(Census of India-2011). The major population belongs to Hindu religion and very few are Muslims. The majority of population is engaged in agriculture. Bajara, wheat, jowar and pulses are important food grain crops grown in the village. As irrigation is available, many cash crops are grown like sugarcane, banana, grapes and vegetables. Health facilities and government and private educational institutes are the strengths for the development of the area. Many temples are located in both the villages. The physiographical unique identity of potholes attracts large number of tourists. Majority of tourists visit to study the potholes and village fair (Yatra) in the month of Chaitra. Kundmauli Malganga is famous and most visited temples located both sides of river Kukadi. The old temple is situated in Nighoj village. Many mythical stories are attached to the existence of goddess in the village. The emergence of the Ghagar (Mudpot) in village well (Barav) steps is also a sect of celebration. Around 1,50,000 people visit here during 3 days of ‘Chaitra Pournima Yatra’. Kalashtami Utsav is also popular for ‘Ambil’ and ‘Bagad’. Kundyatra and Urus are other major celebrations enjoyed by the villagers. Tamasha, Kusti Akhada, Chhabina, Kathi and Ghagar Miravnuk, Bhajan, Kirtan and Devicha Jagar, Pooja and Arati are some of cultural activities conducted during these festivals. Offerings to the Gods and Goddesses are also the important part of culture. Race of bullocks (Bailgada Sharyat) is also a part of the festival but it has been banned by the High Court. Many types of food stalls (Shev-revadi, Bhel, Jalebi, etc.) cutleries, juice stalls and toys stalls are also available for shopping during festival time. Merrygo-round and Kulfi are the children’s favourite. Annadan (Offering a food) , naivadya and offering of sweet dish (Pooran Poli) to the group of five or seven ladies (Suvasini) is also an integral part of the festival. The people who have migrated to other cities and villages for employment also come on these occasions to village. Every year many investigators come here to study the process, structure and formation of potholes. Around 200 to 800 local visitors visit the place daily. Many schools and colleges also visit the place. Condition of Tourist Arrivals, Accessibility, Infrastructure and Facilities, Sanitation and Cleanliness: The tourist flow is low. 88% visitors were the local people and 22% were from other Talukas or Districts. Foreign tourists visit very rarely. Out of total daily visitors, 42% were females and 58% were males. As most of females are engaged in agricultural activities they do not travel for tourism in large number in comparison to males.
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64% tourists were the devotees of Devata Malganga and were not much interested in observing the potholes. Hardly 9% visitors have shown enthusiasm to observe the potholes carefully and take photographs of the same. Majority of them were teachers, students or educated visitors who were keen to know about potholes and canyon as landforms through actual observation. 27% tourists were given preference to both.
The condition of transport facilities are average as 58% tourists responded average, 12% good and 30% poor. The connectivity was observed to the site through road network. The State Transport buses are available to reach the tourist to village. Private mass transport in the form of auto service is also available although the frequency is low. Cleanliness is poor, where 81% tourist responded poor, 11% responded average and 8% responded well. Sewage and solid waste management is absent as 96% tourist queried about availability and maintenance of the system. Foul smell comes out of the river due to direct disposal in the river from the nearby areas. Flowers, plastic bottles, left food and other garbage are deposited in the potholes. Public toilet is available but in unclean condition. No appointed staffs are available to pick-up the garbage. Safety measures are also poor. No life guards or policemen or security guards are available as 62% tourist responded unsafe and 38% responded safe or no need of safety measures as it is a rural area and most of people are devotees of goddess subsequently no need to worry about safety measures. Safe drinking water is one of the important essentials for tourism. About drinking water 92% tourist responded the availability of safe drinking water easily and only 8% responded negatively. Street lights are available but because of load shedding villagers do not get enough electricity. Public convenience and maintenance of facilities are poor responded by 69% of tourists. Enough parking spaces are available. Tourist information Centre and guides are not available. Accommodation is poor and Bhakta Niwas is not yet much used by the people. Shops are available for marketing. The quality of goods and food items found inferior. No Star hotel or motel available for the tourist. The satisfaction of tourist is average responded by 64% tourists. They are willing to have many other facilities such as children’s park, museum, well equipped cinema theatre etc . The tourist does not get shelter facility for rest during summer. Very less trees are found nearby potholes. Unplanned concretization and constructions are damaged the beauty and original look of
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the site. The administration lacks in advertisement. Also scribing with paint on rocks of potholes does look horrible. The suspensible metal bridge to cross the river is also one of attraction to the people. The bridge is used to cross the canyon by the deities. Social gatherings are attended by many villagers as a part of their responsibility and attachment to the native place. By observation and interview with tourists it can be concluded that availability of safe drinking water, place for rest, parking space, and participation by villagers and shops for marketing are strength for tourism. Rest all other factors important for tourism development need to pay attention to improve or introduce the facilities to tourist like safety, health, sewage, solid waste management, transport, maintenance system, guides, other recreational facilities etc. Suggestions: It can be suggested to promote it as a world famous tourist destination, well connection to other nearby tourist spots like Devi Bhoyare, Sugar factory, Village market at Belhe, Wind Mill near to Garkhindi and Karst landforms at Vadgaon Darya as well as Ghod Dam, Parashar Agro-tourism centre at Rajuri, Vidnyan Kendra at Pabal, Manikdoh Dam, Plant Nurseries, GMRT etc. are essentially needed. The appointed and trained tourist guides needed to be provided. Safety measures to be taken care by local police station and appointed life guards from village. Sanitation and solid waste management can be taken care with support of NGOs. To attract foreign tourist to stay in this area need improvement in transport facilities and world standard accommodation. Vigorous marketing, aggressive advertisement and promotion of recreation and entertainment should be done on a priority basis. Participatory approach from political leaders and community is must for development of tourism. Strengths and Weaknesses studies about environment of potholes required to be done on urgent basis to promote geo-tourism approach. Sign and information boards along major roads in surrounding area are must to pay attention of common travellers from nearby route. Organized development of other nearby tourist destination as a circuit and transport service supposed to be made available to common people at a reasonable rate. Tree plantation drives, social forestry, community shelter are needed to be introduced. The programmes related to awareness and importance of biodiversity and habitat etc. needed to include in community education drives. Detailed tourism master plan need to be prepared considering rocks, minerology, slope, minor landforms with proper implementation of geo-tourism guidelines by special drives with proper planning and effective execution. Shirur or even Parner taluka needs the further research for geo- tourism development. There is no doubt that Shirur must be developed as tourism taluka and potholes as a destination in terms of geo-tourism activity. It is a sole responsibility of local people and governance that the potholes site should be developed on the guidelines of eco-tourism as a geo-park to promote tourism without disturbing the natural beauty of it. References: 1. Ray Youall : Tourism : An Introduction – Longman : First Edition – 1998, pp 74-102. 2. Batra G.S., Tourism in the 21st century, (1996), Anmol publications Pvt. Ltd. pp 245 3. Kundamauli Malganga Darshan information booklet published by Shri Malganga Gramin Vikas Trust, Nighoj. 4. Santosh Deshpande : Paryatan Margdarshika, Maharahtra, Samarth Udyog Prakashan, Aurangabad, 2014, pp 31 – 37. 5. Vivek Soutadekar : Pune Jilha – Samanya Dnyan, Vidyabharati Prakashan, Aurangabad, 2014, pp26-35 4. Final District Tourism Development Plan for Pune District -Published by Consulting Engneering Service (India) Private Limited: Department of Urban Planning. 5. Action plan to increase the number of foreign tourists visiting India, Consultant Report written for the Ministry of Tourism GOI, by ACNielsen ORG-MARG, New Delhi, December 2007.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858 Species Community Measure And Management Based On Quadrat Method In Rajabhatkhawa, West Bengal Subhashis Biswas Research Scholar, Dept. Of Geography, Calcutta University.
ABSTRACT: The current process of industrialization, urbanization and globalization are adversely influenced on the natural resources like land, water, forests etc. There are almost needs of conserve and utilize these resources in a sustainable manner since they are the very basic components of human development. Targeting community managed forests for the purposes of maximizing the success of implementation of any schemes may be a sensible approach, followed by further discerning under what biophysical, institutional, market and policy settings, community managed forests are more likely to persist in time and space in relation to other types of forest conservation strategies (e.g., Hayes and Persha, 2010; Phelps et al., 2010). Rajabhatkhawa is a famous in-situ and ex-situ conservation center of North Bengal. It is a small scenic village located in the foothills of the Himalayas in the Alipurduar district of West Bengal. It is situated just outside of the Buxa Tiger Reserve forest. A number of 249 species including 91 species of Trees, 81 species of Shrubs, and the rest 77 species of Herbs lived in this protected forest. Quadrate method is one of the most appropriate methods that applicable for measuring community structure of biodiversity in a terrestrial area. Rajabhatkhawa is covering an area of 395 hectares and 5 hectares land reserved for only Herbal and medicinal plant garden. Rajabhatkhawa is an interesting place for the Orchidarium, the Silviculture farm, Herbal and medicinal plant garden, Nature Interpretation Centre, vulture conservation & breeding center and Animal Rescue Centre. This institution are established only for environmental management and conservation. INTRODUCTION: Rajabhatkhawa is a small scenic village located in the foothills of the Himalayas in the Alipurduar district of the state of West Bengal. It is situated just outside of the Buxa Tiger Reserve forest. Rajabhatkhawa is a famous in-situ and ex-situ conservation center of North Bengal. Local people said that, after getting released from the hands of the King of Bhutan, the Maharaja of Coochbehar, Dhairjendra Narayan took his meal with rice at this place and from then it is known as“Raja Bhat Khawa”. Rajabhatkhawa is a famous tourist attraction point in North Bengal. The place is embraced by lush green forests and hills and offers an enchanting experience of the green darkness. Rivers such as Jayanti and Raidak borders this small settlement. Rivers such as Jayanti and Raidak borders this small settlement. Rajabhatkhawa is a silent hamlet in Alipurduar. The place is marked by marabout 50 households, a small market, a railway track that runs through the village and a railway station. Rajabhatkhawa is an interesting place for the Orchidarium, the Silviculture farm, Herbal and medicinal plant garden, Nature Interpretation Centre, vulture conservation & breeding center and Animal Rescue Centre. A number of 249 species including 91species of Trees,81 species ofShrubs, and the rest 77species of Herbs lived in this protected forest homogeneously (WB forest report 2010). Buxa National Park is home to 150 Orchid species - some of which are showcased in the Orchidarium. The Nature Interpretation Centre at Rajabhatkhawa defines and displays human’s impact and equation with the nature of the Buxa National Park. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this present study is to portray the environmental management and palladium .The study also enlightens: In-situ support sustainable forest management.
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The impact of forest management on biodiversity. Use the quadrat method for studied communities. LOCATION: Rajabhatkhawa is located under Kalchini block of Alipurduar district. Latitudinal and longitudinal location of this area is 26°61’78”N, 89°53’32.3”E. It has an average elevation of 221 m (725 ft.). It is 15 Km away from Alipurduar town and it is located in between Alipurduar and Jayanti. Rajabhatkhawa is a vast natural biodiversity hotspot, covering an area of 395 hectares and 5 hectares land reserved for only Herbal and medicinal plant garden. METHODOLOGY: The methodology adopted in this paper includes pre-field work, field-work, post-field work. During the pre-field work necessary information had been collected from The Nature Interpretation Centre at Rajabhatkhawa, District Forest office of Alipurduar and various governmental organizations. A number of librarians were consulted for collection of secondary data and information. GEOGRAPHY OF RAJABHATKHAWA: Rajabhatkhawa is situated in “Dooars” region. Dooars is one of the important geographical regions of West Bengal in India. The Dooars or Duars are the floodplains and foothills of the eastern Himalayas in North Bengal around Bhutan. The great alluvial plain occupies a Synclinorial depression between the peninsular India and the eastern front of the Himalaya. It is not totally burried underneath the alluvium which is composed of the Sediments borne down by the rivers of the Himalayan river system. Jayanti and Raidak are Main Rivers of this area. The village is situated at 12 km south from Jayanti River. Soil is the thin surface-layer on the earth, comprising mineral Particles formed by the breakdown of rocks, decayed organic materials, living organisms. The soils of Dooars Region are mainly acidic and alluvial. The area lies in the moist tropical zone. The average temperature is 25°c - 27°c. South - West monsoon is the main source of rainfall. Average rainfall is 3500mm/year. SILVICULTURE FARM IN RAJABHATKHAWA: Silviculture is a process to conserve a plant species in its purest form. This is practiced mainly for commercial forestry. Processes: 1) Hurling 4) Grafting. 2) Cutting 5) Seed propagation 3) Tissue culture 6) Poly house These processes of Silviculture are mainly practiced for timber plantation. NAME OF THE PLANTS GROWN IN RAJABHATKHAWA SILVICULTURE CENTER: Gamari (Gmelina arborea), Sissoo (Dalbergia Sissoo), Chikrasi (Schima wallichii), Gokul (Ailanthus grandis) Mahogoni (Swiertenia mahogoni), Benteak. NAME OF THE PLANT SPECIES WHOSE CLONE IS DONE: Ritha (Sapindus deterens), Champa (Michelia champaca), Setisal (Delbergia latifolia), Bokul (mimusops eleugi), Latar (Artocarpus chaplasha), Nuxvomica (Strychnos nuxvomica), Chabika (Piper chabahunter) Tejpata (Cinnamomum tamala), Amlaki (Emblica officinalis), Kainjal (Bischofia javanica), Jalpai,Holong and Black pepper. In Rajabhatkhawa, monoculture plantation is practiced.
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Management: Drainage and water management is required it is very important for Silviculture. Pest management is also very important for Silviculture. Weed management. Fertilizer management. A clonal mother plant is always kept to maintain a Germplasm. Due to economic value this Silviculture process should be widely practiced for different types of valuable plants in west Bengal and also this process should be improved by modern techniques to produce maximum yield. HERBAL AND MEDICINAL PLANT GARDEN IN RAJABHATKHAWA: Medicinal plants and herbs are used for produce drugs, though usage are very few for commercial purpose. Those plants are found in the forest of Dooars and also cultivated. The important medicinal plants of the Dooars and the drugs obtain from them are listed below: NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME FAMILY USES Phloqacanthus Bronchitis, Whooping Cough and Rambasak Acanthaceae thyrsiforomis as Antiseptic. Knata Blood Dysentery, Wounds Barleria lupulina Acanthaceae bishalyakarani Haematosis. Panidotarus Dioscorea deltoidae Dioscoriaceae Birth control, Fever. Kemuk Costus speciosus Costaceae Cough and Cold fever. Titapata Artemisia vulgaris Compositae Fever and Skin Disease Diarrhea, Eczema, Epilepsy and Boch Acorus calamus Araceae Repertory Disease. Cissus Asthma, Wounds, Burns and Harjora Vitaceae quadrangularis Bone Fracture. Fever, Dysentery, Leprosy, Androgaphis Kalmegh Acanthaceae Deworming and General peniculata weakness. Basaka Adhatada vasica Acanthaceae Expectorant Asthma. Antispasmodic, Useful in Asthma Belladonna Bacopa moonieri Acanthaceae and Whooping Cough. Disorder of Nervous System Brahmi Bacopa moonieri Scrophulariaceae Constipation, Promotes Urination. Soar Throat, Bronchitis, Asthma, Jamun Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae Ulcer and Dysentery Source: Herbal and medicinal plant garden, Nature Interpretation Centre, Field Survey and Forest office Alipurduar. WILD ORCHIDS OF RAJABHATKHAWA: Orchids are perennial epiphytic herbs.41 genera and 94 sp. of orchids are found in the North Bengal (Rajabhatkhawa) Epiphytes are grown on other plants (mostly woody arboreal), but don’t take food from them by suckers. They only grow on the host plants bark’s habitation. Epiphytes mostly cling to the other plants by means of clinging roots. All epiphytes possess aerial roots by which they can absorb moisture from air, as they can’t absorb water from the soil. CHARACTERISTIC OF EPIPHYTES: Epiphytes are a kind of Autophytes. They possess aerial root covered by a layer of water absorbing tissue i.e. velamen, by which they absorb moisture from air. They generally grow on moisture containing area or shaded area (Habitat). They also possess anchoring roots, through which they anchor the bark of host plants. Ill developed leafy or scrapes, rhizomatous stem.
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TYPES OF EPIPHYTES: There are different type of Epiphytes,Fern, Orchids, Epiphytic angiosperms, pteridophytes, Moss. Sometime epiphytes also play an important role as climate indicator and pollution indicator. LIST OF ORCHIDS FOUND IN RAJABHATKHAWA: Aerides multiflorum. D. farmari Gastrochilus acutifolium A. odoratum. Ephemerantha macraei Liparis longipes Agrostophyllum khasinum Eria acervata Luisia brachystachya Arachnis cathcartii E. clausa Micropera mannii Bulbophyllum affine Geodorun densiflorum Otochilus albus B. listeria D. anceps Paphiopedilum fairieanum Ceratostylis himalica D. darjeelingensis Vanda cristata Coelogyne flavida D. densiflorum Cymbidum aloifolium Dendrobium aduncum Source: Field Survey, Orchidarium center and Nature Interpretation Centre. Use of orchids: ❖ Orchids are used as an ornamental plant. e.g. - Dendrobium sp., Paphiopedilum sp. ❖ Vanila planifolia – its dried pulpy fruits yield vanilla – a scent for flavoring chocolate and confectionary. ❖ It also has some medicinal values. e.g. – Geodrum densiflora (root stocks are used as insecticide), Eulophia epidendrae (Tubers are used as vermifuge). ❖ A dye is obtained from the leaves of Calanthe veratriflora. STUDY OF COMMUNITY STRUCTURE BY QUADRAT METHOD Quadrate method is one of the most correct methods to study the biodiversity in terrestrial area. This method cannot be used in aquatic medium as surface of aquatic medium cannot be precisely marked.Quadrat sampling is a method used to intensively sample a subset of a system, so as to obtain a representative sample. The technique involves randomly selecting square areas (quadrats) of a specific size within a study site and collecting data of interest within these quadrats. For example, you might randomly place ten 1m2 quadrats within a forest area and collect biological and physical data from within the quadrats. Multiple quadrats which act as replicates are placed in a random way, to ensure that the data represent an unbiased picture of the system. When true randomness cannot be obtained, haphazardly selecting plot locations is often used. Determining where to place a sample of plots is critical to a good study, and there are a variety of techniques available. Some of these include “over the shoulder tosses,” randomly generated positions, and stratified samples. Quadrat sampling is commonly used to sample communities of plant species in forests. Principle: Quadrates are measured areas of any shape or size but usually square, hence the name quadrates are given at random to differentiate areas for study of different species present in those respective quadrants. Location : In Rajabhatkhawa forest beside vulture Breeding and conservation center. Date and time : 24th February 2014, 02:30pm. Procedure: An area of 100 m2 was demarcated in the forest. 1. The number of different species was noted. 2. The number of each species was noted. 3. In this way 10 different quadrates were studied.
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Determination of Frequency and Density of Species in the Community by Quadrate Study
Number of quadrate in which the sp.Occurrence Frequency = ×100 total number of quadrates sampled
Total number of individuals of each species Density = ×100 Total number of quadrates sampled
Number of Quadrate Occurrence (%)
Plant Species
Done
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ∑X Density
Occurrence(4)
Frequency
Total Quadrates Total Quadrates Total Quadrates
Abundance (3/5) Abundance Lagerostouria 4 2 1 2 1 3 - 3 3 5 24 9 10 90 2.4 0.9 Sp. Coffea Sp. 8 7 - - - 4 - 4 - - 23 4 10 40 2.3 0.4 Sizygium Sp. 5 3 - - - 5 5 - - - 18 4 10 40 1.8 0.4 Tabernaemonta na Sp. 5 5 3 3 7 15 13 8 6 5 70 10 10 100 7 1 Melastroma Sp. 6 ------6 1 10 10 0.6 0.1 Clerodrendon 5 8 6 - 1 5 3 8 - 4 40 8 10 80 4 0.8 Sp. Chikrasia Sp. - 1 ------1 1 10 10 0.1 0.1 Ficus Sp. - 2 - - - 3 - - - 6 11 3 10 30 1.1 0.3 Lea Sp. - 4 1 2 - 4 6 - - - 17 5 10 50 1.7 0.5 Datura Sp. - - 2 1 ------3 2 10 20 0.3 0.2 Murrya Sp. - - 1 - - 1 2 - 9 6 19 5 10 50 2 0.5 Eupatorium Sp. - 9 1 4 3 - - - - - 17 3 10 30 1.7 0.3 Mikenia Sp. - - 8 5 9 - - - 20 - 42 4 10 40 4.2 0.4 Melia Sp. - - 1 ------1 1 10 10 0.1 0.1 Nephalium Sp. - - - 1 1 - - - - - 2 2 10 20 0.2 0.2 Grenia Sp. - - - 1 ------1 1 10 10 0.1 0.1 Moringa Sp. - - - - - 2 - - - - 2 1 10 10 0.2 0.1 Adhatoda Sp. ------6 - 6 1 10 10 0.6 0.1 Calotropis Sp. ------8 - 8 1 10 10 0.8 0.1 Source: Field Survey On The Basis Of % Value, Various Sp. Are Distributed Into Different Classes As Follows: Frequency Frequency No. of Species percentage class 1 -20 A 9 21 -40 B 5 41 - 60 C 2 61 - 80 D 1 81 - 100 E 2 In the community studied, the following conclusion can be reached: 1. The most frequent species is Tabernaemontana diverticulum followed by Laqerostouia Sp. 2. Tabernaemontana diverticulum is the densest.
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3. The least frequent and dense species are Melastroma Sp, Chikrasia Sp, Melia Sp, Grenia Sp, Adhatoda varica, calotropis Sp. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND RECOMMENDATION: Based on the case study Rajabhatkhawa, it is found that some species has become obsolescent. Some of the species somehow are kept their existence. Near above one decade ago government has set up Silviculture farm which help to increase the number of various species in this area. All kinds of obsolescent orchid are trying to preserve in the Orchidarium in Rajabhatkhawa of this herbal and medicinal plant garden of North Bengal. There are 249 kinds orchid are preserving here. The government as well as NGO’s must take the initiative to manage forest and biodiversity conservation of this area. Above all if the local people are associate directly or indirectly with the conservation, then it will become successful. “. . . forest protection per se does not yet ensure the maintenance of species”, we suggest that protected forests represent a critical complement to sustainable integrative forestry practices employed on the majority of landscapes (Keeton, 2007; Bollmann and Braunisch, 2013). In spite of the efforts in recent decades, much needs to be done for forest management: Generating public awareness and interest in biodiversity conservation. Sustainable use of components of biodiversity. Impact assessment and minimising adverse impacts. No forest working in representative ecosystems. CONCLUSION: Rajabhatkhawa is small living museum for fauna in Buxa Reserve Forest. The missing out herbs, orchids and trees of the Buxa Reserve Forest area are preserved specially and successfully in Rajabhatkhawa. As the plants are increasing the Bio-diversity are conserving. As the constructive development has increased the Ecotourism has also increased in this area; which helps to free from direct forest economy to indirect forest economy. The local people realized the importance of forest conservation and they become more initiative. This paper assesses the role of protected and community managed forests for the long term maintenance of forest cover.Dead wood and other habitat features are often found in old-growth conditions (e.g. Bobiec, 1998; Standovár et al., 2006), and their presence across space and time is a precondition for many species (Müller et al., 2007). Nevertheless, a general agreement exists that a mix of different forest conservation strategies are needed across the tropics that integrate public-, private-, and community-managed areas (Bray et al., 2008; Naughton-Treves et al., 2005; Nepstad et al.,2006). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This author is grateful to Prof. S C Mukhopadhyay of former head of geography department, University of Calcutta, Kolkata; Chandan Das, Ex- student, Department of Environmental Science, University of Kalyani, Nadia; Pranami Sur of Madras University who have extended their valuable advices and active co-operation in different ways in the preparation of this article. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1) Bhattacharya S, Maity R, Sarkar G, Ghosh G, Mukherjee D, Mukhopadhyay C: Socio- Environmental survey of an ecologically important forest edge hamlet in Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, India. (2016) International Letters of Natural Sciences. ISSN: 2300-9675, Vol. 52, pp 67-83. 2) Bhattarai N: Beyond the Biodiversity Convention - the challenges facing 87 the bio-cultural heritage of Indians medicinal plants. (1997) Global initiative for traditional systems (gifts) of health Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations. Rome. pp. 87-99. 3) Debnath Sailen. The Dooars in Historical Transition, ISBN 9788186860441 4) Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants: The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland, in partnership with The World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland, and WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland, 1993. 132 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
5) Kohli R.K., Batish D.R. and Singh H.P: Population and Community Ecology. Centre for Environment and Vocational Studies, Panjab University, Chandigarh. pp. 14 - 17 6) Mishra R and Ray D: Integrated Action Plan ‐ Buxa Higharcs (India). (2011) Centre for the Development of Human Initiatives Composite Complex Phase II Jalpaiguri-735101. 7) Nandi, B. C. 2004. Checklist of Calliphoridae (Diptera) of India, Rec. zool. Surv. India, Dcc. Paper No. 231: 1-47. (Published by the Director, Zool Surv. India, Kolkata).Published: September, 2004ISBN: 81-8171-052-5 8) Sarkar, S. K., Saha, S. & Raychaudhuri, D. 2015. On the taxonomy of Scarabaeine fauna (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) of Buxa Tiger Reserve (Btr), West Bengal, India. Munis Entomology & Zoology, 10 (1): 18-48. 9) Sarkar S, Saha S, Raychaudhuri D: Click beetle diversity of Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, India. World Scientific News.(2015) EISSN 2392-2192. 10) Weaver, J. E., "The Quadrat Method in Teaching Ecology" (1918).Agronomy and Horticulture Department at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln.Paper 516. Vol. 21 No. 11, pp. 267 -282 http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/agronomyfacpub/516 11) West Bengal state Forest Report (2011- 2012). Government Of West Bengal Directorate Of Forests Office Of The Principal Chief Conservator Of Forests, Head Of Forest Force Kolkata. pp. 45-64. 12) Williams, M. S. 2001. Performance of two fixed-area (quadrat) sampling estimators in ecological Surveys. Environ metrics 12(5):421-436. 13) Luciana .P.B, Edward A. E, Manuel R. G, Isabel R.M , Simoneta N.Y , Victoria R.G: Community managed forests and forest protected areas: An assessment of their conservation effectiveness across the tropics. (2011). Forest Ecology and Management. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/ j.foreco.2011.05.034.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858 Impact Of Socio-Economic And Household Environment On Infant
Mortality In City Outgrowth Of Tribal City Jagdalpur, (C.G) Dr. Bhaskar Samanta
ABSTRACT Background and Objectives: The level of infant mortality is high in city outgrowth on tribal city. This study examines levels, proximate causes, demographic, socio-economic and environmental factors associated with infant mortality in a city outgrowth of a tribal city Jagdalpur. Methods: The words are selected by stratified sampling method according to their economic status and their size of land holding. Primary data are collected from the housewives who have given birth to an infant within one year by field survey and observation and participation in the daily life of dwellers. Collected data analyzed to asses the level of infant mortality by various statistical and demographic methods. Results: The infant mortality rate is high in city outgrowth 64.59/’000 live birth where female IMR (72.54/’000) is higher than male (57.78/’000). The preventive measures affect neonatal mortality (50.24/’000) more than post neonatal mortality (14.35/’000). Hazard of infant mortality was highest among births to mothers aged above 30 years (97.56/’000) compared with births to the mother aged 20-29years. Four or more birth order IMR (80.65/’000) is higher compared with the first and second birth order. Interpretation and Conclusions: Infant mortality differentials by demographic, socio-economic and environmental factors were observed over the time period of 2015 among the peoples of city outgrowth of a tribal city of Jagdalpur. INTRODUCTION: Infant mortality is important parameter of health and development which is influenced by the socio-economic development and quality of life of population. Worldwide about 8 million infants die annually before their first birthday (Population Reference Bureau, 2006). In Chhattisgarh infant mortality rate is 54/’000 live birth. According to SRS Bulletin, Volume 45 No. January 2011, about 31.1% of Chhattisgarh was tribal population. Studies on various primitive tribes of the city have shown high Fertility Rate, Crude Birth Rate, Infant Mortality Rates are found in Jagdalpur. In India infant mortality rate steadily declined but in Jagdalpur has been facing great problem in reducing it due to poor socio-economic conditions. Socio-economic and environmental factors such as education, income, occupational structure, sanitation, supply of portable water, safe cooking fuel, type of house, crowding, separate room as kitchen etc and maternal and child health care factors affects utilization of maternal and child health services. The study aims to examine the socio-economic, environmental status and delivery care practices and their effect on infant mortality in outgrowth of Jagdalpur city. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: To estimate the levels of infant mortality in Jagdalpur city. To find out variation in the mortality rate in different phases of infancy. To elucidate sex and community variation in infant mortality. To bring out the seasonal variation in infant mortality. To analyze various proximate factors influencing infant mortality. To discuss various socio-economic, infrastructural and environmental factors influencing infant mortality. To highlight policy implication of the findings.
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MATERIAL AND METHODS: The words are selected in the process of stratified sampling methods according to size of land holding and economic status were used to create a sample representing individuals from other words. Personal survey provides information on fertility, family planning, infant mortality, maternal and reproductive health, nutritional status of women and infant, and the quality of health services. All eligible women aged 15-49 years were asked to provide information on complete birth history, which included sex, month and year of birth and survival status for each live birth. The detailed information about antenatal, delivery and post natal care and information about death preceding the survey to eligible women was collected. Overall 400 households were surveyed covering a population of 2800. The data was collected through structured scheduled in the year 2015. Statistical Analysis: Demographic and statistical techniques were used to examine the effect of demographic, socio-economic and environmental factors on risk of infant mortality. INFORMATION ABOUT STUDY AREA: The present work will be an attempt to bring into focus in Jagdalpur, the tribal city, is the headquarters of Bastar district. It is located in the extreme south of the state. Its cardinal points are 105˚05’25” N latitude and 82˚01’30” E longitude. The city has an average altitude of 555m above MSL. The historical city Jagdalpur of Bastar plateau is located on the bank of river Indravati. It is 297km from state capital Raipur. The NH-43 is passing through the centre of this city and linked with Raipur and Visakhapattnam (A. P.) and also connected with other few towns of Orissa. In south-west Jagdalpur is connected with Chanda (Maharastra) and towards the south it is connected by State Highway with Hydrabad. The city is located on the Broad gauge Rail line of Bailadila and Visakhapattnam.
The region was under Dandakaranya area. Jagdalpur owe its origin from the ‘Jagatguda’. King Dalpatdev shifted the capital of Barangal king to ‘Jagatgud’ from Indravati in 1772. The development of the city started in 1862 but ultimately development of the city was found around 1960 after the independence of India. The Govt. of India declared Bastar district as Backward Tribal District in 1967. Selected wards are Sanjay Gandhi ward (Sargipal, Ward No. 34), Chhatrapati Shivaji ward ( Aghanpur, Ward No. 35), Lokmanya Tilak ward ( Dharampura, Ward No. 37), Guru Govind Singh ward (Kangoli, Ward No. 36), Pt. Sundar Lal Sharma ward (Pakhanguda, Ward No. 32), Rajiv Gandhi ward (Jagdalpur Kasba, Ward No. 33). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Basic Details about the Infant Mortality of Surveyed Area: Particulars Value Particulars Value Total Surveyed Households 400 Total Dead Infants 27 Total Population 2880 Total Male Dead Infants 13 Total Live Births 418 Total Female Dead Infants 14 Total Male Live Births 225 Total Still Births 04 Total Female Live Births 193 Total Twin 01
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Phases of Infant Mortality: Phases of Live Birth Dead Infant Infant Mortality Rate IMR Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Peri-natal 19 10 09 45.45 44.44 46.63
Neo-natal 418 225 193 21 11 10 50.24 48.89 51.81 Post 06 04 02 14.35 8.89 20.3 Neonatal Temporal variation & Infant Mortality Rate: Months Total Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec L.B. 418 35 34 31 33 35 38 32 42 32 40 31 35 D. I. 27 3 2 1 4 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 4 IMR 64.59 85.71 58.82 32.26 121.21 28.57 52.63 93.75 47.62 31.25 50.00 64.52 114.29 Levels of IMR : The IMR is generally computed as a ratio of infants death (death of children under one year of age), registered in a calender (Thompson & Lewis,1965). The infant mortality rate for Chhattisgarh has come down currently to 59/’000 (2008) to 53/’000 (2014). In outgrowth of Jagdalpur city the IMR is 64.59/’000 because backwardness of daily life style. Due to biological reasons the male IMR is comparatively always high but in Jagdalpur city outgrowths societies son preference leads to high female infant mortality, as post delivery care in case of male infants (57.78/’000) is noteworthy than SEX WISE IMR OF DIFFERENT PHASES in case of female infant (72.54/’000). Peri-natal period 60 is an important phase of the infants life, because during this 40 period often birth the infant
tries to get immune with 20 IMR'000 / environment and adopt the 0 rules of the nature. The higher Total Male Female mortality rate in female infant in peri-natal period is due to Peri-natal Neo-natal Post Neonatal carelessness for female. Peri- natal IMR is 45.45/’000 in which male 44.44/’000 and female 46.63/’000. Neo-natal mortality rate is higher than other mortality rate and occupies an important place in infant mortality. Neo-natal mortality rate is 50.24/’000 which is very high for backward environment of family, post-natal caring and common rituals of tribal peoples. Exogenous factors like polluted environment, impurities in food etc are mainly responsible for post- neonatal infant death, which is 14.35/’000. The maximum deaths of infants occurred in the month of December (114.29/’000) and July (93.75/’000) for change of season which is sensitive period of infants. Proximate Causes of Infant Mortality Rate: Weight of Infants at Mothers health during Breast feeding Duration of Breast the time of birth pregnancy feeding Weight in IMR Mothers IMR Breast IMR Months IMR Kg. health feeding <2 400 Healthy 65.13 Yes 48.08 <2 300 2-2.5 110.09 Normal 29.41 2-4 135.14 2.5-3 52.13 Weak 94.35 No 266.67 4-6 65.64 >3 21.51 Very 117.65 >6 25.64 Weak
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Proximate Causes:The causes of infant mortality can be categorized under two heads. Firstly, endogenetic factors like low age at marriage, immature health of mother during the time of delivery, unscientific methods used at the time of delivery such as un-sterilized material used for cutting cord etc. Secondly exogenetic factors like illiteracy, economic status of the family, housing environment etc for high infant mortality. Prematurity, weakness and internal diseases are the major causes for peri-natal morality. But for other phases of infant mortality external factors are mainly responsible, like fever, pneumonia, diarrhea, jaundice, prematurity etc. Weight of infant at the time of birth is an indicator of health status of the child. About half of the babies are born with normal weight ranging within 2.5kgs to 3 kgs and IMR recorded 52.13/’000. But in case of under weight infants IMR is very high ( >110/’000). Mother’s health during pregnancy period and IMR is very much dependent to each other. In the study area 26.05% mothers are healthy, 50.07% are normal and 23.88% are weak. It has been found that IMR is high 117.65/’000 and 94.35/’000 in case mothers who were physically very weak and weak respectively during pregnancy period and the IMR decreases as the condition at the pregnancy period develop. 17.39% babies who were devoid the breast feeding where the IMR is very high 266.67/’000 which is established that mothers breast milk is best diet for a new born baby. It is also established that long duration of breast feeding makes the baby strong mature from the following table. Demographic Determinants of Infant Mortality Rate:
IMR as per Mother’s IMR as per Mother’s IMR as per Mother’s age at IMR as per Birth IMR as per Birth order age at marriage age at first birth time of delivery interval Age Birth Birth Age group IMR IMR Age group IMR IMR IMR group order Interval ≤19 74.82 ≤19 82.19 ≤19 80.22 I 70.55 <2 83.33 20-24 47.62 20-24 36.76 20-24 50.63 II 40.54 2-3 40.32 25-29 39.22 25-29 57.69 25-29 49.60 III 28.57 3-4 39.22 IV & ≥30 84.84 ≥30 90.81 ≥30 97.56 77.46 >4 65.71 above
Demographic Determinants: One of the main factor responsible for infant mortality is low age of mother at BIRTH ORDER & IMR the time of marriage. In the study area the average age 100 at marriage is 19.09 years. In the survey it is noticed that IMR is high (82.19/’000) where mothers are married at the age of below 19 years. Also high IMR 50
(90.81/’000) is noticed in age group of ≥30 years for IMR/'000 their delivery complications. The most delicate moment 0 in a women’s life is the time when she becomes I II III IV & mother. Age of mother at the time of first birth above controlled IMR. It is very high in the age group of ≥30 BIRTH ORDER years and ≤19 year mothers. High IMR is noticed both in low (First) order and high (Fourth or above) order. Here ‘U’ shaped relationship is found between birth order and IMR. In case of first birth order mother along with her physical and biological unfitness is less caring and responsible about the child. So in these birth orders IMR is very high and in high birth order the reason for high IMR is improper caring of child due to other children and physique of the woman breaks giving birth to successive children. Where the birth interval is less than two years the IMR is high (83.33/’000) but in case of birth interval is more than two years normally the mother gives birth to a healthy baby and IMR is reduced.
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Social Determinants of Infant Mortality Rate: Mothers education Parents literacy & Caste variation & Size of family & IMR level & IMR IMR IMR Level IMR Level IMR Caste IMR Size IMR Illiterate 80.34 Both Illit. 93.75 GEN 36.42 Small (<5) 32.79 Medium (5- LWOL 79.99 Father Lit. 78.46 SC 72.37 63.41 8) Mother Primary 66.67 80.41 ST 84.56 Large (>8) 115.94 Lit. High 44.44 Both Lit. 40.88 OBC 60.39 UG 21.27 Economic Determinants and IMR: Size of Land holding & Mother’s Occupation & IMR Family Income & IMR Economic Level & IMR IMR Size IMR Occupation IMR Income (Rs)/ Yr IMR Level IMR (Bigha) Landless 86.49 House wives 62.22 <60000 100.84 BPL 105.69 <2 60.34 Labourer 94.12 60000-120000 70.92 Impoverished 61.64 2-3 44.78 Domestic Worker 64.67 120000-180000 55.48 Solvent 52.64 >3 30.30 Private Service 51.62 180000-240000 50.83 Above Solvent 30.08 Govt. Service 37.04 >240000 40.40 Others 63.83 Socio-Economic Determinants : In Jagdalpur city outgrowth mother education level tends to have a strong effect on infant mortality. No marked difference in IMR is found in case of illiterate mother’s (80.34/’000) and mother’s without any literacy level (79.99/’000). These prove that illiterate and literate without level mother’s are of the same status for IMR. Deceasing trend of IMR are noticed as education level increases. Literate mothers take proper care of the babies as a result life expectancy of the infant increases. These trends also found with parents literacy level. Highest IMR is found in STs (84.56/’000), followed by SC, OBC and lowest in General Caste. The ST and SC peoples are so much bound to their own customs ties that it is very hard to create awareness among those peoples, so IMR is Very high. High IMR is found in where the number of family member is more than 8 (115.94/’000) and in small families (<5) it is 32.79/’000. As the size of family members increases the IMR also increased for increase of density per room and with decreases per capita income. It has been found that size of land holding is acting as one of the main indicator in determining the infant mortality in city outgrowth. High IMR 86.49/’000 is recorded among the families who are landless and increasing land holding the IMR is decreasing. The size of land holding indicates the housing conditions and economic condition of the family. Low IMR 37.04/’000 is recorded among mothers who are attached with Govt. service, where as 94.12/’000 is noticed among labourer. Among high income group IMR is low 40.40/’000 and it is gradually increases as the income decreases and highest IMR 100.84/’000 is found when the yearly family income is above Rs 240000. Economic level of the family is directly related with the income of the family. High income family will be economically strong than low income family. The families who are economically solvent shows low infant mortality compared to impoverished families of city outgrowth of Jagdalpur.
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Impact of Environment and IMR: Separate Kitchen Source of Cooking fuel & Sanitation facility Source of Drinking water No. of Rooms & IMR & IMR IMR & IMR & IMR Number IMR Facility IMR Fuel IMR Facility IMR Source IMR 1 100.04 Wood 96.45 Well 102.56 Yes 31.75 Yes 51.37 2 67.11 Kerosene 71.38 Hand Pump 70.00 3 63.26 LPG 53.61 Street Tap 64.94 No 91.70 No 95.24 ≥4 42.86 Residential Tap 48.00 Impact of Environment on Infant Mortality: The impact of household environment and facilities of public utility affects the life styles, food habits etc of the residents which is lies over the newly born infant health and the health of the mother in study area. The risk of high IMR is more (100.04/’000) in highly crowded (1room houses) and consequently decreases as the number of rooms increases. Mainly respiratory diseases like pneumonia, cold & cough etc are the main causes of infant mortality. 91.7/’000 IMR is found where separate kitchen exists and 31.75/’000 where separate kitchen facility is available. The difference between two IMR is nearly 3times than others. In case where LPG is used IMR is 53.61/’000 and 96.45/’000 IMR is observed among families who use firewood and cow dung cakes as cooking fuels. The smoke and dust emitted when fuel burn which is very harmful for infants. So IMR rate is high where separate kitchen does not exist. IMR in houses where facility of toilet is present, is 51.37/’000 and 95.24/’000 where toilet facility is absent. A clean toilet keeps the household environment clean. Lack the access of toilet have higher exposure to infant diseases such as tetanus, digestive disorders etc. Open well, tube well, street tap, residents personal taps are sources of drinking water supply in Jagdalpur city outgrowth. The quality of tube well water is better than that of open wells. Some roadside taps often found located in dirty environment mainly by the side of the drains. The bacteria of diarrhea, dysentery, jaundice etc develop very first in dirty surrounds. Thus, in case of users of drinking water, the difference in IMR is noticed. In cases of roadside tap users the IMR is high(64.94/’000) compared to the personal residential tap (48/’000). Mother and Child Welfare and IMR: Frequency of Medical Mother’s vaccination Infant Delivery attendant & Type of Delivery & checkup During During pregnancy & Vaccination & IMR IMR Pregnancy IMR IMR Frequency IMR Facility IMR Attendant IMR Type IMR Facility IMR ≤2 84.51 Untrained 108.97 Yes 59.59 Normal 80.54 Yes 57.47 3 70.31 Quake 48.78 4 62.50 Doctor 28.78 No 125.0 Caesarean 25.00 No 76.43 ≥5 42.96
Mother and Child Welfare and Infant Mortality: The main reason of infant mortality is unhealthiness of the mother, which is due to less nutrition, unawareness about the medical facilities, social traditions etc are its reflection on IMR. So, mother and child welfare programme includes mothers health, vaccination, iron and folic acid intake, type of delivery, place of delivery, delivery attendant, material used to cut cord, child immunization etc determined IMR in tribal city Jagdalpur. The rate of frequency of medical checkup during pregnancy period in 15.56% is two or less than two, 29.8% mother’s is 3times, among 31% mother’s are 4times and in case 23.56% mother’s are frequently check up during pregnancy period. In case where frequency of medical check up is below two IMR is 84.51/’000 and in case where frequency of medical check up is more than 5 it is 42.96/’000. In the study area 91.78% mother have been given the full doses of tetanus given pregnancy period where IMR is low 59.59/’000 but in case where mother not receive tetanus IMR is very high (125/’000). In cases where iron & folic acid tablets have been taken by the pregnant women the IMR is low and high where not taken. 36.78% untrained midwives, 36.56% by trained midwives or quake and 32.67% by medical personals does deliveries. High IMR 139 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15
(108.97/’000) is noticed in case where deliveries are done by the untrained midwives or relatives. The deliveries done by doctors IMR is low (28.78/’000) because medical professionals can attends the problems immediately and the risk of IMR is less. 71.78% deliveries are normal way where IMR is 80.54/’000 and 28.22% are caesarian delivery, it is low (25/’000). Normal health and healthy mother’s, generally normal deliveries are done but in cases where some complications may arise then caesarian delivery is more applicable for protect IMR. Only 74% infants have been vaccinated for their backwardness. High IMR 76.45/’000 is found where vaccines have not been given and it is low (57.47/’000) where vaccines are given to the infants. CONCLUSION : High mortality rates of infant tend to provoke high fertility among poor tribal couple. Region with high IMR have the fastest growing of population in the world. Demographic, Socio-economic and environmental characteristics have substantial negative effect of infant mortality. Poor socio-economic status, and their unique ways of understanding about illness and health care grow infant mortality. Efforts should be also made to increase the age of marriage on tribal region, awareness about maternal and child health for reducing the infant mortality and improve demographic and socio-economic conditions of outgrowth of Jagdalpur city. The health and nutritional education required priority attention, message must be simple, locally relevant and convincing so that they are easily understood and accepted by all the tribal women. An effective education would not only to build up the capabilities mother’s about child care it also to break away from the traditional practices which continue to dominate the treatment and prevention of diseases on infancy stage. REFERENCES : 1. Registrar General of India, sample registrar bulletin, New Delhi, 2014. 2. Reid, Alice, Neonatal Mortality and Still Births in Derbyshire in the early 20th century, Population Studies; Vol-56, No.2, pp 151-166. 3. Roshan, R., Oraon, J., Kumar, V., Infant health status of Bastar- A Case Study of Dhurwa Tribe; Asian Mirror-International Journal of Research, Vol. I, Issue I, February,2014. 4. Sahu, D., Nair, S., Singh, L., Gulati, B.K., Pandey, A., Levels and Trends Predictors of Infant Child Mortality among Scheduled Tribes in Rural India, Indian jMed Res141, May 2015, pp 709- 719. 5. Sharma, S., Infant mortality in southern Mahanadi Basin, 2005, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University press, Raipur (C.G). 6. Tiwary, D. N., Primitive Tribes of Madhya Pradesh, Strategy for Development, 1984. 7. Thompson, W.S. and Lewis, D.T., Population problem, 1996, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15,Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858 A STUDY ON CYCLONES IN INDIA Ms. Sanjana Shivalkar & Ms. Nikita Gandhi (Students – TYBA, Geography Department) Nagindas Khandwala College, Mumbai ABSTRACT : The word `cyclone’, probably has its origin from the Greek word `cyclos’ meaning `coil’ of snakes. The main objectives of the research paper are to study the occurrences of cyclones in India and to find the reasons for the same. Data for this research are collected from secondary sources. Information was collected from various books, journals and websites. In this paper cyclones of India are analysed from 1977 to 2014. Destructions caused by cyclones and cyclone prone areas of India are also mentioned in this paper. Keywords : Cyclone, Occurrences, Destruction INTRODUCTION : The word `cyclone’, probably ha its origin from the Greek word `cyclos’ meaning `coil’ of snakes. Cyclones are very intense low pressure areas concentrated in the atmosphere in the form of a coil are spiral of energy and circulate either anti-clockwise or clockwise. The former feature occurs in the northern hemisphere and the later in the southern hemisphere. Cyclones which take the shape of revolving storms are known by different names in different regions of the world, such as typhoons in North Pacific, Hurricanes in the North Atlantic and South Pacific, and cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea including the Indian Ocean. Cyclones have a mass of concentrated energy at one place in the atmosphere which begins to move in a particular direction. A full sized cyclone is 100-150 km across, with winds of 120km/hr. It takes the shape of a spiral with a core or body of very low pressure and an eye 30-50km wide. The centre or the eye of the cyclone has perfectly calm weather, clear sky and no rain. Around the eye lies the body of the cyclone with every high speed winds, thunder and lightning, torrential rain and heavy clouds. Along the entire body of the cyclone, the energy keeps changing – either multiplying or dispersing or recharging – and even 600 km away from the centre of the cyclone, the wind speed can go up to 50-60 km/hr. The terminology used for the low pressure systems in the atmosphere is `depression’ with wind speeds from 31 to 50 km/hr., `deep depression’ with speeds 51-61 km/hr., `cyclonic storm’ with speeds 63 to 87 km/hr., `severe cyclonic storm’ with speeds 90-116 km/hr., `severe cyclonic storm with hurricane winds with speeds 118 km/hr. and above. Some important features of cyclones are discussed here. LITERATURE REVIEW : S.Z. Qasim (1998) in his book “Glimpses of the Indian Ocean” said that cyclones predominantly occur in tropical oceans but these do not get formed near the equator within latitudes 2º-3º due to a very weak coriolis force in this region. In the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, cyclone occurs between latitudes 5ºN and 15ºN. Even between latitudes 3º-4ºN, cyclones do not get often formed but their force and intensity are mild. The occurrence of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal is many times greater than that in the Arabian Sea. They pick up energy from the warm water of the tropical seas and a sea surface temperature of 27ºC is considered most favourable for this process. Most of the cyclones die out a sea but some cross over to a land causing enormous devastation. This crossing over to the land is called `landfall’. OBJECTIVES : To study the occurrences of cyclones in India To find the reasons for the same DEVELOPMENT OF CYCLONES IN INDIA Cyclones form in certain favourable atmospheric and Oceanic conditions. There are marked seasonal variations in their places of origin, tracks and
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attainment of intensities. These behaviours help in predicting their movements. Cyclones affect both the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. They are rare in Bay of Bengal from January to March. Cyclones do not form in Arabian Sea during the months of January, February and March and are rare in April, July, August and September. They generally form in southeast Arabian Sea and adjoining central Arabian Sea in the months of May, October, November and December and in east central Arabian Sea in the month of June. Some of the cyclones that originate in the Bay of Bengal travel across the peninsula weaken and emerge into Arabian Sea as low pressure areas. These may again intensify into cyclonic storms. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Data for this research are collected from secondary sources. Information was collected from various books, journals and websites. ANALYSIS Table: 1
According to the collected data, from 1977 to 2014 in Andhra Pradesh there were 15 major cyclones. Andhra Pradesh is extremely vulnerable to cyclones and the state risks being battered by cyclones of moderate to severe intensity every 2-3 years. Since 1977 the state had faced in more than 60 cyclones (major and minor). Some of the major cyclones are O6B, BOB01, BOB05, O3B, O38, Yemyin, Laila, etc. In Odisha there were 4 major cyclones in the same period and they are BOB05; its lowest pressure was 96 mbar, BOB06 with lowest pressure of 912 mbar, Phailin with lowest pressure of 940 mbar and Hud Hud with 960 mbar pressure. In Tamil Nadu, there had been 10 major cyclones from 1977-2014. Cyclones in Tamil Nadu are caused due to depressions in the Bay of Bengal. Some of the names of cyclones occurred here are Madi, Thane, Neelam, Jal, Nisha, etc. In Tamil Nadu, the cyclone seasons are March-May and October-December is cyclone prone. From 1977-2014, in Kerala there were 4 major cyclones. Some of the names of cyclones in Kerala are Fanoos, BOB06, BOB05, etc. In Karnataka, there was 1 major cyclone in 1977-2014. It is the least vulnerable which occurs in the month of May and November. Name of the cyclone in Karnataka is a BOB03. From 1977-2014 in Maharashtra there were 3 major cyclones. Cyclones in Maharashtra are formed due to tropical disturbance and depressions in the ocean. Some of the names of cyclones occurred in Maharashtra are Jal with a lowest pressure of 988 mbar, Phyan with lowest pressure of 988 mbar and ARB02 with lowest pressure of 976 mbar. In Gujarat there had
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been 7 major cyclones in the year 1977-2014. Some of the names are Yemyin, Onil, ARB01, ARB02, etc. Gujarat region is most vulnerable along the west coast. The cyclone seasons for this area are April-July and September-January. DESTRUCTION CAUSED BY CYCLONES : Cyclones are associated with high-pressure gradients and consequent strong winds. These, in turn, generate storm surges. A storm surge is an abnormal rise of sea level near the coast caused by a severe tropical cyclone; as a result, sea water inundates low lying areas of coastal regions drowning human beings and live- stock, eroding beaches and embankments, destroying vegetation and reducing soil fertility. Very strong winds may damage installations, dwellings, communication systems, trees. etc. resulting in loss of life and property. Heavy and prolonged rains due to cyclones may cause river floods and submergence of low lying areas by rain causing loss of life and property. Floods and coastal inundation due to storm surges pollute drinking water sources causing outbreak of epidemics. CYCLONE PRONE AREAS OF INDIA : North Orissa, and West Bengal coasts, Andhra Pradesh coast between Ongole and Machilipatnam, Tamil Nadu coast, south of Nagapatnam are prone to cyclones in the eastern coast. The West coast of India is less vulnerable to storm surges than the east coast of India in terms of both the height of storm surge as well as frequency of occurrence. Maharashtra coast, north of Harnai and adjoining south Gujarat coast and the coastal belt around the Gulf of Bombay and the coastal belt around the Gulf of Kutch are vulnerable. CONCLUSION : A Cyclone Forecast and Warning Service is necessary. Community preparedness at all levels is the need of the day. REFERENCE : Qasim S.Z. (1998), “Glimpses of the Indian Ocean” Pg 135-141.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 15, Oct.-Nov. 2016 ISSN 2277 – 4858 ISSN 2277 – 4858
e/;izns’k ds ouksa dh n’kk Condition of forest in Madhya Pradesh MkW- jktkjke vk;Z ¼lgk;d izk/;kid] [kjxksu] e- iz-½ Hkwxksy’kkldh; LukrdksRrj egkfo|ky;] lkjka’k & fu"d"kZr% dgk tk ldrk gS fd if’pe vkSj mRrj&if’pe e/;izns’k dk iwjk vapy [kkl rkSj ij >kcqvk ] /kkj ] if’pe fuekM+ ]iwohZ fuekM+] eUnlkSj] vkSj f’koiqjh ftys rFkk eqjSuk]’;ksiqj]xquk] neksag] ujflagiqj ftys vfrdze.k ds dkj.k izns’k ds lcls ladVxzLr {ks= gS A [k.Mok ou e.My esa lcls vf/kd 97-93 izfr’kr vkjf{kr ou]nwljs LFkku ij tcyiqj esa 84-98 izfr’kr rFkk rhljs LFkku ij ckyk?kkV ou e.My esa 79-54 izfr’kr {ks= esa ou ik;s tkrs gS ] ogha bu ftyksa esa lcls de lajf{kr ou ik;s tkrs gS A tcfd jkT; ds Nrjiqj ou e.My esa 12-23 izfr’kr] fNanokM+k ou e.My esa 40-96 izfr’kr]Hkksiky esa 42-43 vkjf{kr ou ik;s tkrs gS A fujUrj ?kVrk ouksa dk izfr’kr Ik;kZoj.k ladV vkSj tyok;q ifjorZu dk lwpd gS A jkT; esa dsoy 30-72 izfr’kr gS tks Ik;kZoj.k larqyu dh n`f"V ls yxHkx 3 izfr’kr de gS A vusdkusd dkj.kksa ls taxy dVrs jgs gS]ysfdu buds fouk’k ls gksus okys Ik;kZoj.kh; ladV dh vksj cgqr de yksxksa dk /;ku x;k gS A ou vkSj oU; thotUrqvksa ds izfr c<+rh laosnughurk us ekuo izxfr ds nEHk dks uaxk dj fn;k gS A tSoh; lEink ds fouk’k ds lanHkZ esa HkkSfrdoknh vFkZO;oLFkk us lcls vf/kd ?kfV;k Hkwfedk iznf’kZr dh gS A ou fouk’k dh izfdz;k esa vusd o`{kksa vkSj Ik’kq&if{k;ksa dk lewy fouk’k ekuo tkfr usa dj fn;k gS A ouksa dh vU/kk/kqa/k dVkbZ vkSj f’kfFky&lao/kZu&izfdz;k us ydM+h]tykSuh ] ?kkl vkfn dh LkeL;k,a [kM+h dj nh gS A vLrq ;g vko’;d gks x;k gS fd mudk nksgu fu;ksftr 144 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15 jkT; ds dqy ou {ks= esa ls 65 izfr’kr {ks= vkjf{kr ou ] 33 izfr’kr {ks= lajf{kr ou rFkk 2 izfr’kr {ks= voxhZd`r ouksa ds vUrxZr vkrk gS A izns’k dks dqy 16 ou o`rksa esa foHkkftr fd;k x;k gS] HkkSxksfyd {ks=Qy esa dqy ou {ks+= dk lokZf/kd izfr’kr 43-90 izfr’kr ckyk?kkV ouo`r esa gS tcfd lcls de 13-31 izfr’kr mTtSu ouo`r esa gS A fiNys dqN o"kksZa esa e/;izns’k ou {ks=Qy esa mYys[kuh; o`f/n gqbZ gS A Hkkjrh; ou losZ{k.k laLFkku nsgjknwu dh vksj ls tkjh n LVsV n QkjsLV fjiksZV 2011 ds vuqlkj ns’k esa lokZf/kd 77]770 oxZ fdeh- ou {ks= e/;izns’k esa gS tks jkT; ds dqy {ks=Qy dk yxHkx 30-72 izfr’k gS A ¼Ik;kZoj.k ,oa ou ea=ky; fjiksZV 2011½ tcfd nwljk o rhljk LFkku dze’k% v:.kpy izns’k ¼67]351 oxZ fdeh- ½vkSj NRrhlx<+ ¼55]870 oxZ fdeh- ½dks feyk gS A jkT; ds dqy HkkSxksfyd {ks= ds izfr’kr ds :Ik esa lokZf/kd ou {ks= fetksje esa rFkk lcls de gfj;k.kk esa gS A izns’k esa ou {ks= ds QSyko esa ,d:irk ugha gS iwohZ vkSj nf{k.k iwohZ ftyksa tSls ckyk?kkV vkSj e.Myk esa ouksa dh l?kurk vf/kd gS]tcfd if’peh vkSj mRrjh {ks= ds ftys de oukPNkfnr gS];gkWaa izeq[k :Ik ls lkxkSu ] lky ] ckWal ]rsanw iRrk ds o`{k ik, tkrs gS A mn~ns’; & 1- e/; izns’k ds ouksa dh n’kk dk v/;;u djuk A 2- e/; izns’k esa e.Myokj ouksa dk forj.k A 3- e/; izns’k esa ouksa dh leL;k dk v/;;u djuk A 4- e/; izns’k ds ouksa dk laj{k.k ,oa lao/kZu ds iz;kl djuk A v/;;u {ks= & ’kks/k v/;;u ds fy, Hkkjr o"kZ ds e/; esa fLFkr e/; izns’k dk p;u fd;k x;k gS A ftls ân; izns’k dgk tkrk gS A bldh HkkSxksfyd fLFkfr 21 fMxzh 6 fefuV mRrjh v{kka’k ls 26 fMxzh 30 fefuV rFkk 74 fMxzh iwohZ ns’kkUrj ls 82 fMxzh 47 fefuV iwohZ ns’kkUrjksa rd gS A bldk {ks=Qy 3]08]245 oxZ fdyksehVj gS tks ns’k ds dqy {ks=Qy dk 9-38 izfr’kr gS A ifjdYiuk& orZeku esa Ik;kZoj.k vlarqyu ,d jk"Vªh; leL;k cu xbZ gS] Ik;kZoj.k vou;u rFkk fnuizfrfnu c<+rh gqbZ izkd`frd vkink;sa ] tyok;q ifjorZu ds ladsr ;gh izekf.kr djrs gS A jk"Vªh; laxksf"B;ka rFkk fo’o i`Foh f’k[kj lEesyu blh ckr ds |ksrd gS A ‘bl n`f"V ls ;g] ’kks/k v/;;u dk izklafxd ,oa egRoiw.kZ fo"k; gS A v/;;u dk egRo & ou u dsoy vewY; lalk/ku gS oju~ izd`fr dh thoUrrk dk vk/kkj gSa A buds vHkko esa u rks ekSle vkSj u tyok;q O;ofLFkr jgrh gS] u oU;tho iy ldrs gS]u euq"; ds fy, ‘’kq/n vkWDlhtu dh vkiwfrZ lEHko gS ]u gfjrx`g izHkko O;ofLFkr jg ldrk gS vkSj u gh fofo/k ouksRikn izkIr gks ldrs gS A bruk gksrs gq, Hkh fo’o Lrj ij ftl xfr ls oufouk’k fd;k tk jgk gS og fiNyh ‘’krkCnh dh lcls cM+h Hkwy dgh tk ldrh gS A vr% ;g v/;;u ekuoh; Hkwy gks lq/kkjus esa lgk;d fl/n gksxk A 145 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15 v/;;u fof/k & orZeku ’kks/k v/;;u f}rh;d vkadM+ksa ij vk/kkfjr gS tks ftyk lkaf[;dh foHkkx [kjxksu ,oa osclkbZV ls izkIr fd;s x;s gS A bu vkadM+ksa dk fo’ys"k.k lkj.kh;u ,oa vkjs[k rFkk forj.k ekufp= ds ek/;e ls djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;k gS A rkfydk dzekad & 01 ns’k dh rqyuk esa e/; izns’k ds ou & 2011 HkkSxksfyd {ks= oxZ Oku {ks= oxZ fdeh- izfr’kr ou fdeh- {ks= Hkkjr 32]87]263 7]82]871 23-81 e/; izns’k 3]08]245 94]689 30-72 lzksr& e/; izns’k dk Hkwxksy mi;qZDr rkfydk ls Li"V gksrk gS fd ns’k esa ouksa dk izfr’kr e/; izns’k ds ou {ks= ls yxHkx 7 izfr’kr de gSA jk"Vªh; Lrj vkSj izns’k Lrj nksuksa esa ou laj{k.k]lao/kZzu ,oa ou izfr’kr c<+kus dh egRrh vko’;drk gS D;ksafd Ik;kZoj.k larqyu ds fy, de ls de 33 izfr’kr ouksa dk gksuk vfr vko’;d gS A ou izfr’kr de gksus ds dkj.k Ik;kZoj.k iznw"k.k] o"kkZ dh ?kVrh ek=k ]c<+rs rkieku] fxjrs ty Lrj tSlh xaHkhj leL;kvksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+ jgk gS A le; jgrs ‘;fn dkjxj mik; ugha fd;s x;s rks blls Hkh xaHkhj leL;kvksa dk lkeuk djus ds fy, rS;kj jguk gksxkA ouksa dk izfr’kr c<+kus gsrq ukxfjdksa]lkekftd laxBuksa rFkk iz’kklu dh tokcnsgh r; djuk gksxh A tutkx`fr vfr vko’;d gS A rkfydk dzekad & 02 e/; izns’k ds ou {ks=ksa dh oS/kkfud fLFkfr & 2011 oxhZdj.k {ks=Qy oxZ fdeh- izfr’kr vkjf{kr ou 61]886 65-36 Lakjf{kr ou 31]098 32-84 vU; 1]705 1-80 dqy 94]689 100-00 lzksr& e/; izns’k dk Hkwxksy mi;qZDr rkfydk ;g n’kkZrh gS fd izns’k esa lokZf/kd 65-36 izfr’kr ou vkjf{kr ou gS ;s ,sls ou gS tgkWa ouksa dks u"V fd;k tkuk vfrgkfudkjd gS A bu ouksa esa Ik’kq pjkuk rFkk ydM+h dkVuk izfrcaf/kr gksrk gS A nwljs LFkku ij lajf{kr ou gS A bu ouksa dh ns[k&js[k ‘iz’kklu djrk gS rkfd budh j{kk gks lds A bu ouksa esa LFkkfir fuokfl;kas dks Ik’kqpkj.k rFkk ydM+h vkfn dkVusa dh lqfo/kk,a izkIr gksrh gS A rhljs LFkku ij voxhZd`r ou gS A iz’kklu dk /;ku ,sls ouksa dh vksj de gS A bu ouksa esa bPNkuqlkj o`{k Hkh dkVs tk ldrs gS vkSj Ik’kqvksa dks pjkus dh Hkh iw.kZ Lora=rk gS A ijUrq orZeku esa bu ouksa ij Hkh [krjk eaMjk jgk gS D;ksafd bu ouksa esa Hkh ydM+h r’djksa dh n[kyankth c<+rh tk jgh gS vkSj ;g lc gks jgk gS ou foHkkx ds Hk`"V deZpkfj;ksa ,oa vf/kdkfj;ksa ds 146 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15 b’kkjksa ij ] vr% ou deZpkfj;ksa dk izfr 3 o"kZ esa LFkkukUrj.k fd;k tkuk pkfg,]dBksj n.M dk izko/kku gksuk pkfg, A e/; izns’k ds ou {ks=ksa dh oS/kkfud fLFkfr & 2011 reserved protected unclassified e/; izns’k esa ouksa dk forj.k& e/; izns’k esa cgqr l?ku ou 6640 oxZ fdyksehVj {ks= ij foLr`r gS A ;gkWa lkekU; l?ku ouksa dk foLrkj 34986 oxZ fdeh- {ks= ij gS A [kqys ouksa dk {ks= 36034 oxZ fdeh- {ks+= ij gS A ;gkW >kfM+;ksa dk {ks= 6396 oxZ fdeh- gS A izns’k esa e.Myokj ouks dk forj.k fuEukuqlkj gS & rkfydk dz- 03 rkfydk dzekad & 03 e/; izns’k esas eaMyokj ou {ks= ¼oxZ fdeh-½ 2011 vkjf{kr lajf{kr voxhZd`r eaMy dqy ou {ks= ou {ks= izfr’kr ou {ks= izfr’kr {ks+= izfr’kr bUnkSj 3723-61 2855-04 76-67 805-58 21-63 62-99 1-69 mTtSu 5435-45 3618-6 66-57 1811-12 33-32 5-73 0-09 [k.Mok 9290-74 9098-98 97-93 164-19 1-75 27-57 0-29 Xokfy;j 6612-14 4618-56 69-84 1993-58 30-14 & & Nrjiqj 6431-78 786-76 12-23 5620-78 87-38 24-24 0-37 tcyiqj 9085-06 7720-64 84-98 642-02 7-06 722-35 7-94 fNanokM+k 4168-65 1707-79* 40-96 2446-42 58-68 14-44 0-33 Ckkyk?kkV 4775-54 3798-55 79-54 976-99 20-43 & & cSrwy 4041-24 2853-89 70-61 699-71 17-29 487-64 12-05 Hkksiky 9606-93 4076-72 42-43 2761-98 28-74 68-23 0-70 jhok 7790-91 3784-21 48-57 4006-7 51-42 & & ’kgMksy 5502-74 3827-2 69-55 1660-71 30-17 14-83 0-25 f’koiqjh 6859-41 3204-19 46-71 3423-86 49-90 222-36 3-23 lkxj 6010-05 4345-33 70-28 1612-59 26-42 52-13 0-86 flouh 4348-99 3101-39 71-31 1247-6 28-67 & & gks’kaxkckn 3706-14 2488-64 67-14 1215-16 32-78 2-34 0-05 dqy 94689-38 61886-49 65-35 31098-04 32-84 1704-85 1-80 147 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15 mi;ZqDr rkfydk dk ls Li"V gksrk gS fd jkT; esa lcls vf/kd 65-35 izfr’kr vkjf{kr ou ik;s tkrs gS A e.Myokj lokZf/kd ;s ou [k.Mok ftys esa 97-93 izfr’kr ik;s tkrs gS A pwafd bu ouksa esa Ik’kq pjkuk ,oa ydM+h dkVuk izfrcaf/kr gS] ;gka fd ou Hkwfe igkM+h ]iFkfjyh ,oa 148 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15 3- izns’k esa u, ouksa dks yxkus esa LFkkuh; iztkfr;ksa ds o`{kksa dk jksi.k fd;k tkuk pkfg, ;s iztkfr;ka vkfnokfla;ksa ds fy, mi;ksxh gksrh gS A 4- ouksa ds tfj;s jkstxkj ds lk/ku c<+kus]Ik;ZVu dks c<+kok nsus vkSj vkfnoklh rFkk fdlkuksa dks ouksa ls vf/kd YkkHk nsus ds fy, izko/kku fd, tkus pkfg, A 5- fdlkuksa vkSj vkfnokfla;ksa ds fgr esa fUkLrkj dh lqfo/kk iwjs o"kZ nh tkuh pkfg, A 6- ouksa dh dVkbZ dks c<+kok nsus okyksa dks Hkh vijk/kh cukus ds fy, dkuwu esa la’kks/ku fd;k tkuk pkfg, A 7- ou laj{k.k ds fy, etcwr lwpuk rU= fodflr fd;k tk; A 8- rsanwiRrs dk fuorZu ,deq’r jkW;YVh ds vk/kkj ij fd;k tkuk pkfg, A 9- ou {ks= esa fuos’k dks c<+kus ds fy, ou foRr fuxe dh LFkkiuk dh tk; A 10- if’peh e/;izns’k esa lefUor rjhds ls ouksa dk fodkl fd;k tk, blesa ou fodkl] okfudh]d`f"k] i’kqikyu vkSj xzkeh.k fodkl foHkkx lefUor dk;Z ;kstuk rS;kj djsa A 11- jkstxkj ds vf/kd volj miyC/k djk;s tkuk pkfg, A ftlls d`f"k Hkwfe ij ncko de gksxk A 12- Nk=ksa]ukxfjdksa] vf/kdkjh&deZpkfj;ksa dks ’kklu dh ;kstukvksa dk ykHk ou yxkus ij fn;k tk; A 13- Hkou cukus dh vuqefr ikS/kkjki.k dj cM+k djus dh fLFkfr esa gh nh tk; A 14- v{ke ,oa mnklhu oudfeZ;ksa dks dBksj n.M fn;k tk; A 15- nkokuy tSlh nq?kZVukvksa ls fuiVus ds fy, vk/kqfud rduhd dk mi;ksx fd;k tkuk pkfg, A 16- jksxksa dh jksdFkke ds fy, dkjxj mik; fd;s tkuk pkfg, A 17- QfuZpj gsrq ydM+h ds oSfYid Lkzksr viuk;s tkuk pkfg, A tSls yksgk ]IykfLVd ] vkfn A Lkkjka’k & lkjka’k :Ik esa dgk tk ldrk gS fd e/; izns’k esa ouksa dh fLFkfr vR;ar n;uh; gS ] ;fn ou laj{k.k ,oa izca/ku ij fo’ks"k /;ku ugha fn;k x;k rks blls Hkh xaHkhj ifj.kke Hkqxrus ds fy, rS;kj jguk gksxk A tkx:drk dh deh]f’k{kk dk vHkko rFkk uSfrd ftEesnkjh dh deh rFkk lgh fdz;kUo;u ds vHkko ds dkj.k ouksa dh ;g nqnZ’kk gqbZ gS A vr% ,d O;fDr ,d o`{k dk fl/nkar ykxw fd;k tkuk pkfg, A lUnHkZ xzaFk & 1- MkW- ch- ih- jko & lalk/ku vkSj Ik;kZoj.k]tSoh; lalk/ku olqU/kjk izdk’ku xksj[kiqj mRrj izns’k i`"B 46 A 2- ,e- ,u- cqp & e/;izns’k ds ou ]ouksa dh n’kk] fcxM+us ds dkj.k] izdk’ku e/;izns’k ek/;e Hkksiky i`"B d`ekad 31 A 3- MkW- ,e- ,l-fllksfn;k & e/;izns’k dk Hkwxksy]fefV~V;ka ,oa ouLifr ] dSyk’k iqLrd lnu] Hkksiky i`"B dzekad 36 A 4- www.forest m.p. 149 | P a g e THE KOKNKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 15