Yoga in Australia: Results of a National Survey
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Yoga in Australia: Results of a National Survey Stephen John Penman GC (Tert. Teach. Learn) School of Health Sciences Department of Complementary Medicine RMIT University, Melbourne Submitted March 2008 A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Science Declaration The candidate declares that Except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the candidate alone This work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other academic award The content of this thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program Any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party has been duly acknowledged Ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed _________________________________ Stephen John Penman 13/8/09 _________________ Date Yoga in Australia: Results of a National Survey ii © 2008 Stephen Penman Acknowledgements Through a process of consultation with the yoga teaching profession in Australia, many individuals and organisations contributed to and supported the Yoga in Australia survey project. Thanks is offered to the following organisations for their support and assistance: Satyananda Australian Association Yoga Teachers of Yoga in Daily Life Association Bikram Yoga Australia The Advanced Diploma of Yoga Teaching at the Council of Adult Education Dru Shiva Vedanta Gita Yoga and Meditation Centre of Sydney International Meditation Centres Yoga The Australian College of EMP Industrial Classical Yoga Magazine (Yoga mats and accessories) Magazine Special thanks is also offered to the following individuals for their support and assistance: Professor Marc Cohen of RMIT University for his initiative to conduct the Yoga in Australia survey, his expert supervision, guidance, and patience over four years Swami Samnyasanand (Philip Stevens) for acting as consultant, collaborator, advisor and friend throughout the project Dr Sue Jackson for her collaboration, guidance, editing and friendship Tristan Penman for designing the ‘Write your name in yoga history’ postcard Dr Katherine Sevar for her guidance on medical questions, editing, personal support and encouragement Ma Devi Saraswati for her guidance, trust and providing the support of the Yoga Teachers Association of Australia Di Lucas, Lucille Wood and the people of Gita International Yoga for their personal support and assistance in reviewing the draft survey questions Leigh Blashke for his personal support, and the students of the Advanced Diploma of Yoga Teaching for their assistance in reviewing the draft survey questions Julia Renaud and the people of the Shiva Ashram for their assistance in drafting the meditation questions and reviewing the draft survey questions Sri Jani Baker and the students of the Australian College of Classical Yoga for their assistance in reviewing the draft survey questions Lisa Demos and Louise Prentice, Senior Research Fellows at Monash University, for their assistance in conducting the literature review Maria Vassos for her assistance with data analysis My extended family and close friends for their encouragement and support: Katherine, Tristan, Lachlan, Alex, Jean, Anne, Chris, Lyn, Ria, Zachary and Nathaniel Yoga in Australia: Results of a National Survey iii © 2008 Stephen Penman Table of Contents List of Tables and Figures .....................................................................................................1 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................ 4 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................ 4 Executive Summary ..............................................................................................................6 1. Introduction...................................................................................................................... 8 1.1. A brief introduction to yoga ....................................................................................... 8 1.2. Defining yoga ........................................................................................................... 10 1.3. A brief history of yoga in Australia........................................................................... 11 1.4. The regulatory environment for yoga in Australia ................................................... 12 1.4.1. Professional associations............................................................................................12 1.4.2. Teacher training standards.........................................................................................13 1.4.3. Nationally recognised training ....................................................................................13 1.4.4. Yoga teaching insurance............................................................................................14 1.4.5. Yoga therapy ............................................................................................................14 2. Review of the Literature ................................................................................................. 15 2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 15 2.2. Participation, practice and effectiveness ................................................................. 15 2.3. Participation Studies ................................................................................................ 16 2.3.1. Participation in yoga as physical activity or exercise .....................................................16 2.3.1.1. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Participation in Sport and Physical Activities .............16 2.3.1.2. Australian Sports Commission. Participation in Exercise, Recreation and Sport (ERASS) in Australia ...........................................................................................19 2.3.1.3. YogaJournal.com - Yoga in America Survey 2003 and 2005 ....................................22 2.3.1.4. American Sports Data Inc. Superstudy by Sports Participation 2003 ........................23 2.3.1.5. Sport England. Women’s Participation in Sport 2002 ..............................................23 2.3.1.6. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Physical Activity Patterns of Australian Adults 2000 .......................................................................................................24 2.3.1.7. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. USA 2003 ...........................................24 2.3.1.8. National Heart Foundation of Australia. Position paper on physical activity 2001.......24 2.3.1.9. Nutrition Australia. Activities and activity levels for general health and well- being 1999 ........................................................................................................24 2.3.2. Participation in yoga as a form of therapy ...................................................................25 2.3.2.1. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use in Australia in 2005: A National Population Based Survey.....................................................................................25 2.3.2.2. Integration of Complementary Therapies in Australian General Practice: Results of a National Survey ...........................................................................................25 2.3.2.3. The escalating cost and prevalence of alternative medicine (in Australia) 2000.........26 2.3.2.4. Use of mind-body medical therapies (USA) 2004 ...................................................26 2.3.2.5. Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States 2002.....27 2.3.2.6. Prevalence and Patterns of Adult Yoga use in the United States: results of a national survey ..................................................................................................28 2.3.2.7. World Health Organisation. Prevalence of use of complementary/alternative medicine: a systematic review 2000.....................................................................28 Yoga in Australia: Results of a National Survey iv © 2008 Stephen Penman 2.4. Practice Studies........................................................................................................ 29 2.4.1. Medibank Private Australia. Sports Injuries Report 2004 ...............................................29 2.4.2. Dru Yoga. Practitioner survey UK and Australia 2006....................................................29 2.4.3. YogaJournal.com. What the Future Holds: Yoga 2030 Survey........................................30 2.4.4. British Wheel of Yoga. National Members Survey 2003 .................................................33 2.4.5. Manchester Yoga Survey 2000 ...................................................................................34 2.4.6. YogaSite.com 1998 ...................................................................................................35 2.4.7. Other practice studies in progress at time of writing.....................................................35 2.5. Effectiveness studies................................................................................................ 36 2.5.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................36 2.5.2. The problem with CAM research .................................................................................38