What can we learn from meltwater? Claire Todd Pacific Lutheran University

Emmons Glacier, White River What can we learn from Mount Rainier meltwater? Claire Todd Pacific Lutheran University

Luke Weinbrecht, Elyssa Tappero, David Horne, Bryan Donahue, Matt Schmitz, Matthew Hegland, Michael Vermeulen, Trevor Perkins, Nick Lorax, Kristiana Lapo, Greg Pickard, Cameron Wiemerslage, Ryan Ransavage, Allie Jo Koester, Nathan Page, Taylor Christensen, Isaac Moening-Swanson, Riley Swanson, Reed Gunstone, Aaron Steelquist, Emily Knutsen, Christina Gray, Samantha Harrison, Kyle Bennett, Victoria Benson, Adriana Cranston, Connal Boyd, Sam Altenberger, Rainey Aberle, Alex Yannello, Logan Krehbiel, Hannah Bortel, Aerin Basehart

Emmons Glacier, White River Why meltwater?

• Provides a window into the subglacial environment • Water storage and drainage • Sediment generation, storage and evacuation • Interaction with the hydrothermal system  Geologic Hazards Emmons Glacier, • Outburst floods and debris flows White River Volcanic hazards • (e.g., Brown, 2002; Lawler et al., 1996; Collins, 1990) Field Sites - criteria

• As close to the terminus as possible, to avoid • Contribution to discharge from non-glacial streams (snowmelt) • Impact of atmospheric mixing on water chemistry • Deposition or entrainment of sediment outside of the Emmons Glacier, subglacial environment White River

• Single channel, to achieve • Complete (as possible) representation of the subglacial environment

Carbon Emmons Glacier, White River Glacier

Field Sites – Channel Conditions

• Turbulent • When most sites are accessible (June/July – September), discharge is high and entering the channel is impossible • High suspended sediment load and bed load • Channel geometry changes

• Extremely hard on instrumentation Emmons Glacier, White River Methods Summary

• A window into the subglacial environment • Water storage and drainage - discharge • Sediment generation, storage and evacuation – suspended sediment • Interaction with the hydrothermal system – hydrochemical analyses

Emmons Glacier, White River Methods - Discharge • Attempted velocity x area: • Velocity • Flow probe at arms length from the bank edge • Float method Nisqually River • Area Nisqually River • Depth probe at arms length from the bank edge • Laser distance measurements of width • Significant uncertainties!

N.

Emmons Glacier, White River Methods - Discharge

• Pressure transducer: • Changes in water depth only • Rating curve not possible • Can determine the timing of changes Nisqually River

USGS Methods: Suspended Sediment • 500 ml hand samples • Taken at 4-12 hour intervals over 24 hours • Multiple samples per sample time • Autosampler

• Only possible at Nisqually Emmons Glacier, • One sample per hour over a 24-hour period White River • Lower sediment concentrations than hand sample

Emmons Glacier, White River

Nisqually River Methods: Hydrochemical Analysis • Sampled at 4-12 hour intervals over 24 hours • Duplicate samples, filtered immediately • Alkalinity titrations in the field (Hach kit) • Multiparameter probe (pH, conductivity, temperature) • Ion concentrations analyzed using a chromatograph (e.g., Collins, 1979; Gurnell et al., 1994) Winthrop Creek

Carbon Glacier Nisqually River Results: Diurnal Variation in Discharge • Highest flow a few hours after peak temperatures • Lowest flow in the early morning • Signal is less pronounced or disappears on cloudy days

White River - Water Depth - June 28-29, 2016 White River - Water Depth - July 21-22, 2016 1.2 1.2

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 feet feet

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0 04:34:42 05:49:42 06:49:42 07:49:42 08:49:42 10:04:42 11:04:42 12:19:42 13:19:42 14:19:42 15:19:42 16:19:42 17:19:42 18:19:42 19:19:42 20:19:42 21:19:42 22:19:42 23:19:42 00:19:42 01:34:42 02:34:42 03:34:42 04:34:42 05:34:42 06:34:42 07:34:42 14:59:40 15:39:40 16:19:40 16:59:40 17:39:40 18:19:40 18:59:40 19:39:40 20:19:40 20:59:40 21:39:40 22:19:40 22:59:40 23:39:40 00:19:40 00:59:40 01:39:40 02:19:40 02:59:40 03:39:40 04:19:40 04:59:40 05:39:40 06:19:40 06:59:40 07:39:40 6/28/2016 6/29/2016 7/21/2016 7/22/2016 Pressure Transducer measurements, 15-minute sampling rate Clear conditions Cloudy conditions (Graphs by Victoria Benson, 2016) Results: Seasonal Variation in Discharge • Intraseasonal change • Not enough data from glacial termini White River - Water Depth - August 8 - 9, 2016 1.2 • August discharge typically lower than June, July 1 0.8 0.6 feet 0.4 0.2 0 13:39:40 14:29:40 15:19:40 16:09:40 16:59:40 17:49:40 18:39:40 19:29:40 20:19:40 21:09:40 21:59:40 22:49:40 23:39:40 00:29:40 01:19:40 02:09:40 02:59:40 03:49:40 04:39:40 05:29:40 06:19:40 07:09:40 07:59:40 • USGS gauge shows early season peak 8/8/2016 8/9/2016

2014 2015 2016 Results: Suspended Sediment • Higher concentrations during higher discharge • Seasonal change

Nisqually River in June, April Results: Suspended Sediment • Diurnal cycle during ablation season • tied to discharge • peak sediment may lag peak discharge by 2-4 hours?

Nisqually Glacier Emmons Glacier nd rd August 2 - 3 , 2012 September 15th - 16th, 2012 2500 2500

2000 2000

1500 1500 mg/l mg/l 1000 1000

500 500

0 0 = peak 2am 4am 6am 8am 2pm 4pm 6pm 8pm 12am 10am discharge 10pm 12pm (Graphs by Allie Jo Koester, 2012) Results: Suspended Sediment • October 18th and 20th, 2016; Nisqually River at Longmire • Glacial Geology Class

2.5 inches of rain Oct Oct 18th 20th

(Thanks to GEOS 340, 2016!) Water Depth 70 60 Results 50 40 2.5 inches of rain Longmire, WA cm 30 20 10 Nisqually R. Water Temperature October 18-20th 6.5 8:27:29 0:27:29 2:27:29 4:27:29 6:27:29 8:27:29 0:27:29 2:27:29 4:27:29 6:27:29

5.5 10:27:29 12:27:29 14:27:29 16:27:29 18:27:29 20:27:29 22:27:29 10:27:29 12:27:29 14:27:29 16:27:29 18:27:29 20:27:29 22:27:29 C ° 4.5 10/18/2016 10/19/2016 10/20/2016 3.5 Electrical Conductivity 8:29:55 9:26:55 0:38:55 1:35:55 2:32:55 3:29:55 4:26:55 5:23:55 6:20:55 7:17:55 8:14:55 9:11:55 0:23:55 1:20:55 2:17:55 3:14:55 4:11:55 5:08:55 6:05:55 7:02:55 7:59:55 30 10:23:55 11:20:55 12:17:55 13:14:55 14:11:55 15:08:55 16:05:55 17:02:55 17:59:55 18:56:55 19:53:55 20:50:55 21:47:55 22:44:55 23:41:55 10:08:55 11:05:55 12:02:55 12:59:55 13:56:55 14:53:55 15:50:55 16:47:55 17:44:55 18:41:55 19:38:55 20:35:55 21:32:55 22:29:55 23:26:55 2016/10/18 2016/10/19 2016/10/20 25 /cm 20 mS 15 >3 hr lag between Suspended Sediment discharge and sediment increases

0.55 8:29:55 1:08:55 2:59:55 4:50:55 6:41:55 8:32:55 1:11:55 3:02:55 4:53:55 6:44:55 0.35 10:20:55 12:11:55 14:02:55 15:53:55 17:44:55 19:35:55 21:26:55 23:17:55 10:23:55 12:14:55 14:05:55 15:56:55 17:47:55 19:38:55 21:29:55 23:20:55

mg/l 0.15 10/18/2016 10/19/2016 10/20/2016 -0.05 9:00 1:00 3:04 5:04 7:04 9:04 1:04 3:04 5:04 7:04 11:04 13:04 15:04 17:00 19:04 21:04 23:04 11:04 13:04 15:04 17:04 19:04 21:04 23:04 (See Hannah Bortel’s poster tomorrow! ) 10/18/2016 10/19/2016 10/20/2016 Results: Suspended Sediment • Diurnal cycle during ablation season • Tied to discharge, meteorological conditions

1 ft

68˚F Emmons Glacier 63˚F 1 ft 2016

4 in 9 in

(Graphs by Victoria Benson, 2016; See Hannah Bortel’s poster tomorrow! ) Results: Suspended Sediment • Sediment pulses? • Geographic variation?

2013 2014 7000 20000 18000 6000 16000 5000 14000 4000 12000 10000 3000 8000 2000 6000 4000 1000 2000 0 0 July 1 and July 23 July 29 July 31 August 6 June 30 - July 7 and July 14 July 15 July 21 July 29 July 30 August 4 2 and 24 and 30 mg/l

mg/l July 1 8 and 15 and 16 and 22 and 30 and 31 and 5 Carbon Emmons Winthrop Carbon Nisqually Emmons Carbon Nisqually Tahoma Winthrop Carbon Winthrop Nisqually Suspended Sediment Concentration @ Max (mg/L) (Graphs by Taylor Christensen, 2014) Suspended Sediment Concentration @ Min (mg/L) Methods Summary

• A window into the subglacial environment • Water storage and drainage - discharge • Sediment generation, storage and evacuation – suspended sediment • Interaction with the hydrothermal system – hydrochemical analyses

Emmons Glacier, White River Extent of Hydrothermal Alteration – John et al., 2008 John et al., 2008 al., John et Results: Chloride Concentrations • Highest at Tahoma and Carbon Glaciers • Highest at maximum discharge, or no diurnal change 2012 14 12 10 2008 al., et John 8

ppm 6 4 2 0 max min max min max min max min max min max min Tahoma Carbon Carbon Tahoma Puyallup Emmons Glacier Glacier Glacier Glacier Glacier Glacier (Graphs by Kristiana Lapo July August September and Nathan Page, 2012-13) Results: Sulfate Concentrations • Highest at • Highest at minimum discharge 2012 35

30 2008 al., et John 25 20

ppm 15 10 5 0 max min max min max min max min max min max min Tahoma Glacier Carbon Glacier Tahoma Glacier Emmons Glacier (Graphs by Kristiana Lapo July August September and Nathan Page, 2012-13) Results: Sulfate Concentrations • Highest at Tahoma Glacier • Highest at minimum discharge John2008 al., et

Tahoma Glacier 50 40 Emmons Glacier 30 8 6

(mg/L) 20 4 10 2

mg/l) 0 0 ( 1:45 8:00 2:04 7:40 PM PM AM AM 2:55am 7:52am 4:15pm 8:48pm

10:15am 7/21/2016 7/22/2016

(Lawler et al., 1996; 6/29/2015 6/30/2015 Sulfate Tranter and Raiswell 1991) Results: Sulfate Concentrations • Highest at Tahoma Glacier • Highest at minimum discharge – sign of subglacial source

Tahoma Glacier Emmons Glacier

(Graphs by Victoria Benson, 2016) Results: Sulfate Concentrations • Highest at Tahoma Glacier • Highest at minimum discharge – sign of subglacial source

Tahoma Glacier Emmons Glacier 1 ft 1 ft

6 in 9 in

(Graphs by Victoria Benson, 2016) Ongoing and future meltwater efforts

• Can we use • electrical conductivity as a proxy? (e.g., Gurnell et al., 1994) • turbidimeters to measure hysteresis between suspended sediment and discharge? (e.g., Riihimaki et al., 2005)  Instrumentation and funding challenges! • Cation analysis • Quantify atmospheric influence using alkalinity measurements • Isotopic analysis (Lee Florea, IU) • Analysis of supraglacial waters and snowmelt So what can we learn?

• Timing of changes in discharge, suspended sediment, subglacial contribution to melt • How does the subglacial system respond to a storm event? • When do we see seasonal and diurnal changes?

• Characteristics of different subglacial environments on Mount Rainier • Relative subglacial contribution – and source of sulfate/chloride? • Sediment production

• Requires • minimum of 2 samples/24 hours, preferably more! • documentation of meteorological conditions • autosamplers and probes where possible! GRAPL! • Glacier • Research • At • Pacific • Lutheran

Made Possible by PLU Regent Carol Sheffels Quigg Other GRAPL Mount Rainier projects

• Time-lapse camera monitoring of (with Scott Beason, NPS) • Mapping Glacial Debris Cover (with Michelle Koutnik, UW) • See posters tomorrow! • Proglacial Geomorphology • Subglacial Microbiology (with Amy Siegesmund, PLU)

March 3rd, 2017 Rainier Glacier Researchers meeting at PLU – and future gatherings! Online resources (including data!) on our soon-to-be finished GRAPL website! Posters tomorrow!

Alex Yannello, Victoria Benson, Hannah Bortel, Aerin Basehart, Logan Krehbiel

Glacial Meltwater Glacial Debris Cover Acknowledgements

Funding: NSF PLR-1341364, ANT-0838256; Northwest Scientific Association; PLU Division of Natural Sciences; The Mountaineers Foundation; National Science Foundation; Wiancko Charitable Foundation; PLU Board of Regents; PLU Provost Office; Carol Sheffels Quigg

MORA Staff – Darin Swinney, Tara Chestnut, Rebecca Lofgren, Kevin Skerl

Other Collaborators: Michelle Koutnik (UW), Lee Florea (IU), Scott Beason (NPS) Thank you!