EARTH SCIENCES CENTRE GÖTEBORG UNIVERSITY B432 2004

FUTURE POSSIBILITIES OF ANGOLAN AGRICULTURE - a theoretical case study

Jan-Marcus Hellström

Department of Physical Geography GÖTEBORG 2004

GÖTEBORGS UNIVERSITET Institutionen för geovetenskaper Naturgeografi Geovetarcentrum

FUTURE POSSIBILITIES OF ANGOLAN AGRICULTURE - a theoretical case study

Jan-Marcus Hellström

ISSN 1400-3821 B432 Projektarbete Göteborg 2004

Postadress Besöksadress Telefo Telfax Earth Sciences Centre Geovetarcentrum Geovetarcentrum 031-773 19 51 031-773 19 86 Göteborg University S-405 30 Göteborg Guldhedsgatan 5A S-405 30 Göteborg SWEDEN

ABSTRACT

This essay deals with the future of Angolan agriculture. It is an entirely theoretical essay based on assumptions and hopes. today is a country of civil war and all the strife that goes with a civil war. This essay assumes that there was no war or mines in Angola and with that as a starting point, a possible agricultural scenario is being made. With the help of soil maps, topographic maps and the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), the possible yield for maize is being calculated. The results indicate that Angola can produce enough maize to sustain itself ad maybe even areas outside Angola. If one day…

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ii Thank you!

This essay would never have been possible without a number of people. First of all I’d like to thank Dr. Margit Werner for great advice and for having the wonderful talent of being able to give constructive criticism. I’d like to thank Björn Holmer for being patient and helping me out with advice, layout details and printing. I’d also like to thank a few persons, that don’t desire to be mentioned, who helped me obtain maps and other information for this essay. Thank you all!

Masse,

Göteborg, 2001

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Table of Content

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………..… 1 Soil Productivity………………………………………………………………..…. 1 OBJECTIVE……………………………………………………………….. 3 ……………………………………….……. 4 ………………………………………………………………………………… 5 Drainage…………………………………………………………………….. 7 Population…………………………………………………………………… 8 Economy…………………………………………………………………….. 9 Agriculture……………………………………………………………………….…… 10 A Brief Description of Soils…………………………………………….…… 11 ………………………………………………..… 12 Colonisation…………………………………………………………….…… 12 Fight for independence……………………………………………………… 12 Angola after independence……………………………………………..…… 13 METHODS AND MATERIAL…………………………………………… 15 Assumptions…………………………………………………………………… 15 Key Factors…………………………………………………………………… 15 Maps………………………………………………………………………...… 15 USLE………………………………………………………………………….. 16 Land Capability Classes……………………………………………………..…… 18 RESULTS………………………………………………………………….. 19 DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………… 27 CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………………………… 30 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………..… 31

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INTRODUCTION This essay is built on rumours. This essay is built on ifs and a perfect world, almost. Angola is mostly known for its brutal and long civil war. Its rich oil resources and its vast fields of and other precious minerals. It was once known for its huge plantations of , fruits and . Angola was also known for its beauty but not many remember that past (Länder i Fickformat, 2000, p2). Two to four hundred people die of starvation or diseases related to starvation every week, people flee from war and leave their homes in the countryside for a poor and unemployed life in the city (Dr. P-E Hellström). Only three percent of Angola’s total area is used for cultivation. Food shortages occur often. Angola has to import some 325 tons of basic food products. 180 tons of these 325 is give an aid to Angola (www.fao.org, 2000).

There is a rumour in Angola, according to this rumour the soils are so fertile that you just need to drop a seed and in a short while a plant will grow, it is said Angola could probably support most of Southern with basic agricultural products.

Soil Productivity Soil productivity is a term that will be used frequently in this essay. Tengberg & Stocking (1997) defines soil productivity as “a measure of the rate of accumulation of energy, or, in the context of soil (or land or agricultural) productivity, it is the productive potential of the soil system that allows the accumulation of energy in the dorm of vegetation” (Tengberg & Stocking, 1997, p4). To simplify this, one can say that soil productivity is a function of many factors, including soil variables, climate, slope and management. Tengberg & Stocking also define soil production as “the total accumulation of energy, without reference to how quickly or over what area or what assistance it accumulates” (Tengberg & Stocking, 1997, p4). Crop yield is a measure of soil production or an indicator of soil productivity. Production includes artificial enchantments such as fertilizers etc. Production is therefore not only used to describe soil properties but also technologies that are implied to the soil whereas productivity refers to the soil properties and only the soil properties. Ovuka (2000, p5) has used the same definitions as above. One of the biggest problems with agriculture is the erosion of the soils. Ovuka (2000, p1) states that “it is confirmed that has a negative effect on soil productivity”. Soil nutrients and yields decrease significantly with better land management (Ovuka, 2000, p1).

1 Some soils can only be used only for a short, limited amount of time if no steps are taken to prevent erosion. In this essay the author assumes that there is a universal correlation between soil loss and productivity, the more soil less the less productivity (Tenberg & Stocking, 1997).

The soils themselves are a major part of this essay. A brief description of the soils in Angola is given on page 11 and a more detailed description is given on page 21. There are, however, two soil types that play a major role in this essay, the Luvisols and the Orthic Ferrasols. The Luvisols, if treated right and given enough water and drainage, are soils that can give a yield of about one-thousand tons of maize per hectare. This soil is quite productive and can remain so for a long period of time (Figure 1). The Orthic Ferrasols, on the other hand, are not as productive as the Luvisols and without erosion protective measurements these soils have a high erosion rate. The chief limitation of this soil is the low content of fertilizing elements (FAO, 1986). These soils will have to be fertilized and worked with in order to get a good annual yield. The example given in figure 2 on a location where the erosion rate is was high and no fertilisers or other enchantments were used. According to Tengberg (2000) fertilisers need to be used in order to get a decent production.

Figure 1. Maize yield decline with erosion for Luvisols

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Figure 2. Maize yield decline with erosion for ferrasols

OBJECTIVE The objective of this essay is to see if these rumours of the fertile soils in Angola are true. How much maize could Angola produce, providing that modern methods are used if there was peace in the country?

Several other questions will be asked, the first one if this is realistic at all. Is there enough water, an element that most African countries lack? Is the topography flat enough for farming without a major risk for severe erosion? These and other questions will be discussed in this essay.

3 GEOGRAPHY OF ANGOLA Angola is situated in Western Africa just under the equator. The 1,246,700 sq km country shares boundaries with Congo-Kinshasa (2285 km), (1086 km) and (1376 km). Angola’s coastline is 1500 km long. Angola also has an enclave in the north called Cabinda. Angola is divided into eighteen provinces. Roughly two-thirds is situated on a plateau between 1050-1335 meters above sea level. The highest mountain in Angola is Mt.Moto of 2630 meters. The watershed of Angola’s rivers run in the central part of the inland plateau. Angola has a number of rivers flowing through the country in an east-west direction. Only one of these rivers, the River Quanza, is navigable (Figure 5 on page 7). The other rivers are important for irrigation and electricity dams (Africa South of Sahara 2001, 2000). The Namib Desert occupies the costal plains in the South. The northwestern part of the country is covered mainly in dense forest. Angola has three principal natural regions: the coastal lowlands that is characterized by low plains and terraces; hills and mountains that rise inland from he coast into a great escarpment; and an area of high plains called the high plateau (planalto), which extends eastwards from the escarpment (Encyclopedia of the Third World, 1999).

The coastal lowland rises from the sea in a series of low terraces. This region varies in width from about 25 kilometres near to more than 150 kilometres in the Valley just south of , the capital, and is markedly different from Angola’s highland mass. The ’s cold, northward flowing Benguela Current substantially reduces precipitation along the coast, making the region relatively arid or nearly so south of Benguela (Where it forms an extension with the Namib Desert), and quite dry even in its northern reaches. Even where the average annual rainfall may be as much as 500 mm, as around Luanda, it is not uncommon for the to fail. Given this pattern of precipitation, the far south is marked by sand dunes, which give way to dry scrub along the middle parts of the coast. Portions of the northern coastal plains are covered by thick brush (Encyclopedia of the Third World, 1999).

The belt of hills and mountains parallels the coast at distances ranging from 20 kilometres to 100 kilometres inland. The Cuanza River divides the zone into two parts. The northern part rises gradually from the coastal zone to an average of 500 meters, their crests as high as 1000 meters to 1800 meters. South of the Cuanza river, the hills rise sharply from the coastal lowlands and form a high escarpment, extending from a point east of Luanda and running south through Namibia. The escarpment reaches 2,400 meters at its highest point, southeast of

4 the town of , and its steepest in the far south of Serra se Chela mountain range (Encyclopedia of the Third World, 1999).

Figure 3. Angola and its` districts

Climate Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating rainy and dry seasons. In the north, the rainy season may last for long as seven months, usually from September to April, with perhaps a brief slackening in January to February. In the south, the rainy season begins later, in November, and lasts until February. The (cacimbo) is often characterized by a heavy morning mist. In general, precipitation is higher in the north, but at any latitude it is greater in the interior than along the coast and increases with altitude.

5 Temperatures fall with distance from the equator and with altitude and tend to rise closer to the Atlantic Ocean. Thus at , at the mouth of the Congo River, the average annual temperature is about 26 °C, but it is under 16 °C at on the temperate central plateau. The coolest months are July and August when the middle of the dry season occurs. Frost may form at higher altitudes. However, disturbances can occur. The FAO (2001) reported that “prolonged dry spells in parts have coincided with excessive precipitation in others. Dry weather in January in the Southern parts stressed developing cereal crops. … By contrasts, heavy rains late in January in the north western province of Cabinda resulted in loss of life and damage to infrastructure and crops” (www.FAO.org).

Figure 4. Meteorological profile for Angola

The Benguela current that runs along the coast, influences and reduces rainfall in that part of Angola. The interior uplands in the provinces of Bie, Huambo and Huila enjoy an equable climate. Along the Quanza river in the northeast and northwest there are high temperatures with heavy rainfall. The average rainfall is 1050 mm per year, but it varies greatly in different regions. Northern Angola can have up to 1500 mm per year and Southern Angola can have as little as 100 mm per year.

6 Drainage Most of the country’s many rivers originate in central Angola, but their patterns of flow are diverse and their ultimate outlets varied. A number of rivers flow in more or less westerly course to the Atlantic Ocean, providing water for irrigation in the dry coastal strip and the potential for hydroelectric power, only some of which had been realized by 1988. Two of Angolas most important rivers, the Cuanza and the Cunene, take a more indirect route to the Atlantic.The Cuanza flowing north and the Cunene flowing south before turning west. The Cuanza is the only river wholly within Angola that is navigable for nearly 200 kilometres from its mouth - by boats of commercially or militarily significance. The Congo River, whose mouth and western end form a small portion of Angola’s Northern boarder with Zaire, is also navigable.

North of the Luanda divide a number of important tributaries of the Congo River flow north to join it, draining Angolas northeast quadrant. South of the divide some rivers flow into the River and thence to the Indian Ocean, others to the Okavango River (as the Cubango River is called along the border of Namibia and Botswana) and thence to the Okavango swamps in Botswana. The tributaries of the Cubango and several southern rivers flowing to the Atlantic are seasonal, completely dry much of the year. Angola is one of the few countries in Africa that is considered to have a surplus of water (www.fao.org/aquastat).

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Figure 5. Angola and its’ rivers

Population Angola is not a very densely populated country with an estimated 12.3 million people or 9.8 persons per sq km. The majority of the population lives in five of Angola’s eighteen provinces. The population is estimated to increase with 3.8 % annually. 58 % of the population is estimated to be illiterate according ti UNESCO. Angola is a country with numerous ethnic groups with the Ovimbundu and the Mbundu being the two biggest groups. 45 % of the population is under 25 % and only 5 % is over sixty years of age.

The majority of the working population is involved in the agricultural sector. Most of these farmers grow crops for themselves and not for commercial purposes. The base food in Angola

8 consists of maize and cassava maize being the more common of he two, according to the FAO (ww.fao.org).

Total Population (1999) 12 479 000 inhabitant Rural active population (1995): 73.8% of active population Population annual growth rate (1988-99): 3.97% Life expectancy (1989-1994): 47 years Figure 6.Population map of Angola. Source: www.fao.org

Economy Angola is a country rich in natural resources. Ninety-five percent of Angola’s export consists of oil. There are also a number of fields in Angola. Angola is also rich in other minerals and before it’s independence it was known for the vast coffee plantations and cotton fields (Länder i Fickformat,p25).

9 Agriculture Today only three percent of the total area is cultivated. It is estimated that 24% of the country can be cultivated (Africa South of Sahara, 2000, p46).

Figure 7. Main crop zones in Angola. Compare with map on page 22.

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Figure 8. Cereal Production in Angola from 1987-1998.

A brief description and location of soils The dominating soils in Angola are Arenosols and Gleysols in the East, Ferrasols in the West but not along the coast were Xerrosols are dominating. In the South Yermosols and Cambisols can be found. For a more detailed description see page 18.

11 HISTORY OF ANGOLA Not much is known about the early history of Angola. The San people are believed to have lived in this area for some 25.000 years. The Khai are supposed to have lived in this area foe some 10.000 years. Both the San and Khai were nomads. It is estimated that organized societies based on fishing were developed around 7000 BC (Africa South of Sahara 2000, 1999). Angola was populated by Bantu speaking people who migrated from the north. Gradually kingdoms were developed and these kingdoms became relatively advanced and rich. The most advanced kingdoms were the Congo in the West and Luanda in the East. These kingdoms had smaller kingdoms under them that were loyal in war and trade (Africa South of Sahara 2000, 1999).

Colonisation The Portuguese seafarer Diogo Cao “discovered” Angola in 1483. In the first decade a relatively friendly trade between the Portuguese and the local ethnic groups occurred. After this period, the slave trade became the main interest of the Portuguese, The slave trade reached its peak during the eighteenth century and was abolished in 1883. During these years millions of people had been deported and the area was deprived culturally, socially and economically (Africa South of Sahara 2000, 1999).

During the Berlin conference in 1884-1885 Angola was declared Portuguese but it was not until the 1920’s that Portugal gained full control over the territory. The colonizers increased in numbers, from a couple of thousand in 1910 to 50.000 three decades later (Africa South of Sahara 2000, 1999).

Fight for independence During the 1950’s the resistance against colonizing powers increased. The educated Angolans and the Mestidos had, through studies in Portugal, come in contact with Marxist theories and anti-imperialism. For the first time an organized form of resistance was made. In 1956 the MPLA (Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola) was formed. This movement used guerrilla warfare but failed in uniting all the ethnic groups of Angola. The general opinion was that the mestidos had a too dominating role in the MPLA. The FNLA (Frente Nacional e Libertacao en Angola) was created as an opposition to the MPLA. Four years later Jonas Savimbi broke out of the FNLA and created UNITA. Savimbi had contacts with the U.S.A and was encouraged by the US, who hoped to get influence in the future. The competition between

12 the freedom parties led to fights between the groups, thus weakening them in a fight for independence. In 1974 changed dramatically, after the military coupe in Portugal the Portuguese wanted to pull out from their colonies. None of the freedom organizations were strong enough to control the country. The MPLA had a strong hold in the Luanda area, the FNLA had a strong hold in the area close to the border of Zaire and the UNITA had its hold in Eastern and Southern Angola.

The three groups managed to agree in discussing terms of independence with Angola together. At his time some 300.000 Portuguese left the country, taking everything that they could with them, machines, cars etc, the rest was destroyed, the rest being factories and other infrastructure. The South-Africans pulled back in 1976 (officially) and the MPLA could with help from Cuban troops defeat the rivalizing parties. The MPLA took control over Angola, barely (Africa South of Sahara 2000, 1999).

Angola after independence The goal of the MPLA was to create a ‘revolutionary democratic dictatorship’. The state took over the economy, but production decreased dramatically. The reasons for this decrease were a failed policy, the Portuguese leaving Angola, and the war. MPLA allowed no opposition parties (Länder i Fickformat, Angola, 1999).

Savimbi and Unita got support from South Africa and the U.S, and most importantly, from the Ovimbi people. There was practically a war between South Africa and Angola during this time. Angola supported Swapo, the Namibian independence group, and let Swapo troops operate from Angola. South Africa made its troops go deep into Angola to eliminate Swapo. The MPLA resisted, due to the income from its oil, its expanding contacts with the European Community (now the European Union) and China, and the Cuban troops. Namibia gained independence in 1988, the Cuban troops left Angola, and South Africa pulled its troops out of Angola. A ceasefire between UNITA and MPLA was made in the same year. In 1991 a peace- treaty between UNITA and the MPLA was signed (Länder i Fickformat, Angola, 1999).

At the same time the influence from the United States increased. UNITA got support, in the form of military equipment and money. UNITA could now establish themselves in Northern Angola. The peace-treaty and the ceasefire no longer held. UNITA threatened to gain control of Luanda fro the first time, Portugal, the Soviet Union and the United states urged the fighting

13 parties to sign a peace-treaty, which was signed later in 1991. When elections were held and the MPLA candidate won, UNITA accused the elections of being ‘fixed’. A few weeks later the fighting started again. This time the destruction caused was far greater than in the two following years than it had been in the previous decades. Infrastructure, hospitals, roads, educational systems and industries basically collapsed. At least half a million people died, and some three million people fled from their homes (Länder i Fickformat, Angola, 1999).

In 1994 the MPLA was putting pressure on UNITA, who agreed to sign a peace-treaty. In a meeting in May 1995, Savimbi (the UNITA leader) agreed to support the Angolan president, Dos Santos, and his plans to rebuild the country. This agreement was not sincere from Savimbi’s side, and the civil war broke out again (Länder i Fickformat, Angola, 1999).

Important dates in Angolan History 1500 – The Portuguese colonise Angola 1883 – Slave trade is abolished 1884-1885 – The Angolan country boarders are drawn up a the Berlin conference 1920’s – Exploitation of Angola is increased by the Portuguese, who also gain complete control over Angola 1950’s – Independence movements are formed 1961 – Riots and guerrilla warfare 1974-1975 – Civil war over the power of the new country 1975 – Angola is declared independent by MPLA, Cuban troops arrive 1991 – Peace treaty between the government and UNITA 1992 – Democratic elections, civil war breaks out again 1994- New Peace-Treaty 1998 – Civil war breaks out again

The situation in Angola today is still very unstable. Some ten million unexploded landmines are still left over from the war. It is estimated that between two- and four-hundred people die weekly from starvation or famine-related diseases (Dr. P-E Hellström, on telephone Feb 2001).

14 METHODS AND MATERIAL

Assumptions Since this is a model, certain assumptions must be made. The author assumes that the climatic conditions are stable, as are erosion rates, and that a general applicability of broad management categories is possible. Another assumption made is that a universal correlation between soil loss and productivity exists. A description of the different soils is given on page eleven.

Key factors The key factors for choosing the areas that could be cultivated are: • Topography: the topography cannot be so steep that the risk of erosion is too large. • Climate: there needs to be sufficient to ensure crop production. • Soil types: the soils need to be productive, and located in areas where the climate and topography is suitable.

Maps This essay is based on material gained from maps. The FAO Soil Map of the World, African Edition, was used to determine the soil types in Angola. The best way to do a land survey, such as this one, is to do field studies. Due to the current political situation there, this is nearly impossible, and so this was not done. Booker (1991) states that “soil mapping units are rarely, if ever, completely uniform and the variability within a unit is seldom completely explicable in terms of a rational and ascertainable variation in influences on the soil.” There are certain limitations when using a soil map. Conventionally, soil maps are supposed to be 85 % pure, but in practice they are more likely to be about 50-65 % pure. Much of the total variability in soil properties over a large region can occur within an area of 1ha or even a few square metres. One should also remember that soil management techniques are critical, and, depending on their application, yield can show variable results (Morgan, 1995).

15 Maize Many crops could be grown in Angola. The author uses maize as an example because it is one of the most common crops grown in Angola.

The Universal Soil Loss Equation Since soil erosion is a problem, the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) was used to work out how much soil is eroded annually. The mean annual soil loss equation is: E = R x K x LS x C x P where E is the mean annual soil loss, R is the rainfall erosivity factor, K is the soil erodibility factor, L is the length of slope factor, S is the slope-steepness, C is the crop management factor and P is the erosion control practice factor.

This method can be criticised, since the results vary, depending on the data available, and should therefore not be considered extremely reliable. It can, however, give a good idea of how big the mean annual loss for specific places is. In addition to the limitations of this data, which was sometimes roughly estimated, there are, according to Morgan (1995), theoretical problems with the equation. Soil erosion cannot be described b multiplying six factors together: there is a considerable interdependence between the variables. Rainfall, for instance, influences the R and C factors, terracing the L and P factors (Morgan, 1995). The topographic map of Angola used, contained isohypses of 200 metres, but, in order to calculate the slope lengths, more details would have been required. This could only have been accomplished by doing a field study.

In order to find the angle of the slopes a topographical map of Angola with a scale of 1 : 500 000, with isohypses of 200 metres, was used (Ministerio de Defesa, 1986). The equation that was used to find this angle was: Sin A = Sin B = Sin C a b c

USLE Factors The rainfall erosivity factor (R) was hard to calculate. Since there was no information available on this subject, this factor was roughly estimated. The soil erodibility factor was also

16 estimated, with the assistance of a chart found in Soil Erosion and Conservation (Morgan, 1995, p. 26), since there was no other information available. The slope length factor (S) was calculated from the topographic map of Angola (Ministerio de Defensa, 1986). The crop management factor (C) was used from a chart also found in Morgan’s above mentioned book. The erosion-control practice factor was also calculated from a chart in the book (Morgan, 1995, p.67).

There are two reasons why slope angles and lengths were calculated. One was that the slope length and angle was needed for the soil loss equation (see below). The other was that the slope angle and slope length has a direct correlation with erosion.

In order to work out where cultivation should take place, the author used current and historical data on land use, but most importantly, a land capability classification was made. This classification was developed by United States Soil Conservation as a method of assessing the extent to which limitations, such as erosion risk, soil depth, wetness and climate, hinder the agriculture use that can be made of the land. The idea of the classification is to regionalise an area of land into units with similar degrees and kinds of limitations. The scale has eight classes, where Class I is the class that is most suitable for agricultural use, while Class XIII is the least. Worth noticing is that each Class has a recommendation on how to utilise the land in the best way.

The classification has only been done for places with suitable soils and an adequate water supply, as well as for ‘flat’ land. Both Luvisols and Ferrasols have the same Class, even though Luvisols are much more productive. Some changes have been made to this system of classification. Morgan’s Class 3 consists of ‘soils of moderate fertility’, whereas the author considers ‘productive soils’ as more fitting in this context. Only the first three classifications (Classes I – III) have been used here, and therefore only these are described. The rest of the land is not classified, because of various reasons stipulated in the Results section.

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Land Capability Classes (United States System) Class I Deep, productive soils, easily worked, on nearly level land; not subject to overland flow; no or slight risk of damage when cultivated; use of fertilisers and cover crops, crop rotations required to maintain soil fertility and soil structure. Class II Productive soils on gentle slopes; moderate depth; subject to occasional overland flow; may require drainage; moderate risk of damage when cultivated; use of crop rotations, water control systems to control erosion. Class III Productive soils on moderately steep slopes; subject to more severe erosion; subject to more severe risk of damage but can be used for crops provided plant cover is maintained.

In order to work out how much a soil could possibly produce per hectare, two diagrams were used. These are shown on page 6. The author assumes that the yield of a Ferrasol will be longer if they are in a low erosion zone, with small slopes and good plant cover, than if they are not. The area of the soils was worked out by using a planimeter.

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RESULTS Soils A description of the soils found in Angola is below. The description of the soil is taken from the FAO World Soil Map, African Edition (1986).

Be, Eutric Cambisols Eutric Cambisols are good soils, rich in nutrient elements. Under equatorial conditions they perfectly suited for the demanding perennial crops, such as cocoa and coffee. However, the hilly topography, with which this kind of soil is usually associated, presents problems for annual crops and prevents mechanisation.

Fo. Orthic Ferrasols The chief limitation of these soils is there low content of fertilising elements. Angola has the right climate for these soils to have a fine medium texture and they are suitable for a food crop/cotton/groundnut rotation and for the establishment of coffee and oil nut plantations. Under present conditions, soil regeneration is affected by a natural fallow of several years in length, following each cropping cycle. The productivity of the soils can be improved by upgrading natural fallow, replacing it with sol-improving plants, and using mineral fertilisers. A guideline of how to use these methods from improvement has been set up by the FAO. The FAO Soil Map of Africa Guidebook states the “the psychological and technical conditions of the African rural are not conductive to the applications of the modern methods developed at the stations (sic)” (FAO Soil Map of Africa, Guidebook, p. 205).

Fx. Xhantic Ferrasols These soils exist in drier conditions in Angola than they usually would. Development under these kinds of conditions presents problems, since they have undergone severe erosion.

G. Gleysols Gleysols are known for their poor drainage abilities. Since the Gleysols of the Congo Basin are covered with swamp forest on a sandy substratum they are seldom used for agriculture. Gleysols with proper drainage systems can be used for growing rice.

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I Lithosols The suitability of these soils is limited by a dissected topography with steep soils, and by the rockiness and stoniness of the substratum. These conditions make the practice of both traditional and mechanical agriculture virtually impossible.

L. Luvisols The cropping zone of these soils depends on the severity of the dry season. The dry season in Angola is not considered to be too long or harsh and therefore these soils are suitable fro agriculture. According to Tengberg & Stocking (1997) the problems with these soils is that there is usually not enough water to cultivate them. These soils are usually found in environments where there is a lack of water, but this is not true in Angola. The soils are in locations with enough rainfall, and there are also a number of rivers found in these areas.

Qc. Cambic Arenosols These Arenosols occur mainly in dry regions. These soils are generally poor in carbon and nitrogen and are generally used to grow fodder and for livestock agriculture.

Qf. Ferric Arenosols These Arenosols occur in extensive areas in Southern Angola. These areas are covered by different types of savannah, pseudosteppe and Sudano-Zambian woodland. Farmers tend to cultivate the richest soils, found in depressions around sandy plateaus. In the Kalahari plateaus in Angola the only crops that can be grown are pearl millet, vondzeia and cassava. The yields from these soils are very low. Ferric Arenosols are poor soils with a clay content of below 10% and the organic matter content is also very low.

X. Xerosols These soils are difficult to use for agriculture because of their prevalence in dry areas, and the stony nature of the terrain in the areas in which they are found. In a few places, such as in the Karoo of South Africa, irrigation systems have been established on deep Xerosols that make them productive.

20 Y. Yermosols Yermosols are suitable neither for traditional agriculture nor for the development of intensive modern agriculture. Suitability is limited by many factors, especially a lack of water. Even when water is available, agriculture is limited by stony, lithic soils, salt crusts and the presence of shifting sand dunes. Such soils are therefore unsuitable for agriculture.

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Figure 9. Location of soils in Angola

22 The USLE The USLE was used to calculate the amount of soil that erodes annually for the area on the map on page 22. The factors were sometimes estimated and therefore the author does not consider the results to be completely reliable. It was assumed that the crop management factors and erosion control practices were as effective as possible. The area on the map is quite flat, which means that only the parts labelled with ‘III’ have slope angles of more than 8 degrees. In areas with Luvisols there was a low angle of slope and the soils loss was 8 -15 tons/ha. In other areas with more of a slope the soil loss varied between 12-45 tons/ha. The Ferrasols showed similar variation. Where the slops had a low angle the soil loss was less: 15-32 tons/ha, and where the slope was steeper the soil loss was more: 38-112 tons/ha. In this case, the author decided to use the diagrams on pages 2 and 3, as an indicator.

The ‘Area of Choice’ The area shown on the map on page 22 consists of Luvisols and Orthic Ferrasols. This area, located in the Western and Central parts of the country, has sufficient rainfall and rivers that can be used for irrigation purposes, to facilitate the growing of crops. The topography of this area is not hilly enough to cause severe erosion. This area has the three ‘key factors’ and therefore agriculture can take place here. The ‘chosen area’ is also inhabited and therefore has enough labour. The other areas are not recommended, for several different reasons. The Southern part of Angola consists of poor soil (yermosols and xerosols) and there is not sufficient water. The Eastern part consists of forests and savannah, with soils that are not considered fertile under current climatic conditions. In the North there is tropical rain forest, and cultivating this part would not be recommended.

23 Land Capability Classification The classification can be seen on the map below. The classification was made on the basis of the angle of the slope.

Yield The marked area on the map consists of Luvisols and Orthic Ferrasols. The Luvisols give 4 tons of maize/ha, a square kilometre gives 400 tons per year (see pages 3 and 4). The total area of viable Luvisols is 68 250 km², multiplied by 400, gives 27 300 300 tons of maize per year, if the plantation is run in the best possible way.

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Figure 10. My area of choice

25 The Ferrasols gives a lower yield of about 1,8 tons per year /ha, or 160 tons/km². The area of the Ferrasols is 53 650 km², multiplied by 160, which gives 8 584 000 tons of maize per year. Together these soils give 35 884 000 metric tons of maize per year. By comparison, the Republic of South Africa produces 12 000 000 metric tons per year.

26 DISCUSSION My results indicate that Angola has the capacity to produce enough maize, both for local use and for export. One can objects as to why maize is the produce featured in this essay, but it is one of the most common Angolan food crops. Other crops are, of course, grown, but this example was used purely to illustrate the fertility of the soil.

Angola is one of the few African countries that has water surpluses instead of shortages. With its many rivers, irrigation systems are a possibility. Current FAO reports show that the drought risk in Angola is still present, however, and could still lead to the devastation of crops (see page 6). Today (2001) there are very few dams and irrigation systems in place, due to the ongoing civil wars.

There are areas of Angola that are not recommended for agriculture, for several different reasons. The Southern part of Angola consists of poor soil (yermosols and xerosols) and there is not sufficient water. The Eastern part consists of forests and savannah, with soils that are not considered fertile under current climatic conditions. In the North there is tropical rain forest, and cultivating this part would not be recommended.

Another question that could be asked is that of how long crops could be grown for without ‘exhausting’ soils. In the case of Luvisols, crops could be grown for well over ten years (see diagram on page 6), providing there is good plan cover. Tenberg & Stocking state that “the productivity of the Luvisols can be maintained only by addressing conserving nutrients and water-holding capacity on site”. They go on to say that “this is most obviously accomplished by using different tillage processes which maximise surface water infiltration (e.g. contour ridging, tied ridging) and biological measures which maintain cover” (Tengberg & Stocking, 1997, p. 28). With the Ferrasols more precautions must be taken, due to the increased erosion that affects these soils, which decreases their yield. Addressing this erosion rate with combinations of preventative structures, including the use of fertilisers, as well as different prevention techniques and biological measures is needed (Tenberg & Stocking, 1997).

The USLE showed large variations between the different areas, and was not considered reliable, since some factors had to be estimated, as there was no information available. The USLE method would be an excellent one if all the information was available.

27 If one looks at the future of Angolan agriculture in these terms, it looks very bright. Angola has the capacity to produce roughly three times as much maize as the Republic of South Africa does today. Of course the RSA does not utilise its soils only for maize, but it is an indicator of the potential the Angola has today. This is, however, a very idealistic scenario. To accomplish something of this magnitude would take a lot of money, people would need to be educated and the whole agricultural system would need to be reformed. There is also the possibility that even if the soils were used, it may not be in the right way for this kind of yield. The erosion rates would increase dramatically, leading to lower yields and ‘ruining’ the soils. Also likely is that the basic food crops could be replaced with the more lucrative, luxury crops, such as coffee and cocoa. They would generate more money than food crops could, and so are more attractive. Perhaps a combination could be achieved in such a way as to ensure that Angola is self-sufficient in producing food crops, as well as the more profitable ones.

There is, however, a much bigger problem facing Angolan agriculture than the ones described above. This is the recent political situation. The civil war in Angola has been present, almost constantly, since 1975. Although it is not known how many landmines have been laid over the years, it is estimated that there are over 10 million of them, of varying types. One can assume that at least some of these mines have been placed in human-habited areas (see the population map on page 8). The government is estimated to spend between 70-85 % of the country’s budget on the ongoing war (see History of Angola on page 13). This war has led to people fleeing to the capital, Luanda, for safety. It is estimated that there are well over three million people living in the Luanda region today, May 2001 (Dr. P-E Hellström). The shanty-towns are growing every day. The harvests are left to rot in the fields, and the food shortages are getting worse: there have been at least two major ones since 1990. It is estimated that 100-200 people die each week of starvation or famine-related diseases (Dr. A-K Karlsson, on telephone 2001).

Angola defiantly has the financial resources to build the country’s infrastructure, as it is rich, both in minerals (especially diamonds) and oil. Agriculture is not the only system that would need to be improved if the war ended: the infrastructure needs a complete renovation, as do the school and health systems, and many more.

28 Suggestions This essay could have been done in different way. The maps could have been digitalised and put in a geographical information system, field studies are recommended, but not during the current political circumstances.

So what? Is this just an essay that uses ifs, assumptions, dreams and could-have-beens? In a way, certainly, yes, but if one thinks about it, the war can’t go on forever, even if it seems it can. When it stops one day and the mine-clearing can begin, maybe this essay could be used to indicate the most effective areas in which to begin this clearing process. This can not be accomplished overnight, or even in ten years, but this may be a goal, one that is not too unrealistic, that could maybe, one day…

29 CONCLUSIONS

I. Angola has the potential to produce agricultural products in vast quantities.

II. It is not possible to cultivate the land under the present political conditions.

III. Money and peace are two of the main things that Angola needs in order to start agricultural production.

30 REFERENCES Africa South of Sahara 2000 (search word: Angola), Volume 30, 1991, Europa Publications

Encyclopedia of the Third World Volume 1, 1999

The FAO Soil Map of the World: Guidebook

Landow, 1991, Bookers Tropical Soil Manual, Harlow, 246 pages

Ministerio de Educacao: Atlas Geographica Volume , 1986, Esselte Map Service, Stockholm

Ovuka Mira 2000, Effects of Soil Erosion on Nutrient Status and Soil Productivity in the Central Hihlands of Kenya; Department of Physical Geography, Göteborg, 110 pages

R.P.C Morgan; 1995; Soil Erosion & Conservation; Second Edition; Harlow Essex, 198 pages

Tenberg & Stocking, 1997, Erosion-Induced Loss in Soil Productivity and its Impacts on Agriculture Production and Food Security; Overseas Development Group, University of East Anglia, Norich UK, 42 pages

Utrikespolitiska Institutet, 1999, Länder i Fickformat: Angola; Stockholm, 35 pages

Maps Mapa de Angola, scale 1:500 000, Ministerio de Defensa

The FAO Soil Map of the World, Scale 1:

Internet www.fao.org www.fao.org/aquastat

Interviews Dr. P-E Hellström, telephone 2001 Dr. KA Karlsson, telephone 2001

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